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1、Global Hydrogen Review 2023The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies that will

2、enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,13 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and b

3、oundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.orgIEA member countries:AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyJapanKoreaLithuaniaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNew ZealandNorway

4、PolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSpainSwedenSwitzerlandRepublic of TrkiyeUnited KingdomUnited StatesThe European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:Argentina BrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaKenyaMoroccoSenegalSingapore South Africa Thailand UkraineINTERNATIONAL EN

5、ERGYAGENCYRevised version,September 2023 Information notice found at:www.iea.org/correctionsGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Abstract PAGE|3 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Abstract The Global Hydrogen Review is an annual publication by the International Energy Agency that tracks hydrogen production and demand worldwide,

6、as well as progress in critical areas such as infrastructure development,trade,policy,regulation,investments and innovation.The report is an output of the Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative and is intended to inform energy sector stakeholders on the status and future prospects of hydrogen,

7、while also informing discussions at the Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting organised by Japan.Focusing on hydrogens potentially major role in meeting international energy and climate goals,the Review aims to help decision makers fine-tune strategies to attract investment and facilitate deployment o

8、f hydrogen technologies at the same time as creating demand for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.It compares real-world developments with the stated ambitions of government and industry.This years report includes a focus on demand creation for low-emission hydrogen.Global hydrogen use is increasing

9、,but demand remains so far concentrated in traditional uses in refining and the chemical industry and mostly met by hydrogen produced from unabated fossil fuels.To meet climate ambitions,there is an urgent need to switch hydrogen use in existing applications to low-emission hydrogen and to expand us

10、e to new applications in heavy industry or long-distance transport.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Acknowledgements,contributors and credits PAGE|4 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Acknowledgements,contributors and credits The Global Hydrogen Review was prepared by the Energy Technology Policy(ETP)Division of the Directo

11、rate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks(STO)of the International Energy Agency(IEA).The study was designed and directed by Timur Gl,Chief Energy Technology Officer and Head of the Energy Technology Policy Division.Uwe Remme(Head of the Hydrogen and Alternative Fuels Unit)and Jose Miguel Bermu

12、dez Menendez co-ordinated the analysis and production of the report.Laura Cozzi,Dennis Hesseling,Paolo Frankl,Tim Gould,Keisuke Sadamori,Hiro Sakaguchi,and Araceli Fernandez Pales provided valuable,strategic guidance during the reports development process.The principal IEA authors and contributors w

13、ere(in alphabetical order):Praveen Bains(hydrogen-based fuels),Simon Bennett(investment),Leonardo Collina(industry),Elizabeth Connelly(transport),Chiara Delmastro(buildings),Stavroula Evangelopoulou(production and data management),Mathilde Fajardy(CCUS),Alexandre Gouy(industry),Megumi Kotani(policy)

14、,Jean-Baptiste Le Marois(innovation),Peter Levi(industry),Rafael Martinez Gordon(buildings),Shane McDonagh(transport),Francesco Pavan(production,trade and infrastructure),Amalia Pizarro(trade,infrastructure and innovation),Noah Sloots(buildings)and Christoph Winkler(production).The development of th

15、is report benefitted from contributions provided by the following IEA colleagues:Ana Alcalde Bascones,Carl Greenfield,Ilkka Hannula,Luca Lo Re,Jennifer Ortiz,and Nikoo Tajdolat.Lizzie Sayer edited the manuscript while Liselott Fredriksson,Anna Kalista and Per-Anders Widell provided essential support

16、 throughout the process.Thanks also to the IEA Communications and Digital Office for their help in producing the report,particularly to Curtis Brainard,Poeli Bojorquez,Jon Custer,Astrid Dumond,Merve Erdil,Grace Gordon,Jethro Mullen,Isabelle Nonain-Semelin,Julie Puech,Lucile Wall,Therese Walsh and Wo

17、njik Yang.The work could not have been achieved without the financial support provided by the Governments of Australia,Canada,Germany,and Japan.The following governments have also contributed to the report through their voluntary contribution to the CEM Hydrogen Initiative:Australia,Austria,Canada,F

18、inland,Germany,the European Commission,the Netherlands,Norway,the United Kingdom and the United States.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Acknowledgements,contributors and credits PAGE|5 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Special thanks go to the following organisations and initiatives for their valuable contributions:Advance

19、d Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme(TCP),European Patent Office,Hydrogen Council,Hydrogen TCP and the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy(IPHE).Peer reviewers provided essential feedback to improve the quality of the report.They include:Nawal Al-Hanaee(Mi

20、nistry of Energy and Infrastructure,United Arab Emirates);AbdulAziz Aliyu(GHG TCP);Laurent Antoni and No van Hulst(IPHE);Florian Ausfelder(Dechema);Ruta Baltause,Tudor Constantinescu,Ruud Kempener,Eirik V.W.Lnning and Matthijs Soede(European Commission);Frederic Bauer(Lund University);Prerna Bhargav

21、a(Department of Climate Change,Energy,the Environment and Water,Australia);Herib Blanco;Jo Bracker(Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action,Germany);Paula Brunetto(Enel);James Collins(ITM Power);Harriet Culver,Katherine Davis,Lara Hirschhausen and Oliviero Iurkovich(Department for En

22、ergy Security and Net Zero,United Kingdom);Caroline Czach,Isabel Murray and Claudie Roy(Natural Resources Canada);Lucie Ducloue(Air Liquide);Alexandru Floristean(Hy24);Daniel Fraile(Hydrogen Europe);Marta Gandiglio(Politecnico di Torino);Dolf Gielen(World Bank);Celine Le Goazigo(WBCSD);Stefan Gossen

23、s(Schaeffler AG);Emile Herben(Yara);Marina Holgado(Hydrogen TCP);Marius Hrnschemeyer(DENA);Ruben Hortensius,Sanne van Santen and Anouk Zandbergen(Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy,the Netherlands);Shunsuke Inui and Wataru Kaneko(Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry,Japan);Leandro Jan

24、ke(Agora Energiewende);Adam Karl(AECOM);Ilhan Kim(Ministry of Trade,Industry and Energy,Korea);Marcos Kulka(Chile Hydrogen Association);Subhash Kumar(ACME);Leif Christian Krger(thyssenkrupp nucera);Martin Lambert(Oxford Institute for Energy Studies);Wilco van der Lans(Port of Rotterdam Authority);Ki

25、rsten McNeill(Sunfire);Jonas Moberg(Green Hydrogen Organisation);Susana Moreira(H2Global);Pietro Moretto(JRC);Motohiko Nishimura,Taku Hasegawa,Aya Saito and Tomoki Tominaga(Kawasaki Heavy Industries,Ltd.);Daria Nochevnik(Hydrogen Council);Maria Teresa Nonay Domingo(Enags);Koichi Numata(Toyota);Cdric

26、 Philibert(Independent consultant);Mark Pickup(Ministry of Business,Innovation&Employment,New Zealand);Nicolas Pocard(Ballard);Joris Proost(UCLouvain Belgium);Andrew Purvis(World Steel Association);Noma Qase(Department of Mineral Resources,South Africa);Agustn Rodriguez(Topsoe);Xavier Rousseau(Snam)

27、;Sunita Satyapal and Neha Rustagi(Department of Energy,United States);Julian Schorpp(Thyssenkrupp Steel Europe);ngel Landa Ugarte(Iberdrola);Derek Wissmiller(GTI Energy);and Marcel Weeda(TNO).Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Table of contents PAGE|6 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Table of contents Executive summary.11 R

28、ecommendations.15 Chapter 1.Introduction.18 Overview.18 The Hydrogen Initiative.19 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use.20 Overview and outlook.20 Refining.22 Industry.25 Transport.29 Buildings.39 Electricity generation.41 Creating demand for low-emission hydrogen.45 Chapter 3.Hydrogen production.64 Overview and

29、outlook.64 Electrolysis.68 Fossil fuels with CCUS.77 Comparison of different production routes.80 Emerging production routes.91 Production of hydrogen-based fuels and feedstocks.95 Chapter 4.Trade and infrastructure.99 Status and outlook of hydrogen trade.99 Status and outlook of hydrogen infrastruc

30、ture.109 Chapter 5.Investment,finance and innovation.129 Investments in the hydrogen sector.129 Innovation in hydrogen technologies.140 Chapter 6.Policies.148 Strategies and targets.148 Demand creation.150 Mitigating investment risks.152 Promotion of RD&D and knowledge-sharing.159 Standards,certific

31、ation and regulations.163 Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Table of contents PAGE|7 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Annex.169 Explanatory notes.169 Abbreviations and acronyms.171 List of figures Figure ES.1 Map of announced low-emission hydrogen production projects.11 Hydrogen use by sector and by region,historical and i

32、n the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2020-2030.20 Hydrogen use by region and source of hydrogen for refining,historical and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2019-2030.23 Onsite production of low-emission hydrogen for refining by technology,region and status,historical and from announc

33、ed projects,2020-2030.25 Hydrogen use in industry by subsector and by region and source of hydrogen,historical and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2019-2030.26 Onsite production of low-emission hydrogen for industry applications by technology and status,historical and from announced proje

34、cts,2020-2030.28 Hydrogen consumption in road transport by vehicle segment and region,2020-2022.30 Fuel cell electric vehicle stock by segment and region,2019-2023.31 Hydrogen refuelling stations by region and ratio of fuel cell electric vehicles to refuelling stations,2019-June 2023.34 Mobile fuel

35、cell manufacturing capacity by country/region according to announced projects and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2022-2030.36 Fuel cell stock by region,2021-2022,and hydrogen use in buildings in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2021-2050.40 Capacity in power generation using hydro

36、gen and ammonia by region,historical and from announced projects,2019-2030.42 Potential demand for low-emission hydrogen created by implemented policies and government targets,and production targeted by governments,2030.51 Potential demand for low-emission hydrogen that can be achieved with announce

37、d private off-take agreements by 2030.54 Potential demand for low-emission hydrogen that can be achieved with the commitments of international initiatives,2030.58 Potential demand for low-emission hydrogen from announced policies and targets,private off-take agreements,commitments of international c

38、o-operation initiatives and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.60 Domestic production cost of ammonia in Europe considering different shares of renewable hydrogen compared with the cost of delivered ammonia from the Middle East.61 Figure 3.1 Hydrogen production by technology,2020-2022.64 F

39、igure 3.2 Low-emission hydrogen production by technology route,maturity and region based on announced projects and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.66 Figure 3.3 Low-emission hydrogen production by status and by sector based on announced projects,2030.67 Figure 3.4 Map of announced lo

40、w-emission hydrogen production projects.68 Figure 3.5 Global electrolyser capacity by technology,2019 2023,and by region,size and status based on announced projects by 2030.69 Figure 3.6 Electrolyser capacity in 2030 based on current announcements by status,and progress since the Global Hydrogen Rev

41、iew 2022.70 Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Table of contents PAGE|8 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Figure 3.7 Electrolyser manufacturing capacity by region and technology according to announced projects and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2021-2030 72 Figure 3.8 Global electrolyser capacity from announced p

42、rojects,and cumulative output from announced manufacturing capacity compared to the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2025-2030.73 Figure 3.9 Evolution of electrolyser installed capital costs based on deployment from announced projects and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2021-2030,and t

43、he share of capital cost in the levelised cost of hydrogen production.75 Figure 3.10 Production of low-emission hydrogen from fossil fuels with carbon capture utilisation and storage,historical and from announced projects,2018-2030.78 Figure 3.11 Levelised cost of hydrogen production by technology i

44、n 2021,2022 and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario in 2030.81 Figure 3.12 Levelised cost of hydrogen production based on different renewable electricity prices and on different costs of capital in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.82 Figure 3.13 Hydrogen production costs and share

45、 of solar PV from hybrid solar PV and onshore wind systems,2030.85 Figure 3.14 Levelised cost of hydrogen production with carbon capture,based on different natural gas prices and on different costs of capital in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.86 Figure 3.15 Comparison of the emissions

46、intensity of different hydrogen production routes,2021.89 Figure 3.16 Global hydrogen-based fuel production by fuel,region and status,historical and based on announced projects.96 Figure 3.17 Levelised costs of ammonia and synthetic kerosene for electricity-based pathways in 2022 and in the Net Zero

47、 Emissions by 2050 Scenario in 2030.97 Figure 4.1 Low-emission hydrogen trade by status and by carrier based on announced projects,2030-2040.102 Figure 4.2 Low-emission hydrogen trade by exporting and importing region based on announced projects,2030-2040.105 Figure 4.3 Potential low-emission hydrog

48、en trade flows based on announcements,2030.106 Figure 4.4 Low-emission hydrogen trade by importing region based on announced projects,policy targets and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.107 Figure 4.5 Global annual investment in gas infrastructure in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Sce

49、nario,2016-2030.109 Figure 4.6 Global hydrogen transmission pipeline length in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario and announced projects,2020-2050.113 Figure 4.7 Global underground geological storage capacity for hydrogen in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario and announced projects,2020-20

50、50.120 Figure 4.8 Existing and announced port infrastructure projects for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels trade.121 Figure 4.9 Emissions of hydrogen transport by pipeline and tanker depending on the distance and the grid emission factor of the importing region.126 Figure 5.1.Investment in electrol

51、yser installations by region(left)and intended use(right),and Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario requirements,2019-2030.130 Figure 5.2.Factors that could contribute to cost inflation for an electrolyser installation since 2021.135 Figure 5.3.Financial commitments to hydrogen by multilateral develop

52、ment banks,by source and partner country,by year of announcement,2021-2023*.136 Figure 5.4.Monthly returns(left)and market capitalisation(right)of hydrogen companies,hydrogen funds and relevant benchmarks,2017-2023.137 Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Table of contents PAGE|9 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Figure 5.5.Ve

53、nture capital investment in energy start-ups in hydrogen-related areas,for early-stage and growth-stage deals,2010-2023.138 Figure 5.6.Early-and growth-stage equity investment in energy start-ups in hydrogen-related areas by region,2018-2022.139 Figure 5.7.Technology readiness levels of production o

54、f low-emission hydrogen and synthetic fuels,and infrastructure.142 Figure 5.8.Technology readiness levels of hydrogen end uses by sector.143 Figure 5.9.Patenting trends on hydrogen technologies in the main world regions,2001-2021.144 Figure 5.10.Patenting trends in hydrogen production by technologie

55、s,2001-2021.145 Figure 5.11.Patenting trends in technologies that consume hydrogen,2001-2021.146 Figure 6.1 Global targets for low-emission hydrogen production,use in industry and fuel cell electric vehicles by 2030.150 Figure 6.2 Number of policies to support hydrogen demand creation announced and

56、entering in force by sector,2021-2023.152 Figure 6.3 Government RD&D spending for hydrogen technologies by region,2018-2022.160 Figure 6.4 Co-operation agreements between governments on hydrogen since August 2022.162 List of boxes Box 2.1 Traditional and new applications for hydrogen.21 Box 2.2 The

57、role of voluntary carbon credit markets in scaling up low-emission hydrogen.48 Box 3.1 Electrolysis development in China.75 Box 3.2 Can high plant capture rates be achieved?.78 Box 3.3 Sizing renewable electricity for electrolytic hydrogen production.83 Box 3.4 Using emissions intensity levels for n

58、on-expert users.90 Box 4.1 Domestic production versus imports the case of north-west Europe.103 Box 4.2 Offshore hydrogen networks or power transmission to shore to deliver hydrogen?.115 Box 4.3 Hydrogen leakage monitoring.127 Box 5.1 Sizing the global market for low-emission hydrogen.131 Box 6.1 Fi

59、nancial incentives in the Inflation Reduction Act.153 List of tables Examples of policies to stimulate demand for low-emission hydrogen.52 Selected international initiatives for the deployment of low-emission technologies.57 Low-emission hydrogen demand and share of sectoral hydrogen demand in refin

60、ing,ammonia production and methanol production in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2030.62 Selected developments for natural hydrogen production.94 Planned and completed trade pilot projects for low-emission hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels,2020-2023.100 Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Table of

61、contents PAGE|10 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Progress between Q3 2022 and Q2 2023 on hydrogen transmission projects in new and repurposed pipelines.114 Hydrogen blending projects in gas distribution pipelines entering operation between Q3 2022 and Q2 2023.117 Calls for interest for underground hydrogen storage p

62、rojects.118 Announced designs for liquefied hydrogen tankers expected to be commercial before 2030.124 Table 6.1 National hydrogen roadmaps and strategies since September 2022.148 Table 6.2 Policy measures to mitigate investment risks in hydrogen projects in force or announced since August 2022.156

63、Table 6.3 Selected government programmes which include support for hydrogen technology demonstration projects since August 2022.161 Table 6.4 Overview of existing and planned regulatory frameworks and certification systems for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.165 Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executi

64、ve summary PAGE|11 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary Low-emission hydrogen production can grow massively by 2030 but cost challenges are hampering deployment The number of announced projects for low-emission hydrogen production is rapidly expanding.Annual production of low-emission hydrogen could rea

65、ch 38 Mt in 2030,if all announced projects are realised,although 17 Mt come from projects at early stages of development.The potential production by 2030 from announced projects to date is 50%larger than it was at the time of the release of the IEAs Global Hydrogen Review 2022.Only 4%of this potenti

66、al production has at least taken a final investment decision(FID),a doubling since last year in absolute terms(reaching nearly 2 Mt).Of the total,27 Mt are based on electrolysis and low-emission electricity and 10 Mt on fossil fuels with carbon capture,utilisation and storage.Figure ES.1 Map of anno

67、unced low-emission hydrogen production projects IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Map includes also announced projects starting after 2030.Source:IEA Hydrogen Projects database.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive summary PAGE|12 I EA.CC BY 4.0.After a slow start,China has taken the lead on electrolyser deploymen

68、t.In 2020,China accounted for less than 10%of global electrolyser capacity installed for dedicated hydrogen production,concentrated in small demonstration projects.In 2022,installed capacity in China grew to more than 200 MW,representing 30%of global capacity,including the worlds largest electrolysi

69、s project(150 MW).By the end of 2023,Chinas installed electrolyser capacity is expected to reach 1.2 GW 50%of global capacity with another new world record-size electrolysis project(260 MW),which started operation this year.China is poised to further cement its leading position in electrolyser deplo

70、yment:the country accounts for more than 40%of the electrolysis projects that have reached FID globally.Equipment and financial costs are increasing,putting projects at risk and reducing the impact of government support for deployment.Inflation is increasing capital and financial costs,threatening t

71、he bankability of projects across the entire hydrogen value chain,which are highly capital intensive.For hydrogen produced from renewable electricity,for example,an increase of 3 percentage points in the cost of capital could raise total project cost by nearly one-third.Several projects have revised

72、 their initial cost estimates upwards by up to 50%.Inflationary pressures have coincided with a recent fall in natural gas prices,particularly in Europe,and with supply chain disruptions that affected project timelines.This means that announced government funding will support a smaller number of pro

73、jects than could be expected previously,as greater investment is needed to close the cost gap between low-emission hydrogen and unabated fossil fuels-based hydrogen.Governments have started to make funding available to support the first large-scale projects,but slow implementation of support schemes

74、 is delaying investment decisions.North America and Europe have taken the lead in implementing initiatives to encourage low-emission hydrogen production.Large amounts of government funding are being made available through schemes such as the US Hydrogen Production Tax Credit,the EU Important Project

75、s of Common European Interest and the UK Low Carbon Hydrogen Business Model.However,the lengthy time lags between the announcement of the schemes and the moment at which funds are made available to project developers is delaying project execution,and even putting projects at risk.This has been aggra

76、vated by the lack of clarity about regulation,which has only very recently been resolved in some jurisdictions.Electrolyser manufacturers have announced ambitious expansion plans.Manufacturers have announced that around 14 GW of manufacturing capacity are available today,half of which is in China.El

77、ectrolyser production in 2022 is estimated to be just over 1 GW.Manufacturers have announced plans for further expansion,aiming to reach 155 GW/year of manufacturing capacity by 2030,but only 8%of this capacity has at least reached FID.Realising manufacturers Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive su

78、mmary PAGE|13 I EA.CC BY 4.0.ambitious plans will depend on solid demand for electrolysers,which today is highly uncertain.Such uncertainty is already resulting in delays to these expansion plans,some of which are being put on hold.Efforts to stimulate low-emission hydrogen demand are lagging behind

79、 what is needed to meet climate ambitions Hydrogen demand reached a historical high in 2022,but it remains concentrated in traditional applications.Global hydrogen use reached 95 Mt in 2022,a nearly 3%increase year-on-year,with strong growth in all major consuming regions except Europe,which suffere

80、d a hit to industrial activity due to the sharp increase in natural gas prices.This global growth does not reflect a success of policy efforts to expand the use of hydrogen,but rather is linked to general global energy trends.Demand remains concentrated in industry and refining,with less than 0.1%co

81、ming from new applications in heavy industry,transport or power generation.Low-emission hydrogen is being taken up very slowly in existing applications,accounting for just 0.7%of total hydrogen demand,implying that hydrogen production and use in 2022 was linked to more than 900 Mt of CO2 emissions.P

82、rospects are better in industry,particularly for ammonia production,with refining lagging behind.Measures to stimulate low-emission hydrogen use have only recently started to attract policy attention and are still not sufficient to meet climate ambitions.Government action has been focused on support

83、ing low-emission hydrogen production,with less attention to the demand side.The sum of all government targets for low-emission hydrogen production accounts for 27-35 Mt today,but targets for creating demand account for just 14 Mt,less than half of which is focused on existing hydrogen uses.Even if t

84、hese targets are met,they represent only one-fifth of the low-emission hydrogen use in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE Scenario)by 2030.Without robust demand,producers of low-emission hydrogen will not secure sufficient off-takers to underpin large-scale investments,jeopardising the viab

85、ility of the entire low-emission hydrogen industry.The private sector has started moving to adopt low-emission hydrogen through off-take agreements,but efforts remain at very small scale.Companies have signed off-take agreements for up to 2 Mt of low-emission hydrogen,although more than half are pre

86、liminary agreements with non-binding conditions.Some companies are developing projects for an additional 3 Mt of low-emission hydrogen production for their own use,without the need for off-take agreements.But even with the addition of these quantities,low-emission hydrogen use is still far from what

87、 is needed to meet climate goals.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive summary PAGE|14 I EA.CC BY 4.0.International co-operation initiatives can help to aggregate demand for low-emission hydrogen,but demand signals from these initiatives are unclear.Governments and companies have launched a series o

88、f co-operation initiatives to foster deployment of low-emission technologies,including hydrogen.Based on the commitments made by these initiatives,they could create 0.8-3 Mt of low-emission hydrogen demand by 2030.However,the real impact of their pledges remains to be seen.These initiatives predomin

89、antly target new applications of hydrogen,and there is no dedicated coalition targeting the chemical and refining sectors,which are better placed to adopt low-emission hydrogen at scale in the short term.Scaling up low-emission hydrogen use is also key to enabling the nascent hydrogen trade.Internat

90、ional trade of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels is expected to be an important feature of a net zero future.In the NZE Scenario,more than 20%of demand for merchant hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels is internationally traded by 2030.Based on announced export-oriented projects,16 Mt of hydrogen equiv

91、alent could be exported all around the world by 2030,but only three projects have reached FID.The realisation of these announced trade projects will depend on securing off-takers for the long run,as well as the implementation of certification schemes and deployment of the necessary infrastructure.Pr

92、ogress on infrastructure is moving slowly.There have been announcements for around 50 terminals and port infrastructure for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels,and for up to 5 TWh of underground storage capacity aiming to be operative by 2030,but none of them has reached FID.Infrastructure projects ty

93、pically have very long lead times,so it is critical to start developing them now to have a chance of them being available by 2030.Transforming momentum around hydrogen into deployment remains a struggle Political momentum behind low-emission hydrogen remains strong but deployment is not taking off.A

94、 total of 41 governments now have a hydrogen strategy in place and some of the early movers are updating their original strategies,raising ambitions.There is consensus that low-emission hydrogen is a key opportunity for decarbonising sectors where emissions are hard to abate.The energy crisis arisin

95、g from Russias invasion of Ukraine has also turned a spotlight on the role that low-emission hydrogen can play in enhancing energy security.In addition,several major economies have recently adopted new industrial strategies,in which hydrogen technologies play a key part.Government policies and priva

96、te sector plans are translating into an expanding flow of capital into the low-emission hydrogen sector.However,despite this momentum,low-emission hydrogen still accounts for less than 1%of global hydrogen production and use,and will need to grow more than 100-fold by 2030 to get in line with the NZ

97、E Scenario.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive summary PAGE|15 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Regulation and certification remain key barriers to adoption,but strong international co-operation can be crucial to finding solutions.Several countries have started putting in place regulations on hydrogens environmenta

98、l attributes and developing associated certification schemes.These have some commonalities,but also significant divergences,which may lead to market fragmentation.Intergovernmental forums like the G7 and the G20 have recognised this risk and committed to work towards mutual recognition of certificat

99、es,which can facilitate market and regulatory interoperability.Referring to the emissions intensity of hydrogen production in regulation and certification based on agreed methodology can enable mutual recognition.1 Governments need stronger policy action on multiple fronts to tap into the opportunit

100、y that low-emission hydrogen offers.Low-emission hydrogen can be an opportunity for countries to boost their economies for the future by creating industries along the supply chains of hydrogen technologies.In the Stated Policies Scenario,the market size of the low-emission hydrogen sector rises from

101、 USD 1.4 billion today to USD 12 billion by 2030,equivalent to the spending on offshore wind in Europe in 2022.Increasing ambitions in line with the NZE Scenario could expand the market size up to USD 112 billion,roughly the size of the market for rooftop solar PV installations in the Asia Pacific r

102、egion in 2022.However,there are challenges around the expansion of technology manufacturing,as well as for creating demand and securing off-takers for low-emission hydrogen production.These challenges are to be expected in a sector that needs to build up complex value chains,but have been exacerbate

103、d by inflation,the fall in fossil fuel prices and sluggish policy implementation.Overcoming these challenges requires governments to act across the whole value chain,or progress will be disjointed and lead to cancellations and setbacks.Recommendations Urgently implement support schemes for low-emiss

104、ion hydrogen production and use Governments have announced numerous programmes to support first movers,but in most cases,these programmes are not yet implemented,or the funds have not yet been made available.This is hindering investment decisions for planned projects whose economic feasibility depen

105、ds on public support,a situation that has worsened due to the impacts of inflation.Governments need to urgently implement these programmes and make funding available to enable a scale-up compatible with their decarbonisation ambitions.1 See the report Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emis

106、sions intensity for more analysis on how emissions intensity can facilitate mutual recognition of certificates.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive summary PAGE|16 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Take bolder action to stimulate demand creation for low-emission hydrogen,particularly in existing hydrogen uses Governm

107、ents must take the lead and implement policies that encourage action in the private sector,combining support measures with regulations(such as quotas or mandates)to require the adoption of low-emission hydrogen in existing applications.These measures can be complemented with technology-neutral regul

108、ations in priority sectors where alternative mitigation options exist(such as steel,shipping,aviation,and long-distance road transport),and with public procurement for low-emission and near-zero emission materials and products.Co-ordinated action is needed to unlock the necessary level of demand whi

109、le facilitating a level playing field,avoiding industry relocation and carbon leakage.The private sector can also contribute by establishing an international co-operation initiative focused on demand aggregation in chemicals or refining,which are best suited to scale up demand in the short term.Fost

110、er international co-operation to accelerate solutions for hydrogen certification and mutual recognition of certificates Governments should keep moving forward with the implementation of clear regulations and associated certification schemes for hydrogens environmental attributes.International co-ope

111、ration needs to be reinforced to prevent lack of alignment between these efforts,which could lead to market fragmentation.Full harmonisation seems impossible in the near term,but governments should work together to enable mutual recognition of certificates,which would allow a certain level of market

112、 interoperability.Referring to the emissions intensity of hydrogen production in regulations and certifications,based on a common methodology for determining the emissions,in line with the recommendations of the IEAs report for the 2023 G7 Climate,Energy and Environment Ministerial meeting,Towards h

113、ydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity,can facilitate the mutual recognition of certificates.Quickly address regulatory barriers,particularly for project licensing and permitting The presence of a clear and stable regulatory framework must be balanced with a dynamic approach,calibrat

114、ed to regular market monitoring,trying to make regulatory principles workable to not discourage investments.Governments should work to make licensing and permitting processes as efficient as possible and to improve co-ordination among different authorities involved in the process,to minimise their s

115、ignificant impact on project lead times,particularly for certain infrastructure developments,such as new pipelines,underground storage and import/export terminals.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Executive summary PAGE|17 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Support project developers to maintain momentum during the inflation

116、ary period and to extend regional reach Governments can take action with interventions that respond to near-term financial risks including loan guarantees,export credit facilities or public equity investment in projects,to help project developers that are struggling with increases in costs for equip

117、ment and capital.In addition,advanced economies need to raise concessional finance-beyond their recent commitments-and boost co-operation to facilitate the development of first-of-a-kind projects in emerging markets and developing economies,including through rapid standardisation of contract templat

118、es to overcome the unfamiliarity of parties with this new sector.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter1.Introduction PAGE|18 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1.Introduction Overview The global energy landscape is undergoing a remarkable shift as the world endeavours to combat climate change and enhance energy s

119、ecurity by transitioning to cleaner,more sustainable energy sources.In this context,low-emission hydrogen2 has emerged as an important tool for decarbonising sectors in which emissions are hard to abate.The recent global energy crisis has also given more impetus to low-emission hydrogen as a means t

120、o bolster energy security.As a result,governments have strengthened their commitments to achieve net zero emissions,and low-emission hydrogen has become an integral part of their plans.In addition,some major economies have recently adopted new industrial strategies,with hydrogen technologies as a ke

121、y element.Yet despite this momentum,there are still significant challenges that must be addressed to unlock the potential of low-emission hydrogen.This edition of the IEA Global Hydrogen Review tracks progress in the hydrogen sector,focusing on the role of low-emission hydrogen as a vital driver of

122、the clean energy transition.By analysing recent developments and identifying areas requiring attention,the report seeks to inform governments,industries and other stakeholders on the path needed to ensure hydrogen can play its role in the transition to a sustainable energy system.First,we consider t

123、he status of hydrogen use and production today.Global hydrogen use is increasing,but demand remains concentrated in traditional uses in refining and the chemical industry and most production is still based on unabated fossil fuels.Low-emission hydrogen production is yet to take off as a mainstream i

124、ndustry.Nonetheless,the chapter on trade and infrastructure reports some encouraging signs.The number of announced projects keeps growing,and hydrogen trade is gaining momentum.However,progress is still lagging in some areas,notably in hydrogen infrastructure and technology innovation.We then go on

125、to consider the landscape for investment and innovation,assessing the impact of inflation on low-emission hydrogen projects.Together with supply chain disruptions,inflation has put some initiatives at risk.Finally,a chapter on policy trends highlights the increasing number of policies and strategies

126、 being announced to support scale-up of low-emission hydrogen.2 See the Explanatory notes annex for the definition of low-emission hydrogen used in this report.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter1.Introduction PAGE|19 I EA.CC BY 4.0.We also consider new regulations relating to hydrogens environmenta

127、l attributes,and the need for international co-operation to ensure certificates are mutually recognised and prevent potential market fragmentation.As this review demonstrates,scaling up low-emission hydrogen production and use will require co-ordinated action by market players and strong government

128、support across multiple fronts.We examine the instruments and policies needed to create favourable conditions for private sector investment and deployment,and how to address barriers currently hindering project development.The Hydrogen Initiative Developed under the Clean Energy Ministerial framewor

129、k,the Hydrogen Initiative(H2I)is a voluntary multi-governmental initiative that aims to advance policies,programmes and projects that accelerate the commercialisation and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies across all areas of the economy.The IEA serves as the H2I co-ordinator to suppo

130、rt member governments as they develop activities aligned with the initiative.H2I currently comprises the following participating governments and intergovernmental entities:Australia,Austria,Brazil,Canada,Chile,the Peoples Republic of China(hereafter“China”),Costa Rica,the European Commission,Finland

131、,Germany,India,Italy,Japan,the Netherlands,New Zealand,Norway,Portugal,Republic of Korea(hereafter“Korea”),Saudi Arabia,South Africa,the United Arab Emirates,the United Kingdom and the United States.Canada,the European Commission,Japan,the Netherlands and the United States co-lead the initiative,whi

132、le China and Italy are observers.H2I is also a platform to co-ordinate and facilitate co-operation among governments,other international initiatives and the industry sector.H2I has active partnerships with the Breakthrough Agenda,the Hydrogen Council,the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fu

133、el Cells in the Economy(IPHE),the International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA),the Mission Innovation Clean Hydrogen Mission,the World Economic Forum,the United Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO),and the IEA Advanced Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology Collaboration Programmes(TCPs),a

134、ll of which are part of the H2I Advisory Group and participate in various activities of the H2I.In addition,several industrial partners actively participate in the H2I Advisory Groups biannual meetings,including Ballard,Enel,Engie,Nel Hydrogen,the Port of Rotterdam Authority and thyssenkrupp nucera.

135、Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|20 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2.Hydrogen use Overview and outlook Global hydrogen use reached 95 Mt in 2022,a nearly 3%increase from our revised estimate for 20213,continuing the growing trend that was only interrupted in 2020 as a consequence of t

136、he Covid-19 pandemic and the economic slowdown.Hydrogen use by sector and by region,historical and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2020-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.“Other”includes buildings and biofuels upgrading.Hydrogen use continues to grow,but rema

137、ins concentrated in traditional applications,such as industry and refining.Hydrogen use has grown strongly in all major consuming regions except Europe.In Europe,hydrogen use suffered a big hit due to reduced activity particularly in the chemical industry as a consequence of the sharp increase in na

138、tural gas prices resulting from the energy crisis sparked by the Russian Federations(hereafter“Russia”)invasion of Ukraine.Several fertiliser plants reduced their production output or even stopped operations for prolonged periods of the year,reducing hydrogen use by nearly 6%in the region.In contras

139、t,North America and the Middle East observed strong growth(around 7%in both cases),which more than compensated the drop in Europe.In China,use grew more modestly(around 3 The estimate of hydrogen demand for 2021 has been revised to 93 Mt from the Global Hydrogen Review 2022(94 Mt),due to adjustments

140、 to historic values in underlying datasets.In addition,in this report we are not including estimations of historical use of hydrogen small demands in glassmaking,electronics and metal processing(which accounted for around 1 Mt for 2021 in the estimate of the Global Hydrogen Review 2022).0 20 40 60 8

141、0 100 120 140 1602020202120222030 NZEMt hydrogenHydrogen use by sector,2020-2030OtherPowerSynfuelsTransportRefiningIndustryNewTraditionalChina29%North America17%Middle East13%India9%Europe8%Rest of world24%Hydrogen use by region,2022Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|21 I EA.CC

142、BY 4.0.0.5%),but the country remains the largest single consumer of hydrogen by far,accounting for nearly 30%of global hydrogen use(more than double that of the second largest consumer,the United States).As in previous years,the growth in global hydrogen use is not a result of hydrogen policies,but

143、rather of global energy trends.Practically all of the increase took place in traditional applications(Box 2.1),mainly refining and the chemical sector,and has been met by increasing production based on unabated fossil fuels(see Chapter 3 Hydrogen production).This means that growth has had no benefit

144、 for climate change mitigation purposes.The uptake of hydrogen in new applications in heavy industry,transport,the production of hydrogen-based fuels or electricity generation and storage which is key for the clean energy transition remains minimal,accounting for less than 0.1%of global demand.In th

145、e updated 2023 edition of the IEAs Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE Scenario),hydrogen use grows by 6%annually until the end of this decade.This implies reaching more than 150 Mt of hydrogen use by 2030,with nearly 40%coming from new applications.4 This chapter presents an overview of progres

146、s in the uptake of hydrogen in different sectors(including traditional and new applications)and assesses options to increase ambition in demand creation for low-emission hydrogen5 in the short term.Box 2.1 Traditional and new applications for hydrogen Hydrogen is widely used today in refining,the ch

147、emical industry(as a feedstock),the steel industry(as a reducing agent)and for special applications in other industries.The evolution of hydrogen use in these applications will be determined by market dynamics in these sectors.In theory,hydrogen can also be used in a wide range of other applications

148、,as a feedstock or reducing agent,and also as a fuel.Hydrogen has not been used at scale in these applications,either due to its lack of competitiveness with incumbent fossil fuels and with other low-emission technology alternatives,or because end-use technologies have not reached commercial maturit

149、y.However,decarbonisation efforts are expected to prompt hydrogen use in some of these new applications,particularly in sectors where emissions are hard to abate and other low-emission technologies are unavailable or very difficult to implement.4 The IEAs forthcoming report Net Zero by 2050:A Roadma

150、p for the Global Energy Sector-2023 Update will present a redesigned NZE Scenario,based on an in-depth,sector-by-sector assessment of the progress and setbacks seen since the release of its landmark report,Net Zero by 2050:A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector,in May 2021.5 See the Explanatory note

151、s annex for the definition of low-emission hydrogen used in this report.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|22 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Tracking hydrogen use alone is not sufficient to assess progress on hydrogen adoption,and particularly whether it is happening in the direction and at the

152、 pace required for hydrogen to play its role in the clean energy transition.It is important to also track the use of hydrogen by application,with a view to assessing the uptake in new applications.For reporting purposes in the IEAs Global Hydrogen Review,we have defined two categories of application

153、s for hydrogen:Traditional applications,including refining;feedstock to produce ammonia,methanol and other chemicals;and as a reducing agent to produce direct reduced iron(DRI)using fossil-based synthetic gas.This category also includes the use of hydrogen in electronics,glassmaking or metal process

154、ing,but these sectors use very small quantities of hydrogen(around 1 Mt per year)and are not included in our tracking.Potential new applications,such as the use of hydrogen as a reducing agent in 100%-hydrogen DRI,transport,production of hydrogen-based fuels(such as ammonia or synthetic hydrocarbons

155、),biofuels upgrading,high-temperature heating in industry,and electricity storage and generation,as well as other applications in which hydrogen use is expected to be very small due to the existence of more efficient low-emission alternatives.Refining Hydrogen use in refining reached more than 41 Mt

156、 in 2022,surpassing its historical maximum from 2018.The largest increase in year-on-year demand came from North America and the Middle East,together accounting for more than 1 Mt,or around three-quarters of global growth in 2022(Figure 2.2).China was the only major refining region that reduced its

157、demand for hydrogen(around 0.5 Mt)due to a decrease in refinery throughput as a consequence of extensive pandemic-related mobility restrictions.About 80%of the hydrogen used in refineries was produced onsite at the refineries themselves,with around 55%resulting from dedicated hydrogen production and

158、 the rest being produced as a by-product from different operations,such as naphtha crackers.Less than 1%of the hydrogen used in refineries in 2022 was produced using low-emission technologies.The remaining 20%of hydrogen used was sourced as merchant hydrogen,6 produced externally,and mostly from 6 M

159、erchant hydrogen sourced by refineries is typically produced in plants very close to the refinery,and sometimes even in the same location,but in plants operated by another company,given that hydrogen is not a global commodity today.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|23 I EA.CC B

160、Y 4.0.unabated fossil fuels.The production of hydrogen for use in refining resulted in 240-380 Mt CO2 emitted to the atmosphere in 2022.7 Hydrogen use by region and source of hydrogen for refining,historical and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2019-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:NZE=Net Zero Em

161、issions by 2050 Scenario.Fossil w/o CCUS=fossil fuels without carbon capture,utilisation and storage;Fossil w CCUS=fossil fuels with carbon capture,utilisation and storage.Onsite refers to the production of hydrogen inside refineries,including dedicated captive production and as a by-product of cata

162、lytic reformers.Hydrogen use in refining reached a new record in 2022,but the fall in demand for oil products required to align with the NZE 2050 Scenario would reverse this trend.Meeting the requirements of the NZE Scenario necessitates a reversal in the trend towards increasing demand for oil prod

163、ucts,which will in turn result in lower hydrogen use in refining.Consequently,the use of hydrogen in refining is less than 35 Mt by 2030 in the NZE Scenario.In addition,a larger share of the hydrogen used in refining is met by low-emission hydrogen,which accounts for more than 15%of hydrogen use in

164、2030 in the NZE Scenario.The use of low-emission hydrogen in refining can offer an accessible route to create large demand for low-emission hydrogen and facilitate the scale-up of production,given that it involves a like-for-like substitution rather than a fuel switch.However,use of low-emission hyd

165、rogen in refineries has been limited to date,and is progressing slowly as a consequence of its higher production costs when compared with hydrogen produced from unabated fossil fuels(see Chapter 3 Hydrogen production)and the lack of policy action to promote its adoption(see Creating demand for low-e

166、mission hydrogen).In 2022,around 250 kt of low-emission hydrogen were used in refineries,practically the same amount as in 2021,given that only a couple of small electrolysis pilot projects(2.4 MW and 7 The range reflects different emission allocation of by-product hydrogen production.This excludes

167、upstream and midstream emissions for fossil fuel supply.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4520192020202120222030NZEMt hydrogenUse by regionNorth AmericaChinaMiddle EastEuropeIndiaOther AsiaRest of worldGlobal 2030 NZE0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4520192020202120222030NZESource of hydrogen Onsite-by-productOnsite

168、-fossil w/o CCUSOnsite-fossil w CCUSOnsite-electricityMerchantGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|24 I EA.CC BY 4.0.50 kW of installed capacity)started operating in the year(Figure 2.3).Almost all the low-emission hydrogen used in refining in 2022 was produced in four facilities

169、using fossil fuels with CCUS that were already in operation in refineries in Canada and the United States8.An increase in the use of low-emission hydrogen in refining can be expected in 2023.In July,Sinopec put into operation the worlds largest electrolysis plant in Kuqa,China,(260 MW),which will pr

170、oduce 20 kt of low-emission hydrogen to supply Tahe refinery.However,there are only a limited number of announced projects aiming to produce low-emission hydrogen in refineries to replace hydrogen produced from unabated fossil fuels.If all the announced projects are realised on time,1.3 Mt of low-em

171、ission hydrogen will be produced and used in refineries by 2030,with around 1.1 Mt being produced from fossil fuels with CCUS and 0.2 Mt from electrolysis.9 This represents an increase of around 6%compared to the potential production coming from projects announced when the Global Hydrogen Review 202

172、2 was released.Most of this increase is from projects aiming to produce hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS.The increase from the very few new announcements by projects aiming to produce hydrogen through electrolysis was nearly cancelled out entirely by pauses in projects that had previously been a

173、nnounced.10 As noted above,the use of merchant hydrogen in refineries is a common practice today and could provide an alternative route to increase the supply of low-emission hydrogen in refineries.This option is being explored by refinery operators and some off-take agreements have already been sig

174、ned,such as between Vertex Hydrogen and Essar Oil to use hydrogen produced from fossil fuels with CCUS in the Stanlow refinery(United Kingdom).From an analysis of announced projects,we estimate that an additional 0.7 Mt of low-emission hydrogen could be supplied to refineries by 2030.11 In the NZE S

175、cenario,more than 4 Mt of low-emission hydrogen are produced and used in refineries by 2030,with around two-thirds produced from electrolysis and low-emission electricity,and one-third from fossil fuels with CCUS.Announced projects therefore meet only around 25%of the NZE Scenarios requirements.The

176、gap with the NZE Scenario is significantly larger in the case of announced projects to produce hydrogen from electrolysis,which meet less than 10%of the NZE requirements.In the case of fossil fuels with CCUS,announced projects account 8 There are two more facilities in operation in France and the Ne

177、therlands,but these produce hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCU,which is not considered as low-emission hydrogen for the purpose of this report.9 This could increase to 1.4 Mt(1.15 Mt from fossil fuels and CCUS and 0.25 Mt from electrolysis)with the inclusion of projects at a very early stage of dev

178、elopment,e.g.only a co-operation agreement among stakeholders has been announced.10 Argus direct(2023),Phillips 66,Orsted pause UK green hydrogen plan.11 This could increase to 1 Mt with the inclusion of projects at a very early stage of development,e.g.only a co-operation agreement among stakeholde

179、rs has been announced.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|25 I EA.CC BY 4.0.for around three-quarters of the NZE needs.Moreover,the use of fossil fuels with CCUS in refineries can count on an important head start since projects operating today are already able to meet 15%of the o

180、nsite production from fossils with CCUS in the NZE Scenario requirements.Onsite production of low-emission hydrogen for refining by technology,region and status,historical and from announced projects,2020-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and storage;FID=projects that have at

181、least taken a final investment decision;GHR 2022=Global Hydrogen Review 2022;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.Only planned projects with a disclosed start year of operation are included.GHR 2022 shows the estimated production of low-emission hydrogen from projects that were included in IEA Hy

182、drogen Projects Database as of August 2022.Source:IEA Hydrogen Projects,(Database,October 2023 release).Based on announced projects,1.3 Mt of low-emission hydrogen could be produced in refineries by 2030,meeting one-quarter of low-emission onsite production needs in the NZE Scenario.In terms of matu

183、rity,around 10%of the announced projects to produce hydrogen from electrolysis to be used in refining have at least taken a final investment decision(FID),whereas no FIDs have been taken for projects to produce hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS.As last year,Europe remains the region with the most

184、 projects,followed by North America and China.Industry Of the 53 Mt of hydrogen used in industry in 2022,about 60%was for ammonia production,30%for methanol and 10%for DRI in the iron and steel subsector(Figure 2.4).Virtually all hydrogen used in industry is produced from unabated fossil fuels in th

185、e same facilities as where it is used.Carbon capture is a common practice in some industry sub-sectors,although most of the 140 Mt of CO2 captured is used for other industrial applications(such as urea production)and ends up being released,with only a handful of projects storing CO2 underground.0.00

186、.51.01.52.02.53.03.5ByregionBystatusNZE2020202120222030Mt hydrogenElectrolysisNorth AmericaEuropeChinaOtherGHR22By region:0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.5ByregionBystatusNZE2020202120222030Fossil fuels with CCUS2022FIDFeasibiliyConceptBy status:Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|26 I EA

187、.CC BY 4.0.As a result,industrial hydrogen production was responsible for 680 Mt of CO2 emissions in 2022,up 2%from 2021.12 Hydrogen use in industry by subsector and by region and source of hydrogen,historical and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2019-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:DRI=Direct Re

188、duced Iron;Fossil w/CCS=fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage;Fossil w/CCU=fossil fuels with carbon capture and use;Fossil w/o CCUS=fossil fuels without carbon capture,utilisation and storage;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.Ammonia and methanol exclude fuel applications.Other includes

189、 dedicated hydrogen production for high-temperature heat applications.Sources:IEA analysis based on data from International Fertilizer Association,World Steel Association and Wood Mackenzie.Hydrogen use in industry increased 2%in 2022 to reach 53 Mt,mostly concentrated in ammonia,methanol and steel

190、production,but a 4%annual growth rate would be necessary to align with the NZE Scenario.Global hydrogen use in industry in 2022 increased by 2%compared with 2021,driven by global demand for ammonia rising by 0.4%,for methanol by 5%and for DRI by 4%,although growth rates were lower than the average o

191、f the previous years.China remains the main consumer of hydrogen in industrial applications,with 35%of global industrial use,followed by the Middle East(14%),North America(10%)and India(9%).Europe was the only major consuming region where hydrogen use in industry fell in 2022,as a consequence of the

192、 energy crisis sparked by Russias invasion of Ukraine.Hydrogen use in industry in Europe decreased 18%in 2022,largely due to a 20%decrease in activity in the ammonia sector,which was particularly impacted by the conflict.At their peak in mid-2022,12 This includes direct emissions from hydrogen produ

193、ction and around 290 Mt of CO2 utilised in the synthesis of urea and methanol,the majority of which is later emitted.This excludes upstream and midstream emissions for fossil fuel supply.0 20 40 60 8020192020202120222030NZEMt hydrogenSource of hydrogenOnsite-fossil w/o CCUSOnsite-fossil w CCUOnsite-

194、fossil w CCSOnsite-electricityOnsite-otherMerchant0%25%50%75%100%0 20 40 60 8020192020202120222030NZEUse by sectorAmmoniaMethanolSteelOtherShare of low emissions(right axis)Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|27 I EA.CC BY 4.0.global ammonia prices had increased six-fold compared

195、 to the 2020 average.However,prices declined during the first half of 2023,and have now returned to their pre-pandemic level.In the NZE Scenario,hydrogen use in industry grows to 70 Mt by 2030.Meeting this need would require a 4%annual increase in production,compared to just 2%over the past 4 years.

196、Furthermore,to meet emission reduction objectives,about one-third of industrial hydrogen production capacity needs to be low-emission by 2030,which would require most of the new capacity to be low-emission,as well as retrofits to some existing stock.Beyond traditional applications in the chemical an

197、d steel sectors,hydrogen use also increases in new industrial applications,particularly 100%-hydrogen DRI and high-temperature heating,which account for 16%of global demand in industry by 2030.Low-emission hydrogen production in industrial plants in 2022 was about 285 kt,up from 240 kt in 2021.More

198、than 90%of this capacity relies on fossil fuels with CCUS with installations spread across North America,the Middle East and China.There has been no significant progress in production of hydrogen from electrolysis since the publication of the GHR 2022,with only three relatively small projects coming

199、 online in 2023,one in Spain(8 MW of electrolysis to replace natural gas with hydrogen),one in Sweden(17 MW of electrolysis for heating steel prior to rolling)and one in India(5 MW of electrolysis for methanol production13).However,the near-term outlook is positive,as projects able to produce more t

200、han 600 kt of low-emission hydrogen are already under construction or have taken an FID.The vast majority are concentrated in Europe(40%),China(28%)and Middle East(24%).The most noteworthy developments since the release of the GHR 2022 are:The Hydrogen Energy Metallurgical Demonstration(China)to pro

201、duce 390 kt of ammonia using electrolysis and renewable electricity,which started construction in April 2023 and aims to begin operation in 2025.A project from OCI aiming to capture 450 kt of CO2 annually from its Iowa(United States)ammonia plant.The first project of H2 Green Steel in Boden(Sweden)w

202、hich will install between 700 and 800 MW of electrolysers to produce more than 100 kt of hydrogen required annually for its steel production.The Hygenco JSL plant(India)which should open in late 2023 and will be the first steel plant using hydrogen from electrolysis and renewable electricity for the

203、 annealing process in the country.13 Platts Hydrogen Daily(2023),INTERVIEW:NTPC Renewables set to place 1 GW of electrolyzer orders by 2026-27.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|28 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Over the past year,numerous additional projects were announced,increasing the expec

204、ted low-emission hydrogen production from fossil fuels with CCUS by 30%and from electrolysis by 50%(Figure 2.5),thus reaching 1.3 Mt and 1.8 Mt of hydrogen production by 2030,respectively14.Some of the newly announced projects include:Dow Stade(Germany),which plans to use around 40 kt of electrolyti

205、c hydrogen to produce 200 kt of methanol annually.Plug Power Kristinestad(Finland),which will install 1 GW of electrolyser capacity to supply a steel DRI plant with about 85 kt of hydrogen per year.Yara Sluiskil plant(Netherlands),which projects capturing 800 kt of CO2 per year from ammonia producti

206、on.Onsite production of low-emission hydrogen for industry applications by technology and status,historical and from announced projects,2020-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and storage;FID=final investment decision;GHR-22=Global Hydrogen Review 2022;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by

207、 2050 Scenario.Projects explicitly using ammonia or methanol as energy carriers are not included.Only projects with a disclosed start year are included.GHR 2022 shows the estimated production of low-emission hydrogen from projects that were available in the IEA Hydrogen Projects Database as of Augus

208、t 2022.Source:IEA analysis based on data from the International Fertilizer Association and IEA Hydrogen Projects,(Database,October 2023 release).Announced projects for the production of low-emission hydrogen in the industrial sector can reach 3 Mt by 2030,roughly one-quarter of low-emission onsite p

209、roduction needs in the NZE Scenario.14 This could increase to a combined 6.7 Mt if projects at a very early stage of development are included,e.g.projects for which only a co-operation agreement among stakeholders has been announced.0123456789BysectorBystatusNZE2020202120222030Mt HFossil fuels with

210、CCUSOperationalFIDFeasibilityConceptBy status:0123456789BysectorBystatusNZE2020202120222030Mt HElectrolysisAmmoniaMethanolSteelOtherGHR-22By sector:Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|29 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Nonetheless,to align with the net zero emissions target,the production of low-

211、emission hydrogen from electrolysis using renewable electricity and fossil fuels with CCUS in the industry sector needs to reach 8.6 and 3.5 Mt of hydrogen,respectively,almost quadrupling the production potential of the current project pipeline.Besides onsite hydrogen production,a significant number

212、 of projects aim to produce merchant hydrogen for delivery to industrial consumers.Merchant hydrogen projects can have certain advantages,such as partnering with multiple industrial clients to spread risk,but transport infrastructure is required.We estimate that these projects could supply an additi

213、onal 0.7 Mt of hydrogen to industrial consumers by 2030 if they can secure off-takers for all their potential production.Some key merchant hydrogen projects include:A project in Ordos(China),where Sinopec is building solar,wind and electrolyser capacity to supply 30 kt of hydrogen per year to nearby

214、 chemical industries.The Catalina Project(Spain),which aims to install 1.1 GW of renewable capacity and 500 MW of electrolysers in 2027 to supply around 40 kt of hydrogen annually to an ammonia plant through a dedicated 221 km pipeline.The HyDeal project(Spain),which is developing 4.8 GW of solar an

215、d 3.3 GW of electrolyser capacity by 2030 to supply hydrogen to steel and ammonia producers.The NorthH2 Project(Netherlands),which targets an electrolyser capacity of 1 GW in 2027 and 4 GW by 2030 to supply more than 300 kt of hydrogen to industries across the region.Transport Hydrogen use in road t

216、ransport increased by around 45%in 2022 compared to 2021(Figure 2.6),albeit from a relatively low starting point.Fuel cell electric vehicles(FCEVs)saw the earliest successes in terms of vehicle sales,in the car and bus segments,but as heavy-duty fuel cell truck sales increase,their share of total co

217、nsumption is increasing rapidly.Chinas focus on heavy-duty vehicles,and outsized role in the deployment of fuel cell trucks,means that although only 20%of all FCEVs are in China,they consume more than half of the hydrogen used in road transport.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE

218、|30 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Hydrogen consumption in road transport by vehicle segment and region,2020-2022 Notes:RoW=Rest of World;US=United States.Commercial vehicles include light commercial vehicles and medium-and heavy-duty trucks.Assumptions on annual mileage and fuel economy have been updated to match

219、the IEA Global Energy and Climate Model.Hydrogen use in road transport increased by around 45%in 2022,albeit from a low base,driven mainly by increased use from heavy-duty vehicles.The vast majority of hydrogen use in transport will likely remain in the road sector for years to come,but rail is also

220、 adding to hydrogen consumption as hydrogen trains are being trialled and adopted along more routes.In addition,several fuel cell ferries are beginning operation in 2023,which will further diversify hydrogen use for transport applications.Orders for ammonia-and methanol15-ready vessels could also re

221、sult in additional hydrogen use for shipping in the coming years if these technologies reach commercial maturity.In the NZE Scenario,the use of synthetic kerosene and even the direct use of hydrogen as an aviation fuel in later years add to hydrogen use in transport.To get on track with the NZE Scen

222、ario,it will be important to accelerate the adoption of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels and advance technologies that are today still pre-commercial.In the NZE Scenario in 2030,almost 8 Mt of hydrogen is used directly in transport,mostly in the road(50%)and shipping(45%)sectors.In addition,around

223、8 Mt of hydrogen are used for the production of ammonia and synthetic fuels for their use in shipping and aviation.15 Low-emission methanol can be biomethanol or synthetic methanol(e-methanol),but only the latter contributes to hydrogen demand.5101520253035202020212022kt hydrogenCarsBusesCommercial

224、vehicles202020212022ChinaEuropeUSJapanKoreaRoWGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|31 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Fuel cell electric vehicle stock by segment and region,2019-2023 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:RoW=Rest of World;US=United States.Includes data until June 2023 for the current year.Sources:A

225、dvanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme;Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership;Koreas Ministry of Trade,Industry and Energy monthly automobile updates;Chinese vehicle insurance registration data,International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy and Clean Energy Ministerial H

226、ydrogen Initiative country surveys.The global fleet of FCEVs is closing in on 80 000,with Korea remaining the major market for cars and China for trucks.Cars and vans By the end of 2022,the stock of fuel cell cars and vans exceeded 58 000,an almost 40%increase compared to the previous year,and has r

227、eached around 63 000 in the first half of 2023(Figure 2.7).16 About 15 000 fuel cell cars were sold in 2022,with Korea representing around two-thirds of that increase.The first half of 2023 saw something of a slowdown in the country,with fewer than 3 000 units sold,compared to almost 4 900 during th

228、e same timeframe the previous year,despite government plans to subsidise 16 000 fuel cell cars in 2023.Nevertheless,Korea remains the largest fuel cell car market in the world,with a stock of over 32 000 fuel cell cars as of the first half of 2023.The second largest market is the United States,with

229、around 16 000 fuel cell cars on the road.While Japan is still home to the third largest stock of fuel cell cars,fewer than 1 000 units were sold in the country in 2022,meaning that Europe experienced higher growth with almost 1 500 additions.China added more than 200 fuel cell cars in 2022,which is

230、remarkable given that the country has over the past few years only deployed FCEVs in heavier segments.As of June 2023,China is home to the majority of fuel cell light commercial vehicles,with over 800 units deployed.16 The deployment of fuel cell cars remains significantly lower than that of battery

231、 electric cars,which reached a global stock of over 18 million in 2022.1020304050607080902019202020212022Jun-23Thousand vehiclesCarsBusesCommercial vehicles2019202020212022Jun-23KoreaUSChinaJapanEuropeRoWGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|32 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Reflecting Koreas domi

232、nance in domestic fuel cell car sales,Hyundais Nexo represented the best-selling fuel cell car(10 000)in 2022;Toyotas Mirai came in second(3 200).Both the SAIC EUNIQ7 and Honda Clarity sold around 200 fuel cell cars in 2022,despite Honda discontinuing production of their fuel cell car in 2021.BMW al

233、so began small-series production of the iX5 Hydrogen fuel cell car in 2022,launching their pilot fleet internationally at the beginning of 2023.More fuel cell light-duty vehicle models are expected to enter the market in the future.Honda has announced a new fuel cell vehicle,based on their CR-V cros

234、sover sports utility vehicle(SUV),which will begin production in 2024 in the United States.NamX,a Moroccan start-up,has presented a prototype fuel cell SUV that can be fuelled in part by replaceable hydrogen capsules,with plans to launch in 2026.Kia,Koreas second largest carmaker,aims to release fue

235、l cell cars starting from 2027.Additionally,both Porsche and Toyota have developed prototype hydrogen cars using combustion engines,highlighting their multi-technology approaches.However,FCEVs are very much a minority technology with companies such as Volkswagen focusing instead on battery electric

236、vehicles.The French start-up Hopium had plans to produce a luxury fuel cell sedan to enter the market in 2025,but instead entered receivership in July 2023.In the light-commercial segment,new entrants First Hydrogen began trialling their“Generation I”fuel cell van in 2023,with plans to launch a seco

237、nd generation vehicle in the coming years.RONN Motor Group has also announced plans to manufacture fuel cell delivery vans,as well as medium-duty trucks.In terms of established names,Ford has announced a fuel cell van trial in the United Kingdom.Trucks The stock of fuel cell trucks has grown faster

238、than light-duty vehicles,increasing over 60%in 2022 to bring the total to more than 7 100 by the end of the year.In the first half of 2023,the stock reached more than 8 000.17 The vast majority of sales took place in China,which now accounts for over 95%of fuel cell trucks globally,driven largely by

239、 a more than fivefold increase in heavy-duty fuel cell trucks from the end of 2021 to June 2023 thanks to favourable policy and supporting infrastructure.Fuel cell trucks are also being proven in practical use outside of China,with Hyundais Xcient accumulating 5 million km in Switzerland since 2020,

240、with operations now also in Germany,Korea and New Zealand.According to CALSTARTs Zero-Emission Technology Inventory(ZETI)there were around 20 medium-and heavy-duty fuel cell truck models available in 2022,with a handful additional models planned for 2023.17 For comparison,there were around 300 000 b

241、attery electric medium-and heavy-duty trucks globally at the end of 2022.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|33 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In Europe,there have been a number of announcements for orders of fuel cell trucks,such as from German energy company GP Joule,which ordered 100 Nikola T

242、re FCEVs(30 to be delivered within 2024);a SINTEF-led H2Accelerate project in which 150 trucks will be deployed in Europe;and H2X Global winning the tender to provide trucks for waste management in Gothenburg,Sweden.Additionally,smaller announcements have come from companies such as Dura Vermeer,and

243、 from Scania,which will be delivering fuel cell trucks in Switzerland.Shell have launched a“pay-as-you-go”scheme in Germany similar to that offered by Hyundai in Switzerland.Progress appears slower in the United States,though Hyundai is starting operations in the United States and Israel in 2023.Act

244、ivity is also increasing with respect to hydrogen combustion,which allows for retrofitting of diesel engines,as done by Technocarb and CMB.TECH.The latter anticipate converting up to 20 trucks per month.Cummins also revealed a concept hydrogen combustion truck,suggesting that India may be the market

245、 most suited to this approach,which was later echoed in announcements by Tata Motors and JBC.New Zealand is also trialling hydrogen combustion,though in dual-fuel vehicles.Buses The stock of fuel cell buses grew similarly to that of light-duty vehicles,with around a 40%increase in 2022 compared with

246、 the previous year.As of June 2023,there are around 7 00018 fuel cell buses worldwide,about 85%of which are located in China,which added around 1 300 fuel cell buses in 2022.Europe has the second largest stock,followed by Korea and then the United States.Compared to trucks,there are fewer companies

247、producing fuel cell buses,with under 20 in CALSTARTs ZETI,though companies often produce a number of variations for different applications.Of those,just Foton(China)and Hyzon(United States)are producing coaches,and the others manufacturing transit buses,with no new models slated for 2023.Germany,in

248、particular,has seen a number of stakeholders opt for FCEVs,such as Deutsche Bahn,which approved the purchase of 60 fuel cell buses,as well as the cities of Weimar and Frankfurt.Other projects are underway in Liverpool in the United Kingdom,where the first of 20 planned fuel cell buses came into serv

249、ice in 2023,and in Brazil and Uruguay where the Chinese manufacturer Higer is trialling fuel cell buses.The largest announcements come from Korea,where 700 fuel cell 18 For comparison,there were around 650 000 battery electric buses at the end of 2022.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen u

250、se PAGE|34 I EA.CC BY 4.0.buses will be deployed in Incheon by the end of 2024,and 1 300 in Seoul by 2030,partially funded through a subsidy scheme.Hydrogen refuelling stations Globally,there are around 1 100 hydrogen refuelling stations(HRS)19 in operation as of June 2023,with hundreds more station

251、s planned.Of the existing stations,well over 300 are in China,with Europe having around 250 HRS and both Korea and Japan having around 180(Figure 2.8).In the United States,the stock of HRS has increased by only 10%since 2019.Given that the fleet of FCEVs has increased at a higher rate,the ratio of F

252、CEVs to HRS has increased steadily over this time frame,reaching almost 240 vehicles per station in June 2023.Since 2019,the ratio of FCEVs per station in Korea has remained between 140 and 200.Other major markets(i.e.China,Japan and Europe)have fewer than 50 FCEVs per HRS.Hydrogen refuelling statio

253、ns by region and ratio of fuel cell electric vehicles to refuelling stations,2019-June 2023 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:FCEV=fuel cell electric vehicle;RoW=rest of world;US=United States.The number of hydrogen refuelling stations refers to both public(retail)and private stations.Includes data until June 2023

254、 for the current year.Sources:Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme,H2stations.org by LBST,International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy and Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative country surveys.In 2022,the number of hydrogen refuelling stations surpass

255、ed 1 000 for the first time.With policy support from the EU Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation,which mandates HRS every 200 km along major road networks and in all urban nodes from 2030 onwards,there are plans to expand the hydrogen refuelling network in 19 This includes only HRS for road m

256、obility applications and excludes refuelling points for non-road applications such as forklifts.0 400 8001 2002019202020212022June2023Number of hydrogen refuelling stationsChinaEuropeKoreaJapanUSRoWGlobal0 100 200 3002019202020212022June2023Ratio of FCEVs to refuelling stationsGlobal Hydrogen Review

257、 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|35 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Europe,especially to serve the growing fuel cell truck fleet.TotalEnergies and Air Liquide are forming a joint venture to develop heavy-duty HRS focusing on Benelux,France and Germany,with the aim of deploying over 100 stations.H2 Mobility aims to

258、more than double its network by 2030,adding 210 stations across Germany and Austria to the existing 90 today.Italy will fund the construction of 36 HRS.However,there have also been steps backwards in HRS deployment in Europe,with Shell closing their three HRS in the United Kingdom.In the United Stat

259、es,hydrogen and electric truck-maker Nikola was awarded almost USD 42 million to establish 6 HRS in California,each capable of refuelling 80-100 trucks per day.In 2023,Nikola also launched a 700 bar mobile refueller with almost 1 t of storage.Despite fewer announcements,the expansion of the HRS netw

260、ork was strongest in Asia in 2022,and this will likely be the case again in 2023.For example,SK Plug Hyverse,a joint venture between SK E&S and Plug Power,will establish around 40 HRS in Korea,while Shanghai,China intends to build 70 HRS by 2025.Locating hydrogen refuelling infrastructure at ports o

261、pens up the opportunity to provide hydrogen to a variety of potential users beyond trucks,such as forklifts and container stackers.The Port of Valencia,supported by the H2Ports project,provides such an example;elsewhere the Port of Hamburg has contracted Linde Engineering to build a compressed hydro

262、gen refuelling station expected to begin operations in 2023.Air Products will build a commercial-scale liquid hydrogen refuelling station in the Port of Zeebrugge,Belgium.In the United States,ports are bidding to receive support to become“clean”hydrogen hubs.Manufacturing capacity is scaling up To c

263、apitalise on growing demand for mobile fuel cells,Hyundai opened its first hydrogen fuel cell production facility outside of Korea in 2023,in Guangzhou,China.Developments are also being seen in manufacturing of components in different regions.For example,Germany-based EKPO will invest in a new produ

264、ction site following a large order for bipolar plates.Other announcements come from Hexagon Purus,which opened a new hydrogen storage cylinder factory in the United States and broke ground on a new smaller factory in Canada.Ballard are aiming to reduce the cost of their next generation bipolar plate

265、 by up to 70%by investing in their Canadian facility,while also planning a membrane electrode assembly plant in Shanghai,supplying customers such as Siemens Mobility.Capacity additions in 2022,together with a revised outlook for FCEV deployment in the NZE Scenario,mean that the gap to 2030 continues

266、 to close and mobile fuel cell manufacturers could meet 70%of what is needed in the NZE Scenario in 2030(Figure 2.9).Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|36 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Mobile fuel cell manufacturing capacity by country/region according to announced projects and in the Net Zero

267、 Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario;RoW=rest of world.Announced capacity includes existing capacity.The manufacturing capacity needed to meet projected demand in the NZE Scenario(NZE demand)is estimated assuming a utilisation rate of 85%.

268、NZE residual capacity represents the manufacturing capacity that would remain unused,on average,which provides some flexibility to accommodate demand fluctuations.Capacities in 2022 and announced capacities include material handling equipment and other transport applications;NZE demand for fuel cell

269、s is based on fuel cell vehicles only.Sources:IEA analysis based on data from E4tech and company announcements.Expansion projects indicate a fourfold increase in fuel cell manufacturing for mobility applications,reaching 70%of what is needed in 2030 in the NZE Scenario.Progress in non-road transport

270、 sectors Rail One of the largest orders for fuel cell trains comes from Italy,which is allocating EUR 24 million(USD 25 million)for rolling stock,and EUR 276 million(USD 290 million)for hydrogen production and supply,with specific lines identified and projects to have been completed by June 2026.In

271、Germany,Alstoms hydrogen trains have progressed from trials to deployment,with 36 fuel cell trains in operation as of June 2023.They can now travel 1 175 km on a single refuel,with a line outside of Hamburg now set to be the first all-hydrogen service.Siemens Mobility also received an order for seve

272、n hydrogen trains in 2022,with deliveries expected by Q3/Q4 2024.Passenger hydrogen trains are also beginning trials in Canada,Spain and Japan.Arriva Netherlands launched a tender for four to six hydrogen trains,after successfully trialling them in 2020.0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1402022Announced2030 NZE

273、GW/yearChinaEuropeNorth AmericaAsia PacificRoWNZE demandNZE residual capacityGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|37 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Hydrogen is also progressing in freight:Canadian Pacific used a hydrogen-powered locomotive on a commercial run in November 2022,and China also saw i

274、ts first domestic use of hydrogen in rail starting with freight.However,several stakeholders who previously committed to hydrogen have instead opted for electric trains,citing lower operating costs.Shipping The Global Maritime Forum has identified pilot and demonstration projects for zero-emission v

275、essel technologies,of which over 50 each focus on ammonia combustion and hydrogen fuel cells,30 on methanol and 25 on hydrogen combustion.In terms of numbers of Approvals in Principle20,ammonia vessel designs have seen the most progress over 2022 and 2023.In July 2023,the European Union adopted a ne

276、w regulation,FuelEU maritime,to increase use of low-carbon fuels in shipping with special incentives for non-biological fuels such as from low-carbon hydrogen.In March 2023,the first liquid hydrogen ferry,the MF Hydra,began operation in Norway,using zero-emission hydrogen,and PowerCell signed an agr

277、eement to provide their fuel cell system to two additional ferries in Norway set to be delivered in late 2024.In the same month,another hydrogen ferry,the Sea Change,became the first commercial maritime boat in the United States to be powered by hydrogen fuel cells.A hydrogen-powered barge was launc

278、hed in the Netherlands,with a second retrofit underway.In addition,Damen Shipyards will produce two hydrogen-powered vessels for use in offshore wind farm construction,which are set to be delivered in 2025.Aviation Sustainable aviation fuels(SAFs),including low-emission hydrogen-based fuels such as

279、synthetic kerosene,are at the highest levels of technology readiness compared with other potential solutions for aviation decarbonisation.Synthetic kerosene is a drop-in fuel that can directly replace fossil jet fuel without any technology switch.This can facilitate its uptake,since technology barri

280、ers are small and there are already some off-take agreements in place by aviation companies(see Creating demand for low-emission hydrogen).However,its high production cost is still a very significant barrier,which limits the scale of uptake and hinders project developers from taking FIDs(see the Cha

281、pter 3 Hydrogen production).In April 2023,the European Union provisionally agreed to implement ReFuelEU,an initiative aimed at decarbonising the aviation sector.The proposal 20 As stated in the report by the Global Maritime Forum,“Approval in Principle”refers to the evaluation and approval of a conc

282、ept in its initial design stages,confirming its technical feasibility and moving it into further development stages.”Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|38 I EA.CC BY 4.0.includes a sub-mandate on the use of synthetic fuels,including synthetic kerosene.Most announcements regardin

283、g the direct use of hydrogen come from newer entrants,such as Universal Hydrogen,which successfully completed a hydrogen powered flight in 2023,and ZeroAvia,which continues testing and advancing its hydrogen powertrain,and is also partnering with Absolut Hydrogen to develop liquid hydrogen refuellin

284、g infrastructure by 2027.Cranfield Aerospace Solutions and aircraft manufacturer Britten-Norman have announced the intention to merge their operations with the aim of creating the worlds first fully integrated,zero-emission sub-regional aircraft for entry into service in 2026.Other companies advanci

285、ng this technology in 2022 were Avio Aero,and H2Fly.More established players such as Airbus are developing innovative cryogenic hydrogen tanks and,in a joint venture with Safran,are developing hydrogen refuelling facilities at Toulouse for their ZEROe aircraft.Meanwhile,Rolls-Royce has continued tes

286、ting hydrogen jet engines.With respect to commercial agreements,the establishment of a memorandum of understanding(MoU)for a“hydrogen flight corridor”between Hamburg and Rotterdam paves the way for hydrogen flights as early as 2026.Unmanned cargo aircraft company Dymond Aerospace signed an MoU for 2

287、00 hydrogen-powered motors from Duxion Motors;and ZeroAvia have received orders for 250 powertrains for US regional airline Air Cahana in California.Other applications The use of fuel cell material handling equipment(e.g.forklifts)has continued to expand.For example,at the end of 2022 there were ove

288、r 60 000 fuel cell forklifts in operation in the United States,compared to around 50 000 the previous year.Hydrogen applications in mining trucks are gaining momentum,with 120 kW proton exchange membrane(PEM)fuel cells and hydrogen-electric conversion of 2 wheeled excavators by zepp.solutions being

289、deployed in India.Ballard are also supplying fuel cells for retrofitting mining trucks,receiving orders in March and June of 2023.JCB has had its hydrogen-powered digger approved by the UK government and it will be seen on construction sites in 2023.Hydrogen continues to be an attractive option for

290、various port operations,with recent examples including testing of a hydrogen fuel cell container stacker at the Port of Los Angeles in late 2022 and launch of the worlds first hydrogen dual-fuel straddle carrier at the Port of Antwerp in March 2023.The Port of Aberdeen will investigate liquid hydrog

291、en-fuelled autonomous cargo ships in 2024.More niche applications are also being investigated,as Kawasaki,Suzuki,Honda and Yamaha have formed the Hydrogen Small mobility and Engine technology Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|39 I EA.CC BY 4.0.(HySE)group to develop engines for

292、 motorcycles,construction equipment,drones and other applications.Buildings The contribution of hydrogen to meeting energy demand in the buildings sector remains negligible,with no significant development in 2022.As part of efforts to meet climate goals,there is a need to shift the use of fossil fue

293、ls in buildings towards low-carbon alternatives,but options such as electrification via heat pumps,district heating,and distributed renewables appear to be well ahead of hydrogen technologies.The use of hydrogen for decarbonisation in the buildings sector is therefore negligible in the NZE Scenario(

294、hydrogen use reaches slightly over 1 Mt by 2030,0.14%of total energy demand in the sector).Under current policies(in the IEA Stated Policies Scenario,STEPS)21,global hydrogen use in buildings reaches just 0.03 Mt by 2030.Hydrogen use in buildings can contribute to some niche applications,such as hea

295、ting old and poorly insulated buildings already connected to a natural gas grid in cold environments.However,due to the energy losses associated with hydrogen conversion,transport and use,hydrogen technologies for use in buildings are much less efficient than other available options,and they require

296、 new or repurposed infrastructure and devices.For instance,electric heat pumps require five to six times less electricity than a boiler running on electrolytic hydrogen to provide the same amount of heating.There has been little progress in 2022 on the deployment of buildings technologies that might

297、 run on hydrogen.Currently,fuel cells in the building sector experienced modest market growth in the past few years,are installed for the most part in Europe,Japan,Korea and United States and predominantly run on fossil fuels(Figure 2.10).In Japan,thanks to the ENE-FARM project,the stock of deployed

298、 fuel cell micro-combined heat and power(CHP)units surpassed 450 000 at end-2022.Across various system sizes of stationary fuel cells,in 2022 the United States had installed capacity of around 600 MW,Japan about 315 MW,Europe around 230 MW and Korea about 20 MW.21 Projections for the STEPS Scenario

299、in this Global Hydrogen Review 2023 are based on modelling results derived from the most recent data and information available from governments,institutions,companies and other sources,as of July 2023.Updates will be included in the World Energy Outlook 2023 to be published in October 2023.Global Hy

300、drogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|40 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Fuel cell stock by region,2021-2022,and hydrogen use in buildings in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,2021-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:H2=Hydrogen.The average fuel cell in Japan is assumed to be around 700 Watts.Sources:IEA analysi

301、s based on International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy and Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative country surveys,Japans Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry,Fuel cells and Hydrogen Observatory and Fuel Cell&Hydrogen Energy Association.Fuel cell deployment in buildin

302、gs showed very limited progress in 2022,with most fuel cells still running on natural gas.Advances in the use of pure hydrogen in buildings are limited to small pilots and demonstration projects.For example,in Lochem,the Netherlands,a pilot was started at the end of 2022 in which 12 historic homes w

303、ere connected to a hydrogen supply and had hydrogen boilers installed to provide heating.In 2023,in Stad aant Haringvliet,more than three-quarters of residents voted in favour of switching their heating systems from natural gas to“green”hydrogen22.However,some of these pilots face low social accepta

304、nce.In July 2023,the UK government abandoned plans for a trial to transition the natural gas network to hydrogen in Whitby,Cheshire,citing a lack of community backing as the primary reason.The potential use of hydrogen in buildings is vaguely mentioned in multiple national hydrogen strategies or pla

305、ns.Only Japan has set a concrete target,with 5.3 million micro-CHP fuel cells to be installed by 2030.However,micro-CHP fuel cells can use other fuels,and the target does not explicitly require the equipment to run on hydrogen.22 See Explanatory notes annex for the use of the term“green”hydrogen in

306、this report.0.00%0.15%0.30%0.45%0.60%0 1 2 3 42021202220302050Mt hydrogenHydrogen useH buildings useShare in buildings space heating service demand(rightaxis)0 200 400 600 800202120222021202220212022EuropeJapanUnited StatesMWFuel cell installed capacityGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen

307、use PAGE|41 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Electricity generation Hydrogen as fuel in the power sector is virtually non-existent today,with a share of less than 0.2%in the global electricity generation mix(and largely not from pure hydrogen,but mixed gases containing hydrogen from steel production,refineries or pet

308、rochemical plants).Technologies to use pure hydrogen for electricity generation are commercially available today,with some designs of fuel cells,internal combustion engines(ICE)and gas turbines able to run on hydrogen-rich gases or even pure hydrogen.Using hydrogen in the form of ammonia could be an

309、other option for electricity generation.Co-firing of ammonia in coal-fired power plants has been successfully demonstrated in trials in Japan and China.Ammonia could also become a fuel for gas turbines.The direct use of 100%ammonia was successfully demonstrated in a 2 MW gas turbine in 2022 in Japan

310、,with efforts underway to develop a 40 MW turbine for pure ammonia use.While the use of hydrogen and ammonia can reduce CO2 emissions in power generation,nitrogen oxides(NOx)emissions are a concern.Modern gas turbines today use dry low NOx technologies to manage NOx emissions,allowing hydrogen co-fi

311、ring shares of 30-60%(in volumetric terms)23 depending on the burner design and combustion strategies implemented.R&D activities are underway to develop dry low NOx gas turbines that can handle the full hydrogen blending range of up to 100%.For NOx emissions from ammonia,flue gas treatment technolog

312、ies such as selective catalytic reduction are available and already established for coal power plants.Ammonia combustion can also lead to nitrous oxide(N2O)emissions,a strong GHG,but in the 2 MW demonstration project in Japan it was possible to reduce overall GHG emissions(CO2 and N2O combined)of th

313、e ammonia-fired gas turbine by 99%compared to a gas turbine using natural gas.Projects using hydrogen and ammonia in electricity generation Interest in using hydrogen or ammonia as a fuel in the power sector has been growing over the past few years.Several utilities in North America,Europe and the A

314、sia-Pacific region are exploring the possibility to co-fire hydrogen with natural gas in combined-cycle or open-cycle gas turbines.In Asia,several projects have been announced to explore the use of ammonia in coal-fired power plants.In the near-term,the use of hydrogen and ammonia can reduce the emi

315、ssions from existing plants,while in the longer term power plants running entirely on hydrogen or ammonia can provide flexibility to the electricity system,in combination with 23 Volumetric hydrogen co-firing share of 30%and 60%with natural gas corresponds in energy terms(lower heating values)to sha

316、res of 11%and 31%,respectively.If not stated otherwise,hydrogen shares are on a volumetric basis.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|42 I EA.CC BY 4.0.large-scale hydrogen storage.Projects to combine hydrogen production from renewable electricity with large-scale hydrogen storage

317、 for subsequent reconversion of part of the electricity are under development.For example,in the United States(Advanced Clean Energy Storage and IPP Renewed),gas turbines were delivered in 2022 for a new 840 MW combined-cycle power plant with a hydrogen co-firing share of 30%at start-up in 2025.In t

318、he United Kingdom(Saltend),a project aims to refurbish an existing 1 200 MW natural gas-fired combined heat and power plant for 30%hydrogen co-firing by 2027.The announced projects using hydrogen and ammonia in the power sector could result in an installed capacity of 5 800 MW by 2030,an increase of

319、 65%compared to the corresponding capacity identified in the GHR 2022(Figure 2.11).24 Around 70%of the projects are linked to hydrogen use in open-cycle or combined-cycle gas turbines,while the use of hydrogen in fuel cells accounts for 10%and the co-firing of ammonia in coal-fired power plants for

320、3%of the capacity of announced projects.Regionally,these projects are principally located in the Asia-Pacific region(39%),Europe(36%)and North America(25%).Capacity in power generation using hydrogen and ammonia by region,historical and from announced projects,2019-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Values for

321、 2023 are estimates,assuming plants with an announced start date in 2023 actually start operation in 2023.Hydrogen and ammonia-fired power generation capacity could approach 5 800 MW by 2030 based on project announcements,principally from hydrogen co-fired in combined-cycle gas turbines.24 In the ca

322、se of co-firing hydrogen or ammonia,the capacity corresponds to the total installed capacity multiplied by the co-firing share in energy terms.01 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 000MWTotal installed capacity by regionNorth AmericaEuropeAsia-Pacific01 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 000MWTotal installed capacity b

323、y technologyUnknownFuel cellInternal combustion engineSteam cycleGas turbineCombined-cycle gas turbineGlobal Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|43 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In addition,several utilities announced plans to build new gas power plants or to upgrade existing gas power plants to be H2

324、-ready,i.e.able to co-fire a certain share of hydrogen.In most cases,concrete dates for starting co-firing have not been announced.The hydrogen share of this H2-ready announced capacity would correspond to 3 400 MW,although this number most likely represents a lower range,based on projects for which

325、 information on the hydrogen co-firing capability has been released.Other new planned gas-fired power plants are also likely to be able to co-fire a certain amount of hydrogen,but no information has been made available.Similarly,existing gas-fired power plants are also able to handle certain shares

326、of hydrogen,varying from 10%to 100%,depending on the gas turbine design.25 Based on available information on the installed existing gas turbines and their maximum hydrogen blending shares from gas turbine manufacturers,the hydrogen-fired capacity from existing gas turbines could amount to more than

327、70 GW globally26.Again,this represents a lower bound,since detailed information was only available for 465 GW of the existing gas-fired capacity.In addition to the growing number of announced projects,several demonstration projects have made progress since the GHR 2022,particularly in Asia:In July 2

328、023,in Korea,Hanwha Impact achieved a 60%hydrogen co-firing share in an 80 MW gas turbine,the largest share to date in mid-to-large gas turbines.In Austria,first trials of co-firing hydrogen in an existing 395 MW gas-fired combined heat and power plant started in July 2023,with the goal to achieve a

329、 15%hydrogen co-firing share in continuous operation.In the United States,a 38%hydrogen co-firing share was demonstrated in 2023 at an existing 753 MW combined-cycle power plant.For ICEs,earlier this year the manufacturer Wartsil,together with WEC Energy,demonstrated a 25%hydrogen co-firing share in

330、 an unmodified ICE.New ICEs able to run on pure hydrogen are already offered by manufacturers.The Japanese utility JERA moved forward plans by one year to start the 20%co-firing of ammonia at its Hekinan coal power plant in the fiscal year 2023(ending March 2024).In April 2023 the utility Kyushu(Jap

331、an)started ammonia co-firing trials at a 700 MW unit of its Reihoku coal power plant.In China,the Anhui Province Energy Group has completed trials of 10-35%co-firing of ammonia at a 300 MW unit of its Wanneng Tongling coal power plant over a 3-month period.The company plans further trials of 50%ammo

332、nia co-firing at a 1 GW coal unit.25 Other factors,such as the capability of the gas supply pipes and valves to handle certain hydrogen blending shares are not considered here,but are,of course,critical to assessing specific plants.26 Derived by taking the maximum co-firing share multiplied by the t

333、otal capacity for individual plants.Global Hydrogen Review 2023 Chapter 2.Hydrogen use PAGE|44 I EA.CC BY 4.0.The State Power Investment Corporation(China)is working on a demonstration project to test pure hydrogen firing in a 1.7 MW gas turbine by the end of 2023.Policy developments for hydrogen in the power sector Since the release of the GHR 2022,several countries have announced or updated poli