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1、Distributed Wind Market Report:2022 EditionDISCLAIMER This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government.Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof,nor Battelle Memorial Institute,nor any of their employees,makes any warranty,expres

2、s or implied,or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,completeness,or usefulness of any information,apparatus,product,or process disclosed,or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.Reference herein to any specific commercial product,process,or serv

3、ice by trade name,trademark,manufacturer,or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,recommendation,or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof,or Battelle Memorial Institute.The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state o

4、r reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.This report is being disseminated by the U.S.Department of Energy.As such,this document was prepared in compliance with Section 515 of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2001(Public Law 106-554)

5、and information quality guidelines issued by the U.S.Department of Energy.Though this report does not constitute“influential”information,as that term is defined in the U.S.Department of Energys Information Quality Guidelines or the Office of Management and Budgets Information Quality Bulletin for Pe

6、er Review,the study was reviewed both internally and externally prior to publication.For purposes of external review,the study benefited from the advice and comments from eight non-profit and association representatives,project developers,turbine manufacturers,and federal laboratory staff.PACIFIC NO

7、RTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY operated by BATTELLE for the UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 Printed in the United States of America Available to DOE and DOE contractors from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information,P.O.Box 62,Oak Ridge,TN 37831-0062;ph:(865

8、)576-8401 fax:(865)576-5728 email:reportsadonis.osti.gov Available to the public from the National Technical Information Service 5301 Shawnee Rd.,Alexandria,VA 22312 ph:(800)553-NTIS(6847)email:ordersntis.gov http:/www.ntis.gov/about/form.aspx Online ordering:http:/www.ntis.gov FOR MORE INFORMATION

9、ON THIS REPORT(PNNL-33097):Alice Orrell,PE Energy Analyst 509-372-4632alice.orrellpnnl.gov ii DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION iii Preparation and Authorship This report was prepared for the U.S.Department of Energy,Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,Wind Energy Technologies

10、 Office.Report authors are Alice Orrell,Kamila Kazimierczuk,and Lindsay Sheridan of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION iv Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the following people for their help in producing this report:Patrick Gilman,Liz Hartman,a

11、nd Michael Derby(U.S.Department of Energys Wind Energy Technologies Office);Bret Barker and Gage Reber(in support of U.S.Department of Energys Wind Energy Technologies Office);and Mike Parker,Mary Ann Showalter,and Danielle Preziuso(Pacific Northwest National Laboratory).The authors wish to thank th

12、e following people for their review and/or contributions to this report:Jacken Chen,HI-VAWT Technology Corp.;Megan Culler,Idaho National Laboratory;Mia Devine,Spark Northwest;Richard Johnson,Rockwind Venture Partners;Eric Lantz,National Renewable Energy Laboratory;Richard Legault,Eocycle Technologie

13、s,Inc.;Michael Leitman,National Rural Electric Cooperative Association;Brent Summerville,National Renewable Energy Laboratory.The authors wish to thank the following companies for contributing data,information,and support for this report:Advanced Energy Systems;Aeromine Technologies,Inc.;Albrecht Wi

14、nd Energy;All Energy Management;All Star Electric;American Windpower;Anemometry Specialists;APRS World;Associated Energy Developers;Barber Wind Turbines;BE-Wind;Bergey Windpower Co;Blue Pacific Energy;BlueSkyWind;Buffalo Renewables;Carter Wind Systems;Chava Energy;Ducted Wind Turbines;Dyocore;Energy

15、 Options;Eocycle Technologies,Inc.;ESPE;Ethos Distributed Solutions;Evergreen Energy;Great Rock Windpower;Guasti Construction;Hi-VAWT Technology Corp.;Hoss Construction;HV Wind Energy;Kettle View Renewable Energy;Meister Electric,Inc.;Mikes Wind&Solar Systems;Northern Power Systems;Oasis Montana;Off

16、 Grid Enterprises;Primus Wind Power Inc.;Priority Pump and Supply;PowerWorks;QED Wind Power;Range Wind and Solar;Renewable Energy Solutions;Rockwind Venture Partners;Ryse Energy;SD Wind Energy;Star Wind Turbines;Tick Tock Energy;Trusted Energy;Tumo;Twin Turbine Energy;Weaver Wind;WES Engineering,Inc

17、.;Westwind Solar;Wind Turbines of Ohio;Windlift.The authors wish to thank representatives from the following utilities and state,federal,and international agencies for contributing data,information,and support for this report:Alaska Energy Authority;Arizona Corporation Commission;Arkansas Energy Off

18、ice;Austin Energy;Australian Clean Energy Regulator;Blue Ridge Mountain Electric Membership Corporation;Brazil Agncia Nacional de Energia Elctrica;Burbank Water and Power;California Energy Commission;Canadian Renewable Energy Association;Central Iowa Power Cooperative;Central Lincoln Peoples Utility

19、 District;Chelan County Public Utility District;China Wind Energy Equipment Association;City of Ashland,OR;City of Brenham,TX;City of San Marcos,TX;City of Seward,NE;Clean Energy New Hampshire;Colorado Energy Office;Colorado State University;Connecticut Public Utilities Regulatory Authority;Consumer

20、s Energy;Danish Energy Agency;Delaware Electric Cooperative;Delaware Sustainable Energy Utility;Detroit Lakes Public Utilities;Duke Energy;El Paso Electric;Energy Trust of Oregon;Eugene Water and Electric Board;Evergy;FirstEnergy;Florida Office of Energy;Gestore dei Servizi Energetici;Golden Valley

21、Electric Association;Grays Harbor Public Utility District;Hawaii Public Utilities Commission;Hawaiian Electric;Holy Cross Energy;Indiana Office of Energy Development;Iowa Utilities Board;Kauai Island Utility Cooperative;Klein-Windkraftanlagen;La Plata Electric Association;Maryland Energy Administrat

22、ion;Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources;MidAmerican Energy Company;Minnesota State Energy Office;Mississippi Energy Office;Missouri Division of Energy;Mohave Electric Cooperative;Montana Department of Environmental Quality;National Grid;National Renewable Energy Laboratory Wind for Schools;

23、Nebraska State Energy Office;New Hampshire Department of Energy;New Jersey Board of Public Utilities;New York State Energy Research and Development Authority;North Carolina GreenPower;North Carolina Sustainable Energy Association;North Dakota Public Service Commission;Northern Indiana Public Service

24、 Company;Northwestern Energy;NV Energy;Ohio Public Utilities Commission;Okanogan County Public Utility District;PacifiCorp;Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection;Puget Sound Energy;Rhode Island Office of Energy Resources;Salt River Project;San Miguel Power Association;Santee Cooper;DIST

25、RIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION v South Carolina Energy Office;United Illuminating Company Power;United States Department of Agriculture;Valley Electric Association;Vermont Electric Power Producers;Vermont Energy Investment Corporation;Virginia Department of Mines,Minerals and Energy;Washing

26、ton DC Department of Energy and Environment;Washington State University Energy Program;West Virginia Energy Office;Western Illinois University;Wyoming Energy Authority DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION vi List of Acronyms ACP American Clean Power Association AWEA American Wind Energy Assoc

27、iation CIP Competitiveness Improvement Project DOE U.S.Department of Energy DWEA Distributed Wind Energy Association EIA Energy Information Administration FIT feed-in tariff GE General Electric GW gigawatt(s)ICCSWCC International Code Council-Small Wind Certification Council IEC International Electr

28、otechnical Commission IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IRS U.S.Internal Revenue Service ITC investment tax credit kWh kilowatt-hour(s)kW kilowatt LCOE levelized cost of energy MW megawatt(s)NPS Northern Power Systems NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory NYSERDA New York St

29、ate Energy Research and Development Authority O&M operations and maintenance PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory PTC production tax credit PV solar photovoltaic REAP Rural Energy for America Program SGIP Self-Generation Incentive Program USDA U.S.Department of Agriculture VAWT vertical-axis w

30、ind turbine DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION vii Executive Summary The annual Distributed Wind Market Report provides stakeholders with market statistics and analysis along with insights into market trends and characteristics for wind technologies used as distributed energy resources.Key

31、findings for this years report include the following:Installed Capacity Cumulative U.S.distributed wind capacity installed from 2003 through 2021 now stands at 1,075 megawatts(MW)from over 89,000 wind turbines across all 50 states,the District of Columbia,Puerto Rico,the U.S.Virgin Islands,and Guam.

32、Distributed wind turbines are connected at the distribution level of an electricity system,or in off-grid applications,to serve specific or local loads.In 2021,15 states added a total of 11.7 MW of new distributed wind capacity from 1,751 turbine units representing a$41 million investment.The deploy

33、ed capacity is down from 21.9 MW($44 million,11 states)in 2020 and 20.4 MW($59 million,22 states)in 2019.The 2020 distributed wind capacity amount is higher than initially reported because it now captures some projects that had late 2020 operational dates.Of the 11.7 MW installed in 2021,8.7 MW came

34、 from distributed wind projects using large-scale turbines(greater than 1 MW in size),1.2 MW came from projects using mid-size turbines(101 kilowatts kW to 1 MW in size),and 1.8 MW came from projects using small wind turbines(up through 100 kW in size).The 8.7 MW from projects using turbines greater

35、 than 1 MW is down from the 20 MW documented for 2020 and the 18.2 MW documented for 2019.Large-scale wind turbines continue to account for most of the distributed wind capacity additions;however,the total annual deployed capacity using large-scale turbines continues to jump around year to year as t

36、hese projects have longer project-development cycles than smaller distributed wind energy projects.Projects using mid-size turbines continue to represent a small part of the distributed wind market as there are a limited number of mid-size turbines commercially available and larger turbines can be m

37、ore cost effective.However,the 1.2 MW of mid-size capacity from three projects deployed in 2021 was an increase from 0.28 MW from two projects in 2020 and 0.9 MW from one project in 2019.A total of 1.8 MW of small wind was deployed in the United States in 2021 from 1,742 turbine units representing a

38、$9.2 million investment.Small wind deployment has been fairly flat for the past few years,but the 2021 capacity deployment is an increase from 2020.There was 1.6 MW of small wind deployment documented for 2020 and 1.3 MW in 2019.The increase can be attributed to a slight increase in domestic sales f

39、rom both U.S.-based and foreign small wind turbine manufacturers,the inclusion of two turbine manufacturers that PNNL had not previously tracked,and sales of early designs from additional turbine manufacturers.Rhode Island,Kansas,and Minnesota led the United States in new distributed wind capacity a

40、dditions as a result of one project in each state,which combined,represent 75%of the annual distributed wind capacity installed in 2021.The Rhode Island and Minnesota projects serve utility customers,and the Kansas project directly serves an industrial customer,an ethanol plant.Minnesota led the Uni

41、ted States in 2021 small wind capacity additions with 305 kilowatts.This can be attributed to Eocycles push to sell its EOX-S16 turbine model to farmers in Minnesota and the decline of installations in New York with the discontinuation of its state incentive program.New York had led the United State

42、s in annual small wind capacity additions since 2017.Eocycle has focused on the agricultural market segment,with a start in Minnesota,because the company believes that many farms are in wind-rich areas,wind has a smaller land footprint than solar photovoltaics,winter wind energy production can match

43、 farm energy consumption trends,and wind turbines can provide a decarbonization solution for the emissions-heavy agriculture industry.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION viii Deployment Trends General Electric(GE)Renewable Energy has been the only consistent U.S.-based manufacturer of large-

44、scale turbines used in distributed wind projects from 2012 through 2021.The other large-scale turbine models deployed in distributed wind projects in 2021 were from Goldwind(China)and Vensys(Germany).Refurbished turbines continue to account for most of the mid-size market.Of the six projects using m

45、id-size turbines in 2019,2020,and 2021,at least four are refurbished models.Demand from customers for whom mid-size turbines are a good fit for their energy needs and the limited availability of newly manufactured turbine models explain the use of refurbished turbines in this size sector and Siva Wi

46、nds return to the U.S.market in 2021 with its 250-kW turbine model.Small wind retrofits continue to account for a significant portion of new small wind capacity deployment.Retrofits are new turbines installed on existing towers and foundations to replace nonfunctioning turbines or to upgrade the tec

47、hnology.In 2021,small wind retrofits represented 42%of total installed small wind capacity,compared to 68%in 2020 and 27%in 2019.Small wind turbine manufacturers and installers report an increased interest in microgrids and hybrid systems from potential customers.Microgrids are becoming more common,

48、but not many are being installed with wind.There is also an interest in larger hybrid power plants.For example,the Red Lake Falls Community Hybrid project installed in 2020 includes 4.6 MW of distributed wind and 1 MW of solar photovoltaics interconnected to serve a utilitys distribution system in M

49、innesota.From 2012 through 2021,90%of all documented distributed wind projects,on average,were interconnected for on-site use with the remaining 10%deployed to serve local loads on distribution systems.While the majority of distributed wind projects are interconnected for on-site use,they represent

50、less of the deployed capacity.The percent of total installed project capacity documented as local use from 2012 through 2021 was 55%with the remaining 45%for on-site use.Customer Types In 2021,agricultural customers accounted for 55%of the number of all projects installed,followed by residential cus

51、tomers who represented 16%of installed projects.However,agricultural and residential end-use customers accounted for only a combined 12%of the documented capacity installed in 2021,compared to 3%in both 2020 and 2019.The increase in percentage of project capacity for these two customer types can be

52、attributed to the use of mid-size turbines for agricultural customers in 2021.Utility customers represented the largest share of total distributed wind project capacity,56%,installed in 2021,compared to 60%in 2020 and 42%in 2019.Industrial customers represent the second largest percentage of distrib

53、uted wind capacity installed in 2021,accounting for roughly 25%of capacity installed,compared to 36%in 2020 and 54%in 2019.Distributed wind provides energy for a diverse group of customers.For example,documented government projects include wind turbines for military operations,municipal water system

54、s,prisons,parks,and tribal governments.Most institutional customers are schools,including colleges and universities,but wind turbines have also been deployed at local unions and religious establishments.Documented commercial projects include wind turbines for warehouses,a taxidermist,hotels,and a ra

55、dio station.Incentives and Policies The combined value of U.S.Department of Agriculture Rural Energy for America Program(USDA REAP)grants,state rebates,and state production tax credits given to distributed wind projects in 2021 was$5.2 million in eight states.This is up slightly from$4.8 million in

56、six states in 2020 and down from$7 million in 2019 in seven states.Incentive awards from the New York State Energy and Research Development DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION ix Agencys Small Wind Incentive Program were down in 2021 because of the discontinuation of that program,but distrib

57、uted wind grants from USDA REAP were slightly up and awarded in more states in 2021.While at least 24 different small wind turbine models have been certified to the American Wind Energy Association(AWEA)9.1-2009 standard or International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC)61400 standards since 2011,a t

58、otal of seven small wind turbine models have current certifications as of July 2022.Small wind turbines must meet either of these standards to be eligible to receive the federal Business Energy Investment Tax Credit per the U.S.Internal Revenue Service(IRS).Small wind turbine manufacturers must rene

59、w certifications annually.Manufacturers may opt not to renew if they no longer want to participate in the U.S.market or if the company has discontinued all operations.The American Clean Power Association(ACP),the successor to AWEA,has developed a new American National Standards Institute consensus s

60、tandard,ACP 101-1.The Distributed Wind Energy Association and the U.S.Department of Energy have recommended that the IRS recognize certification to either AWEA 9.1-2009 or ACP 101-1 going forward for tax credit eligibility.Installed Costs and Performance The average capacity-weighted installed cost

61、for new small wind projects in 2021 was$5,120/kW,based on 16 projects(each having one turbine)in three states for a combined rated capacity of 396 kW.The overall annual average capacity-weighted installed cost for new projects in PNNLs dataset had been relatively flat through 2019 at approximately$9

62、,970/kW,so the 2021 average is a notable decrease from past years averages.This decrease may be attributable to the sample of projects with reported costs for 2021 only including turbines in the size segment of 11100 kW,which tend to have a lower cost per kW than turbines in the size segment of 110

63、kW,although there was also an increase in sales in the size segment of 11100 kW in 2021.The average capacity-weighted installed cost for small wind retrofit projects in 2021 was approximately$3,400/kW,based on 17 projects(each having one turbine)in eight states for a total rated capacity of 494 kW.T

64、his is down from an average of$3,900/kW in 2020(13 projects,371 kW,6 states)and$5,300/kW in 2019(10 projects,89 kW,2 states)for small wind retrofits.Some retrofit projects use refurbished turbine units,and refurbished turbines represent the low end of the retrofit installed cost range.In 2021,six of

65、 the retrofit projects with reported costs used refurbished turbines,compared to three in 2020 and none reported in 2019,largely driving the drops in the annual average capacity-weighted installed costs over those years.The average capacity-weighted installed cost for projects using turbines greater

66、 than 100 kW in 2021 was approximately$2,900/kW,based on just three projects using five turbines for a combined capacity of 6,250 kW.This is down from an average of$3,100/kW documented in 2019(5 projects,14.6 MW,5 states),and$4,300/kW documented in 2018(14 projects,32.9 MW,6 states).However,the smal

67、l sample sizes and range of project sizes represented must be considered when reviewing these averages.The overall average capacity factor in 2021 for a sample of small wind projects was 13%.The sample includes 105 turbines totaling 1.1 MW in rated capacity ranging from 2.1 kW to 56 kW in size insta

68、lled from 2009 through the beginning of 2021.Observed capacity factors ranged from 1%to 33%.Small wind projects with reported performance data for 2021 produced lower generation amounts in 2021 than the generation amounts that were initially estimated for the projects.Historical data indicates that

69、2021 was generally a below average wind resource year and that is one contributing factor to the low turbine performance recorded in 2021 relative to expectations.The overall average capacity factor in 2021 for a sample of distributed wind projects using turbines greater than 100 kW was 22%.The samp

70、le includes 25 distributed wind energy projects installed from 2005 to 2018 in 14 states totaling a combined 44 MW in capacity with turbine capacities ranging from 600 kW to 3 MW.Observed capacity factors ranged from 6%to 43%.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION x Table of Contents Preparatio

71、n and Authorship.iii Acknowledgments.iv List of Acronyms.vi Executive Summary.vii Table of Contents.x List of Figures.xiiList of Tables.xiii 1 Introduction.1 1.1 Purpose of Report.1 1.2 Distributed Wind Applications.1 1.3 Wind Turbine Size Classifications.2 1.4 Data-Collection,Categorization,and Ana

72、lysis Methodologies.2 2 U.S.Distributed Wind Deployment.4 2.1 Top States for Distributed Wind:Annual and Cumulative Capacity.4 3 U.S.Distributed Wind Projects,Sales,and Exports.8 3.1 Mid-Size and Large-Scale Turbines.8 3.2 Small Wind.9 3.3 Small Wind Exports.11 3.4 Global Small Wind Market.11 4 Poli

73、cies,Incentives,and Market Insights.13 4.1 Policies and Incentives.13 4.2 Market Insights.17 5 Installed and Operations and Maintenance(O&M)Costs.20 5.1 Small Wind Installed Costs.20 5.2 Installed Costs for Projects Using Wind Turbines Greater Than 100 kW.21 5.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs.22 6

74、Performance.23 6.1 Capacity Factors.23 6.2 Actual versus Estimated Small Wind Performance.25 7 Levelized Cost of Energy.27 8 Distributed Wind Markets.28 8.1 Customer Types.28 8.2 Interconnection Types.30 8.3 Wind Turbine Sizes.32 8.4 Type of Towers.35 9 Future Outlook and Market Potential.36 10 Conc

75、lusions.37 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION xi References.38 Appendix A:Wind Turbine Manufacturers and Suppliers.A.1 Appendix B:Methodology.B.1 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION xii List of Figures Figure 1.U.S.distributed wind capacity.4 Figure 2.U.S.cumulative(20032021)capacit

76、y and 2021 capacity additions for distributed wind by state.5 Figure 3.Project developers using turbines greater than 100 kW,20122021.6 Figure 4.States with distributed wind capacity greater than 20 MW,20032021.6 Figure 5.States with small wind capacity greater than 2 MW,20032021.7 Figure 6.Wind tur

77、bine manufacturers of turbines greater than 100 kW with a U.S.sales presence,20122021.9 Figure 7.U.S.small wind turbine sales,20122021.10 Figure 8.U.S.distributed wind incentive awards,20132021.13 Figure 9.USDA REAP grants by technology,20122021.16 Figure 10.USDA REAP loans by technology,20122021.16

78、 Figure 11.Average and project-specific U.S.new and retrofit small wind installed project costs,20122021.20 Figure 12.Average and project-specific installed costs for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW,20122021.22 Figure 13.Small wind capacity factors.23 Figure 14.Capacity factors for proje

79、cts using turbines greater than 100 kW.25 Figure 15.Actual and estimated performance for select small wind projects.26 Figure 16.Distributed wind end-use customer types by number of projects,20142021.29 Figure 17.Distributed wind end-use customer types by capacity of projects,20142021.30 Figure 18.D

80、istributed wind for on-site use and local loads by number of projects,20122021.31 Figure 19.Distributed wind for on-site use and local loads by capacity of projects,20122021.32 Figure 20.Average size of turbines greater than 100 kW in distributed wind projects and average size of those projects,2003

81、2021.33 Figure 21.U.S.small wind sales capacity by turbine size,20122021.34 Figure 22.U.S.small wind sales percentage of capacity by turbine size,20122021.34 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION xiii List of Tables Table 1.Global Small Wind Capacity Reports.12 Table 2.Certified Small Wind Tur

82、bines.19 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 1 1 Introduction The U.S.Department of Energys(DOEs)annual Distributed Wind Market Report provides stakeholders with market statistics and analysis along with insights into market trends and characteristics.Distributed wind turbines are distribute

83、d energy resources connected at the distribution level of an electricity system,or in off-grid applications,to serve specific or local loads.Distributed wind installations can range from a less-than-1-kW1 off-grid wind turbine at a remote cabin or oil and gas platform,to a 15-kW wind turbine at a ho

84、me or farm,to several multimegawatt wind turbines at a university campus,at a manufacturing facility,or connected to the distribution system of a local utility.Individuals,businesses,and communities install distributed wind to offset retail power costs or secure long-term power cost certainty,suppor

85、t grid operations and local loads,help meet decarbonization goals,and electrify remote locations and assets not connected to a centralized grid.Depending on its application,distributed wind can either provide grid independence or potentially improve system resilience,power quality,reliability,and fl

86、exibility.1.1 Purpose of Report The annual Distributed Wind Market Report is part of DOEs Wind Energy Technologies Office distributed wind research program,which aims to enable wind technologies as distributed energy resources to contribute maximum economic and energy system benefits now and in the

87、future.To that end,the Distributed Wind Market Report analyzes distributed wind projects of all sizes.By providing a comprehensive overview of the distributed wind market,this report can help guide future investments and decisions by industry,utilities,federal and state agencies,and other interested

88、 parties.This report provides key information to help stakeholders understand and access market opportunities and inform distributed wind industry research and development needs.1.2 Distributed Wind Applications Distributed wind can be classified by where the turbine is installed relative to the loc

89、al distribution grid.Grid-connected turbines are typically either behind-the-meter or front-of-meter installations.2 A behind-the-meter wind turbine is one that is always connected to the local distribution grid behind a customers utility metertypically to offset all or some of the on-site energy ne

90、eds.Behind-the-meter wind turbines displace retail electricity demand and can be net metered to credit excess output flowing back onto the grid.A wind turbine connected to a distribution grid as a generation resource is considered a front-of-meter installation.Front-of-meter wind projects provide en

91、ergy and grid support to the distribution system and help serve the interconnected local loads on the same distribution system.A wind turbine can be off grid in a remote location as a distributed energy source for on-site energy needs.An off-grid distributed wind turbine can be deployed with a batte

92、ry or other form of energy storage because the wind turbine is not connected to a local distribution grid that could provide backup energy or accept excess energy.An off-grid wind turbine typically serves a single load such as a remote telecommunications site or a cathodic protection system for an o

93、il pipeline pumping station.11 gigawatt(GW)=1,000 megawatts(MW);1 MW=1,000 kilowatts(kW);1 kW=1,000 watts(W)2 Grid-connected distributed wind turbines can be physically or virtually connected to the distribution grid or on the customer side of the meter.Virtual(or remote)net metering allows a member

94、 to receive net-metering credit from a remote renewable energy project as if it were located behind the customers own meter.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 2 Distributed wind can be part of a microgrid or isolated grid,located either behind the meter or front of the meter.A microgrid is

95、a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources within defined electrical boundaries that can operate in either a connected or disconnected(islanded)mode from the local distribution grid(Ton and Smith 2012).3 An isolated electrical grid system powers many loads and typically serves

96、a whole community,such as a remote village,and is not connected to a larger grid system.1.3 Wind Turbine Size Classifications The distributed wind market includes wind turbines and projects of many sizes.When appropriate,this report breaks the market into the following three wind turbine size classi

97、fications:Small wind turbines are up through 100 kW(in nominal,or nameplate,capacity)4 Mid-size wind turbines are 101 kW to 1 MW Large-scale wind turbines are greater than 1 MW.For projects using turbines greater than 100 kW,the projects total nominal power capacity is used in this reports cost-per-

98、kW analysis and related analyses.For small wind,this report uses the total rated power capacity of the project in the cost-per-kW analysis and related analyses,rather than nameplate capacity.5 A certified small wind turbines rated capacity is its power output at 11 meters per second(m/s)per the Amer

99、ican Wind Energy Association(AWEA)9.1-2009 standard.For small wind turbines that are not certified,the power output at 11 m/s is assigned as the turbines rated,or referenced,capacity.The turbine manufacturers and models used in 2021 distributed wind projects are listed in Appendix A.Rated capacities

100、 for the small wind turbine models included in this report are listed in Appendix B.1.4 Data-Collection,Categorization,and Analysis Methodologies To collect data on distributed wind installations,sales,and related activities that occurred in calendar year 2021,the Pacific Northwest National Laborato

101、ry(PNNL)team issued data requests to small wind turbine manufacturers,suppliers,6 developers,installers,and operations and maintenance(O&M)providers;state and federal agencies;utilities;trade associations;and other stakeholders.The PNNL team also reviews data from other sources for distributed wind

102、projects using turbines greater than 100 kW.This report includes data from past data requests and presents the distributed wind market from 2003 through 2021.In some cases,because of data availability and quality,analyses use different time periods within the time range of 2003 to 2021.The PNNL team

103、 created a project dataset to capture all projects installed in 2021 identified through the data-request and data-review process.That dataset has been consolidated with those created for past years to create a master project dataset that is available(with a free registration)on PNNLs website.The PNN

104、L team regularly updates the master project dataset when new information becomes available.In 2021,the PNNL team reviewed the customer types assigned to projects.Some projects were recategorized,which shifted some capacity among the customer types from what was previously reported.In addition,when t

105、he PNNL team identifies projects that were installed in past years but were not previously recorded,the team adds those projects to the master project dataset.Further,the PNNL team marks turbines confirmed to be 3 Off-grid distributed wind can also be categorized as a type of microgrid.As interest i

106、n microgrids grows(see Section 8.2),PNNL may adjust how off-grid and microgrid distributed wind installations are categorized in future reports.4 The U.S.Internal Revenue Service(IRS)also defines small wind as up through 100 kW for the purpose of federal investment tax credit(ITC)eligibility(see Sec

107、tion 4.1.2).5 The nominal,or nameplate,capacity of a wind turbine is what manufacturers use to describe,or name,their wind turbine models.In the case of small wind,the nameplate capacity can be significantly different from a turbines rated capacity.As a result,rated capacities for small wind turbine

108、s are used in this reports per-kW analyses to provide a consistent baseline.For turbines greater than 100 kW,the turbines nameplate capacity matches the turbines pitch-regulated maximum power output,allowing the nameplate capacity to be the consistent baseline.6 In relation to manufacturers,supplier

109、s provide refurbished turbines.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 3 decommissioned in the dataset as such,but does not actively track decommissioning.Consequently,the cumulative capacity amount presented in this report,and capacity allocations by state and by year,may differ slightly from r

110、eport to report.Many small wind turbine units sold are not tracked at the project level,such as off-grid turbine units sold by the manufacturer to distributors for resale to end users,so the PNNL team is unable to include them in the master project dataset.The master project dataset is used to make

111、year-to-year comparisons;allocate capacity amounts across states;analyze installed costs;identify incentive funding levels;and characterize distributed wind customers,types of turbines and towers,and project applications.The PNNL team also created a separate small wind sales dataset based on the sal

112、es reports provided by the manufacturers and suppliers listed in Appendix A.7 The reported total number of small wind turbine units and capacity deployed,domestically and abroad,come from this small wind sales dataset.For small wind,this report details capacity figures for the same calendar year as

113、sales reported by the manufacturers and suppliers to tally annual deployed capacity.Appendix B provides more details for the data-collection,categorization,and analysis methodologies.7 Most manufacturers report precise turbine units sold,but at least one manufacturer provides estimated turbine units

114、 sold because the companys less-than-1-kW size turbine units are shipped in bulk to distributors for resale to end users.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 4 2 U.S.Distributed Wind Deployment From 2003 through 2021,over 89,000 wind turbines have been deployed in distributed applications acr

115、oss all 50 states,the District of Columbia,Puerto Rico,the U.S.Virgin Islands,and Guam,totaling 1,075 MW in cumulative capacity,as shown in Figure 1.8 In 2021,15 states added a total of 11.7 MW of new distributed wind capacity from 1,751 turbine units representing a$41 million investment.9 The annua

116、l deployed capacity is down from both 2020 and 2019.In 2020,21.9 MW were deployed in 11 states from 1,497 turbine units representing a$44 million investment.10 In 2019,20.4 MW were deployed in 22 states from 2,179 turbine units representing a$59 million investment.Figure Figure 1 1.U.S.distributed w

117、ind capacity.U.S.distributed wind capacity 2.1 Top States for Distributed Wind:Annual and Cumulative Capacity New distributed wind projects were documented in 15 states(California,Colorado,Illinois,Iowa,Kansas,Massachusetts,Michigan,Minnesota,Nebraska,New York,Ohio,Rhode Island,Utah,Vermont,and Wisc

118、onsin)in 2021 and have been documented in all 50 states,the District of Columbia,Puerto Rico,the U.S.Virgin Islands,and Guam since 2003,as shown in Figure 2.8 The data presented in the figures are provided in an accompanying data file available for download at https:/energy.gov/windreport.9 All doll

119、ar values are nominal unless otherwise noted.Annual and cumulative capacity amounts are based on nameplate turbine-capacity sizes.10 The 2020 amounts are slightly higher than what was reported in the Distributed Wind Market Report:2021 Edition because two additional projects installed in 2020(Glenvi

120、lle and Red Lake Falls Community Hybrid)were retroactively added to the master project dataset.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 5 Figure Figure 2 2.U.S.cumulative(2003.U.S.cumulative(2003 2022021 1)capacity and 202)capacity and 2021 1 capacity additions for distributed wind by statecapaci

121、ty additions for distributed wind by state Rhode Island,Kansas,and Minnesota led the United States in new distributed wind power capacity in 2021.This is a result of the front-of-meter 4.5-MW Providence Waterfront project in Rhode Island installed by Green Development,the behind-the-meter 2.72-MW We

122、stern Plains/Smokey Hills project in Kansas serving an ethanol plant installed by Juhl Energy,11 and the 1.5-MW Altura Wind project in Minnesota for utility customers installed by WES Engineering,Inc.These three projects combined represent 75%of the distributed wind capacity installed in 2021.The co

123、ncentration of a few projects using large-scale turbines in a few states can be attributed to the project-development cycles of a handful of developers.And because each company works almost exclusively in a single state rather than nationally,annual distributed wind capacity additions can be concent

124、rated in a few states.Project developers,namely Juhl Energy in Minnesota;One Energy Enterprises LLC(One Energy)in Ohio;Green Development,LLC in Rhode Island;Foundation Windpower in California;Optimum Renewables in Iowa;and Bluestem Energy Solutions in Nebraska,may not install new projects every year

125、,as shown in Figure 3,because each project can take two to four years to develop(ACP 2022).These six developers have accounted for at least 40%of the distributed wind capacity from projects using turbines greater than 100 kW since 2015.The“other”category in Figure 3 primarily includes project owners

126、(e.g.,universities and municipalities),other third-party developers with a less consistent presence,and unknown developers.11 Juhl Energy,Inc.operates multiple subsidiaries,so Juhl Energy is used comprehensively in this report.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 6 Figure Figure 3 3.Project.P

127、roject d developers evelopers u using sing turbines greater than 100 kWturbines greater than 100 kW,201,2012 2 2022021 1 Annual installations vary across the states,as illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5.Figure 4 shows states with cumulative distributed wind capacities greater than 20 MW.Figure 5 s

128、hows states with small wind cumulative capacities greater than 2 MW.Figure Figure 4 4.S States tates with with distributed wind capacitydistributed wind capacity greater than 20 MWgreater than 20 MW,2003,2003 20202 21 1 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 7 Figure Figure 5 5.S States tates w

129、ith with small wind small wind capacitycapacity greater than 2 MWgreater than 2 MW,2003,2003 20202 21 1 Iowa and Minnesota lead all the states in cumulative capacity from 2003 through 2021,with both states exceeding 100 MW,as shown in Figure 4.Both states have strong wind resources and active projec

130、t developers.Both states have also received the largest share of U.S.Department of Agriculture(USDA)Rural Energy for America Program(REAP)funding for wind projects since 2003(see Section 4.1.3).Iowa,Nevada,and Alaska are the top three states for cumulative small wind capacity,as shown in Figure 5,al

131、though there were no new small wind installations recorded for Nevada and Alaska in 2021.New York led the United States in annual small wind capacity additions from 2017 through 2020 but installations declined following the discontinuation of the New York State Energy and Research Development Agency

132、(NYSERDA)Small Wind Turbine Incentive Program.Minnesota added the most reported small wind capacity in 2021 with 305 kW,primarily as a result of Eocycles push to sell its EOX-S16 turbine model to farmers in Minnesota(Eocycle 2021).Eocycle has focused on the agricultural market segment,with a start i

133、n Minnesota,because the company believes that many farms are in wind-rich areas,wind has a smaller land footprint than solar photovoltaics(PV),winter wind energy production can match farm energy consumption trends,and wind turbines can provide a decarbonization solution for the emissions-heavy agric

134、ulture industry(Mogensen 2022).DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 8 3 U.S.Distributed Wind Projects,Sales,and Exports As shown in Figure 1,of the 11.7 MW of distributed wind added in 2021,8.7 MW came from projects using turbines greater than 1 MW(75%),1.2 MW came from mid-size turbines(10%)

135、,and 1.8 MW came from small wind(15%).3.1 Mid-Size and Large-Scale Turbines A total of 8.7 MW of the distributed wind capacity added in 2021 came from projects using turbines greater than 1 MW and 1.2 MW came from mid-size turbines.The total of 9.9 MW from turbines greater than 100 kW represents$32

136、million in investment.12 The 8.7 MW from projects using turbines greater than 1 MW is down from the 20 MW documented in 2020 and the 18.2 MW documented in 2019.Two projects,the 2.5-MW Glenville project and the 4.6 MW of wind at the Red Lake Falls Community Hybrid project,both in Minnesota,came onlin

137、e at the end of 2020.These two projects were not originally captured in the 2020 capacity values presented in Distributed Wind Market Report:2021 Edition.Projects using mid-size turbines continue to represent a small part of the distributed wind market as there are a limited number of mid-size turbi

138、nes available and larger turbines can be more cost effective(although refurbished13 mid-size turbines can have lower capital costs than newly manufactured mid-size turbines).Added capacity from mid-size turbines has been under 5 MW annually since 2013 and has consisted of predominantly single-turbin

139、e projects.However,the 1.2 MW of mid-size capacity from three projects deployed in 2021 was an increase from 0.28 MW from two projects in 2020 and 0.9 MW from one project in 2019.Only a limited number of newly manufactured mid-size turbines are commercially available.As turbine technology improved,t

140、urbine sizes could increase.Larger turbines(but also refurbished mid-size turbines)typically have lower capital costs on a per-kW basis making them a more cost-effective option for many applications.Turbines with nameplate capacities in the hundreds of kilowatts can be considered stepping stones to

141、the multimegawatt turbines available today.For example,the first two phases of the Stateline Wind Farm(not considered distributed wind)along the Oregon and Washington state border were commissioned in 2001 and 2002 and deployed 660-kW wind turbines.That was once the largest wind farm in the United S

142、tates.The project developers commissioned a third phase in 2009,just seven years later,but installed 2.3-MW wind turbines for that phase.However,there is still demand from customers for whom mid-size turbines are a good fit for their energy needs.That demand and the limited availability of newly man

143、ufactured turbine models explain the use of refurbished turbines in this size sector and the re-entrance of one turbine manufacturer to the U.S.market.Of the six projects using mid-size turbines in 2019,2020,and 2021,at least four are refurbished models.Prior to its 250-kW turbine being using in one

144、 2021 project,Siva Winds last U.S.installation was in 2012.The other two mid-size turbine projects in 2021 used refurbished turbine models.The return of India-based Siva Wind to the U.S.market also helps illustrate that manufacturer representation in U.S.distributed wind projects changes from year t

145、o year and the mid-size and large-scale turbine markets often rely on imports.However,some manufacturers are consistently represented in distributed wind projects and manufacturer representation is tied to the project development cycle of the developers featured in Figure 3.12 This investment value

146、reflects the estimated installed cost of the deployed capacity,not just the turbine hardware costs.The same is true for the small wind investment value presented in Section 3.2.13 A refurbished turbine may be one that only had a few new parts added to it or simply had a change of hydraulic or transm

147、ission fluids before being resold.Alternatively,a refurbished turbine could have undergone an extensive remanufacturing process in which all of its parts were fully rebuilt.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 9 General Electric(GE)Renewable Energy has been the only consistent U.S.-based14 ma

148、nufacturer of large-scale turbines used in distributed wind projects over the past ten years and is the sole turbine provider for Foundation Windpower and the turbine provider for Juhl Energy and Bluestem Energy Solutions most recent projects.China-based turbine manufacturer Goldwind is the sole tur

149、bine supplier for One Energy Enterprises LLC,and Green Development uses turbine models from the Germany-based manufacturer Vensys.Reported U.S.distributed wind projects using turbines greater than 100 kW in 2021 deployed newly manufactured turbine models from GE Renewable Energy(for Juhl Energy),Ven

150、sys(for Green Development),Goldwind,Siva Wind,and refurbished turbines from Bonus and Nordtank.The number of mid-size and large-scale turbine manufacturers and suppliers with installations in the United States has generally declined since 2012.However,manufacturer representation in 2021 was more div

151、erse than in 2019 and 2020,as shown in Figure 6.Manufacturers with turbines deployed in three or more years are shown separately in Figure 6.Manufacturers with turbine deployed in just one or two years in the 10-year period shown in Figure 6 are grouped in the“Other”category.For turbines greater tha

152、n 100 kW,17 manufacturers are represented in the“Other”category in Figure 6 in 2012 and three in 2021.A total of 25 manufacturers and suppliers provided turbines for distributed wind projects in 2012 compared to six in 2021,two in 2020,and three in 2019.Figure Figure 6 6.Wind turbine manufacturers o

153、f turbines greater than 100 kW with a U.S.sales presence,2012Wind turbine manufacturers of turbines greater than 100 kW with a U.S.sales presence,2012 2022021 1 3.2 Small Wind In 2021,1.8 MW of small wind was deployed in the United States from 1,742 turbine units representing a$9.2 million investmen

154、t.The capacity and investment amounts are slightly up from 1.6 MW,1,487 turbine units,and$7.2 million of investment in 2020 and 1.3 MW,2,168 turbine units,and$7.6 million in 2019.This increase in deployed capacity in 2021 can be partially attributed to the inclusion of sales from two turbine manufac

155、turers that PNNL had not previously tracked and early designs from additional turbine manufacturers.14 U.S.-based means the manufacturer or supplier is headquartered in the United States.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 10 Since 2012,the number of small wind turbine manufacturers both ope

156、rating and participating in the U.S.market has generally been on the decline.The 13 small wind turbine manufacturers or suppliers with a 2021 U.S.sales presence accounted for in this report(listed in Appendix A)consist of nine domestic manufacturers headquartered in eight states(Arizona,Colorado,Min

157、nesota,New York,Oklahoma,Texas,Vermont,and Wisconsin)and four foreign manufacturers.This total is up from 2020,in which eight small wind turbine manufacturers or suppliers had sales in the United States,with six being domestic and two being foreign.However,this increase in 2021 was still down from t

158、he peak of 31 small wind turbine manufacturers with reported U.S.sales in 2012.Based on 2021 global sales in terms of capacity(megawatts of domestic sales and exports),the top three U.S.small wind turbine manufacturers and suppliers were Primus Wind Power of Colorado,Bergey WindPower of Oklahoma,and

159、 All Energy Management of Wisconsin(supplying refurbished Endurance E-3120 turbine models).While some small wind turbine manufacturers and installers reported that the COVID-19 pandemic affected their business in 2020,many more reported negative effects from the pandemic in 2021.The issues they repo

160、rted include not having available employees to fully operate,customers needing to delay project installations,and the increased costs for raw materials and shipping.With global supply chain disruptions,the cost increases for raw materials and,in particular,shipping,were noted by many small wind indu

161、stry stakeholders.Some small wind turbine manufacturers reported that they have consequently increased the prices of their turbine models.Sales from U.S.-based manufacturers increased 7%in 2021 from 2020.However,newly manufactured small wind turbines by U.S.-based manufacturers represent a smaller p

162、ercentage of overall sales in 2021 because of an increase in small wind imports from non-U.S.turbine suppliers.Four foreign small wind manufacturers reported sales in the United States in 2021 compared to two in 2020.New small wind turbines from U.S.-based manufacturers accounted for 65%of the domes

163、tic small wind sales capacity in 2021,as shown in Figure 7,compared to 71%in 2020 and 84%in 2019.FigureFigure 7 7.U.S.small wind turbine sales,201U.S.small wind turbine sales,2012 2 2022021 1 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 11 Although PNNL did not document any refurbished15 small wind t

164、urbine sales from 2015 through 2018,their market presence has increased in recent years,although not with a consistent trend.Refurbished turbines accounted for 11%of U.S.small wind sales in 2021,26%in 2020,and 8%in 2019.Given the inconsistent presence of foreign manufacturers and refurbished turbine

165、s in the U.S.small wind market,these market-share divisions are expected to keep shifting.3.3 Small Wind Exports U.S.small wind turbine manufacturers also export to international markets.Since 2014,more than 50 MW of U.S.small wind turbines have been exported globally,but these exports have declined

166、 significantly from a peak of 21.5 MW valued at$122 million from six U.S.-based manufacturers in 2015 to just 134 kW valued at$700,000 from three manufacturers in 2021.In 2020,exports were nearly 200 kW valued at$1.1 million from three manufacturers and in 2019,exports were 500 kW valued at$3 millio

167、n from three manufacturers.Italy,the United Kingdom,and Japan had been key export markets for U.S.small wind turbine manufacturers due to those countries feed-in tariff(FIT)programs.In the peak year for exports,2015,99%of U.S.small wind turbine manufacturers exports went to these three countries.The

168、 FIT programs in Italy,the United Kingdom,and Japan have since been discontinued or drastically reduced,thus reducing the attractiveness of these markets for U.S.small wind turbine manufacturers.The FIT rate in Italy ranged between 0.11 and 0.25($0.13 to$0.29)16 per kilowatt-hour(kWh)from 2015 to 20

169、16 before expiring in 2017.It was replaced by the FER1 Decree,which provided rates of 0.15($0.18)per kWh for small wind(0100 kW)projects until it expired at the end of 2021(Dentons 2019;Dentons 2020).The United Kingdom closed its FIT program to new applicants on April 1,2019 and has introduced the S

170、mart Export Guarantee program.Under the Smart Export Guarantee program,applicants now receive a tariff determined by the buyer,rather than a fixed price determined by the government(Ofgem 2021).Japans FIT rates have steadily declined since 2015,with a peak of 55($0.50)per kWh that subsequently fell

171、to 19($0.17)per kWh as of 2019 for turbines less than 20 kW.FIT rates for turbines 20 kW and greater reduced from 2122($0.19$0.20)in 2015 to 19($0.17)as of 2019.For 2022,the rate has been set even lower,to just 16($0.14)(Enerdata 2022).The government is in the process of designing new market-based f

172、eed-in premiums to support integration of renewables into the power market(IEA 2021).3.4 Global Small Wind Market An examination of the global small wind market provides additional context for small wind market trends and a point of comparison for the U.S.small wind market.For 2021,PNNL documented 4

173、0 MW of new small wind capacity from six countries,including the United States,as shown in Table 1.This is an increase from the 31 MW of international small wind PNNL documented for 2020.However,PNNL depends on agencies in other countries to report their statistics,so that dependency results in an i

174、ncomplete picture of the global market.Other countries,not included in Table 1,may have different market situations.15 Most of the refurbished turbines deployed in the United States were originally manufactured by a non-U.S.-based manufacturer and then refurbished by a U.S.-based supplier.As a resul

175、t,refurbished turbines are shown separately in Figure 7.16 All currency conversions are based on the exchange rates per U.S.Department of Treasury Reporting Rates as of May 13,2022,found in https:/fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/treasury-reporting-rates-exchange/treasury-reporting-rates-of-exchange

176、 for reference.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 12 Table Table 1 1.Global SGlobal Small mall WWind ind Capacity ReportsCapacity Reports CountryCountry 20132013 20142014 20152015 20162016 20172017 20182018 20192019 20202020 20212021 CumulativeCumulative Cumulative YearsCumulative Years (MW

177、)(MW)Australiaa*0.02 0.03*0.02*0.01 0.00 0.00 1.47 20012021 Brazilb 0.03 0.02 0.11 0.04 0.11 0.29 0.44 0.07 0.11 1.11 20132021 Canadac*13.47 As of 2018 Chinad,e 72.25 69.68 48.60 45.00 27.70 30.76 21.40 25.65 33.38 610.61 20072021 Denmarkf,g 11.04 7.50 24.78 14.61 2.58 0.40 0.18 0.05 0.01 610.88 197

178、72021 Germanyh 0.02 0.24 0.44 2.25 2.25 1.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 35.75 As of 2021 Italyi,j 7.00 16.27 9.81 57.90 77.46 0.47 0.12 1.10 2.39 192.92 As of 2021 Japank*12.88 As of 2019 New Zealandl*0.19 As of 2015 South Koream 0.01 0.06 0.09 0.79 0.08 0.06 0.00*4.08 As of 2019 United Kingdomn 14.71 28.53 11.

179、72 7.73 0.39 0.42 0.43*141.51 As of 2019 United States 5.70 3.67 4.32 2.43 1.74 1.51 1.30 1.55 1.82 154.47 20132021 Global 110.75 126.01 99.90 130.75 112.32 34.90 26.37 30.91 40.22 1,815.34 *Data not available a www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au b www.aneel.gov.br c The Atlas of Canada Clean Energy Re

180、sources and Projects d China Wind Energy Equipment Association e Chinese Wind Energy Association f www.energinet.dk g Danish Energy Agency,Master Data Register of Turbines h Bundesnetzagentur;Bundesverband Kleinwindkraftanlagen;050-kW capacity(estimate)i www.assieme.ed;0250-kW capacity j Gestore dei

181、 Servizi Energetici k Japan Small Wind Turbine Association l Sustainable Electricity Association of New Zealand m Korea Energy Association n www.gov.uk,Monthly feed-in tariff commissioned installations The 33 MW of small wind installed in China in 2021 accounts for 83%of the documented capacity adde

182、d globally in 2021,based on the reports made available to PNNL.China experienced a 30%increase in small wind installations from 2020 to 2021.Italy submitted reports showing significant wind capacity additions through 2017,but did not send reports to PNNL for 2018 and 2019 when initially requested.Ta

183、ble 1 reflects the updated annual additions of less than 1 MW for both 2018 and 2019 provided to PNNL during this reports data-collection process,and the higher capacity amounts of 1.1 MW and 2.4 MW for 2020 and 2021,respectively.Although less generous than past FIT schemes,this uptick coincides wit

184、h Italys FER1 Decree on July 4,2019(Gestore dei Servizi Energetici 2020).The FER1 Decree applies to new renewable energy projects not already incentivized under previous FIT schemes(Dentons 2020).The United Kingdom had significant small wind capacity additions through 2016 followed by a dramatic dec

185、line in the years 2017 through 2019.With the closing of their FIT program in 2019,the United Kingdom no longer tracks and reports on small wind capacity additions(Gov.UK 2019).Japans FIT program continues,however PNNL was unable to obtain the countrys current small wind data report.Total global inst

186、alled cumulative small wind capacity is estimated to be just over 1.8 gigawatts(GW)as of 2021 as shown in Table 1.Small wind is generally defined as turbines up through 100 kW,but deviations from this definition are noted in the table footnotes.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 13 4 Polici

187、es,Incentives,and Market Insights A number of factors affect the U.S.distributed wind market,including the availability of,and changes to,federal and state policies and incentives.4.1 Policies and Incentives Federal,state,and utility incentives and policies(e.g.,rebates,tax credits,grants,net meteri

188、ng,production-based incentives,and loans)are important to the development of distributed wind and other distributed energy resource projects.Figure 8 shows the value of incentives given to distributed wind projects from 2013 to 2021.17 The combined value of USDA REAP grants,state rebates,and state p

189、roduction tax credits in 2021 was$5.2 million across eight states(Iowa,Kansas,Michigan,Minnesota,Nebraska,New Mexico,New York,and Vermont).This is up slightly from$4.8 million in six states in 2020,down from$7 million in 2019 in seven states,and down significantly from a peak of$100 million worth of

190、 incentives dispersed across 22 states in 2012.Figure Figure 8 8.U.S.distributed wind incentive awards.U.S.distributed wind incentive awards,20132013 2022021 1 The incentives included in Figure 8 are state rebates,grants,and production-based incentives;USDA REAP grants;New Mexico and Iowa state prod

191、uction tax credits;and U.S.Treasury cash grants(otherwise known as Section 1603 payments).PNNL started tracking the New Mexico and Iowa state production tax credits in 2014,when the New Mexico credit was first initiated.Figure 8 excludes repaid loans,the federal Business Energy investment tax credit

192、(ITC),the federal Residential Energy Tax Credit,federal depreciation,and USDA High Energy Cost Grants.The federal tax credits are excluded because information on how many wind projects have claimed the federal Business Energy ITC and the Residential Energy Tax Credit is not public 17 Distributed win

193、d projects often receive incentive funding at a different time than when they are commissioned.For example,although USDA REAP grants are recorded for this report in the year they are awarded,they are paid after the project is commissioned and this can be up to two years after the award.In addition,t

194、his report reflects that some historical California state incentives were corrected because of a past PNNL misunderstanding of when incentives were applied for compared to when they were paid out.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 14 record.High Energy Cost Grants are excluded because they

195、typically cover full systems with multiple technologies(e.g.,new wind turbines,boilers,and electric thermal storage devices)and the value of the grant for the wind portion cannot be distinguished.New Mexico and Iowa state production tax credit values are estimated based on available project energy p

196、roduction reports.Awards from all of these incentive programs have been decreasing over the past years.Iowa production tax credit payments are decreasing as some projects have completed their 10-year eligibility period.The last Section 1603 payments were made in 2017(Treasury 2018).18 The decline in

197、 state incentives is explored in Section 4.1.1.Federal tax-based incentives are discussed in Section 4.1.2.USDA REAP wind applications and grants are discussed in Section 4.1.3.4.1.1 State Policy and Incentive Highlights State renewable portfolio standard requirements,net-metering policies,interconn

198、ection standards and guidelines,FITs,utility programs,and the availability of grants,rebates,performance incentives,and state tax credits can affect the cost effectiveness and deployment of distributed wind in a state.In 2012,12 state programs reported incentive payments for distributed wind project

199、s.In contrast,three state programs reported incentive payments for distributed wind projects in 2021 while four reported payments in 2020,2019,and 2018.The three programs are the Iowa and New Mexico state production tax credits and the NYSERDA Small Wind Turbine Incentive Program.The fourth program

200、with payments in 2020,2019,and 2018,the California Self-Generation Incentive Program(SGIP),did not make any awards to distributed wind projects in 2021,but projects are in the application queue for potential future awards.With the expiration of the NYSERDA incentive,the California SGIP is the last s

201、tate rebate program PNNL is aware of that consistently provides funding to distributed wind projects.4.1.2 Federal Tax-Based Incentives The federal Business Energy ITC(26 U.S.C.48)and the Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit(26 U.S.C.25D)are federal policy mechanisms that offset some of the capit

202、al costs of qualified renewable energy projects.Under the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021(enacted as Public Law 116-260 on December 27,2020),small wind turbines eligibility for the Business Energy ITC at 26%of qualified expenditures was extended through 2022,with a scheduled phasedown to 22%

203、for properties that begin construction by the end of 2023,after which the credit expires.Similarly,the Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit will remain at the current 26%rate through 2022 and reduce to 22%for properties placed in service through 2023,after which the credit ends.The federal produc

204、tion tax credit(PTC)for onshore wind was extended through December 31,2021,under the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2021.Projects that began construction by the end of 2021 were eligible for a PTC at 60%of the full rate over 10 years.Alternatively,projects that began construction by the end of 2021

205、 could have opted instead for a Business Energy ITC of 18%of the total project cost.4.1.3 USDA REAP The USDA provides agricultural producers and rural small businesses grant funding and loan financing to purchase or install renewable energy systems or make energy-efficiency improvements.Through REAP

206、,the USDA issues loan guarantees for renewable energy projects for up to 75%of the projects cost or a maximum of$25 million.The USDA also issues REAP grants for up to 25%of the projects cost,or a maximum of 18 The federal ITC was temporarily augmented in 2009 to allow for cash payments from the fede

207、ral government in lieu of the tax credit,otherwise known as the U.S.Treasury cash grants or Section 1603 payments.To qualify for Section 1603 payments,wind power projects must have applied for a grant before October 1,2012,and be placed in service by 2011,or began construction in 2009,2010,or 2011 a

208、nd placed in service by December 31,2016.Because payments were made after the project was placed in service,not prior to or during construction,payments continued through 2017.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 15$500,000 for renewable energy projects.A combination of REAP loans and grants

209、can cover up to 75%of total eligible project costs.In 2021,USDA REAP awarded$696,964 in grants to 22 wind projects from 34 applications.The 22 projects represent a total of 604 kW of capacity from 23 turbines in five states.The projects are expected to generate a combined 2.5 GWh of energy annually.

210、USDA REAP did not provide any loan guarantees to wind projects in 2021.The 2021 funding amount was greater than the$155,025 in wind grants awarded in 2020 in three states,when three projects out of four applications received awards.Renewable energy and energy-efficiency applications for REAP funding

211、 must first go through a technical merit review,with different criteria depending on the projects total cost.For example,technical information evaluated may include the project description,resource assessment,project economic assessment,project construction and equipment,and qualifications of key se

212、rvice providers as provided by the applicant(7 CFR 4280.116).If the application is determined to have adequate technical merit,then it is eligible for further consideration for funding.Eligible applications are scored on eight criteria,one of which is the projects simple payback(7 CFR 4280.121).The

213、uptick in wind awards and applications in 2021 can be partially attributed to the USDAs use of priority points,or discretionary points,in scoring underrepresented technologies such as distributed wind projects.Priority points help advance USDA Rural Development priorities19 by raising certain projec

214、ts scores,which in turn improves the chances of those projects being scored high enough to warrant awards(USDA 2022).Wind grant applications must compete against other renewable energy and energy-efficiency grant applications.REAP grant applicants and USDA REAP staff have indicated to PNNL that smal

215、l winds high capital cost results in lower scores than solar PV or energy-efficiency projects.The USDAs simple payback calculation excludes grants and state and federal incentives;it is based exclusively on the installed cost and value of the electricity generated.If a projects simple payback period

216、 is longer than 25 years,it receives zero points for this criterion,lowering its overall score and,thus,its likelihood of receiving an award.In addition,REAP applications must go through an environmental review process under the National Environmental Policy Act.Projects cannot be awarded funding un

217、til the environmental review process has been completed with no adverse findings.Because a wind turbine installation includes groundbreaking for the foundation,it may have a more complicated environmental review than a rooftop solar PV installation,resulting in project delays.Although there was an i

218、ncrease in wind applications and awards in 2021,USDA REAP grant and loan amounts for wind projects have decreased significantly since 2012,as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10,respectively.In addition,drastically fewer grants are awarded for wind projects than for solar PV projects.In 2021,wind projec

219、ts represented 1.7%of all REAP grant awards and 1.5%of all REAP grant funding,while energy-efficiency projects represented 27%of grant awards and 21%of grant funding;and solar PV projects represented 67%of grant awards and 63%of grant funding.Other renewable energy awards include biogas,biomass,geot

220、hermal,and hydroelectric projects.In 2020,wind projects represented 0.19%of all REAP grant awards and 0.31%of REAP grant funding.With respect to loans over the period of 2012 to 2021,there was only one loan guarantee for a distributed wind project in 2018 and six loans guaranteed in 2012.This is in

221、contrast to the record number of 76 loans guaranteed to solar PV projects in 2021(up from 60 in 2020 and 52 in 2019).19 USDA Rural Developments three key priorities are 1)assist rural communities recover economically from the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic,particularly disadvantaged communities,2)

222、ensure all rural residents have equitable access to Rural Development programs and benefits from Rural Development-funded projects,and 3)reduce climate pollution and increasing resilience to the impacts of climate change through economic support to rural communities(USDA 2022).State Director and Adm

223、inistrator priorities are also used in the scoring process(7 CFR 4280.121).DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 16 Since 2003,the USDA has awarded over$73 million in REAP wind grants.States receiving the largest share of this funding are Iowa with$23.3 million,Minnesota with$21.7 million,Illi

224、nois with$4.1 million,Ohio with$2.9 million,and Oregon with$2.8 million.The top five states in terms of number of wind projects awarded are Iowa with 265 projects,Minnesota with 186,New York with 50,Wisconsin with 45,and Alaska with 30.Figure Figure 9 9.USDA REAP grants by technology,.USDA REAP gran

225、ts by technology,20201 12 2 2022021 1 Figure Figure 1010.USDA REAP loans by technology,.USDA REAP loans by technology,20201 12 2 2022021 1 DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 17 4.2 Market Insights Other factors beyond policy decisions and changing incentives,such as technology innovations a

226、nd new market development,affect the distributed wind market.This section provides a few highlights of these types of activities.4.2.1 Small Wind Retrofits Small wind retrofits continue to account for a significant portion of new domestic small wind capacity deployment.In 2021,small wind retrofits r

227、epresented 42%of the total installed small wind capacity,compared to 68%in 2020 and 27%in 2019.This fluctuation is likely a result of how many customers an installer can manage in a year,turbine supply availability,and each years sample size of reported projects.The percentage values for retrofits i

228、n 2020 and 2019 presented here differ from what was presented in Distributed Wind Market Report:2021 Edition because PNNL was able to add more small wind project records to its master project dataset over the past year.Retrofits are new(either newly manufactured or refurbished)turbines installed on

229、existing towers and foundations to replace nonfunctioning turbines or to upgrade the technology.The small wind retrofit projects in 2021 primarily used either new Bergey Excel 15 turbine units or refurbished Endurance E-3120 turbine units.Of the retrofit projects that used refurbished turbines in bo

230、th 2020 and 2021,the majority of them were refurbished Endurance E-3120 turbine units to replace older,nonfunctioning Endurance E-3120 turbine units.Refurbished Endurance E-3120 turbine units have also been deployed in some new installations.The retrofit trend is largely driven by customers interest

231、 in reusing existing infrastructure to maintain on-site wind generation.The PNNL team expects retrofitting activities to continue as small wind turbines reach the ends of their life cycles and customers seek out improved technologies.4.2.2 Hybrids and Co-Located Distributed Energy Resources Co-locat

232、ed and co-operated energy resources with shared components and control strategies are the characteristics that most typically define a hybrid power plant or system(Murphy et al.2021;Ahlstrom et al.2019).Installers and small wind turbine manufacturers report increased interest from customers for hybr

233、id systems,particularly for off-grid applications.Wind and solar generation can be complementary,and this resource diversity can allow a wind-solar hybrid to achieve a more consistent renewable generation profile throughout the year(Clark et al.2022;Reiman et al.2020).A homeowner with a small wind t

234、urbine and rooftop solar PV can also benefit from the complementarity,even if the two resources are not controlled together.There is also interest in larger hybrid power plants.At the end of 2020,at least 38 wind hybrid power plants,with sizes greater than 1 MW,were operating across the United State

235、s(Wiser et al.2020).Hybrid power plants are being installed at all scales,including at the distribution level.The Red Lake Falls Community Hybrid project,installed in 2020,includes 4.6 MW of distributed wind and 1 MW of solar PV interconnected to serve a utilitys distribution system in Minnesota.Bec

236、ause of this interest and growing trend,PNNL now documents in its master project dataset,to the extent possible,if the distributed wind project is part of a hybrid power plant,part of a hybrid power system,or has co-located distributed energy resources.4.2.3 Competitiveness Improvement Project The C

237、ompetitiveness Improvement Project(CIP),which is funded by DOE and administered by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL),awards cost-shared subcontracts via a competitive process to manufacturers of small and medium wind turbines.Since 2012,NREL has awarded 52 subcontracts to 25 DISTRIBUTED

238、 WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 18 companies,totaling$12.4 million of DOE funding and leveraging$6.4 million in additional private-sector investment(NREL 2022a).The CIP is aligned with the goals of the DOE Wind Energy Technologies Offices Distributed Wind Research Program.These goals are to make sm

239、all and medium wind technology cost competitive with other distributed energy resources,measured through levelized cost of energy reduction,and to increase the number of small and medium wind turbine designs tested to national performance and safety standards,measured through number of tested design

240、s.The 2022 CIP request for proposals(which closed on April 6,2022)included a new topic area that would support the costs associated with the commercialization process and development of partnerships with a pathway to larger-scale deployments.The 2022 request for proposals focused on projects that wo

241、uld develop new,innovative distributed wind energy concepts;transform and optimize existing designs for lower cost,increased energy production,or expanded capabilities;conduct wind turbine and component testing to national standards to verify performance and safety;create advanced manufacturing proc

242、esses to reduce hardware costs;and accelerate pathways to commercialization(NREL 2022b).4.2.4 Certified Small and Medium Turbines Certifying a small or medium turbine model to consensus standards provides a method for manufacturers to demonstrate that the turbine model meets performance,durability,a

243、nd quality requirements and establishes common performance metrics to enable performance comparisons.Certifications issued by independent,accredited third-party certification bodies allow wind turbine manufacturers to demonstrate compliance with regulatory and incentive program requirements.In addit

244、ion,certified ratings allow purchasers to directly compare products and give funding agencies and utilities greater confidence that small and medium turbines installed with public assistance comply with applicable standards.As of January 2015,small wind turbines must meet either the AWEA Small Wind

245、Turbine Performance and Safety Standard 9.1-2009 or the International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC)61400-1,61400-12,and 61400-11 standards to be eligible to receive the Business Energy ITC(IRS 2015).20 These standards address power performance,duration(durability),structural,safety,and acoustic s

246、ound requirements.The American Clean Power Association(ACP),the successor to AWEA,has developed a new American National Standards Institute consensus standard,ACP 101-1,but it is not yet publicly available as of report publication.The ACP 101-1 standard defines small wind turbines as having a peak p

247、ower of 150 kW or less and microturbines as having a peak power up to 1 kW.The Distributed Wind Energy Association(DWEA)and DOE have recommended that the U.S.Internal Revenue Service(IRS)recognize certification to either AWEA 9.1-2009 or ACP 101-1 going forward for tax credit eligibility.The ACP 101

248、-1 standard has been designed to facilitate easier compliance,so the industry expects that new turbine models will be certified to this standard.In addition,power electronics for wind turbines and other distributed energy resources are increasingly being required to meet more advanced controls and c

249、ommunications requirements,especially in markets with high distributed energy resource contributions.The required technical standards for these devices,such as UL Standard 1741,Edition 3 for inverters and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)Standard 1547 for interconnection requir

250、ements,have been undergoing revision while certification and listing of devices to these standards are also evolving rapidly.The CIP is helping industry stakeholders address this emerging need as well.For example,CIP awards have been granted to companies working together to manufacture an inverter s

251、pecifically designed for small-and medium-scale wind turbines that can be certified to meet UL Standard 1741 requirements(WETO 2021).20 This certification requirement does not apply to wind projects that opt out of the PTC to instead receive the Business Energy ITC(26 U.S.C.48),nor is it codified in

252、 the Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit(26 U.S.C.25D)requirements.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 19 Table 2 lists the seven small wind turbine models currently certified to the AWEA 9.1 standard or the IEC 61400 standards as of July 2022.While at least 24 different small wind turbi

253、ne models have been certified to these standards since 2011,only turbine models that have met annual renewal requirements are included in the table.21 Manufacturers may opt not to renew if they no longer want to participate in the U.S.market or if the company has discontinued all operations.Table Ta

254、ble 2 2.Certified.Certified S Small mall WWind ind T Turbinesurbines22 Applicant Turbine Model Date of Initial Certification Certified Power Ratinga 11 m/s(kW)Certification Standard Bergey WindPower Excel 10 11/16/2011 8.9 AWEA 9.1 Bergey WindPower Excel 15 2/5/2021 15.6 AWEA 9.1 Eveready Diversifie

255、d Products(Pty)Ltd.Kestrel e400nb 2/14/2013 2.5 AWEA 9.1 Eocycle Technologies,Inc.EO20/E0253/21/2017 22.5/28.9 AWEA 9.1 HI-VAWT Technology Corporation/Colite Technologies DS3000 5/10/2019 1.4 AWEA 9.1 Primus Wind Power AIR 30/AIR X 1/25/2019 0.16 IEC 61400 Primus Wind Power AIR 40/Air Breeze 2/20/20

256、18 0.16 IEC 61400 a Power output at 11 m/s(24.6 mph)at standard sea level conditions.Manufacturers may describe or name their wind turbine models using a nominal power,which may reference output at a different wind speed(e.g.,10-kW Bergey Excel 10).21 The certification for SD Wind Energys SD6 turbin

257、e model expired July 1,2022 and the company was pursuing renewal as of report publication.22 Other information about these certifications,such as rated sound levels and rated annual energy production amounts,are available from the certification bodies(ICCSWCC 2022;SGS 2021;UL 2021).DISTRIBUTED WIND

258、MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 20 5 Installed and Operations and Maintenance(O&M)Costs Cost data in this section were derived from state and federal agencies,project owners and developers,installers,and news reports.5.1 Small Wind Installed Costs Figure 11 presents the average annual and project-specifi

259、c small wind installed costs(in 2021 dollars)for 2012 through 2021.Figure 11 only includes projects with reported installed costs that use turbines with known rated capacities23 and only includes an annual average for years in which there are three or more reported projects.Figure Figure 1111.Averag

260、e Average and projectand project-specific specific U.S.U.S.new and retrofit new and retrofit small small wind wind installed project costs,installed project costs,2012012 2 2022021 1 The average capacity-weighted installed cost for new small wind projects in 2021 was$5,120/kW based on 16 projects(ea

261、ch having one turbine)in three states for a combined rated capacity of 396 kW.The annual average capacity-weighted installed cost for new projects in PNNLs dataset had been relatively flat through 2019 at around$9,970/kW,so the 2021 average is a notable decrease from past years averages.This decreas

262、e may be attributable to the fact that the sample of projects with reported costs for 2021 only includes turbines in the size segment of 11100 kW,which tend to have a lower cost per kW than turbines in the size segment of 110 kW.Although there may be bias in the sample,there was also an increase in

263、sales in the size segment of 11100 kW in 2021,as discussed in Section 8.3.23 See Table B.1 in Appendix B for the small wind turbine models included in this analysis.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 21 The installed cost amount includes the wind turbine equipment costs,or the hardware cost

264、s,as well as the balance-of-station costs.Balance-of-station costs24 can represent up to 60%of a new small wind projects total installed cost and therefore play a significant role in overall small wind installed costs(Orrell and Poehlman 2017).The varying sample sizes and the high variance in projec

265、t-specific costs contributes to the cost ranges exhibited each year.The outlier project circled in Figure 11 is in Alaska,where transportation expenses and cold climate turbine features contributed to the higher project-specific installed cost.Average annual(when available)and known project-specific

266、 small wind retrofit installed costs(in 2021 dollars)are also shown in Figure 11.Of the 33 small wind projects with reported costs for 2021,17 were confirmed as retrofits.These 17 small wind retrofit projects(each having one turbine)are in eight states and represent a combined rated capacity of 494

267、kW.The annual average capacity-weighted installed cost for small wind retrofit projects was approximately$3,400/kW in 2021.This is down from an average of$3,900/kW in 2020(13 projects,371 kW,6 states)and$5,300/kW in 2019(10 projects,89 kW,2 states)for small wind retrofits.As discussed in Section 4.2

268、.1,some retrofit projects use refurbished turbine units.In 2021,six retrofit projects with reported costs used refurbished turbines,compared to three in 2020 and none in 2019.These refurbished turbines represent the low end of the retrofit installed cost range and largely drive the drops in the annu

269、al average capacity-weighted installed cost from 2019 to 2020 to 2021.5.2 Installed Costs for Projects Using Wind Turbines Greater Than 100 kW Figure 12 presents the average annual and project-specific costs(in 2021 dollars)for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW for years 2012 through 2021.

270、Figure 12 only includes projects with reported installed costs and only includes an annual average for years in which there are three or more reported projects.The annual average capacity-weighted installed cost for three projects in 2021 was approximately$2,900/kW.These three projects using turbine

271、s greater than 100 kW are from three states using five turbines for a combined capacity of 6,250 kW.This is down from an average of$3,100/kW documented in 2019,and$4,300/kW documented in 2018.However,the small sample sizes and range of project sizes represented must be considered when reviewing thes

272、e averages.The availability of cost information for distributed wind projects using turbines greater than 100 kW varies from year to year.As a result,the average costs reported for each year likely contain bias because of the project sample-size variation(e.g.,military projects with higher costs due

273、 to specific cybersecurity requirements may dominate one years sample while cost information for lower-cost agricultural projects in Minnesota may dominate another years sample).The outlier project circled in Figure 12 is installed in Guam.Higher installation costs in Guam are expected because of it

274、s remoteness,but the distributed wind energy will also displace higher electricity costs(compared to the continental United States),so the project could still be cost-effective.24 The balance-of-station costs of a distributed wind system include customer acquisition and qualification;installation,fo

275、undation,and electrical labor,materials,and equipment;transportation;taxes;zoning,permitting,inspection,interconnection,and incentive labor and fees;engineering and design(e.g.,site assessment,foundation design,and geotechnical report);financing;and overhead and profit(Forsyth et al.2017).DISTRIBUTE

276、D WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 22 Figure Figure 1212.Average Average and projectand project-specific specific installed costs for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW,20installed costs for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW,201 12 2 20202 21 1 5.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs T

277、he term“O&M costs”is common;however,operation costs differ from maintenance costs and not all distributed wind projects experience them equally.O&M activities can be performed by project owners or outsourced to third-party service providers.Operation costs for wind projects may include land lease pa

278、yments,remote monitoring,various operations contracts,insurance,and property taxes.Operations are a significant expense for wind farms and large distributed wind projects,but they are not typically substantial,or even present,for small distributed wind projects,primarily because the turbine owner an

279、d the land owner are one and the same.On the other hand,all wind projects,distributed or otherwise,require maintenance.For a large distributed wind project,O&M costs of the turbine system are part of the projects total operating expenses.The Land-Based Wind Market Report reports that operating expen

280、ses for recently installed projects are anticipated to average between$33/kW/year and$59/kW/year(Wiser and Bolinger 2022).Maintenance costs can be categorized as scheduled or unscheduled.Scheduled maintenance activities for small wind projects can include inspecting the turbine,controller,and tower;

281、adjusting blades;checking the production meter and communications components;and providing an overall biannual or annual scheduled maintenance visit per the manufacturers owners manual.Unscheduled maintenance can include activities ranging from responding to a customers complaint of noise from the t

282、urbine to replacing the generator,electrical components,inverter,blades,anemometer,or furling cable.For small wind,in most cases,the project installer or developer performs the maintenance for the small wind owner.Maintenance costs include labor,travel to the site,consumables,and any other related c

283、osts.Therefore,small wind maintenance costs can depend on the maintenance providers proximity to the project site(i.e.,travel costs),the availability of spare parts,and the complexity of maintenance and repairs.The average scheduled maintenance cost per visit for small wind is about$37/kW(Orrell and

284、 Poehlman 2017).This is in line with other data that suggest operation and maintenance costs for all distributed wind projects up to 10 MW are$30$40/kW/yr(NREL 2016).DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 23 6 Performance A wind projects capacity factor is one way to measure the projects perfor

285、mance.The capacity factor is a projects actual annual energy production divided by its annual potential energy production if it were possible for the wind turbine to operate continuously at its full capacity.25 This section looks at capacity factors in various ways to evaluate the performance of dis

286、tributed wind turbines.6.1 Capacity Factors Figure 13 presents the calculated capacity factors,arranged by geographic region,for a sample of small wind projects that produced energy in 2021.A box-and-whisker plot was selected to provide visibility into the average,median,and extreme capacity factors

287、 in each region.This approach should allow PNNL to compare these metrics across different years in future reports.The small wind annual generation data used in the capacity factor calculations are from turbine monitoring web portals and include 105 turbines totaling 1.1 MW in rated capacity ranging

288、from 2.1 kW to 56 kW in size installed from 2009 through the beginning of 2021.Of the 105 turbines,PNNL had the metadata available to classify 71 into geographic regions;the remaining 34 are classified as having unknown exact locations.Figure Figure 1313.S Small wind capacity factorsmall wind capaci

289、ty factors 25 Capacity factor calculations for small wind use the turbines rated,or reference,capacities,as defined in Appendix B,to be consistent with Section 5.For distributed wind projects using turbines greater than 100 kW,the turbine nominal capacities are used.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:20

290、22 EDITION 24 With the intent to provide an accurate portrayal of actual small wind turbine production(including losses and downtime)in 2021,the following data-quality-control guidelines were applied.Turbines with a full 12 months of reported data were included in the analysis.In addition,turbines w

291、ith missing data were included if they were offline or had missing data 1)during the middle of 2021,2)at the beginning of 2021 if those turbines had been online and reporting prior to 2021,or 3)at the end of 2021 if they came back online in 2022.Turbines were excluded from the analysis if they first

292、 came online during 2021 or if they were offline or missing data at the end of 2021 into 2022(as this could indicate decommission).PNNL does not know the reasons turbines were offline or missing data.The overall average capacity factor in 2021 for these small wind projects was 13%.The three small wi

293、nd projects in Hawaii yielded an average 2021 capacity factor of 16%.The eight small wind projects in the West yielded an average 2021 capacity factor of 15%.The 29 small wind projects in the Midwest yielded an average 2021 capacity factor of 13%with great variability in individual project capacity

294、factors.The Midwest regions great variability in wind resource(WINDExchange 2022)is one of the factors influencing the observed spread in project capacity factors.The six small wind projects in the Southern Plains produced the highest 2021 capacity factors,with an average of 19%.The 22 small wind pr

295、ojects in the Northeast,the majority of which are in New York,yielded an average 2021 capacity factor of 10%.New Yorks high electricity prices and past available incentives enabled significant small wind capacity additions for many years,despite the states relatively low wind resource.The three smal

296、l wind projects in the Southeast,the region with the lowest wind resource in the United States(WINDExchange 2022),produced the lowest 2021 capacity factors,with an average of 2%.And the 34 small wind projects with unknown locations yielded an average 2021 capacity factor of 13%.The wide range of obs

297、erved small wind capacity factors,from 1%to 33%,reflects,among other variables,the assessment and siting challenges for small wind discussed in Section 6.2.The same turbine model sited in different locations can achieve very different capacity factors,due to differences in the local wind resource an

298、d turbulence created by nearby obstacles and complex terrain.In addition,low turbine availability,due to a turbine not operating for extended periods because of mechanical problems or other reasons,can lower the turbines overall capacity factor.Poor measuring and reporting of energy production may a

299、lso be factors.The annual generation data for projects using wind turbines greater than 100 kW,and at least 1 MW in size,are from Energy Information Administration(EIA)Form 923 reports.Wind projects with a total size of at least 1 MW are required to report net annual energy generation to the EIA(EIA

300、 2022a).From these records,PNNL identified 25 distributed wind projects installed from 2005 to 2018,across 14 states,totaling 44 MW in combined capacity that had reported generation amounts for 2021.Turbine nominal capacities used in the projects range from 600 kW to 3 MW.Figure 14 presents the calc

301、ulated capacity factors in 2021,arranged by geographic region,for these projects using turbines greater than 100 kW.The wind projects in Figure 14 exhibit a wide range of observed capacity factors,from 6%to 43%.The average 2021 capacity factor for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW is 22%,w

302、hich is higher than the 13%average capacity factor for small wind.This is most likely because large-scale turbine projects typically have thorough wind resource assessments as part of the siting process(to achieve optimal energy generation),undergo routine maintenance(to sustain high levels of relia

303、bility),and have taller hub heights(to capture faster wind speeds).Geographically,the average 2021 capacity factors for the Midwest,Northeast,and West are consistent at 22%,22%,and 21%,respectively.The single project in the Southern Plains,a region noted for its strong wind resource,produced the hig

304、hest 2021 capacity factor of 43%(WINDExchange 2022).DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 25 Figure Figure 1414.Capacity factors for projects using turbines greater than 100 kWCapacity factors for projects using turbines greater than 100 kW 6.2 Actual versus Estimated Small Wind Performance Th

305、e amount of annual energy production achievable by a distributed wind project is driven by variables beyond turbine technology,including,but not limited to,the projects available wind resource,siting(i.e.,tower height,local obstructions,and other micro-siting issues),and turbine availability(i.e.,do

306、wntime for expected or unexpected maintenance or grid outages).These variables contribute to why accurately estimating distributed wind project performance can be challenging.In this section,PNNL compares estimated and actual project performance data and examines site-specific factors for individual

307、 turbines to reveal which variables may be introducing error in performance estimation modeling tools.PNNL was able to examine 22 small wind projects across the United States installed from 2009 through the beginning of 2021 to assess actual versus estimated performance in 2021.The performance estim

308、ates,which source from installers and incentive programs,were provided to turbine customers and PNNL.PNNL does not have insight into the wind resource models,observations,or loss assumptions employed in the different estimations.26 Figure 15 displays each projects percent of projected production(the

309、 ratio of actual 2021 generation and estimated generation).In 2021,all percentages of projected production are less than 100%,indicating that all small wind projects in the sample performed lower than the estimated generation,regardless of geographic region.To isolate the effect of each projects win

310、d resource on performance,Figure 15 also includes the normalized 2021 wind speed(the ratio of 2021 average wind speed to the 22-year average wind speed)based on the ERA5 model27 over the reference years of 2000 to 2021.For 20 of the 22 small wind projects,the normalized 2021 wind speed is less than

311、one,indicating a below average wind resource year at these locations.Therefore,for 26 For a period of time,New York installers were required to use the Small Wind Explorer tool to be eligible for NYSERDAs incentive.The Small Wind Explorer Tool used AWS Truepower modeled wind resource data and the to

312、ol is no longer available now that NYSERDAs incentive program has been discontinued.27 The European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th generation,commonly referred to as ERA5(ECMWF 2020).The reanalysis model provides decades-long wind resource data.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPOR

313、T:2022 EDITION 26 most projects in the sample,a low wind resource is a demonstrated factor contributing to the low turbine performance in 2021 relative to expectations.Figure Figure 1515.Actual Actual and estimated and estimated p performanceerformance for for select select small wind projectssmall

314、wind projects The one project in the Northeast that is exhibiting above average wind resource in 2021 in Figure 15 reported 100%availability during 2021,but still did not produce its expected generation.The turbine is located in near proximity of both trees and buildings,a site design that is perhap

315、s contributing to low turbine performance relative to expectations as accounting for obstacles is not a simple effort and may not have been incorporated into the estimation methodology.Publicly available wind resource assessment tools have limited ability to accurately represent turbine production i

316、n locations with complex terrain and local obstructions(Orrell et al.2021).Publicly available wind resource assessment tools are convenient,inexpensive,and readily accessible for small wind installers to use.However,the above assessment of actual versus estimated capacity factors yields a trend of p

317、roject performance overestimation,along with challenges in resolving complex terrain and obstacles.An additional challenge is that many performance estimates are produced for an average wind resource year with no adjustment provided for the range of possible generation for high and low wind resource

318、 years.These challenges present a research and development opportunity,which,if solved,could have a positive impact on consumer confidence and the ability to finance small wind projects.Installers and owners can consider these challenges when making small wind performance estimates by recognizing th

319、at a performance estimate may need to be adjusted if the turbine is sited near obstacles or in complex terrain.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 27 7 Levelized Cost of Energy Levelized cost of energy(LCOE)represents the present value of all anticipated project costs(installed and O&M)over

320、the projects anticipated lifetime energy production.LCOE allows for the comparison of different technologies of unequal life spans,sizes,and initial capital costs.LCOE is calculated by dividing a projects lifetime costs by its energy production and is expressed in$/kWh or/kWh.Past market reports hav

321、e reported estimated LCOEs for distributed wind projects using performance and cost data reported from the EIA,USDA REAP,and NYSERDA with NRELs LCOE method and assumptions detailed in Appendix B(NREL 2020).To calculate LCOE estimates,PNNL must have access to at least a full year of energy production

322、 data for a project as well as an installed cost report for it.As a result,past market report LCOE estimates reflected costs for projects installed over a range of years(with costs inflated to the given year of the report)and the most recent energy production amounts available for the projects.This

323、analysis approach provides representative LCOEs,but does not allow year-to-year LCOE comparisons or specific year analyses.As wind technologies improve and installed costs decrease,year-to-year LCOE comparisons may prove insightful.Although the NYSERDA incentive program is discontinued and no longer

324、 collecting production data from its program participants and USDA REAP has limited production data to share,PNNL secured annual production data for more projects from other sources in 20212022.However,the number of projects for which PNNL has both installed cost reports and production data is still

325、 limited.As a result,PNNL has not calculated any LCOE estimates from empirical data for this report and will continue to consider the best ways to calculate and present LCOE estimates in future reports as more new and relevant data becomes available.The NREL 2020 Cost of Wind Energy Review presents

326、modeled small wind LCOE estimates that are generally in line with past market report empirical-based estimates(Stehly and Duffy 2021).For a representative 20-kW installation,the estimated LCOE was 15.1/kWh in 2020 dollars without any incentives included that would lower the capital cost.For a repres

327、entative 100-kW installation,the LCOE,without any incentives,was estimated at 9.9/kWh.The NREL 2020 LCOE estimates do not include incentives.Rebates and grants reduce the upfront cost for the wind turbine owner significantly and,thus,reduce the LCOE for the owner as well.In analysis for the 2018 Dis

328、tributed Wind Market Report,published in August 2019,USDA REAP grants,NYSERDA Small Wind Program incentives,and Section 1603 payments reduced the estimated small wind LCOEs in the projects sample by an average of 40%.Whether a distributed wind projects LCOE is cost competitive with a retail electric

329、 rate is highly site specific as retail rates vary greatly across the United States.According to the EIA,average residential and commercial retail electric rates,which small wind turbines are most likely to displace,range from 10 to 26.7/kWh and from 7.9 to 19.3/kWh,respectively,in the continental U

330、nited States(EIA 2022b).Hawaii,Alaska,Puerto Rico,the U.S.Virgin Islands,and Guam have higher rates,making distributed wind potentially more cost competitive in those areas,even when projects costs for those locations are also likely to be higher.Other factors,such as the wind resource and the avail

331、ability of incentives to lower the upfront cost,also factor into the LCOE calculation and thus whether the LCOE can be cost competitive with a retail rate.For example,Iowa has a relatively low average residential electric rate at 11.7/kWh(EIA 2022b),but the states strong wind resource allows for hig

332、h wind energy generation,which can drive down an LCOE.In contrast,New York has a less robust wind resource,but a high average residential electric rate of 19.7/kWh(EIA 2022b)and until the end of 2019,it also had the generous NYSERDA small wind incentive program.The incentive lowered the upfront cost

333、 to the homeowner,which in turn lowers the owners LCOE,while the high retail rate provides a higher threshold for the LCOE to be competitive against.DISTRIBUTED WIND MARKET REPORT:2022 EDITION 28 8 Distributed Wind Markets This section details some of the characteristics of distributed wind sales and installations,including customer types,interconnection types,wind turbine sizes,and tower types.8.