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1、 Semiconductor Components Industries,LLC,2017March,2023 Rev.21Publication Order Number:TND6235/DIGBT Technologiesand Applications Overview:How and When to Use an IGBTTND6235/DRev.2,MARCH 2IGBT Technologies andApplications Overview:How and When to Use an IGBTABSTRACTProliferation of high-performance

2、power conversionequipment in applications such as solar inverters,UPS,motor drives,inductive heating,welding,automotive andtraction has rekindled the interest in understanding andoptimizing IGBT characteristics in order to optimize thesystem performances.Efficiency and thermal performanceare the key

3、 metrics along with reliability and ruggedness.The power electronics environment is continuouslychanging,mainly due to new application-requirements andthe availability of new technologies in the market.Theso-called wide band gap technologies(SiC-and GaN-based)are becoming popular and most of the pow

4、er electronicsdesigners are investigating how to implement such newtechnologies in their new designs.Still the silicontechnologies are the rock-solid solution for the today design.The emphasis of this paper is to provide a framework onIGBTs:how to use them in high-power and high-voltagedesigns.A con

5、textual overview of power silicontechnologies and general topologies/applications isprovided.Common system requirements for high powerapplications are discussed.It is shown that eachend-application has a different set of requirements in termsof IGBT characteristics.In the last part,some practicaliss

6、ues related to IGBT design are covered with special focuson gate driving.Keywords:IGBT,high voltage,gate-driveINTRODUCTIONIn the last twenty years,many changes occurred in powerelectronics:from the power switches to the applicationsdesign and controls.Twenty years ago,the bipolar junctiontransistor

7、or BJT was the predominant silicon transistortechnology used,which has been replaced by the powermetal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor(MOSFET)(mainly because it was easy to use)in most ofapplications and by the insulated gate bipolar transistor(IGBT)in applications where high current and

8、 high voltagewere required.Unlike MOSFETs or bipolar transistors,bychanging a relatively small set of device and processparameters,IGBT switching speed,softness andcontrollability,conduction losses,short circuit and pulsecurrent-withstand capability can be tuned over a wide rangeto meet specific app

9、lication requirements.The recent technology evolution and price erosion haveled to stretching the realm of usage of such devices(seeFigure 1).One decade ago,the IGBT technology was used only inapplications were the MOSFET was either too expensive ornot an option for its weakness(such as intrinsic bo

10、dy diodeor limitation in performances at low-frequency operations).Today,the proliferation of industrial applications(highvoltage)and the expected booming of the electric vehiclemarket is driving even more investment in the IGBTtechnologies and packages.Figure 1.Power Switch Environment 1Figure 2.Ra

11、nge of Operation of Silicon and WideBand Gap DevicesIt is amazing when you realize the technology jumps inIGBT developments over the last 10 years:starting from thetrench structures up to the field-stop and the combination ofthese.These improvements further accentuate the inherentcharacteristics of

12、an IGBT:high-voltage and high-currentdensity,good performances in switching,robustness.Initially,IGBTs,which emerged from power MOSFETstechnology,were formed by epitaxy and using what isknown as the punch-through(PT)technique 3.INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORSThe IGBT is a power semiconductor tran

13、sistor based onfour alternating layers(P-N-P-N),which are controlled bya metal-oxide-semiconductor(MOS)gate structure withoutregenerative 3Figure 3.IGBT Darlington StructureIt is possible to associate an IGBT with a darlingtonconfiguration between a high-voltage PNP bipolar transistorand a power-MOS

14、FET(see Figure 3).The idea behind thispower device is to overcome the difficulty in increasing thepower MOSFET current handling capability.The first IGBTconcept has been presented in 1968 by Yamagami in hisJapanese patent S4721739 2.Since then,many structureshave been proposed.The first concept was

15、based on theplanar technology.Figure 4 shows the IGBT structure withits parasitics.The most popular IGBT structures werepunch-through(PT)and non-punch-through(NPT),shownin Figure 5 3 4 5.PT IGBTs are based on heavily-doped p+substrates usedfor Epi growth.These substrates cause large turn-off energy(

16、Eoff)due to the long current tail during turn-off.Furtherenhancements of the switching performances in PT IGBTare obtained by minority carrier lifetime control throughplatinum diffusion or radiation.This causes a negativetemperature coefficient for saturation voltage.NPT IGBTs are based on n-substra

17、te with a lightly-dopedP layer implanted.Thick substrates are used to sustain highbreakdown voltage implied high development costs forIGBTs.The NPT technology was later introduced usingfloat zone(FZ)Si substrates for the IGBT structure and thenthinning the substrate backside to form a p+collector re

18、gion.This technique has enabled a reduction of switching lossesand conduction losses to a relatively low levels andimproved IGBT device and system level performance.The most innovative structure for sure was theintroduction of the field-stop(FS)technology which wasabout a decade ago.Figure 4.IGBT wi

19、th Parasitic Structuren-p+n+Collectorn+p+pGateEmitterGateEmitterCollectorFigure 5.Left)Punch-through(PT)IGBT;Right)Non-punch-through(NPT)IGBTThe FS structure is shown in Figure 6.The FS technologycombines the features of NPT and PT IGBTs structures:implanted backside p+of NPT and N buffer of a PT,al

20、though the depletion region is not punching through in FSIGBT,while it is supposed to punch through the N buffer inPT IGBT.The main big changes in the field stop FS IGBTare:thin drift region achieved via thin-film technology;p+replace lightly doped by robust and transparent p anodelayer.These improv

21、ements offer an excellent tradeoffbetween conduction and switching losses,and superiorperformance in comparison with the state-of-the-art NPTand PT IGBTs 6.FS technology allows the samehigh-voltage operation with significantly thinner Si die.This reduction in thickness has led a simultaneous reducti

22、onof Eoff and VCE_sat.From the first release of FS IGBTs,in the last decade therewere several process and device improvements,as well asdetailed physics characterization and circuit level modeling.Then the introduction of the trench gate has increased theperformance.In conventional planar IGBTs,curr

23、entcrowding is causing JFET effect leading an increase ofVCE_sat.This effect is alleviated by introducing trenchstructures.The free carrier concentration in the N-driftregion near the emitter is also enhanced,leading to a lowerVCE_sat.Using trench gate structure makes it easier tosuppress the effect

24、 of the parasitic NPN.Figure 6.Field Trench Stop IGBT S4Having a thinner device also means a better thermalresistance and this leads to a smaller die size for the samecurrent rating(increasing the power density of these powerdevices with respect to the standard technology)7 8.Figure 7.IGBT Technolog

25、ies AssessmentsFigure 8.Left)The IGBT Triangle;Right)Trade Off RelationshipToday IGBT designers have reached a very highunderstanding of the device physics and how to tune it.Hence most of the IGBT manufacturers design the devicesfor applications specifics.They are optimizing the trade-offcurve in o

26、rder to achieve the highest efficiency for a givenapplications.Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the principle of theIGBT triangle optimization and some of the trade-offexample that a technology can reach.Some examples ofparameter optimization are given:Mesa-engineered for low conduction losses and goodene

27、rgy handling robustnessDrift area tuned for target BV(Breakdown Voltage)andfast switchingBalanced buffer and anode providing excellentrobustness and low energy lossesTop and bottom metal tailored for discrete packages ormodules.Gate designed for low capacitance and high reliabilityFigure 9.Examples

28、of IGBT and Antiparallel DiodePossible Trade OffAPPLICATIONS OVERVIEWIn the following section some of the relevant applicationsare discussed,with special focus on the IGBT optimization.WeldingToday,a good share of welding machines in the marketsuses inverters.A welding inverter represents an alterna

29、tiveto conventional welding transformers and offers advantagesin output power control.Considering a dc output currenthelps controlling the welding process with great accuracy.Further,dc output currents are less dangerous than accurrents and prevent arc extinction.Another advantage ofthe inverter mac

30、hines is the lower weight as the SPMS offershigher power density and weight compared to the 5transformer-based solutions.Figure 10 shows the systemblock diagram of a welding machine.The power stage,which can be single or three-phase type transforms the acinput into a dc bus voltage and then feeds th

31、e inverter withisolation.The most common output voltage is 30 V and canreach up to 60 V dc during open load operations.It collapsesto nearly 0 V(as in a short circuit condition)when initiatingarcs.Figure 10.System Block Diagram of WeldingMachinesFigure 11.Full-bridge TopologyFigure 12.Waveform of a

32、Full-bridge Welding Machine(The blue trace represents the collector voltage across one ofthe IGBTs(100 V/div);The red is the gate voltage across thegate driving circuit;The green trace represents the collectorcurrent across one of the IGBTs)The most common topologies in welding inverters arefull-bri

33、dge,half-bridge,and two-switch forward.Figure 11,Figure 12,Figure 13,Figure 14,Figure 15 and Figure 16show the above mentioned topologies and their usualoperating waveforms 910.The most common control scheme used in weldingapplications is the constant current.The duty ratio variesaccording to load l

34、evel/output voltageThe most common IGBT switching frequency offull-bridge and half-bridge topologies ranges from 20 to50 kHz.Commonly-used frequencies are in the vicinity of30 kHz.Switching frequency in the two-switch forwardtopology aims at 60 kHz and above.Figure 13.Half-bridge TopologyFigure 14.W

35、aveform of a Half-bridge Welding Machine(The collector voltage across one of the IGBTs appears in blue(100 V/div)while the red trace depicts the gate voltage acrossthe gate driving circuit;The green curve represents thecollector current across one of the IGBT)Figure 15.Double Switches Forward Topolo

36、gyFigure 16.Waveform of a Two-switch ForwardWelding Machine(The blue curves is the collector voltage across one of theIGBTs(100 V/div);the red waveform is the gate voltage acrossthe gate driving circuit;The green trace shows the collectorcurrent across one of the IGBTs)6Figure 17 shows detailed wave

37、forms of the switchingcommutation in a full-bridge welding machine.Figure 18 shows the IGBT losses distribution ina full-bridge welding machine.Below are listed a fewtakeaways from this chart:Conduction losses are not the predominant contributionto the total lossesEon is much smaller than the datash

38、eet value:zero-current switching(ZCS)due to lowinductance/long dead-time/discontinuous conductiontime(DCM).Diode contribution to Eon is negligibleEoff is the dominant portion of IGBT losses.Conduction loss caused by VCE_sat is secondarybecause of low duty ratioReverse recovery loss is the main part

39、of the diodelosses for the same reason of low Eon.The VF is lessimportant for the welding machine applicationFigure 17.Switching Waveforms for a Full-bridge Welding Machine(C1 collector voltage across one of the IGBTs(200 V/div);C2 is the gate voltage across the gate driving circuit(10 V/div);C4 col

40、lector current across one of the IGBTs(10 A/div).Time scale 5?s/div)Figure 18.IGBT Losses Distribution in a Full-bridgeWelding Machine 5 kW.Nominal ac 230 V Input.Output Current Full Load(250 A)4%18%60%18%EonConductionEoffFigure 19.System Block Diagram of WeldingMachinesIH SystemThe principle behind

41、 an induction cooking stove consistsof exciting a coil of wire and force(or couple)the circulationof currents in a pot made of a material featuring a highmagnetic permeability and placed close to theaforementioned coil.The way it works can be approximatedto a transformer in which the coil plays the

42、role of theprimary side and the bottom of the stove represents thesecondary side.Most of the generated heat finds its sourcein the circulation of eddy currents generated in the potbottom layer 11.According to the U.S.department of energy(DoE)theefficiency of energy transfer in these systems is about

43、 90%,compared to 71%for a smooth-top non-inductive electricalunit,providing an approximate 20%saving in energy for thesame amount of heat transfer 12.Figure 19 shows a scheme of an induction cooker.Basically,the inverter induces a current into the copper coiland this generates an electromagnetic fie

44、ld which penetratesthe bottom of the pot and generates a current.The heatgeneration follows the Joule effect formula,that is R(the potresistivity)times the square of the induced current.The main requirements for IH converter are as follows:High-frequency switchingPower factor close to unityWide load

45、 rangeThe most common output power control for inductionheating applications is based on a variable frequencyscheme.This is a basic method that is applied against thevariation of load or line frequency.The major disadvantageof this method is the large frequency variation required foroutput power con

46、trol over a wide range.The most common topologies in induction heating arebased on a resonant thank.The main advantage brought byresonant converters is the high switching frequency range atwhich they can operate without sacrificing efficiency.Several control techniques,like zero current switching(ZC

47、S)or zero voltage switching(ZVS),can be used toreduce power losses in resonant 7The most popular topologies are resonant half-bridge(RHB)converters and the quasi-resonant inverter 13.Figure 20 and Figure 21 show the topology structure and thenormal operating waveforms of a resonant half-bridge.Thead

48、vantage of this configuration lies in the high range of loadoperation together with the possibility to deliver themaximum of power.In most of the designs,the RHB isoperated in the so-called inductive regions.Hence theIGBTs are turned on when their anti-parallel diodes areconducting,resulting in ZCS/

49、ZVS for Eon.The main characteristic of the RHB are listed below:Peak power is obtained when IGBTs switchingfrequency approaches resonant frequency:Eon is significantly lower due to ZCS/ZVSDiode freewheeling loss at Eon is significantly lowerEoff increases when the cooker operates at a lowerpower lev

50、el due to the switching of higher resonantcurrentsPan material affects resonant characteristics and thediode freewheeling loss/stressFigure 20.Resonant Half-bridge Topology forInduction Cooking ApplicationsFigure 21.Resonant Half-bridge Inverter and its Waveforms(The red trace shows the current into

51、 the resonant coil,Lr,The blue trace represents the voltage between point A and B;The lower graph shows the gate signal for T1 and T2)VAILOAD0 t0t1t2t3t4VGate T10 t0t1t2t3t4VFigure 22 and Figure 23 show the topology structure andthe normal operating waveforms of a single-endedquasi-resonant inverter

52、(QR).The main advantage of thisconverter is the lower cost.It is a perfect fit for low-tomid-power range(up to 2 kW peak power).The frequencyoperation is in the range of 20 to 35 kHz.During theon-phase,the energy is partially transferred to the load andpartially stored in the resonant tank.During th

53、e off-phase,the energy stored in the resonant tank is transferred to theload.For certain Lr and Cr the regulation range(maximum-minimum power)is limited by the maximum IGBT voltageand current stresses.In an ideal situation,the IGBT is turnedon when VCE=0 V resulting in ZVS for Eon.The main character

54、istic of the QR converter are listed herebelow:Peak power is limited by VBR and resonant tankdesign:Eoff changes proportionally to the power levelEon is eliminated and diode freewheeling loss isminimizedFigure 22.QR Topology for Induction ApplicationFigure 23.QR Single End Inverter and its Associate

55、d Waveforms(Upper graph:current into the resonant coil Lr appears in thered curve while the voltage across T1 is the purple curve.The lower graph shows the gate signal for T1)VBILOAD0t0t1t2t3t4VGate T10t0t1t2t3t4Figure 24 shows the QR operating modes.In QR mode,frequency increases at lighter load or

56、 pan lifting.At 8load the ZVS is lost and Eon increases dramatically.Furtherat every turn-on the remain charges in the resonant capacitoris discharge at every turn on in the IGBT.Figure 24.QR Operation Mode Left)Light Load;Center)Mid Load;Right)Heavy Load.Top)IGBTLosses for Different Load Conditions

57、Ic?Cr?dVcedt(eq.1)Pulse skipping is an alternative control method to avoidentering this zone.Frequency decreases at heavier loads.The IGBTmaintains near-ZVS operation but the diode is conductinga higher current.Low-resistive pans can cause the sameeffect for the diode.Half Bridge for UPS Solar and M

58、otor DrivesThe half-bridge converter(HB)is one of the most populartopologies in power electronics especially in uninterruptible(UPS),solar inverters and motor drive applications.The HBoutput voltage depends on the switching state and currentpolarity as shown in Figure 25.Considering an inductiveload

59、,the current increases subsequently.If the load drawspositive current(Ig0),it will flow through T1 and suppliesenergy to the load(Vg).On the contrary,if the load currentIg is negative,the current flows back through D1 and returnsenergy to the dc source.Similarly,if T4 is on(which happenswhen T1 is o

60、ff),a voltage 1/2 Vbus is applied to the load andthe current decreases.If Ig is positive,the current flowsthrough D4 returning energy to the bus source(seeFigure 27).The HB can operate in the four quadrants,as shown inFigure 28.T4D4LVgCbus/2Cbus/2NT1D1ABVbus/2+Vbus/2+IgFigure 25.Half-bridge Operatin

61、g Waveforms forPositive Current OutputFigure 26.Half-bridge Operating Waveforms forNegative Current OutputT4D4LVgCbus/2Cbus/2NT1D1ABVbus/2+Vbus/2+IgFigure 27.Half-bridge Operating Modesy=-sinx,x?0,2 0/223/2Vbus,VAB,I2busV2busVgT1 ONT4 OND1dropT1dropD4dropT9During the four-quadrant operation,differen

62、t aspects ofIGBT characteristics are stressed:VCE_sat in inverter modeVF in rectifier modeEon/Eoff in reactive modesFigure 28.Half-bridge Four-quadrants Operations04123VgIg1Inverter2Rectifier4Rectifier3Inverter/223/2Power at time interval 4 and 2 is negative.This negativepower is called reactive pow

63、er.Reactive power is commonin motor drives for example and it increases the apparentpower of a converter.A converter must be able toaccommodate this part of power to properly drive a reactiveload.The power line networks in most of the courtiers havenot been upgraded to support the increase number of

64、 newsolar generators(solar inverter).As a consequence duringthe peak of the sun,while all generators feed the line,atsub-nodes it is likely to have an overvoltage.Hence all thenew solar inverters have to be able to absorb theover-voltage through the generation of reactive power.Figure 29 and Figure

65、30 show typical switchingwaveforms for motor drive and solar UPS applications.Figure 29.Switching Waveforms in Motor DriveApplicationsIGBT turn-on withsuperimposed reverse recovery peakIGBT turn-offFWD turn-onNo current ripple due to high inductanceFigure 30.Switching Waveforms in Motor DriveApplica

66、tionsFWDs reverse recoveryIGBT turn-on withSuperimposed reverse recovery peakIGBT turn-offFWD turn-onThe main characteristics for a motor drive application aregiven below:No current ripple is observed at high inductive loadEon is generally higher than Eoff due to high reverserecovery currentLow swit

67、ching frequency ends with high conduction lossAlways hard switchingBelow are listed the main characteristic for inverterssuitable for solar and UPS applications.Current ripple is higher(up to 30%)compared to driveapplicationsIGBT turn-on and forward diode(FWD turn-off areoccurring at a lower current

68、 than for the same IGBT atturn-off and FWD turn on-respectively(10-A difference in the waveform above)Eoff is more importantOvervoltage at turn-off is higher due to the highturn-off current.Figure 31.IType ConverterD+DT1T2T3T4D1D2D3D4LVgCbus/2Cbus/2NABVbus/2+Vbus/2+Figure 32.TType ConverterT4D4LVgCb

69、us/2Cbus/2NT3D3T2D2T1D1ABVbus/2+Vbus/2+10Emerging Topologies for High Power ConversionThe classical HB has some limitations:A standard half-bridge converter produces only twolevels of output voltageHigh dV/dt stresses passive and active componentsHigh dV/dt produces high switching lossHigh dV/dt mak

70、es gate drive more difficultVoltage pattern produces higher ripple currentHigh dV/dt produces higher EMIVoltage handling(it cannot work with a high-voltagebus)Series connection of devices leads to implementationcomplexitiesHigh switching lossesThermal balancing is difficult to achieveHigh filtering

71、requirementIn order to overcome all the aforementioned limitations,new topologies with multi-voltage levels have beendesigned and used in power electronics.The most commonstructures are the so-called IType and TType converters.These topologies can operate at higher bus voltages.Due tothe availabilit

72、y of more output states,the voltages acrossfilter components is reduced and results in much lower filterlosses/size.Even the switching losses go down significantlywhile conduction losses go up slightly(suitable for higherfrequencies).These topologies employ a unipolar switchingby connecting to neutr

73、al point during the so-called off cycles(see Figure 33).Figure 33.Comparison between a ClassicalHalf-bridge and a Three-level Converter in Terms ofVoltage and Current Output(Light blue:output current of a three-level topology;In green,output current of a HB converter;In black:output voltage of a thr

74、ee-level converter and inpurple,output voltage of an HB converter)959697989910005101520253035404550Efficiency%Switching Frequency kHzEfficiency Vs.Switching Frequency in Inverter ModeHBT typeI typeFigure 34.Efficiency versus Switching Frequencyin Inverter Mode.Comparison between an HB,IType and TTyp

75、e 14It is worth mentioning that beside the numerousadvantages,these multilevel topologies present somechallenges,such as:Capacitor voltage balancing addressed by activecontrolLoss distribution imbalance under certain operatingconditionsDependence on modulation index/duty ratioMore complex controlAdv

76、ances in semiconductors and control technologiesare enabling the usage of these converters in mid-lowpower ranges(10 kW)Better optimization techniques neededFigure 35.Efficiency versus Switching Frequencyin Rectifier Mode.Comparison between an HB,IType and TType 14959697989910005101520253035404550Ef

77、ficiency%Switching Frequency kHzEfficiency Vs.Switching Frequency in Rectifier ModeHBT typeI typeEach topology,I and T type,has its own advantages anddisadvantages depend on operating conditions.Ttypeshines at lower frequencies.It has lower switching 11compared to HB.While Itype(NPC)has betterperfor

78、mances at high frequency.There are other aspects toaccount for like the fact that semiconductor improvementscan shift the transition point to the right(crossover of theefficiency between I and T Type).A similar commentapplies for the higher dc link voltage that can shift thetransition point to lower

79、 frequency.In general,it is true that3-level inverters help improve efficiency and increase theoperating frequency.In rectifier mode,Ttype is better formid-frequencies while in rectifier mode,Itype offers betterhigh-frequency operation and better thermal balance.One ofthe main disadvantages lies in

80、the more complex controlcircuitry and the need for more semiconductor components(not necessarily more silicon area).CONCLUSIONDespite the fact that IGBTs have been in the market for awhile,this technology is still perfectly suited forhigh-voltage and high-current applications.The usage ofIGBTs is gr

81、owing not only in the classical applications,butalso in new ones.This is due to the fact that new technologiesare able to switch up to 100 kHz.Hence,it is important tobetter understand the application requirements and choosethe right IGBT trade off.Figure 36 shows how a given IGBTcan produce a diffe

82、rent pattern of losses in differenttopologies operating at the same frequency:(A)Viennatopology 15;(B)HB;(C)Full-bridge.Even in the sametopology,the pattern can vary with the operating point.Figure 37 shows the patterns of the losses in a TTypetopology for the outer(A&C)and the inner(B&D)IGBTin inve

83、rter(A&B)and rectifier(C&D)mode.Understanding system requirements and measurementsystems is important for the reliable design with IGBTs.Itis even more important when approaching very highefficiencies enabled by modern IGBTs and topologies.Additional analysis and measurement time invested duringthe

84、design phase can lead to the selection of the right IGBTfor the targeted application.Figure 36.Losses Distribution of a Given IGBTOperating in the Vienna Topology,Half-bridge and Full-bridgeVCE_sat10%VF45%Eon25%Eoff15%Esw-r5%VCE_sat48%VF10%Eon22%Eoff15%Esw-r5%VCE_sat28%VF28%Eon24%Eoff20%Esw-r0%(A)(B

85、)(C)Figure 37.Losses Distribution of a Given IGBTOperating in a TType Inverter in the Outer(T1 andT4)and Inner(T2 and T3)Position in Inverter andRectifier M12REFERENCES1 P.Gueguen“Si IGBT and SiC:which repartition forpower devices?”APEC 2016,March 2016.2 K.Yamagami et al.,“Transistors”,Jun.1968.3 N.

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93、roceedings of PCIMEurope 2015,Nuremberg,Germany,2015,pp.18.13 AND9166/D onsemi Induction Cooking:Everything you need to know.http:/ M.Schweizer,I.Lizama,T.Friedli,J.W.Kolar,Comparison of the Chip Area Usage of 2-level and3-level Voltage Source Converter Topologies,Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conf

94、erence of theIEEE Industrial Electronics Society(IECON 2010),Phoenix,USA,November 711,2010.15 T.B.Soeiro and J.W.Kolar,“Analysis ofHigh-Efficiency Three-Phase Two-and Three-LevelUnidirectional Hybrid Rectifiers”,in IEEETransactions on Industrial Electronics,vol.60,no.9,pp.35893601,Sept.2013.onsemi,a

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