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1、ImprintAs a federally owned enterprise,GIZ supports the German Government inachieving its objectives in the field of international cooperation for sustainabledevelopment.Published byDeutsche Gesellschaft frInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbHRegistered officesBonn and Eschborn,Germany AddressTayua

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4、onsibleSebastian Ibold(GIZ)E transition-chinagiz.dehttps:/transition-china.org/mobility AuthorsChina Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS)Cheng Li,Zhongyi Wu,Xiaofei Li,Kai Mu EditorsGIZ Chenzi Yiyang,Gregor Bauer,Yun Xia,Josephine Nehring,Vincent Fremery,Rohan Modi LayoutBeijing team orca cultur

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7、 content.Beijing,20222Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaDefinition of Technical TermsTERMSDefinitionNEW ENERGY VEHICLESThese include battery electric vehicles,plug-in hybrid vehicles,and fuel cell vehicles.NEW ENERGY BUSA new energy vehicle with more than nine passenger

8、 seats that are used in ur-ban public transportation services,designed and manufactured for the trans-portation of passengers.ENERGY-SAVING NEW ENER-GY VEHICLESThese include new energy vehicles and non-plug-in hybrid vehicles.ENERGY-SAVING NEW ENER-GY BUSAn energy-saving new energy vehicle with more

9、 than nine passenger seats that are used in urban public transportation services,designed and manufactured for the transportation of passengers.HYBRID VEHICLESThese include plug-in hybrid vehicles and non-plug-in hybrid vehicles.HYBRID BUSESHybrid vehicles with more than nine passenger seats that ar

10、e used in urban public transportation services,designed and manufactured for the transporta-tion of passengers.TRADITIONAL BUSESThese are oil and gas driven vehicles.Specifically,fuel-driven vehicles include diesel,gasoline,and ethanol-gasoline vehicles,while gas-driven vehicles in-clude LNG,LPG,and

11、 CNG vehicles.NON-FAST CHARGINGThe charging mode of a vehicle,with a charging rate of below 3C.The charging of lithium iron phosphate and lithium manganate batteries is de-fined as slow charging.The charging power is related to the available power of a charging pole,generally below 150kw.FAST CHARGI

12、NGThis refers to the charging mode with a charging rate1 of above 3C.In China,the battery type that can currently supporting fast charging is a lithium tita-nate battery,with a general charging power exceeding 300kw.SUPERFAST CHARGINGThis refers to s high-power top charging method.THE AVERAGE DAILY

13、MILEAGEThe distance traveled by bus in a day of bus line operation.NOMINAL BATTERY ENERGYUnder NEDC operating conditions,the distance traveled by the BEBs that consumes all of their power.TOTAL POWER BATTERY EN-ERGYThe total power carried by the power battery.Unit is KWhPOWER BATTERY ENERGY DENSITYT

14、he power that is included in the unit mass of the power battery.Unit is KWh/kg.1 Charging rate:a multiple of the charging current to the rated capacity(Ah)of the battery cell,as expressed in C;for example,a 100Ah battery cell,charged with 100A is 1C,which can be simply understood as being fully char

15、ged in 1h;200A charging is 2C,which can be simply understood being fully charged in 0.5h;50A charge is 0.5C,which can be simply understood as being fully charged in 2h.3Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaAbbreviationsVehicle types:EVElectric VehicleCNEV/CNEB Energy Conse

16、rvation and New Energy Vehicle/BusNEV/NEB New Energy Vehicle/BusBEV/BEB Battery Electric Vehicle/BusHEV/HEB Hybrid Electric Vehicle/BusPHEV/PHEBPlug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle/BusUPHEV/UPHEB Unplugged Hybrid Electric Vehicle/BusFCEV Fuel Cell Electric VehicleUEV Ultracapacitor Electric VehicleBOB Ba

17、ttery Trolley BusLNG Liquefied Natural GasLPG Liquefied Petroleum GasCNG Compressed Natural GasInstitutions and Associations:CATSWBADBTPRIBITMIITSUTPCJNTRCCRTACHTS China Academy of Transportation SciencesWorld Bank Asian Development Bank Transport Planning and Research Institute Beijing Institute of

18、 Technology China Automobile Research Institute Shenzhen Urban Transport Planning Center Co.,LTD Jinan Urban Transportation Research Center China Road Transport Association China Highway and Transportation SocietyChinese government authorities:SC State CouncilNDRCNational Development and Reform Comm

19、issionMIIT Ministry of Industry and Information TechnologyMOSTMinistry of Science and TechnologyMOF Ministry of FinanceMEEMinistry of Ecology and EnvironmentMOTMinistry of Transport4Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China1Background 62Literature Review 72.1Government Reports

20、 92.2Surveys by Industrial Associations 122.3Research Projects Supported by International Organizations 162.4Relevant Academic Papers 202.5Conclusion 213Status Analyses of New Energy Bus and Battery Electric Bus Development in China 233.1The Policy Environment for NEB Promotion in China 243.2Current

21、 status of BEB promotion and application in China 30(1)Scale and characteristics 30(2)Operating mileage of battery-electric buses 30(3)The technical performance of battery-electric buses 30(4)Energy-saving and emission reduction effects of battery-electric buses 303.3Stakeholders Analysis 333.3.1Sta

22、keholders 333.3.2Relationships with Stakeholders 353.4Conclusion 374Technical Analyses of the Life Cycle of Battery Electric Buses 384.1Structure of Analyses 394.2Procurement System 414.2.1Finding the Right NEB for a City 414.2.2Purchasing Numbers and Technical Specifications 424.2.3Purchasing Busin

23、ess Models 454.3Supporting Infrastructure Systems 484.3.1Location of Charging Stations 484.3.2Construction and Operation Modes for Charging Stations 484.3.3Capacity of Charging Stations and Equipment Types 494.4BEB Operation Systems 524.4.1BEB Charging and Dispatch Strategy 524.4.2Methods of Establi

24、shing BEB Operation Monitoring Systems 534.4.3Strategies for BEB Operation Safety Management 574.4.4Evaluation of BEB Operation Performance 594.4.5Estimation of Effectiveness of Energy-saving and Emission Reduction Efforts 61Content5Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China4.5

25、Maintenance Systems 634.5.1Construction and Operation Modes of Maintenance Service Workshops 634.5.2Specific Practices for Conducting Maintenance Operations for Purely Electric Buses 634.5.3Experience in Strengthening Maintenance in Public Transport Enterprises 644.6Recycling of Batteries Used in BE

26、Bs 704.6.1Policy and Standard Environments for Power Battery Recycling 704.6.2Criteria of Battery Decay and Decommissioning 704.6.3Management of Battery Recycling 704.6.4Echelon Use of Batteries 714.6Summary 735Future Trends and Policy Recommendations 765.1Development Prospects for Battery Electric

27、Buses in China 775.2BEB Policy Recommendations 77Appendix 1:Enterprises in composite using of used traction batteries.80REFERENCES 817Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaThe integrated and effective application of electric buses in public bus systems is an important key t

28、o making transport more climate-and environment-friendly by lowering carbon and air pollutant emissions.In recent years,the number of new energy buses has rapidly increased in China(including plug-in hybrid buses,fuel cell buses and particularly in China,battery electric buses).By the end of 2020,th

29、ere were approximately 466,100 new energy buses,accounting for about 66%of the total number of buses.Out of these new energy vehicles,the total number of battery electric buses was more than 250,000,accounting for 38%of the total.Chinas promotion of new energy buses has entered a new stage,focusing

30、on developing vehicles of high quality,rather than developing them at a high speed.China must solve a number of problems presently exposed(such as a low operating efficiency,unreasonable layout of matching facilities,and insufficient maintenance of vehicles)while also maintaining a steady increase o

31、f the number of new energy buses.The experiences and practices of the cities and bus companies which have done well in the promotion of new energy buses are of great importance,and can be used to guide the development of other cities to promote new energy buses and more broadly,for the development o

32、f the industry in China.Looking outward,as China has the largest number of new energy buses in the world,Chinas experience can serve as a useful reference for other countries and their cities engaged in promotion of new energy vehicles.Germany is one of the worlds leading countries in the research o

33、f new energy vehicles therefore,in undertaking collaborative research in this field,both China and Germany will be able to give full play to their respective advantages,and share lessons learned,so as to benefit both countries.The main purpose of this research project is to enhance the application o

34、f new energy buses in China(namely to enhance their efficiency,ensure their safety,reduce costs related to their development and use,increase energy conservation and reduce carbon,air pollutants and noise emissions)and to share Chinas experiences with other countries.The research results of this pro

35、ject can be used to:1.Help Chinese bus enterprises to optimize their operations and development(including by supporting Chinas bus companies to effectively select and purchase suitable vehicles,effectively plan and build charging stations and related infrastructure and optimize vehicle scheduling an

36、d routing planning;and improve the coordination between vehicle manufacturers,operators of charging stations and bus companies);2.Help the Chinese government,especially the Ministry of Transport(MoT),to make well-informed decisions on the promotion and application of the industry,and making related

37、policies pertaining to new energy buses,so as to better manage and guide the bus industry,and;3.Help other countries to learn from Chinas experiences.In terms of research methods,this research project focuses on collecting and refining an understanding of technical methods based on Chinas practices,

38、rather than just describing the present situation.In order to investigate the practices adopted by the cities which have done well in the promotion of new energy buses,an importance must be attached to understanding these through field investigations,in particular by carrying out in-depth communicat

39、ions with management and technical staff of bus agencies.To carry out these in-depth investigations and select the right cities and public transportation enterprises,it is important to review existing experiences and research results to have a comprehensive understanding of the present development o

40、f new energy buses in various cities in China.In order to successfully carry out this research project,the China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS)must make full use of existing resources,including existing data resources,existing cooperation networks with local cities,as well as harness their

41、 good relationship with the Ministry of Transport.As a cooperative project between China and Germany,this research project shall strengthen cooperation and exchanges between the two countries to introduce Chinas experience to Germany,and also introduce Germanys research results and experiences in th

42、e application of new energy buses to China.At the same time,this project shall also strengthen exchanges with international agencies.9Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaSince 2015,the development of New Energy Buses(NEBs)2 has stepped onto the fast track in China.Before

43、2015,China only had around 30,000 NEBs in operation.However,more than 50,000 NEBs were added to this fleet in 2015 alone.In each year between 2016 and 2019,more than 80,000 units were added.To systematically assess impacts of the application and use of NEBs,to make best practice and lessons learned

44、available,and to conduct research in the fields of policy and regulation,standardization,purchase,operation,infrastructure planning,maintenance and recycling,and technology amongst others relating to NEBs,research on the promotion and operation of NEBs has increased in China since 2015,mainly throug

45、h an analysis of resources in these four categories:1.Annual reports,which are released by the Ministry ofTransport of the Peoples Republic of China(MoT)and itsresearch bodies,elaborating at the macro level on thedevelopment scale and trends of NEBs for each yearwhile introducing the experiences of

46、best practice cities.2.Industry surveys organized by the MoT,collecting andpooling the experiences gained in various regions in thedevelopment of NEBs as well as problems arising out ofthe process of their promotion and operation.Most ofthese survey reports were conducted in 2015 and 2016.3.Research

47、 projects supported by the World Bank(WB)and the Asian Development Bank(ADB),which werejointly conducted by Chinese research institutions andinternational experts.These research projects,frommicro perspectives,analyzed and evaluated the effects2 New energy urban buses include battery electric,hybrid

48、 and fuel cell electric urban buses.3 NEVs include battery electric,hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicles.of applying NEBs.Most of this research was conducted after 2017.4.Researchers and scholars in universities and researchinstitutions in China conducting academic studies ofspecific issues such a

49、s the vehicle model selection anddispatching of NEBs.This report systematically summarizes the existing research on new energy buses in China to lay a foundation and reference for the conducting of the study“Research on the Technical System of the Life Cycle of Battery-electric Buses”.Government Rep

50、orts2.1From 2011,the MoT has annually released the White Book National Report on Urban Passenger Transport Development1,which was published in its latest edition in 2018.The report is prepared by the Transport Service Department and the China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS)of the MoT.It inc

51、ludes basic data on urban public transport in China(including on bus,tram,subway,and taxi systems),sector statistics,and related“hot topics”in China in the respective year.Since 2016,the annual report has included a specific chapter on the application of New Energy Vehicles(NEVs)3 in urban passenger

52、 transport,especially relating to urban buses and taxis,elaborating on the policy environment and characteristics of utilizing NEVs in the respective year.At the same time,it also includes a selection of best practice cases at the city level(see Table 2-1).10Research on Technical Systems of Battery

53、Electric Buses in China Table 2-1:Best-performing case cities introduced in the annual reportsYearCityHighlightMain Experiences and Practices2016ShenzhenNumber of NEVs in the field of public transport,Shenzhen takes the NEV leading position in China1.Led by systematic development plans,set rational

54、and feasible development goals;2.Led by standards,prepared technical specifications for charging facilities;3.Special research to evaluate the operation of NEBs;4.NEV promotion and application supported by charging infrastructure development;5.Backed by purchasing and operating subsidies,formed a co

55、st comparative advantage for NEVs,driven by innovations,and a study of commercial operation models.2016FoshanThe first city in China with a demonstration operating route for fuel-cell public buses1.Top-level design and strategic program for hydrogen energy;2.The municipal government established a ta

56、sk force to promote the hydrogen industry;3.Established technical team to secure safe operation;4.Enhanced public awareness of the advantage of hydrogen and safety,e.g.,organized a series of activities of China(Foshan)International Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell Technology and Product Promotion Confe

57、rence,also known as“Hydrogen Energy Week”.2017ShenzhenAll public buses in Shenzhen are NEVs1.Set up a dedicated coordination mechanism to solve the problem of poor communication among government sectors;2.Designed and introduced subsidy policy and timely adjusted purchase subsidy;3.Use of multiple l

58、and resources like state-owned reserved land,podiums of commercial buildings,etc.to construct charging piles;4.Made innovations in the mode of applying vehicles and mobilizing the initiative of manufacturers,e.g.,Shenzhen Bus Group adopts the“complete vehicle purchase,service outsourcing”business mo

59、del,while Shenzhen Eastern Bus Co.and Shenzhen Western Bus Co.adopts a“hybrid lease(bare car financing lease+four electrical equipment operating lease)”business model.5.Prepared relevant standards and regulations,such as“technical specifications of electric vehicle charging system”;Evaluated operati

60、ons regularly and timely feedback and improve the technical performance of vehicles.Since 2012,the Shenzhen Municipal Transportation Commission has commissioned local operation assessments of new energy buses and supporting infrastructure;6.Conducted training programs on maintenance to enhance the t

61、echnical level of maintenance teams in the industry;7.Elaborated strategies of delicacy operation and dispatching to alleviate the effect of shorter driving range of battery-electric buses.2017JinanEstablished dimensional maintenance systems to ensure safe operations of NEB1.Developed technical stan

62、dards,specifications,and manuals for maintenance;2.Contracted special repair service companies to improve the level of repair service;3.Specified the responsibility body for vehicle safety;4.Built a real-time monitoring platform to improve the ability of rapid response;5.Develop craftsmanship cultur

63、e to cultivate more“competent people for public transport”.Jinan City organizes the Jinan bus driver energy-saving and repairman maintenance skills competition every year,which encourages everyone to become a technical expert and forms a craftsman culture.2017ZhangjiakouDemonstration application of

64、hydrogen-fuel public buses1.Built mechanism of efficient work and clarify targets and objectives.The government has set specific targets for the promotion and application of new energy buses(the local bus company promotes 1850 standard vehicles,and the local construction and development group promot

65、es 150 standard vehicles),and clarified the responsibilities of relevant authorities;2.The government fiscal pool and manufacturers work together to alleviate financial pressure on purchase and operations.Regarding the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell buses,the local bus company bears one-third,and th

66、e municipal finance department bears two-thirds and adopts a phased purchase strategy to share the cost;3.Developed hydrogen plant and hydrogen station construction projects to meet demands of hydrogen-fuel cell vehicles.2018ZhengzhouBuilt charging infrastructure in advance1.Led by policies,facilita

67、te the orderly development of NEVs;2.Early planning of charging infrastructure to ensure the smooth operation3.Led by demand,ensure the performance of NEB to meet the needs of the operation and establish an IT management platform to upgrade the efficiency of organizing and operating NEB.Specifically

68、,before the new bus model is put into use,the bus company uses the test vehicle to demonstrate the operation on the road,then puts forward opinions and suggestions for the vehicle manufacturer based on the use effect.11Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaRelated governmen

69、t reports mainly introduce the work of the Central Government of China in promoting the application of NEVs(including for example,initiatives relating to top-level planning,supporting policies,safety supervision,and the drafting of standards and specifications).They also introduce best practices by

70、provinces and cities in building inter-departmental collaboration mechanisms,innovative business models in the vehicle purchase,information on the securing of land use for charging infrastructure,optimizing vehicle dispatching strategies,guidance on building,maintenance and repair systems,and operat

71、ion monitoring systems,among others.Table 2-1 shows the cities which have been introduced in the National Report on Urban Passenger Transport Development in their respective years.Shenzhen,as the worlds first city which fully electrified its public bus fleet,was introduced two times in the annual re

72、port.The reports also highlight the achievements of the city of Zhengzhou,in relation to their upgrading of new energy urban bus dispatching systems,and the efforts made by the city in the application of hydrogen fuel cell buses.Also highlighted were innovations achieved by the city of Jinan in vehi

73、cle maintenance,and other cities that have shown prominent characteristics in the development and application of new energy buses.Figure 2-1:Number of NEBs,Diesel&Gas Bus,&Ratio of NEB in 20190%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 BeijingTianjinHeb

74、eiShanxiInner MongoliaLiaoningJilinHeilongjiangShanghaiJiangsuZhejiangAnhuiFujianJiangxiShandongHenanHubeiHunanGuangdongGuangxiHainanChongqingSichuanGuizhouYunnanTibetShaanxiGansuQinghaiNingxiaXinjiangUnit:Vehicle(s)NEBsDiesel&Gas Fueled BusesRatio of NEBsSource:China Academy of Transportation Scien

75、ces(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 2019Since 2016,the Key Laboratory of Advanced Public Transportation Systems(under CATS and officially recognized by MoT),started to release the Report on Chinas new energy public transportation application2,which is ba

76、sed on MoT data from the“Public transport urban development monitoring,assessment,and evaluation system”,and other research results.The report is mainly composed of visual materials such as data-analysis graphs and tables,including illustrations of the annual increase in NEBs in provinces and 36 cen

77、tral cities in China,the proportion of vehicles in length and power,average operating mileage per day,and major brands and related information.For example,as shown in Figure 2-1,we can see that the promotion of new energy buses in Guangdong,Shandong,and Henan was particularly successful in 2018.Thes

78、e reports can provide a good reference of information for research institutions,operators,manufacturers,and decision-making bodies.Both the annual National Report on Urban Passenger Transport Development and the Report on Chinas new energy public transportation application helped this study to obtai

79、n general data on NEBs in China,and understand good practice cases in promoting and operating NEBs in local cities.These reports do not provide deep analysis of results,but can be used to lead to the rational selection of representative cities as survey objects.12Research on Technical Systems of Bat

80、tery Electric Buses in ChinaSurveys by Industrial Associations2.2Since 2015,China has begun to promote new energy buses on a large scale.The number of NEBs rose rapidly from 35,000 units to over 80,000 units in 2015.To gain more fact-based knowledge on new energy urban bus application and use in cit

81、ies,and get the opinions and proposals of local public-transport administrations and operators,the MoT guided the MoT Expert Committee and the Urban Passenger Transport Branch of the China Road Transport Association4 to conduct two large-scale field surveys in early 2016.The MoT Expert Committee3 is

82、 a thinktank team of Chinas MoT.In 2015,the Expert Committee organized a research team comprising researchers from the Research Institute of Highway(RIOH)of the MoT to conduct a survey covering cities in different regions in China which represent different economic development situations.The survey

83、respondents included,amongst other groups,NEV manufactures,local transport bureaus,and representative bus operators.The survey aimed to get a better understanding of the market access and supervision of battery-electric buses,new energy urban bus purchase and operating costs,their technical levels a

84、nd performance standards,techniques of operation dispatching,product safety quality and supporting policies,and related information.The research team also organized symposiums5 to discuss and develop policy proposals on the outlook and feasibility of NEV operation,the role of the MoT and local trans

85、port bureaus in facilitating the development of NEV operation,(for example,top-level plan development and standards development),and how to provide and ensure scientific and practical supervision and support,among other topics.The report New-energy Operating Vehicle Industry and Technical Dynamics3

86、was released as a result of the survey.The China Road Transport Association(CRTA)is a non-profit organization in the transport industry whose members are road transport institutions,operators,and related groups.In 2016,the urban passenger transport branch of the CRTA organized an expert team4 to con

87、duct new energy urban bus surveys in China.For the surveys,which targeted public bus operators,researchers visited 14 public bus operators in 13 Chinese cities that adopted different technical routes.The researchers aimed to gain a better understanding of the application of battery-electric buses,pl

88、ug-in hybrid public buses,and trolleybuses,including respective local policy environments,the population of NEBs,the selection of technical routes,the technical level of vehicles and major problems and difficulties faced in the application and use of these vehicles,among other topics.In the Survey R

89、eport on Urban Public Transport Operators Using NEB4,the research team obtained information on the successful experiences and also challenges faced by bus operators in different cities,and subsequently made proposals to promote NEBs in these contexts.The two surveys were undertaken in the period whe

90、n NEBs had just come into a phase of large-scale application and use in China,and when the country still lacked experience in their application.The two reports revealed similar problems and made similar proposals.Table 2-2 shows the major problems and proposals presented in the two reports,and Table

91、 2-3 shows the best practices and experiences of cities,based on their research findings.The two survey reports mainly discuss technical aspects,operating status,problems,and policy recommendations of new energy buses and infrastructure before 2016,and propose limited technical solutions.However,res

92、earch findings can still help understand the operation process of new energy buses in China before 2016,and the problems that have arisen in the study surveys can serve as the basis for future,more targeted research.4 This is a non-profit organization in the field of urban passenger transportation v

93、oluntarily formed by enterprises and institutions of related industries and groups.5 Refer to the link:https:/ on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 2-2:Major problems and proposals to solve problems in NEB promotionNo.CityProblemsProposals1TianjinConstruction of charging inf

94、rastructure is lagging;The performance of batteries for battery vehicles has potential for improvement.Provide more subsidies for NEBs;Properly control the speed of development.2ShijiazhuangThe price of battery-electric buses remains high.Establish construction standards and safety evaluation indica

95、tors for charging/switching stations;Clarify standards of the safe fording depth of battery-electric buses;Establish a metric standard of DC charging meter.3TangshanHigh fault rate(battery,motor,and electronic control)results in high costs of repair and maintenance;Insufficient driving ranges;Sharp

96、fall of battery performance in low temperature.Add new energy vehicle industrial cluster in regions of application to establish industrial chains;Use subsidies to enhance the quality of new energy vehicles;Rationally match battery characteristics with different operating environments.4DalianDifficul

97、t to dispose of the first batch of demo-application vehicles;Insufficient charging piles,too many limits of energy grid(e.g.,frequent regional power outages prevent charging)and faults in power-supply equipment;Heavy impact of weather on the use of battery vehicles.Policies such as top-level develop

98、ment plans,restrictions,and subsidies are necessary;Standards of technical specification are needed;Vehicle technologies such as driving range,battery life should be enhanced.5ChangzhouFiscal appropriation is not timely;NEVs are not reliable enough concerning the safety of batteries;Short driving ra

99、nge.Consider policy continuity and long-term effectiveness;Improve safety reliability and quality assurance of key parts and components;Establish an incentive mechanism for suppliers.6HefeiShort driving range and small passenger load;Insufficient charging facilities and high cost of charging service

100、 fees;A backdrop monitoring system and vehicle control system are not well developed.Propose gradually replacing traditional public buses with battery ones;Manufacturers should focus on improving driving range,battery life,and safety levels of new energy buses;Improve the incumbent policies of subsi

101、dizing operation subsidies.7NanchangHigh fault rate of NEVs;Limited technological level of batteries;Heavyweight impacts on the effect of energy-saving and emission reduction;Differing standards for charging facilities.Adopt proactive fiscal subsidy policies,improve and reform subsidies for the oper

102、ation of urban public transport;Promote standardization and regulating of charging service;Provide greater support for the technological development of new energy vehicles.14Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China8QingdaoInsufficient charging/switching facilities,therefore s

103、witching mode vehicles have to wait a long time to queue;Insufficient driving ranges;High cost of operating maintenance.Expand the targets of operation subsidy to trolley buses and small buses;Provide more subsidies for double-source trolleybuses;Rational proportion of small vehicles receiving subsi

104、dies.9ZhengzhouCharging pile construction needs high investment and depots have insufficient power supply;High cost of repairing new energy vehicles;Electric price for charging new energy vehicles is too high;High cost of purchasing new energy vehicles.Full coverage of operation subsidies;Support th

105、e strong and well-performing new energy bus manufacturers and eliminate regional protectionism;Focus on issues such as supporting facilities,power price,battery,and cost.10ShenzhenNEVs are promoted by the support of policies and not competitive in the market;Insufficiency of power facilities is the

106、bottleneck that constrains development;Insufficiency and imbalanced distribution of depots impact the application of battery vehicles.Focus on building on supporting charging facilities and build energy guarantee system in multiple modes(e.g.,providing policy support for comprehensive commercial dev

107、elopment of bus stations and land supply);Evaluation of external contributions made by new energy buses should include all phases of the lifecycle including carbon emissions;Pay attention to the aftersales market of new energy vehicles to avoid waste of resources.11ChongqingCharging stations and sup

108、porting charging facilities need to be improved;Weak maintenance technical competency and high cost of repairs.Propose local governments should provide stronger financial support to purchase vehicles;Improve charging facilities and supporting charging facilities;Provide preferential power prices.12G

109、uiyangDifficulties for NEVs to deal with slopes in mountainous and steep areas;Batteries have large size and short life cycle;Lack of public transport depots;Insufficient fiscal support from local government.Implement relevant policies in land use for charging facilities and in construction subsidie

110、s.13ChuxiongShort driving range unable to meet the needs for whole day operation;Long charging time occupies the time of daily operations;Poor performance of core parts instability and compatibility and high fault rate.Enhance research and development of battery vehicles;Unify the charging interface

111、s of battery-electric buses;Establish long-term policy mechanism of subsiding for losses of public transport;Ensure land-use demands for building public-transport infrastructures.14XianThe high price of vehicles is discouraging;Driving range of battery vehicles limits their operation duty schedule.R

112、ationally plan and build charging stations.15Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 2-3:Good practice and experience of cities in early stageNo.CityMajor practice and experience in applying NEB1TianjinThe government provides top-level design/plans and takes strong act

113、ion to promote batch use of NEBs6;Supports financing leasing in vehicle purchases;the loans are paid back by the municipal public budget.2TangshanPublic bus operator builds and operates three charging stations on its own and uses the power price difference for peak and valley times to save the servi

114、ce fees of charging;Properly increased the number of public buses to secure operation;Enhanced supervision over safe operations.3DalianProvides training to drivers of NEBs;Regulates charging management;Mixed Fleet(battery-electric buses and traditional buses)to secure operation standards.4HefeiVehic

115、le purchases take the mode of“purchasing vehicles but leasing batteries”;Adopt various ways of organizing and operating fleets.The BEBs have a driving range that can satisfy the use of small and medium-sized lines throughout the day;the routes with large passenger flows and long mileage use BEBs as

116、separate class operation or single class operation;Public transport operators and vehicle and battery manufacturers established a joint team for maintenance and repair.5NanchangCombined planning of charging infrastructure construction with urban planning;Established and improved safety management re

117、gulations for NEB;Enhanced pre-post technical training activities for staff.6QingdaoPilot operation;makes a comparative analysis of vehicle selection and perform tests before putting them in use in batch;Adopt both charging modes and swapping modes.7ZhengzhouPublic transport operators and manufactur

118、ers discuss performance requirements for new energy vehicles;Released specifications,standards,and management regulations for NEVs;Public Bus Operators takes the lead to develop a smart remote monitoring platform for NEVs.8ShenzhenPrepared technical specifications for charging facilities on a timely

119、 basis,e.g.,Code for design,installation,and acceptance of electric vehicle charging infrastructure;Shenzhen Municipal Public Transportation Administrations evaluate the operation of new-energy urban buses on a timely basis;Subsidy policies are diverse,including purchase subsidy,operation subsidy,an

120、d charging station construction subsidy packages.9ChongqingImproved the safety management rules and regulations;Provides technical training to bus drivers and maintenance workers on NEBs;Established management platform of safety monitoring;Find out and eliminate the potential safety hazards of new-e

121、nergy buses by bus operators.10ChuxiongBefore being put into use,randomly select some vehicles for testing and calculating the average driving range and charging time to rationally arrange vehicles and routes;Add vehicles to compensate for the lack of capacity caused by the shorter driving range of

122、NEBs.6 http:/ on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaTables 2-2 and 2-3 reveal that in 2015 and 2016 when the number of NEBs increased rapidly,local bus operators were confronted with various problems.Those problems included high vehicle purchase prices,low technological levels,and i

123、nsufficient charging facilities.At the same time,aiming to more effectively use NEBs,local bus operators in China made various attempts to refine their operation and gained some successful experiences.Those included the optimization of bus dispatching schedules,regular updates of the charging operat

124、ion manual,and the provision of bus maintenance training programs,amongst other actions.The two survey reports introduced the problems and practical experiences with the application and use of NEBs in China and thus provided valuable information to the study on how to understand the developments tha

125、t occurred in the early phase of the new energy urban bus promotion in China.Since the surveys were conducted 3 to 4 years ago however,their findings are no longer up to date,as the technical level of new energy buses and new energy bus operations have since made significant progress.Unfortunately,b

126、oth survey reports on new energy urban buses were just published once and were not continued from 2017 onwards.Research Projects Supported by International Organizations2.3After 2017,when the number of NEBs continued to increase rapidly,cities in China urgently needed to learn how to use new energy

127、vehicles safely and efficiently,and how to ensure they played an effective role in energy saving and emission reduction actions.The WB,ADB,and other organizations offered loans for clean energy urban bus projects(Clean Energy Buses refer to Plug-in Hybrid,Battery Electric,and Fuel Cell vehicles,and

128、also to CNG,LNG,LPG,and ordinary Hybrid buses).As part of their efforts to support capacity building in China,the WB and ADB also financed research projects on the application of NEBs.The ADB applied the fund of the Global Environment Facility(GEF)in the Technical Assistance(TA)project“Improving New

129、 Energy Bus Operations and Management”.It recruited an expert panel consisting of three international experts and five domestic experts,who researched 16 cities(see Table 2-4)where ADB provided loans for bus purchasing in China.The expert team collected real-world bus performance data in these 16 ci

130、ties,and analyzed their environmental,climate,and financial performance and impact(for example,their impact on greenhouse gas emissions and external noise levels,amongst other factors),and discussed and assessed the policies in place to promote NEBs in China.The research team summarized the results

131、in the report Sustainable Transport Solutions:Low-Carbon Buses in the Peoples Republic of China5 which was published in November 2018.17Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 2-4:Cities researched by the ADB expert panelNo.Bus CompanyCity/DistrictProvince/City1Jinan P

132、ublic Transportation Group JinanShandong2Tianjin City Public Transportation Group Hexi DistrictTianjin3Fuzhou Public Transportation Corp.Fuzhou Fujian4Hengyang Public Transportation Corp.HengyangHunan5Guangzhou Jumbobus Corp.GuangzhouGuangdong6Zhun Yi Public Transportation Corp.ZhunyiGuizhou7Hunan X

133、iangtan Public Transportation Corp.XiangtanHunan8Zhejiang Anji Public Transportation Corp.AnjiZhejiang9Hunan Changde Public Transportation Corp.ChangdeHunan10Shandong Yanzhou Public Transportation Corp.YanzhouShandong11Shandong Tengzhou Public Transportation Corp.TengzhouShandong12Jiangsu Yangzhou P

134、ublic Transportation Corp.YangzhoJiangsu13Hebei Baoding Public Transportation Corp.BaodingHebei14Linyi Public Transportation Corp.LinyiShandong15Shanghai Public Transport CompanyShanghaiShanghai16Beijing Public Transport Corp.BeijingBeijing Figure 2-2:Total Cost of Ownership(TCO)for Different Techno

135、logiesBEBDiesel hybridNG hybridDieselNG0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80USD/kmCAPEXEnergyMaintenance incl.tyresBEB=battery-electric bus;CAPEX=capital expenditure;NG=natural gas;OPEX=operational expenditureSource:Sustainable Transport Solutions:Low-Carbon Buses in the Peoples Republic of C

136、hina18Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaAs shown in Figure 2-2,according to the ADB expert groups cost comparison of buses with different power types,the total cost of ownership(TCO)of natural gas buses is the lowest amongst buses of different technological types.The st

137、udy also found that Plug-in Hybrid buses and Hybrid buses reduce 20%of GHG emissions while battery-electric buses reduce 30%-40%of GHG emissions.Another finding of the study is that plug-in hybrid bus application in China has not resulted in additional benefits when compared with hybrid buses,as bus

138、 operators usually do not charge them at the grid,mainly due to low battery capacity and operational efforts which do not lead to cost-efficient range advantages.Thus,plug-in hybrid buses can be compared with hybrid buses.The transition pathway from conventional buses to hybrid buses to plug-in hybr

139、id buses to battery-electric buses is not necessarily the optimal path.The study also points out that a transition from conventional buses directly to battery-electric buses could be feasible as reliable electric technologies are already available.Regarding bus operations,the key recommendation of t

140、he expert groups study is that bus operators need to optimize the configuration of their bus fleets with special regard to suitable bus types,battery size,and charging technology.Regarding policy design,the key recommendation is that an effective subsidy scheme should be based on performance,where p

141、assenger/km ratios of the operation of electric buses are effective,vehicles are technology-neutral and efficient operators of NEBs are rewarded.As the executive body of GEF,the WB made use of the GEF“Relieving Congestion in Large Cities and Reducing Carbon Emissions Project”to fund the Research Ins

142、titute of Shenzhen Urban Transport Planning&Design Co.,Ltd.to conduct the“Research on the Evaluation System of New-energy Bus Operations”6.The project surveyed nine cities,including Beijing,Wuhan,Qingdao,Chongqing,Shenzhen,Chengdu,Zhengzhou,Xian,and Harbin,analyzing the performance of NEBs and suppo

143、rting facilities in real-world operations,including their technical reliability,transportation energy efficiency,safety,economic analysis,and emission reduction performance,then proposing the new energy urban bus operation effect evaluation system,and new-energy bus operation data collection standar

144、ds.The report,from the perspectives of policies,technologies,and supporting facilities,summarized the problems in the application of NEBs in China(as shown in Table 2-5).The report also proposed improving market access standards,providing preferential fiscal policies,strengthening“policy and market”

145、-driven development,keeping continuity of supporting policies(through,for example,subsidy policies having transition periods),eliminating local protections in purchasing NEBs,promoting fiscal and taxation reforms,adjusting means of local subsidy policy,adding safety operation supervision of NEBs,str

146、engthening inspection and assessment of the remote monitoring system for the operation of NEBs,establishing well-developed charging facility service systems and ensuring charging safety,promoting compatible charging technology,enhancing the building of vehicle maintenance teams,and improving mainten

147、ance and repair services,and other related policy proposals.The research by the ADB and the WB included further case studies and data to better evaluate the effects of promotional policies and real-world performance of new energy buses in China compared to the formerly listed investigation studies s

148、hown in Sections 2.1 and 2.2.More quantitative results are shown on cost-benefit analysis as well as emissions analysis relating to these vehicles,and the proposals are more targeted at providing information and suggestions on detailed policy designs and operations technology.However,from the time t

149、hat the studies were conducted,many changes have occurred in this field(relating to,for example,the number of vehicles in operation,the overall policy environment,vehicle technology levels,and application experiences).The research results therefore do not reflect the current situations of new energy

150、 bus application and operation in China.19Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 2-5:Major problems mentioned in WB report“New Energy Bus Operation Evaluation Framework Study”CategoryNo.RemarksPolicies1Policies that require vehicle technologies change too fast,and the

151、re is a lack of transition protection,which results in high costs,short supply,purchase hesitation,long period of purchase,rapid elimination in the market and difficulty to ensure maintenance services,etc.2High cost of vehicle purchase,heavy reliance on policy and subsidy;bus companies have a low vo

152、ice in bus selection in bus purchasing,and bus companies have to select local manufacturers products.3Uniform operating mileage requirements for subsidy are not fair;there is no uniform standard for verifying operating mileage and the issuing of subsidies takes a long time.4The subsidies tend to go

153、to the limited direction of technical development,thus constraining technologies and markets from developing in multiple directions.5Lack of standards for battery technologies,production,recycling,and safety makes it difficult to secure a supply of batteries and subsequently treat their use and disp

154、osal safely.6In terms of operation,there is a lack of an industrial mechanisms for supervision,insufficient safety supervision standards,and an ambiguous border of safety responsibility.7There is insufficient rewarding and punishing mechanisms for vehicle application,and R&D,and operations,which res

155、ults in a poor initiative from industry stakeholders.Technologies8New energy vehicle technologies as a whole are not mature yet,having a high cost,poor compatibility of parts and components,and long cycles of repair.The technical performance and R&D speed fail to meet the market demands.9Battery cap

156、acity and performance are heavily impacted by the environment;transport efficiency of NEBs is lower than that of traditional buses,thus impacting normal operations while increasing costs and land use.10Digital and smart collection telecom protocols are not yet regulated,thus impacting the efficiency

157、 and usability of data collection.11Power batteries have frequent faults;stability and technical reliability are yet to be improved.12There is a high requirement for maintenance and repair techniques;manufacturers keep confidential information relating to core technologies,therefore there is a high

158、reliance on manufacturers for maintenance and repair.Supporting facilities13High cost of building charging stations/depots,charging piles,and supporting station equipment.14Different brands of charging piles lead to poor compatibility of charging ways,and a mix of old and new batches of products mak

159、e it difficult to upgrade them.15There is a great shortage of charging services;in particular,there is a shortage of charging piles for hybrid vehicles and it is difficult to allocate land for these depots and stations.16Some charging stations/depots and charging piles are irrationally located,resul

160、ting in a great difference in the rate of using facilities and low average rates of use.17Charging facilities are not well maintained,which means that it is difficult to make timely repairs.Some charging piles stay idle for a long time.18The charging piles consume large power volumes,have high requi

161、rements for power loads,need a long time to use,and have many procedures for power installation approval.Others19The maintenance systems are slow to be built;maintenance relies too much on manufacturers;it is difficult to predict the repair cost after vehicle parts warranties expire.20The supervisio

162、n platforms are slow to be built and connected,resulting in insufficient information transmission and sharing,and it is difficult to improve the timeliness of supervision.20Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaRelevant Academic Papers2.4Some research institutions and unive

163、rsity scholars have published research papers on the application of NEBs in China.In the field of macro-policy research of battery-electric buses,Liu Jinzhou,Fang Haifeng,and Liu Wanxiang7,based on the local government policy system for battery-electric buses and through their analysis of subsidy po

164、licies,transport policies,and infrastructure policies,proposed local governments to shift the emphasis of subsidy objects from purchasing to the operation of new energy buses,actively promoting the decommissioning of diesel buses and the purchasing of new energy buses,applying measures to both encou

165、rage and urge the construction of charging piles,and introduce zero-emission zones,amongst other related suggestions.In the field of battery-electric bus vehicle selection,Dong,et al.8 proposed an index system for the market entry permit of urban electric buses which includes factors such as their o

166、peration efficiency,reliability,safety,economy,and after-sales guarantees,based on the operating needs of urban bus operators for battery-electric buses.In the research field of battery-electric bus operation technology,Chen Wu9 analyzed problems in the technical management of battery-electric buses

167、,proposing establishing a sound technical management system for battery-electric buses,enhancing battery-electric bus drivers skills by training,optimizing the fleet configuration with suitable bus types,bus size and battery size of battery-electric buses,improving maintenance skills and ensuring th

168、e maintenance quality and frequency of battery-electric buses,and preparing emergency response plans.Liu Yong10 proposed route customization,vehicle models selection and charging time planning to improve operation efficiency,and proposed four strategies to accelerate the commercial development of ba

169、ttery-electric buses:using a leasing model instead of conventional buying model,improving the service level of new energy buses,expanding the market of new energy buses and using new energy buses in community bus service.In the field of technology analysis of energy-saving and emission reduction of

170、battery public buses,Liu Hong and Wang Hewu11 conducted a life-cycle evaluation of electric vehicles and traditional gasoline vehicles based on coal-fired power generation,concluding that battery electric vehicles could reduce air pollutant emissions by 17%and CO2 emissions by 19%compared to convent

171、ional gasoline vehicles.In the field of research on charging infrastructure construction and operation technology,Zhao Shijia and Zhao Fuquan12 analyzed the current development of charging infrastructures for NEVs globally and in China,expounded the existing problems,and proposed countermeasures to

172、accelerate the construction of charging infrastructure in combination with future development trends.The countermeasures included:a)reasonable planning of charging infrastructure;b)focus on breakthroughs in wireless charging,Vehicle-to-Grid(V2G),and other technologies;c)actively exploring profitable

173、 business models;d)vigorously promote intelligent network technology.Guo Chunlin and Xiao Xiangning13,aiming at the planning of charging infrastructure,proposed the principle of energy equivalence and distributing charging amount to corresponding charging facilities according to the equal load dista

174、nce distribution method.They also proposed load forecasting through the energy equivalence method,using the net present value method to make an economic evaluation,and using the average charging distance to evaluate user convenience,amongst other related suggestions.In the research field of bus batt

175、ery decommissioning and vehicle retirement technologies,Sun Jiayao and Guo Shuangtao14,from the perspectives of the market,recycling standards,recycling technology,and recycling modes,analyzed the characteristics and difficulties of battery recycling in China.They pointed out that battery recycling

176、adopts the principle of first use and then recycling.Mildly discarded batteries can be reused in energy storage systems(for example in streetlamps,UPS power supplies,low-speed electric vehicles,and other fields).After repeated use of heavily scrapped batteries,the electrode materials,especially prec

177、ious metals,are recovered.Zhang Guofang,Liu Shiwei,and Song Jingfen15 analyzed five recycling models from the perspectives of recycling costs,operating scale,and recycling efficiency,making policy proposals on battery recycling considering the specific conditions in China.By reviewing the relevant p

178、apers on the various technical research fields of the life cycle of NEBs in China,this study has included an understanding of the academic concerns and the latest achievements in this field.However,because most academic research papers stay at the theoretical solution level,work is still needed to c

179、ombine the results of actual operational surveys to summarize a series of technical solutions suitable for an actual operation of a life cycle.Even though such academic research papers have limited sources of data and some of them are not only targeting public buses,they can still provide a referenc

180、e for this research.21Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaConclusion2.5By systematically summarizing the former research on NEB application in China,it is found that:1)The annual reports help the study to obtain general data on NEBs in China,understand good practice cases

181、 in promoting and operating NEBs in local cities,and can be used to lead to the rational selection of representative cities as survey objects;2)The two survey reports introduce the problems and practice experiences of 3 to 4 years ago and help the study to well understand what happened in an early p

182、hase of the new energy urban bus promotion in China;3)The studies supported by ADB and WB show more quantitative results on cost-benefit analysis as well as emission analysis,and more detailed proposals of policy design and operation technology;4)Some academic papers provide useful references of mac

183、ro-policy,market-entry permits,operation,emission reduction analysis,charging infrastructure,and battery decommission technologies of new energy buses in China.According to the above literature review,Table 6 shows the details of the technical content of the four best practice cities(Shenzhen,Jinan,

184、Zhengzhou,Tianjin)in the process of promoting the use of NEBs,which will be the basis of subsequent case city surveys.The existing research results mainly have the following characteristics and deficiencies:1)Most of the existing research activities were conducted before 2018.However,many changes ha

185、ve occurred relating to the number of applied vehicles,policy environment,vehicle technology level,and the application experience.As a result,the research results are quite different from the current situation.2)Existing research activities focus on the analysis of the status quo and existing proble

186、ms.Most of them conduct analysis and provide proposals on policies,but few conduct a systematic study of the technical system of applying NEBs and in-depth research on specific technical methods.3)Existing research activities lack results on how to integrate international technologies and know-how w

187、ith Chinese practices and how Chinese experiences could help other countries.4)Existing research activities(excepting the ADB study)do not provide enough emphasis on the environmental and climate-related effects and advantages of new energy bus application,and the necessity to also increase the shar

188、e of renewable energy in the overall energy mix to make electric buses more climate and environmentally friendly.The study“Research on the Technical System of the Life Cycle of Battery-Electric Buses”will be based on the existing research results listed and summarized above,tracking the latest devel

189、opment in China,digging deeper into the successful and best practices of representative and best practice cities in China,refining and summarizing the specific technical methods for the application and use of battery electric urban buses,and fully absorb international technology,to provide direct gu

190、idance for different types of cities in China,and provide an overview on the relevant experiences of China to the global community.Figure 2-3:Schematic diagram of Shenzhen charging strategy7:00-9:009:00-11:3011:30-14:0014:00-16:3016:30-19:0019:00-21:0021:00-23:0023:00-7:007:00-9:009:00-17:0017:00-19

191、:0019:00-7:00peak hournormal hourbottom hourElectricity Price in peak,normal,bottomOptimal Charging IntervalOptimal Charging IntervalOperational intensity in peak,normal,bottom22Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 2-6:The detailed technical contents of the four bes

192、t practice citiesNo.CityDetailed technical contentsKey focus points for next surveys1Shenzhen In terms of vehicle purchases,the Shenzhen Bus Group adopts the“complete vehicle purchase,service outsourcing”business model,while Shenzhen Eastern Bus Co.and Shenzhen Western Bus Co.adopt a“hybrid lease(ba

193、re car financing lease+four electrical equipment operating lease)”business model.In terms of charging infrastructure construction,Shenzhen has increased the supply of charging facilities through multiple methods by building charging piles in existing bus stations,promoting the construction of three-

194、dimensional parking garages and comprehensive parking yards,and rent-seeking land purchases,which has led to a variety of vehicle charging compatibility,intelligence,and network management.In terms of vehicle operation:a)Carry out regular operation assessments and provide timely feedback to improve

195、vehicle technical performance.Since 2012,the Shenzhen Municipal Transportation Commission has commissioned local research institutions to conduct annual local operation assessments of new energy buses and supporting infrastructure.b)Formulate a refined operation scheduling strategy,and scientificall

196、y formulate a charging strategy based on the length of bus lines and the charging station resources at the first and last stations(see Figure 2-3).In terms of repairs and maintenance:a)Formulate corresponding training specifications for the operating characteristics of battery electric urban buses a

197、nd train bus drivers;(2)Build maintenance bases with vehicle manufacturers to strengthen team building of vehicle maintenance.It is necessary to investigate:a)Strategies for selecting the battery capacity and battery type in the purchase selection of new energy urban bus;(2)The benefits of different

198、 promotion and operation models.According to reports,the layout of charging infrastructure is still unbalanced,and it is necessary to investigate the current use frequency and optimization measures of charging infrastructure in different locations.It is necessary to investigate:a)Bus line allocation

199、 strategies,organizational scheduling,and charging strategies of different battery-electric buses;(2)The evaluation results of energy-saving and emission reduction effects of battery-electric buses over the years.Understand the training systems and maintenance capacity building situations of Shenzhe

200、n Bus Group Company Limited.Investigate the identification,management and specific implementation methods of the first batch of batteries and buses scrap disposal in Shenzhen.2JinanIn terms of maintenance,Jinan Public Transport Company:a)Issued“Maintenance Technical Specifications of the Battery Ele

201、ctric Urban Buses”,“Maintenance Technical Guidelines of the Urban Public Steam and Electric Vehicle”,“Energy-Saving Driving Operation Specifications of Urban Public Transport”and other standard specifications,which have changed“Passive Maintenance”to“Active Maintenance”;b)The bus company has coopera

202、ted with the vehicle manufacturers to establish more than 30 special maintenance service stations,which already have the ability to detect and maintain the batteries,motors,and electric control systems of new energy buses;c)Regularly organize relevant personnel to carry out vehicle technical safety

203、training and emergency drills;d)Developed“Jinan bus remote monitoring mobile phone APP”,which monitors the technical status of each bus in real-time through mobile phones;e)The Jinan bus driver energy-saving and repairman maintenance skills competition is held every year.It is necessary to investiga

204、te the excellent experience in other life cycles of Jinan.3Zhengzhou In terms of vehicle purchases,before the new energy urban bus models are put into use,Zhengzhou uses test vehicles to demonstrate operations on the road,then from the perspective of their use,the bus company will provide suggestion

205、s for vehicle manufacturers on the technical route,functional structure,and system optimization,and participate in research and application of new energy buses.In terms of charging infrastructure construction,large-scale construction of intelligent charging stations and the construction of two provi

206、ncial-level charging demonstration stations have been successfully completed.In terms of vehicle operations,a new energy urban bus and charging operation information management platform has been established to realize intelligent scheduling of new energy buses and dynamic monitoring of vehicles.Acco

207、rding to the report that the investment in charging infrastructure is relatively large,it is necessary to investigate the usage effectiveness of charging stations.Supplement research on specific smart scheduling and charging strategies.4TianjinIn terms of vehicle purchases,the form of financial leas

208、ing is used and municipal financial funds repay the loan.Additional research is required on：a)The operation of the battery swapping mode;b)The performance of vehicles and batteries of different brands;c)The internal practices for vehicle operation monitoring,vehicle performance evaluation,and energy

209、-saving emission reduction effect evaluation.24Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaThis chapter provides an analysis of the current status of the development of new energy buses in China.The chapter includes three sections:1.The policy environment for the development of n

210、ew energy buses in China;2.The current status of the promotion and application of battery-electric buses and;3.The relationship between stakeholders.This report is the basis for the research on the“life cycle of technical systems of battery-electric buses”in the next chapter.The Policy Environment f

211、or NEB Promotion in China3.1Battery-Electric Buses(BEBs)are an important type of NEBs.Policies related to the promotion and application of BEBs are formulated and implemented simultaneously with the policies related to NEBs.This section details the policy environment for the development of NEVs in C

212、hina.Generally speaking,the development of NEBs in China has experienced four stages:1.Initial stage(2009-2012),2.Rearing stage(2013-2014),3.Rapid growth stage(2015-2019),and 4.Stabilization stage(2020-2022)(see Figure 3-1).2009-2012 is the initial stage of the development of NEBs.In 2009,the MOF an

213、d MOST jointly launched the“Ten-City and One-Thousand-Vehicle”7 demonstration project,and a total of 25 cities8 were selected for the promotion of NEVs in practice.According to data from the MOST,at of the end of 2012,27,400 energy-saving and new energy vehicles were applied for demonstration in 25

214、cities,and 23,000 energy-saving new energy vehicles were used in the public service sector.However,due to the difficulty of vehicle technology not being able to meet industry demands and only being available at high costs,the promotion and application of NEVs relied more on financial subsidies and g

215、overnment procurement and was not strongly recognized by the market.2013-2014 was the rearing stage for the development of NEBs in China.In 2013,MOF,MOST,MIIT,and NDRC jointly launched the project“New Energy Vehicle Promotion Demonstration Cities”9.In 2014,to consolidate the results of the demonstra

216、tion project and expand the promotion and application of new energy vehicles to the country,the General Office of the State Council issued the“Guidelines for Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles”(GBF 2014 No.35)10 and proposed the use of BEVs in public service fields as

217、a breakthrough in the promotion and application of NEVs,playing a key role in promoting the explosive growth of NEBs in the next few years.2015-2019 was the rapid growth stage of the development of NEBs in China.In 2015,the MOT issued the“Implementation Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion and App

218、lication of New Energy Vehicles in the Transportation Industry”(JYF 2015 No.34)11 that clarified the targets for specific numbers of NEBs for promotion.In the same year,the MOF,MIIT,and MOT jointly issued a policy12 related to subsidies for supporting the operation of NEBs.The number of NEBs grew ra

219、pidly at this stage.In 2015,more than 50,000 NEBs were added or replaced,with a growth rate of 137%(see Figure 3-2).At the end of 2018,NEBs accounted for more than 50%of all public buses,becoming the mainstream type of bus vehicles.7 The“Ten Cities and Thousand Vehicles”pilot project aimed at promot

220、ing NEVs in 10 cities per year through financial subsidies provided by the government.Each city launched 1,000 NEVs for pilot operation(mainly public transport,taxis,governmental and municipal transport and postal services).The ultimate goal of this project was to increase the market share of NEVs i

221、n the whole industry to 10%by 2012.8 Including Beijing,Shanghai,Chongqing,Changchun,Dalian,Hangzhou,Wuhan,Shenzhen,Jinan,Hefei,Changsha,Kunming,Nanchang,Tianjin,Haikou,Zhengzhou,Xiamen,Suzhou,Tangshan,Guangzhou,Xiangfan,Hohhot,Shenyang,Chengdu and Nantong.9 A total of 88 cities were incorporated in

222、the list of national demonstration cities for the promotion of NEVs in two batches in the period from 2013 to 2015.10 For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ The Notice on Improving the Policies for Subsidies for Refined Oil Pri

223、ce for Urban Buses and Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles(CJ 2015 No.159)25Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 3-1:Financial and taxation support fund expenditure and management responsibilitiesCentral GovernmentLocal GovernmentVehicl

224、e purchase taxVehicle and vessel taxSubsidies for purchasing NEVsSubsidies for the operation of NEBsSubsidies for charging facilities Figure 3-2:Number of NEBs,2010-20190.290.781.342.223.668.6716.4625.7234.1940.972010201120122013201420152016201720182019Unit:10,000 vehiclesData Source:MOT,Report on t

225、he Development of Urban Passenger Transport in China Figure 3-1:History of NEB Policies in China 2009-20122013-20142015-2019Initial stageRapid growth stageStabilization stage2020-2022Rearing stageThe development history of new energy buses in China 2009“Ten-City and One-Thousand-Vehicle”2009 Revital

226、ization and Adjustment Plan for Automobile Industry 2013“Cities for Promotion and Demonstration of New Energy Vehicles”As of the end of 2018,NEBs accounted for over 50%of the total NEVs.In 2015,the growth rate of NEBs exceeded 100%.GBF 2014 No.35Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion and App

227、lication of New Energy Vehicles2012 Development Plan on Energy Saving and NEV Industry(2012-2020)JYF 2015 No.34Suggestions on Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles in Transportation Industry CJ 2015 No.159Notice on Improving the Price Subsidy Policy of Urban Bus Oil Produ

228、cts and Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy VehicleCJ 2020 No.86 Notice on Improving the Financial Subsidy Policy for the Promotion and Application of New Energy VehiclesThe growth of NEBs slows down and is transforming from quantity increase to quality improvement.CJ 2019 No.21

229、3Notice on Supporting the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses27Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaNEBs have moved into a stabilization stage from 2020 to 2022.At this stage,the development of NEBs in China has gone through rapid growth with slower increments an

230、d entered into a new stage of transition from“high-speed development”to“high-quality development”.During the rapid promotion of NEBs in China,strong fiscal and taxation support has been provided.Chinas fiscal and taxation policies for supporting NEVs mainly include the reduction of,or exemption from

231、,vehicle purchase taxes and vehicle and vessel taxes,subsidies for pilot demonstration projects,subsidies for purchase and operation as well as subsidies for infrastructure(see Table 3-1).According to the powers and expenditure responsibilities of the central and local governments,the expenditure an

232、d management of different fiscal and taxation support funds are shown in Figure 3-3.As shown in Figure 3-3,tax reduction and exemption policies mainly include the reduction of,and exemption from,the vehicle purchase tax and vehicle and vessel tax.The Vehicle Purchase Tax Law of the Peoples Republic

233、of China promulgated in 201913 stipulates that all public transportation vehicles are exempted from the vehicle purchase tax.The Vehicle and Vessel Tax Law of the Peoples Republic of China(revised in 2019)14 stipulates that local peoples governments can make regular reductions of,or exemptions from,

234、vehicle and vessel taxes imposed on buses by their actual situations.With the support of this policy,all NEBs in China are currently exempted from the vehicle and vessel tax.The subsidies for charging facilities can be divided into subsidies for the construction of charging facilities and preferenti

235、al policies for electricity prices.The subsidies for the construction of charging facilities are provided mainly in the form of rewards.At the national level15,the subsidies are granted to the provinces and cities where the promotion of NEVs has reached a certain scale and NEVs have been practically

236、 applied.The standard for the subsidies for charging facilities varies with regions and years.Among them,key provinces and cities for air pollution control have the highest awards.Looking at 2020 and actions taken in key provinces and cities for air pollution control as an example,the regions that p

237、romote more than 70,000 NEVs will be awarded.The standard of subsidies is 126 million yuan,and the maximum subsidies are limited to 200 million yuan.The local governments are required to introduce the implementation plans for the promotion and application of NEVs and management measures for the cons

238、truction and operation of the charging infrastructure.At the local level,taking Xiamen City as an example,the newly built bus charging facilities between 2014 and 2015 received financial subsidies based on 40%of the equipment investment;after 2016,the newly built public and dedicated charging facili

239、ties received financial subsidies of RMB 600yuan/KW for DC charging facilities,and RMB 300 yuan/KW for AC charging facilities16.The charge and swapping fees are divided into electricity and service fees.The state implements a supportive electricity price policy for charging and swapping facilities f

240、or NEVs.The electricity fees for bus charging use relatively preferential17 large-scale industrial electricity prices in most of cities.The state implements the guiding price provided by the government for NEV charging and swapping service fees and gives support for BEBs.For example,Sanya City stipu

241、lates that the upper limit of the charging service fee for BEBs is RMB 0.8 yuan/kWh,but for other electric vehicles,the price is RMB 1 yuan/kWh18.The subsidies for purchasing NEVs were implemented in 2009.To encourage fair competition among NEV companies and promote NEV companies to reduce costs and

242、 increase efficiency,the amount of such subsidies has been reducing year by year since 2016.In 2016,a subsidy in the amount of RMB500,000 yuan per vehicle was granted to BEBs that had a length of over 10m;in 2019,it was reduced to RMB90,000 yuan and higher requirements were put forward for technical

243、 indicators such as vehicle energy consumption levels and power battery energy density;in 2020,the state extended the implementation of the subsidy policy to 2022.Taking the purchase subsidy standards for BEBs in non-fast charging mode as an example,the change in subsidy standards from 2009 to 2022

244、is shown in Table 3-2.13 For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ For the original text of the policy,please visit http:/ In China,electricity prices are divided into four c

245、ategories:residential electricity,general industrial and commercial and other electricity,large-scale industrial electricity,and agricultural production electricity.Among them,the large-scale industrial electricity price is generally lower than that of general industrial and commercial electricity.1

246、8 For the original text of the policy,please visit https:/ on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Table 3-2:Changes in subsidy standard for BEBs in non-fast charging mode from 2009 to 2022YearL10m(Subsidy unit)8mL 10m6mL 8mTechnical Requirement2009 5000-2010 5000-2011 5000-2012 5000

247、-2013 504030-2014 504030-2015 504030-2016 504025Driving Range:250kmEnergy consumption per unit mass load(Ekg):0.6 Wh/kmkgEkg0.7 Wh/kmkg2017 30209Energy density:95 Wh/kg 115 Wh/kg2018 18125.5Energy density:115 Wh/kg 135 Wh/kg2019 95.52.5Energy consumption per unit mass load(Ekg):Ekg0.15 Wh/kmkg2020 9

248、5.52.5Energy consumption per unit mass load(Ekg):Ekg0.15 Wh/kmkg2021 8.14.952.25Energy consumption per unit mass load(Ekg):Ekg0.15 Wh/kmkg2022 7.24.42Energy consumption per unit mass load(Ekg):Ekg0.15 Wh/kmkg Table 3-3:Adjusted fuel subsidy criteriaSubsidy categoryDescriptionAmount of SubsidyAdditio

249、nal ConditionsSubsidy for tax-for-fees reform19Keep the actual figures executed in 2013 as the base,retain itNo adjustmentNoneSubsidy for price increaseKeep the actual figures executed in 2013 as the base,gradually decreased15%reduction in 2015;30%reduction in 2016;40%reduction in 2017;50%reduction

250、in 2018;and 60%reduction in 2019NoneFor the provinces and cities that do not meet the requirements for the scale of promotion of NEBs,deduct 20%of the subsidy for price increase.19 This sector refers to the part of the increase in oil prices caused by the national tax and fee reform,which requires s

251、ubsidies for fuel buses.29Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaPolicy reforms for the subsidies for the operation of NEBs and the subsidies for refined oil price for urban buses have been carried out simultaneously.The Notice on Improving the Policies for Subsidies for Ref

252、ined Oil Price for Urban Buses and Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles(CJ 2015 No.159)proposes to gradually reduce subsidies for fuel prices for urban buses and increase subsidies for the operation of NEBs,link the subsidy amount to the completion of the NEB promotion t

253、arget(See Table 3-3),form a mechanism that encourages the application of NEBs and restricts the growth of fuel-driven buses,and accelerate the progress in the replacement of fuel-driven buses with NEBs.Note:Fuel subsidy funds are divided into the subsidy for fee-to-tax subsidies and subsidies for pr

254、ice increases.Some funds for price increase subsidies are linked to the ratio of local NEBs under promotion,while the subsidy amount is decreasing year by year.See Table 3-4 for the requirements for the promotion ratio of local NEBs,which are divided into key regions for air pollution control and ot

255、her regions.If the promotion ratio of local NEBs does not meet the requirements in Table 3-4,20%of the price increase subsidy will be deducted from the fuel subsidy.For the NEBs added after 2015,subject to the inclusion of the“Catalogue for Recommended Models for New Energy Vehicle Promotion and App

256、lication Project”issued by the MIIT and the annual operating mileage of at least 30,000km,the subsidies for the operation of NEBs in varying amounts are granted by bus length and vehicle power type.For example,the maximum amount of the subsidy for BEBs that have a length of more than 10m is RMB80,00

257、0 per year(See Table 3-5).At present,the plan for subsidies for the operation of NEBs for 2020 and later has not been launched.It is expected that new policies for granting subsidies for the operation of NEBs will consider fuel-driven vehicles,gas-driven vehicles,and NEBs in an overall manner and le

258、ad all cities to form a bus model structure by taking NEVs as the mainstay type of bus vehicle used,and then supplementing these with gas-driven vehicles only as needed,with the goal of gradually eliminating fuel-driven vehicles.Table 3-4:Evaluation indicators of operation subsidies for provinces Pr

259、ovinceMinimum proportion of BEBs newly added and replaced(%)20152016201720182019Key regions/provinces and cities for air pollution controlBeijing,Shanghai,Tianjin,Hebei,Shanxi,Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Shandong,Guangdong,Hainan4050607080Central Provinces and Fujian Province Anhui,Jiangxi,Henan,Hubei,Hunan,Fu

260、jian2535455565Other provinces(regions,cities)1015202530 Table3-5:The operation subsidy standards for NEBs implemented in 2015-2019Vehicle TypeLength of BEB L(m)6L 88L 10L10Battery Electric Bus468Plug-in Hybrid Electric Bus234Fuel Cell Electric Bus6Ultracapacitor Electric Bus2Unit:RMB10,000/vehicle/y

261、ear30Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaCurrent status of BEB promotion and application in China3.2In this report section,the current status of the promotion and application of BEBs in China is analyzed in terms of the number of vehicles promoted,their operating mileage,

262、technical indicators,and energy-saving and emission reduction effects.(1)Scale and characteristicsIn 2015,NEB sales began to grow rapidly,while the proportion of traditional fuel-driven vehicles and gas-driven vehicles in national public transportation continuously decreased.From 2015 to 2019,about

263、an average of 34,000 gasoline-fuel buses was decommissioned each year,while the number of NEBs increased by 75,000(see Figure 3-4).Note:1.The data for this figure is sourced from the Report on the Development of Urban Passenger Transport in China issued by the MOT.Note:2.The categorization for vario

264、us types of vehicles used here is:Diesel-driven buses including gasoline-driven models,ethanol gasoline-driven models,and diesel-driven models;Gas-driven buses include LPG-driven models,CNG-driven models,and dual-fuel models;NEBs includes BEBs and hybrid models;the remaining vehicle types are genera

265、lly indicated as“Others”.At the end of 2019,the total number of NEBs reached 409,000,accounting for 59%of the total number of buses in the whole country.NEBs had become the main force among buses,where the total number of BEBs reached 324,000.NEBs have accounted for more than 50%of buses in 16 provi

266、nces across the country,of which Hunan Province has the highest ratio of NEBs with up to 86.8%(see Figure 3-5).In 2019,the number of newly-added and replaced buses nationwide was over 69,000,of which NEBs accounted for 95%.From the perspective of the power types of newly-added and replaced buses in

267、2019,BEBs had the highest ratio,of about 89%,where the battery type was mainly lithium iron phosphate(see Figure 3-6).(2)Operating mileage of battery-electric busesIn 2019,the average daily mileage of BEBs in China was 133km/day,which is an increase from 123km/day in 2018,but there is still a gap co

268、mpared to the average daily mileage of 167km/day of plug-in hybrid vehicles.This indicates that the operating efficiency of BEBs needs to be further improved.In the 36 cities examined,20 the highest average daily mileage of BEBs was found to be in Lanzhou,at 203km/day(see Figures 3-7 and 3-8).(3)The

269、 technical performance of battery-electric busesBased on the information about vehicles technical specifications contained in the Catalogue of New Energy Vehicle Models released by the MIIT21,the nominal driving range,total power battery energy,and power battery energy density of NEBs from 2015 to 2

270、019 have been steadily improving.Compared to 2015,the growth rate of these three performance indicators exceeded 47%in 2019(see Figure 3-9).(4)Energy-saving and emission reduction effects ofbattery-electric busesThe national standard“Conversion Methods for Energy Consumption of Electric Vehicles”(GB

271、/T 37340-2019)considers the stages of energy extraction,transportation,fuel production,and use,and gives a conversion model for the energy consumption of electric vehicles.Based on the number of in-operation BEBs according to the fuel consumption information declaration and subsidy management system

272、 for urban and rural roads,the number of in-operation BEBs across the country in 2019 can be calculated by using the conversion factor22 stated in the national standard“Urban Integrated Transportation System Planning”(GB/T 51328-2018)(see Table 3-6).The calculations in Table 3-6 are based on the dai

273、ly average operating mileage of BEBs of 133km23,the energy consumption per 100km of in-operation BEBs of 25L24,20 Including 27 provincial capitals,4 municipalities directly under the Central Government and 5 special zones(Dalian,Qingdao,Shenzhen,Xiamen and Ningbo),i.e.,Beijing,Tianjin,Shijiazhuang,T

274、aiyuan,Hohhot,Shenyang,Dalian,Changchun,Harbin,Shanghai,Nanjing,Hangzhou,Ningbo,Hefei,Fuzhou,Xiamen,Nanchang,Jinan,Qingdao,Zhengzhou,Wuhan,Changsha,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Nanning,Haikou,Chongqing,Chengdu,Guiyang,Kunming,Lhasa,Xian,Lanzhou,Xining,Yinchuan and Urumqi.21 https:/ 22 According to the standar

275、d,the bus with 7m-10m length is a vehicle.23 Data Source:China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 201931Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China24 The value of energy consumption of in-operation BEB

276、s per 100km is calculated by using the model stated in the national standard Conversion Methods for Energy Consumption of Electric Vehicles(GB/T 37340-2019)with the national average parameter reference values provided in the appendix attached to this standard.25 The energy consumption value of in-op

277、eration diesel-driven vehicles per 100km comes from the results of the operation data of BEBs contained in the national urban and rural road passenger vehicle information and operation information database in the period from 2015 to 2018.26 The CO2 emission factor of diesel is 2.67kg/L(taken from th

278、e national standard Conversion Methods for Energy Consumption of Electric Vehicles(GB/T 37340-2019),i.e.,1L diesel emits 2.67kg CO2.and the energy consumption per 100km of in-operation diesel-driven vehicles of 37L25.It should be noted that L is the unit of capacity,1L=0.001m.After these calculation

279、s it could be noted that using 371,963.5 in-operation BEBs saved about 1.77 million tons of oil in 2019,which is equivalent to reducing 5.55 million tons of carbon dioxide26.If the calculation was based on the average annual carbon dioxide absorption of a tree,which is 172kg,these efforts were equiv

280、alent to the emission reduction effect of planting 32.25 million trees.Figure 3-4:Promotion of NEBs in the period from 2010 to 201901000002000003000004000005000006000007000008000002010y2011y2012y2013y2014y2015y2016y2017y2018y2019yUnit:Vehicle(s)DieselGasNEBOthers Figure 3-5:Number of buses in each p

281、rovince in China in 20190%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 BeijingTianjinHebeiShanxiInner MongoliaLiaoningJilinHeilongjiangShanghaiJiangsuZhejiangAnhuiFujianJiangxiShandongHenanHubeiHunanGuangdongGuangxiHainanChongqingSichuanGuizhouYunnanTibetS

282、haanxiGansuQinghaiNingxiaXinjiangUnit:Vehicle(s)NEBsDiesel&Gas Fueled BusesRatio of NEBsData Source:China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 201932Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Figure 3-6

283、:Power types of newly-added and replaced vehicles in 2019 PHEBDieselGasFCEBOthersBEBLithium iron phosphateLithium manganese oxideLithium titanateLithium iron phosphate 82%Lithium titanate5%Lithium manganese oxide2%FCEB 1%Others 1%Gas 2%Diesel 1%PHEB 6%其他 89%Data Source:China Academy of Transportatio

284、n Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 2019 Figure 3-7:Average daily operating mileage of BEBs in 2019050100150200250BeijingTianjinShijiazhuangTaiyuanHuhehaoteShenyangDalianChangchunHarbinShanghaiNanjingHangzhouNingboHefeiFuzhouXiamenNanchangJinanQin

285、gdaoZhengzhouWuhanChangshaGuangzhouShenzhenNanningHaikouChongqingChengduGuiyangKunmingLhasaXianLanzhouXiningYinchuanUrumchiUnit:kmData Source:China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 2019 Figure3-8:Changes in daily average

286、 mileage of BEBs971181231330501001502016201720182019Unit:km/dData Source:China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in China in 201933Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China Figure 3-9:Changes in technical perfo

287、rmance indicators for newly-added BEBs050100150200250010020030040050020152016201720182019Total energy(kWh)Energy density(kWh/kg)Nominal Range(km)RangeTotal energyEnergy densityData Source:China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS),Report on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in Ch

288、ina in 2019 Table3-6:Model structure and number of in-operation BEBs in 2019Bus length(m)5m5m7m7m10m10m13m13m16m16m18m18m TotalNumber of BEBs(Unit)16731,716143,240157,589237670333,502Conversion factor0.50.711.31.722.5-Number of in-operation BEBs83.522,201.2143,240204,865.739.11,5340371,963.5Stakehol

289、ders Analysis3.3The development of BEBs requires extensive and close cooperation among relevant stakeholders to jointly overcome problems found during their promotion and application.This report section analyzes the roles and tasks of each stakeholder in the process of the development and applicatio

290、n of BEBs.3.3.1 Stakeholders1)Central government administration authoritiesThe State Council is responsible for formulating development goals and macro development plans.The MOF provides financial support for the promotion and application of NEBs.For vehicle production,the MOST,NDRC,and MIIT develop

291、ed a series of technological innovation and manufacturing policies to effectively allocate resources,safeguard the interests of the manufacturing industry,and ensure product quality.For the sales of vehicles,the NDRC and MIIT developed purchase subsidy policies to ensure product quality and provide

292、subsidies to vehicle manufacturers.Relating to the operation of vehicles,the MOT assessed the subsidy for bus operation,while the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development and the National Energy Administration are responsible for promoting the construction of charging facilities.2)Local gover

293、nment management authoritiesLocal governments at all levels are responsible for implementing national policy requirements,formulating local plans for the promotion and application of NEBs,issuing local support policies,and organizing central subsidy applications.For example,locally-supported purchas

294、e subsidies(including provincial and municipal subsidies)equivalent to 50%of the central government subsidy criteria were granted to public transport companies for the purchase of NEBs in Guangzhou City.273)Bus operating companiesMost bus operating companies in China are state-owned enterprises,whic

295、h have the obligation and responsibility to implement the national policies on the development of 27 Measures for Granting Financial Subsidy Incentives for Promotion and Application of New Energy Buses in Guangzhou City(SJYG Zi 2020 No.7)Data Source:http:/ on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Bu

296、ses in ChinaNEBs.Bus operating companies are important entities for the purchase,operation and maintenance of NEBs.Under the guidance of national policies,bus operating companies are required to:1)purchase buses for operation;2)use their own land to build their own charging facilities,and during the

297、ir construction,coordinate with the State Grid on issues of power expansion and grid access,and use the charging services provided by charging facilities companies by paying for electricity and services;3)optimize the overall organization of operations,and;4)construct a maintenance system and ensure

298、 the safe and efficient operation of buses.At the same time as the above steps are being taken,bus companies also need to provide feedback on operational requirements to vehicle manufacturers to promote the technological progress of NEBs.4)Vehicle manufacturersVehicle manufacturers are responsible f

299、or continuously improving technological innovation capabilities,ensuring product quality,and continuously optimizing and adjusting the technical performance of NEBs based on relevant data and the needs of bus operating companies.Representative companies include Yutong,Zhongtong,and BYD(Figure 3-10 s

300、hows the Top-10 vehicle manufacturers with the largest BEB sales in 2019).The sales of ten leading companies accounted for 70%of the national market share.5)Key part and component companiesKey part and component companies focus on the technological upgrading of key components used on power batteries

301、,drive motors,and electronic control systems to continuously improve performance and reduce overall manufacturing costs of BEBs.Power batteries are the core component of every BEB.The most representative companies include CATL,BYD,Guoxuan Hi-Tech,and Lishen,which together occupy 78%of the total mark

302、et share28.Notably,most of the batteries produced by BYD are supplied for BYD buses.6)Charging facilities construction and operation companiesCharging facilities construction and operation companies currently provide bus companies with two service models.The first model is to sell charging poles and

303、 other facilities to bus companies,who are responsible for building charging stations and have the right to own the charging equipment and related data.The second model is to invest in the construction of charging facilities by charging facilities construction and operation companies,provide chargin

304、g services to public transport companies and charge service fees for charging.For public transport companies,the first model has higher initial investment costs,but lower daily operating costs.At present,most public transport companies choose this first model.The leading charging facilities construc

305、tion and operation companies include State Grid,Southern Power Grid,TELD,and Star Charging,which account for a combined 80%of the total market share.The construction and operation of charging facility enterprises are mainly state-owned,such as Potevio New Energy Co.,Ltd.,which is a large central ent

306、erprise,and has explored battery swapping models in Shenzhen and participated in the operation of charging facilities as the holder of batteries in the separation mode of vehicle and electricity.7)Urban planning authorityBased on the charging requirements of BEBs in cities,urban planning authorities

307、 account for the incorporation of necessary charging and swapping facilities in the course of planning the construction of urban comprehensive passenger transport hubs,public transport hubs,urban bus parking lots,maintenance yards,and maintenance plants.8)Power sectorThe local electric power authori

308、ty is responsible for providing overall guidance,organization,and coordination,supervision,and management on power grid construction and transformation for urban bus charging infrastructure,as well as for upgrading and transforming distribution networks and expanding the power capacity of places whe

309、re there is a demand for the construction of charging stations.28 Data Source:Hengda Research Institute,Report for the Development of Power Batteries in China:201935Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in China9)Financial service companiesIn addition to traditional banks,there are

310、 also professional financial service companies in the market to provide financial leasing services for public transport companies.Such financial service companies provide“financial leasing29”,“Vehicle-electricity separation”30 and other business models(details are introduced in Chapter 4)to provide

311、bus companies and vehicle manufacturers with services including the renting of vehicles or batteries and reduce the one-time purchase expenditures of bus companies.Representative companies include CITIC Finance and Haier Finance.10)Scientific research institutes and industryassociationsOrganizations

312、 such as scientific research institutes and industry associations provide technical support for policymakers and build communication bridges between the government,vehicle manufacturers,bus operating companies,and other stakeholders.Such scientific research institutions include think tanks of releva

313、nt ministries,such as the China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS)and the Transport Planning and Research Institute(TPRI)of the MOT,or Beijing Institute of Technology(BIT),and the China Automobile Research Institute(CARI-TJ)of the MIIT.Some local transportation management authorities also have

314、 their own think tanks,such as Shenzhen Urban Transport Planning Center Co.,LTD(SUTPC)and Jinan Urban Transportation Research Center(JNTRC).Other organizations include think tanks of local transportation management authority.Examples of industry associations include the China Road Transport Associat

315、ion(CRTA)and the China Highway and Transportation Society(CHTS).11)International organizationsInternational research organizations such as the World Bank,Energy Foundation,and GIZ support China to scientifically formulate relevant policies for the promotion and application of NEBs and summarize Chin

316、as relevant experience to provide references for the promotion and application of BEBs in other cities across the world.3.3.2.Relationships with StakeholdersAll stakeholders jointly contribute to the promotion and application of BEVs through the division of labor and cooperation in different process

317、es(see Figure 3-11).Under the policy guidance and management of governments at all levels,public transport companies have a core role,as they purchase the vehicles produced by vehicle manufacturers and key parts and components produced by key component companies.At the same time,public transport com

318、panies purchase charging equipment from charging facility companies for building charging stations or directly purchasing charging services.It is required to coordinate the planning sector to provide planning support for the construction of charging stations,while it is also required to coordinate w

319、ith the power sector to expand the power of charging stations.Third-party financial service companies use innovative commercial services to help solve funding problems experienced by public transport companies.Societies and associations provide a platform for industry exchanges by conducting a serie

320、s of activities.Scientific research institutions,with the support of international organizations and other institutions,provide technical support for optimizing government and corporate decision-making processes via their research contributions.29 Financial leasing model:A financial service provider

321、 enters into a supply contract with a vehicle manufacturer at the request of a bus company.The financial service provider buys buses from the vehicle manufacturer.At the same time,the financial service provider enters into a lease contract with the bus company to lease the buses to it and charge cer

322、tain rent from it.30 Vehicle-electric separation mode:A power battery is separated from a vehicle.After a bus company purchases the vehicle,a battery management company repurchases the property right of the power and the bus company obtains the right to use the battery by leasing.27%8%7%6%5%4%4%3%3%

323、3%30%YutongZhongtongBYDCRRC EVZhuhai GuangtongChengdu GuangtongNanjing Golden DragonSuzhou Golden DragonothersXiamen JinluXiamen Golden Dragon37Research on Technical Systems of Battery Electric Buses in ChinaConclusion3.4In terms of the policy environment,the development of NEBs has gone through fou

324、r stages:1.An initial stage,2.A rearing stage,3.A rapid growth stage,and 4.A stabilization stage.At the initial stage,NEBs were present on a small scale in 25 cities;at the rearing stage,their presence was expanded to 88 cities.2015-2019 was the rapid growth stage,and by the end of 2018,NEBs account

325、ed for more than 50%of all bus models.The promotion and application of NEBs entered into the stabilization stage in 2020,where their transformation moved from“high-speed development”to“high-quality development”.In this process,China has continuously adjusted and optimized various policies,where fisc

326、al and tax supporting policies such as those relating to the provision of subsidies for purchase and operation play an important role in the promotion and application of BEBs in China.In terms of the current status of the promotion and application of BEBs,the number of BEBs promoted in China greatly

327、 exceeds the number required in related policies.Compared with the original target of 200,000 vehicles by 2020,by the end of 2019,the total number of NEBs reached 409,000,which far exceeded original expectations.In the same year,the total number of BEBs was 324,000 and the BEBs operating in 16 provi

328、nces accounted for more than 50%.While these number kept rapidly growing,the operating mileage of BEBs was steadily increasing.In 2019,the average daily operating mileage was 133km,and the technical level of vehicles has continued to improve.The nominal driving range of vehicles,the total energy of

329、power batteries,and power battery energy density have all increased by 47%in comparison to 2015.BEBs have had obvious effects on energy saving and emission reduction.In 2019,BEBs saved about 3.76 million tons of diesel,which was equivalent to reducing 11.81 million tons of CO2 emission(see Section 3

330、.2).Many parties participate and cooperate on the promotion and application of NEBs.Governments at all levels are responsible for preparing plans and coordinating with organizations in relation to the use of NEBs.Vehicle manufacturers and component companies strengthen technology research and develo

331、pment,and continuously improve vehicle technologies.Bus operators continue to optimize the overall organization of transportation systems to ensure efficient vehicle operation,power departments and infrastructure companies work together to provide charging services for BEBs,financial institutions su

332、ch as banks and leasing companies provide bus companies with a variety of options for financial leasing business models,and scientific research institutions carry out relevant research to provide support for the decision-making processes of the government and enterprises.Industry associations also o

333、rganize related activities to promote exchanges in the industry,and international organizations provide technical guidance for China and promote the sharing of Chinas experience in the industry.In the next chapter,the report summarizes the problems found and the needs of bus companies identified in relation to vehicle purchases,the construction of charging facilities,transportation organization,an