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1、World Energy Outlook Special ReportThe Oil and Gas Industry in Net Zero TransitionsINTERNATIONAL ENERGYAGENCYIEA member countries:Australia Austria BelgiumCanadaCzech Republic DenmarkEstoniaFinland France Germany Greece HungaryIreland ItalyJapanKoreaLithuania Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealan

2、d NorwayPoland Portugal Slovak Republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of Trkiye United Kingdom United StatesThe European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:Argentina BrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaKenyaMoroccoSenegalSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkraineThe

3、 IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,afford

4、ability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,13 association countries and beyond.Please note that this publication is subject to specific restrictions that limit its use and distribution.The terms and conditions are available online at www.iea.org/termsThis publication and any map

5、 included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.orgForeword 3 Foreword In the energy and climat

6、e worlds,everyone has an opinion about the role of the oil and gas industry in the transition to net zero emissions.For some,the conclusion is unambiguous.The oil and gas industry is an obstacle to change,so successful transitions require relegating oil and gas companies to history.For others,the ca

7、pabilities and capital the industry holds can be instruments of change potentially important ones.Perspectives on this issue are complicated by the size and diversity of the industry itself.There are many different companies engaged in oil and gas,from small independent firms to huge national oil co

8、mpanies from technology providers to market traders.And there are many different stances across the industry on energy transitions,from outright opposition through to grudging acceptance and,in some cases,active pursuit of new opportunities.A productive discussion on this crucial topic requires a so

9、lid evidence base and dispassionate analysis.This is what the International Energy Agency(IEA)provides in this new special report.It is by no means our first such in-depth analysis of the sector:we have published a range of useful studies over the years that have highlighted the urgent need for chan

10、ge,most notably The Oil and Gas Industry in Energy Transitions,in January 2020.This new special report brings together,updates and expands that analysis in ways that make this the most comprehensive and authoritative work on this topic to date.Since 2020,important changes have taken place in the glo

11、bal energy sector as the world has contended with the turmoil of the Covid-19 pandemic and the global energy crisis and as an increasing number of governments have raised their climate ambitions and launched major policy initiatives to accelerate clean energy transitions.As a result,we have seen a 4

12、0%increase in clean energy investment and impressive momentum in key technologies such as solar PV,wind and electric vehicles.This means that for the first time,we see peaks in demand for all of the fossil fuels before 2030,based on todays policy settings.These settings are not yet strong enough to

13、deliver steep declines in demand on the other side of the peaks.However,if governments deliver in full on their national energy and climate pledges,and even more so if they manage to shift the world onto the narrow pathway to limiting global warming to 1.5 C,the consequences for the oil and gas indu

14、stry will be profound.This report shows that the industry can and must do much more to respond to the threat of climate change.Regardless of which pathway the world follows,climate impacts will become more visible and severe over the coming years,increasing the pressure on all elements of society to

15、 find solutions.The industry therefore faces a choice a moment of truth over its engagement with clean energy transitions.So far,its engagement has been minimal:less than 1%of global clean energy investment comes from oil and gas companies.But there is no part of the industry that will be left unaff

16、ected by the transition to net zero.Every part of the industry needs to respond.IEA.CC BY 4.0 4 International Energy Agency|Special Report The uncomfortable truth that the industry needs to come to terms with is that successful clean energy transitions require much lower demand for oil and gas,which

17、 means scaling back oil and gas operations over time not expanding them.There is no way around this.So while all oil and gas producers needs to reduce emissions from their own operations,including methane leaks and flaring,our call to action is much wider.To escape the narrowing walls of their busin

18、esses based on traditional fuels,producers need to embrace the clean energy economy.This report explores what these opportunities look like,both for companies and for economies that rely heavily on oil and gas revenues.And with all of the above in mind,the report spells out clearly what it really me

19、ans for producers to align with the Paris Agreement and with the 1.5 C goal.I would like to thank the excellent team of IEA colleagues who produced this extremely important study with all the nuance and objectivity that the subject requires under the leadership of my colleagues Tim Gould,Chief Energ

20、y Economist,and Christophe McGlade,Head of the Energy Supply Unit.It provides important input to the discussions at the upcoming COP28 climate change conference in Dubai but more than that,I am convinced this will be a reference work for many years to come.Dr Fatih Birol Executive Director Internati

21、onal Energy Agency IEA.CC BY 4.0 Acknowledgements 5 Acknowledgements This study was prepared by the World Energy Outlook(WEO)team in the Directorate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks(STO)in co-operation with other directorates and offices of the International Energy Agency(IEA).Christophe Mc

22、Glade,Head of the Energy Supply Unit,co-ordinated the work and was the lead author;he designed and directed the report together with Tim Gould,Chief Energy Economist.The other main authors were:Simon Bennett,Toms De Oliveira Bredariol,Paul Grimal,Jrme Hilaire,Peter Zeniewski.Other key contributors f

23、rom across the IEA were:Nadim Abillama,Abdullah Al-Abri,Ana Alcalde Bscones,Oskaras Alsauskas,Caleigh Andrews,Elisa Asmelash,Heymi Bahar,Emile Belin-Bourgogne,Charlne Bisch,Eric Buisson,Vittoria Chen,France dAgrain,Davide DAmbrosio,Tanguy De Bienassis,David Fischer,Alexandra Hegarty,Paul Hugues,Marc

24、o Iarocci,Hyeji Kim,Tae-Yoon Kim,Yun Young Kim,Luca Lo Re,Apostolos Petropoulos,Diana Perez-Sanchez,Ryszard Pospiech,Siddharth Singh,Jun Takashiro,and Daniel Wetzel.Marina Dos Santos,Eleni Tsoukala and Reka Koczka provided essential support.Justin French-Brooks carried editorial responsibility.Valua

25、ble comments and feedback were provided by other senior management and numerous other colleagues within the International Energy Agency.In particular Mary Warlick,Toril Bosoni,Joel Couse,Laura Cozzi,Dan Dorner,Rebecca Gaghen,Timur Gl,Ilkka Hannula,Dennis Hesseling,Brian Motherway,and Hiro Sakaguchi.

26、Thanks go to the IEA Communications and Digital Office for their help to produce the report and website materials,particularly to Jethro Mullen,Poeli Bojorquez,Curtis Brainard,Jon Custer,Hortense De Roffignac,Astrid Dumond,Merve Erdil,Grace Gordon,Julia Horowitz,Oliver Joy,Isabelle Nonain-Semelin,Ju

27、lie Puech,Robert Stone,Sam Tarling,Clara Vallois,Lucile Wall,Therese Walsh and Wonjik Yang.The IEA Office of the Legal Counsel,Office of Management and Administration and Energy Data Centre provided assistance throughout the preparation of the report.IEA.CC BY 4.0 6 International Energy Agency|Speci

28、al Report Peer reviewers Many senior government officials and international experts provided input and reviewed preliminary drafts of the report.Their comments and suggestions were of great value.They include:Ali Aissaoui Oxford Institute for Energy Studies Atul Arya S&P Global Zubin Bamji World Ban

29、k Imene Ben Rejeb-Mzah BNP Paribas Chris Besson Independent consultant Jason Bordoff Columbia University,United States Sin Bradley Beyond Oil and Gas Alliance(BOGA)Mark Brownstein Environmental Defense Fund Nick Butler Kings College London Michael Cohen BP Russell Conklin US Department of Energy Hel

30、en Currie ConocoPhillips Jonathan Elkind Columbia University Ronan Hodge Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero Jan-Hein Jesse JOSCO Energy Finance and Strategy Consultancy Robert Kleinberg Columbia University,United States Ken Koyama Institute of Energy Economics,Japan Jim Krane Baker Institute fo

31、r Public Policy Glada Lahn Chatham House Thomas-Olivier Lautier TotalEnergies Giel Linthorst ING Yvette Manolas Woodside Energy Antonio Merino Garcia Repsol Julie Mulkerin Chevron Isabel Murray Department of Natural Resources,Canada Julien Perez Oil and Gas Climate Initiative Stephanie Pfeifer Insti

32、tutional Investors Group on Climate Change Amit Puri Standard Chartered Bank Seth Roberts Saudi Aramco April Ross ExxonMobil Adnan Shihab Eldin Independent expert Wim Thomas Independent consultant IEA.CC BY 4.0 Acknowledgements 7 No Van Hulst International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in

33、the Economy David Victor UC San Diego School of Global Policy and Strategy Claire Wang U.S.Department of State Peter Wood Shell Fareed Yasseen Climate Envoy of the Republic of Iraq The work reflects the views of the International Energy Agency Secretariat,but does not necessarily reflect those of in

34、dividual IEA member countries or of any particular funder,supporter or collaborator.None of the IEA or any funder,supporter or collaborator that contributed to this work makes any representation or warranty,express or implied,in respect of the works contents(including its completeness or accuracy)an

35、d shall not be responsible for any use of,or reliance on,the work.This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Comments an

36、d questions are welcome and should be addressed to:Tim Gould Directorate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks International Energy Agency 9,rue de la Fdration 75739 Paris Cedex 15 France E-mail:weoiea.org More information about the World Energy Outlook is available at www.iea.org/weo.IEA.CC BY

37、4.0 Table of Contents 9 Table of Contents Foreword.3 Acknowledgements.5 Executive summary.13 Oil and gas in net zero transitions 19 1.1 Introduction.20 1.2 The oil and gas industry today.21 1.3 Demand.26 1.3.1 Oil.26 1.3.2 Natural gas.29 1.4 Supply.33 1.4.1 Prices.33 1.4.2 Oil supply.34 1.4.3 Natura

38、l gas supply.37 1.5 Refining and trade.41 1.5.1 Refining.41 1.5.2 Oil trade.43 1.5.3 Natural gas trade.45 1.6 Alternative supply pathways in the NZE Scenario.47 1.7 Investment.59 1.7.1 Risks from overinvestment.60 1.7.2 Risks from underinvestment.63 Technology options for the oil and gas industry 65

39、 2.1 Introduction.66 2.2 Traditional oil and gas operations.66 2.2.1 Current emissions from oil and gas operations.66 2.2.2 Emission reductions to 2050 by scenario.70 2.2.3 Cutting methane and flaring.72 2.2.4 Boosting efficiency and electrifying oil and gas facilities.77 2.2.5 Reducing emissions fr

40、om refining and LNG facilities.79 2.3 New technology options.86 2.3.1 Carbon capture,utilisation and storage.90 2.3.2 Low-emissions hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.95 1 2 IEA.CC BY 4.010 International Energy Agency|Special Report 2.3.3 Bioenergy.99 2.3.4 Offshore wind.102 2.3.5 Geothermal.105 2.3.

41、6 Plastics recycling.107 2.3.7 Electric vehicle charging.110 Strategic responses of companies 113 3.1 Introduction.114 3.2 The rising pressures on oil and gas companies.114 3.2.1 Financial pressures.114 3.2.2 Social,legal and political pressure.116 3.2.3 Employment.118 3.3 Oil and gas company respon

42、ses to date.121 3.3.1 Targets to reduce scope 1 and 2 emissions.121 3.3.2 Targets to diversify into clean energy technologies.125 3.4 What could net zero energy companies look like in 2050?.128 3.4.1 A net zero“major”energy company.130 3.4.2 A liquids-focused national oil company.132 3.4.3 An indepe

43、ndent focused on gases.135 3.5 Assessing alignment with net zero transitions.137 3.5.1 Emissions from own operations.137 3.5.2 Investment in clean energy.139 3.6 Framework to assess the alignment of company targets with the NZE Scenario.144 3.6.1 Framework overview.146 3.6.2 Scope 1 and 2 emissions

44、reductions.148 3.6.3 Investment in new oil and gas projects.149 3.6.4 Investment in clean energy.150 3.6.5 Qualitative qualifiers.150 Strategic responses of exporters and importers 153 4.1 Introduction.154 4.2 Established producers.155 4.2.1 Starting points.155 4.2.2 Pitfalls facing producer economi

45、es.158 3 4 IEA.CC BY 4.0Table of Contents 11 4.2.3 Impacts of net zero transitions.164 4.3 New producers.166 4.3.1 Starting points.166 4.3.2 Impacts of net zero transitions.167 4.4 Building resilient net zero energy strategies.170 4.4.1 Reduce emissions from traditional supplies.171 4.4.2 Put domest

46、ic energy systems on a cleaner footing.176 4.4.3 Develop new low-emissions products and value chains.179 4.5 Working together to ensure equitable and just net zero pathways.186 4.5.1 Why should exporters and importers work together?.186 4.5.2 How can exporters and importers work together?.190 Annexe

47、s Annex A.Definitions.197 Annex B.References.217 IEA.CC BY 4.0 Executive Summary 13 Executive Summary A moment of truth is coming for the oil and gas industry Structural changes in the energy sector are now moving fast enough to deliver a peak in oil and gas demand by the end of this decade under to

48、days policy settings.After the peak,demand is not currently set to decline quickly enough to align with the Paris Agreement and the 1.5 C goal.But if governments deliver in full on their national energy and climate pledges,then oil and gas demand would be 45%below todays level by 2050 and the temper

49、ature rise could be limited to 1.7 C.If governments successfully pursue a 1.5 C trajectory,and emissions from the global energy sector reach net zero by mid-century,oil and gas use would fall by 75%to 2050.This new IEA report explores what oil and gas companies can do to accelerate net zero transiti

50、ons and what this might mean for an industry which currently provides more than half of global energy supply and employs nearly 12 million workers worldwide.Since 2018,the annual revenues generated by the oil and gas industry have averaged close to USD 3.5 trillion.Around half of this went to govern

51、ments,while 40%went back into investment and 10%was returned to shareholders or used to pay down debt.The implications of net zero transitions are far from uniform:the industry encompasses a wide range of players,from small,specialised operators to huge national oil companies(NOCs).While attention o

52、ften focuses on the role of the majors,which are seven large,international players,they hold less than 13%of global oil and gas production and reserves.NOCs account for more than half of global production and close to 60%of the worlds oil and gas reserves.The industrys engagement with clean energy t

53、ransitions will be a key topic at COP28,but this report provides a reference for a debate that will continue well beyond the UN climate summit in Dubai.Most oil and gas companies are watching energy transitions from the sidelines Oil and gas producers account for only 1%of total clean energy investm

54、ent globally.More than 60%of this comes from just four companies,out of thousands of producers of oil and gas around the world today.For the moment the oil and gas industry as a whole is a marginal force in the worlds transition to a clean energy system.The first-order task is to slash emissions fro

55、m company operations While there is no single blueprint for change,there is one element that can and should be in all company transition strategies:reducing emissions from the industrys own operations.As things stand,less than half of current global oil and gas output is produced by companies that h

56、ave targets to reduce these emissions.A far broader coalition with much more ambitious targets is needed to achieve meaningful reductions across the oil and gas industry.The production,transport and processing of oil and gas results in just under 15%of global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions.

57、This is a huge amount,equivalent to all energy-related greenhouse gas emissions from the United States.IEA.CC BY 4.014 International Energy Agency|Special Report To align with a 1.5 C scenario,these emissions need to be cut by more than 60%by 2030 from todays levels and the emissions intensity of gl

58、obal oil and gas operations must near zero by the early 2040s.These are appropriate benchmarks for industry-wide action on emissions,regardless of the future scenario.The emissions intensity of the worst performers is currently five-to ten-times higher than the best.Methane accounts for half of the

59、total emissions from oil and gas operations.Tackling methane leaks is a top priority and can be done very cost-effectively but it is not the only priority.Transitions will hurt the bottom line for companies focused on oil and gas The volatility of fossil fuel prices means that revenues could fluctua

60、te from year to year but the bottom line is that oil and gas becomes a less profitable and a riskier business as net zero transitions accelerate.Prices and output are generally lower and the risk of stranded assets is higher,especially in the midstream sector that includes refineries and facilities

61、for liquefied natural gas.If expectations are that demand and prices follow a scenario based on todays policy settings,that would value todays private oil and gas companies at around USD 6 trillion.If all national energy and climate goals are reached,this value is lower by 25%,and by 60%if the world

62、 gets on track to limit global warming to 1.5 C.Oil and gas projects currently produce slightly higher returns on investment,but those returns are less stable.We estimate that the return on capital employed in the oil and gas industry averaged around 6-9%between 2010 and 2022,whereas it was 6%for cl

63、ean energy projects.Oil and gas returns varied greatly over time compared with more consistent returns for clean energy projects.Oil and gas investment is needed in all scenarios,but the demand trajectory in a 1.5 C world leaves no room for new fields Continued investment in oil and gas supply is ne

64、eded in all scenarios,but the USD 800 billion it currently invests each year is double what is required in 2030 to meet declining demand in a 1.5 C scenario.Investment in existing and some new fields is necessary in a world that achieves national energy and climate pledges,although there is no need

65、in aggregate for new exploration.In a scenario that hits global net zero emissions by 2050,declines in demand are sufficiently steep that no new long lead-time conventional oil and gas projects are required.Some existing production would even need to be shut in.In 2040,more than 7 million barrels pe

66、r day of oil production is pushed out of operation before the end of its technical lifetime in a 1.5 C scenario.In net zero transitions,new project developments face major commercial risks and could also lock in emissions that push the world over the 1.5 C threshold.Producers need to explain how any

67、 new resource developments are viable within a global pathway to net zero emissions by 2050 and be transparent about how they plan to avoid pushing this goal out of reach.IEA.CC BY 4.0 Executive Summary 15 Not all producers can be the last ones standing Many producers say they will be the ones to ke

68、ep producing throughout transitions and beyond.They cannot all be right.Oil and gas production is vastly reduced in net zero transitions but does not disappear.Even in a 1.5 C scenario,some 24 million barrels per day of oil is produced in 2050(three-quarters is used in sectors where the oil is not c

69、ombusted,notably in petrochemicals),as well as some 920 billion cubic metres of natural gas,roughly half of which is used for hydrogen production.The distribution of future supply among producers will depend on the weight assigned to lowering costs,ensuring diversity of supply,reducing emissions,and

70、 fostering economic development.Market forces naturally favour the lowest-cost production,but that leads to a high concentration in supply among todays major resource holders,notably in the Middle East.Prioritising the least emissions-intensive sources drives progress towards climate goals,but this

71、often favours low-cost producers,so supply still becomes more concentrated.It is much better for transitions if all producers take targeted action to reduce their emissions.If production from low-income producers is favoured,these projects may not ultimately be very profitable in a well-supplied mar

72、ket.And if countries prefer domestically produced oil and gas as a way to buttress energy security,they reduce reliance on others but risk finding themselves with relatively high-cost projects in a low-price world.The oil and gas industry is well placed to scale up some crucial technologies for net

73、zero transitions Some 30%of the energy consumed in a net zero energy system in 2050 comes from low-emissions fuels and technologies that could benefit from the skills and resources of the oil and gas industry.These include hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels;carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS

74、);offshore wind;liquid biofuels;biomethane;and geothermal energy.Oil and gas companies are already partners in a large share of planned hydrogen projects that use CCUS and electrolysis.The oil and gas industry is involved in 90%of CCUS capacity in operation around the world.CCUS and direct air captu

75、re are important technologies for achieving net zero emissions,especially to tackle or offset emissions in hard-to-abate sectors.For the moment,only around 2%of offshore wind capacity in operation was developed by oil and gas companies.Plans are expanding,however,and the technology frontier for offs

76、hore wind including floating turbines in deeper waters moves this sector closer to areas of oil and gas company strength.In addition,industry skills and infrastructure,including existing retail networks and refineries,give the industry advantages in areas like electric vehicle charging and plastic r

77、ecycling.but this requires a step-change in the industrys allocation of investment Companies that have announced a target to diversify their activities into clean energy account for just under one-fifth of current oil and gas production.The oil and gas industry invested around USD 20 billion in clea

78、n energy in 2022,some 2.5%of its total capital spending.In this report,we offer a new framework for assessing the strategies of oil and gas companies and the extent to which they are making a meaningful contribution to transitions.IEA.CC BY 4.0 16 International Energy Agency|Special Report For produ

79、cers that choose to diversify and are looking to align with the aims of the Paris Agreement,our bottom-up analysis of cash flows in a 1.5 C scenario suggests that a reasonable ambition is for 50%of capital expenditures to go towards clean energy projects by 2030,on top of the investment needed to re

80、duce scope 1 and 2 emissions.Not all oil and gas companies have to diversify into clean energy,but the alternative is to wind down traditional operations over time.Some companies may take the view that their specialisation is in oil and natural gas and so decide that rather than risking money on unf

81、amiliar business areas others are better placed to allocate this capital.But aligning their strategies with net zero transitions would then require them to scale back oil and gas activities while investing in scope 1 and 2 emissions reductions.Two pitfalls for the discussion about the future of oil

82、and gas A productive debate about the oil and gas industry in transitions needs to avoid two common misconceptions.The first is that transitions can only be led by changes in demand.“When the energy world changes,so will we”is not an adequate response to the immense challenges at hand.An imbalanced

83、focus on reducing supply is equally unproductive,as it comes with a heightened risk of price spikes and market volatility.In practice,no one committed to change should wait for someone else to move first.Successful,orderly transitions are collaborative ones,in which suppliers work with consumers and

84、 governments to expand new markets for low-emissions products and services.The second is excessive expectations and reliance on CCUS.Carbon capture,utilisation and storage is an essential technology for achieving net zero emissions in certain sectors and circumstances,but it is not a way to retain t

85、he status quo.If oil and natural gas consumption were to evolve as projected under todays policy settings,this would require an inconceivable 32 billion tonnes of carbon captured for utilisation or storage by 2050,including 23 billion tonnes via direct air capture to limit the temperature rise to 1.

86、5 C.The necessary carbon capture technologies would require 26 000 terawatt hours of electricity generation to operate in 2050,which is more than global electricity demand in 2022.And it would require over USD 3.5 trillion in annual investments all the way from today through to mid-century,which is

87、an amount equal to the entire industrys annual average revenue in recent years.Producer economies face major uncertainties,but their energy advantages are not lost in transition Economies that are heavily reliant on oil and gas revenues face some stark choices and pressures in energy transitions.The

88、se choices are not new,but the prospect of falling oil and gas demand adds a timeline and a deadline to the process of economic diversification.Transitions create powerful incentives to accelerate the pace of change while also draining a source of revenue that could finance it.Compared with the annu

89、al average between 2010 and 2022,per capita net income from oil and natural gas among producer economies is 60%lower in 2030 in a 1.5 C scenario.New producers entering the market face additional challenges,as they may overestimate the bounty that might lie ahead and underestimate IEA.CC BY 4.0 Execu

90、tive Summary 17 the hazards.Many producers are also heavily exposed to risks from a changing climate,which stand to further disrupt the security of energy supply.The challenges are formidable,but there are workable net zero energy strategies available to producer economies and national oil companies

91、.Todays producer economies retain energy advantages even as the world moves away from fossil fuels.In most cases,todays major producers of low-cost hydrocarbons also have expertise and ample,under-utilised renewable energy resources that could anchor positions in clean energy value chains and low-em

92、issions industries.Reducing emissions from traditional supplies,including end-use emissions;putting domestic energy systems on a cleaner footing by phasing out inefficient subsidies and boosting clean energy deployment;and developing low-emissions products and services offer a way forward.Will the o

93、il and gas industry be part of the solution?Our scenarios plot out how the transition could be achieved,but the baseline expectation should be for a volatile and bumpy ride.Declining markets are difficult to plan for,and the potential for disruption also comes from geopolitical tensions and increase

94、d incidences of extreme weather.Governments need to be vigilant for risks to the affordability and security of supply.The implications of any physical disruptions to supply are felt most strongly in emerging and developing economies in Asia,whose share of global crude oil imports rises from 40%today

95、 to 60%in 2050 in a scenario that meets national energy and climate goals.On the supply side,even as overall demand falls back,the Middle East plays an outsize role in global markets as a low-cost producer of both oil and gas.Dialogue across all parts of oil and gas value chains remains essential to

96、 deliver an orderly shift away from fossil fuels and to ensure that todays producers have a meaningful stake in the clean energy economy.The industry must change,but this dialogue also needs clear signals from consumers on the direction and speed of travel to guide investment decisions,to assign val

97、ue to oil and gas with lower emissions intensities,to develop markets for low-emissions fuels,and to collaborate on technology innovation.Energy transitions can happen without the engagement of the oil and gas industry,but the journey to net zero will be more costly and difficult to navigate if they

98、 are not on board.IEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 19 Chapter 1 Oil and gas in net zero transitions Around 97 mb/d of oil and 4 150 bcm of natural gas were consumed globally in 2022.This resulted in just over 18 Gt CO2 emissions,around half of total energy-related CO2 emis

99、sions.Recent momentum in deploying clean energy technologies means that oil and gas demand peak before 2030 in the Stated Policies Scenario(STEPS),but the declines after these peaks are not steep enough to achieve the worlds climate goals.Net zero transitions require a huge acceleration in clean ene

100、rgy technology deployment and faster reductions in oil and gas use.In the Announced Pledges Scenario(APS),oil and gas demand decline by around 2%each year on average to 2050(to 55 mb/d and 2 400 bcm)and in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050(NZE)Scenario they fall by more than 5%each year on average to 2

101、050(to 24 mb/d and 920 bcm).Attention on the oil and gas industry often focuses on the large international oil and gas companies(the“majors”),but they own less than 13%of global oil and gas production and reserves.By comparison,national oil companies own more than half of production and close to 60%

102、of reserves.Major challenges lie ahead for midstream infrastructure in net zero transitions.The refining sector reduces its output of traditional products like gasoline and diesel,and focuses more on petrochemical feedstocks and products like asphalt and bitumen.Global liquefied natural gas(LNG)trad

103、e sees strong near-term growth,but trade peaks in the APS before 2035 and the utilisation of export terminals drops;in the NZE Scenario,demand for LNG can be met in aggregate by plants already in operation.In the APS and NZE Scenario,investment in existing oil and gas assets continues,but with very

104、different outcomes for new project development.In the APS,new oil and gas projects are needed,although in aggregate there would be no need for further oil and gas exploration.In the NZE Scenario,falling demand means that no new long lead time conventional oil and gas projects are approved for develo

105、pment and,after 2030,a number of projects are closed before they reach the end of their technical lifetime.Many producers have set out why they think their resources should be preferred for development in net zero transitions.Some say that they have the lowest production costs or emission intensitie

106、s;others claim that they are a better option for energy security;and some indicate that new oil and gas developments are needed to improve welfare.In the demand environment of the NZE Scenario,any new oil and gas resource developments would need to be matched by production reductions elsewhere to av

107、oid oversupply and fossil fuel lock-in.Both over-and underinvestment in fossil fuels carry risks for secure and affordable transitions.Sequencing the decline in oil and gas investment and the increase in clean energy investment is vital to avoid damaging price spikes or supply gluts.At present,risks

108、 appear to be weighted more towards overinvestment than the opposite.S U M M A R Y IEA.CC BY 4.0 20 International Energy Agency|Special Report 1.1 Introduction This report explores the outlook for oil and natural gas producers in net zero transitions.Oil and gas account for around half of todays glo

109、bal energy supply,providing valuable energy services to consumers around the world but also resulting in over 18 Gt CO2 emissions.Some of the services provided by oil and gas can be replaced with relative ease by clean energy technologies,as witnessed by the rise of electric vehicles(EVs)and renewab

110、le sources of power generation.Others are more difficult to replace,such as seasonal balancing for power systems in the case of gas,or long-distance air travel in the case of oil.The position of oil and gas in the energy mix will not be transformed overnight.But it has to change,and change dramatica

111、lly,if the world is to avoid severe damage from a changing climate.This analysis examines the contours and implications of such a process.With the United Arab Emirates hosting COP28,2023 is a critical year for oil and gas companies and producer economies to develop and justify strong and credible na

112、rratives about the role they intend to play.The two main scenarios examined in this report are the Announced Pledges Scenario(APS)and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050(NZE)Scenario.These scenarios set out what transition pathways aligned with regional or global net zero targets would mean for oil and g

113、as companies and producer economies.They both require a significant acceleration in the pace of change compared with todays trends,which are reflected in the Stated Policies Scenario(STEPS).The report includes metrics,based on our scenarios,that allow stakeholders to make informed decisions on wheth

114、er producers are making genuine efforts to adapt business models at the necessary pace and scale.This chapter discusses the outlook for oil and natural gas demand and supply in net zero transitions.Chapter 2 sets out the technology options for the oil and gas industry,including options to cut emissi

115、ons from its own operations,and the clean energy technologies that appear best suited to its existing skills and resources.Chapter 3 sets out some of the strategic responses of oil and gas producers to date and explores what the industry would need to do to align with net zero transitions.And Chapte

116、r 4 focuses on producer economies,examining how they can adapt to a changing energy system and how producers and consumers can work together to achieve fair,net zero aligned transition pathways.The remainder of this chapter is structured as follows:Section 1.2 provides an overview of the structure o

117、f the oil and gas industry,highlighting the contribution of different types of companies to supply and investment trends.Section 1.3 examines oil and gas demand in the APS and NZE Scenario,including the main levers used to reduce demand,and where oil and gas use is most resilient.Section 1.4 describ

118、es the oil and gas price trajectories and how production evolves by region in net zero transitions.Section 1.5 examines the implications for oil refining and oil and gas trade.Section 1.6 explores alternative supply pathways that could be possible with the same overall demand trajectory of the NZE S

119、cenario,highlighting potential upsides and downsides and how different supply-side dynamics might play out in practice.Finally,Section 1.7 examines the implications for investment,including the risks posed by overinvestment or underinvestment in oil and gas during net zero transitions.IEA.CC BY 4.0

120、Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 21 1 1.2 The oil and gas industry today There are thousands of companies around the world that produce oil and gas today.The industry is characterised by a wide variety of corporate structures and governance models,ranging from small businesses to some o

121、f the worlds largest industrial corporations.The top fifty companies produce around 70%of total supply.For this report,we distinguish between four main types of company:Majors are large companies listed on stock markets in the United States and Europe.They have historically focused on developing lar

122、ge,capital-intensive projects and their upstream divisions represent most of their financial value and revenue.In this report,this group comprises seven companies:BP,ConocoPhillips,Chevron,Eni,ExxonMobil,Shell,and TotalEnergies.Independents are smaller fully integrated companies or independent upstr

123、eam operators.They encompass a wide range of companies,such as Lukoil,Repsol,OMV and Woodside,as well as many North American companies including shale gas and tight oil players such as Apache,Hess,Marathon Oil,Pioneer Natural Resources and Oxy,and diversified international conglomerates with upstrea

124、m activities,such as Mitsubishi Corp.National oil companies(NOCs)have been given mandates by their home governments to exploit national resources and have a legally defined role in upstream development.While some NOCs operate outside their home country and are also active downstream,the bulk of thei

125、r assets are based in their home countrys upstream operations.Most of the largest NOCs are located in the Middle East,such as Saudi Aramco,National Iranian Oil Company,Kuwait Petroleum Corporation,Abu Dhabi National Oil Company and QatarEnergy.There are also NOCs in Eurasia,including in Russia,in La

126、tin America and many parts of Africa and Asia(see Chapter 3 for further details).International national oil companies(INOCs)share similarities with NOCs in their ownership and governance,but have substantial upstream investments outside their home country.This is usually done in collaboration with h

127、ost NOCs or private companies.Some INOCs are also major players in the global gas markets.They include Equinor,China National Petroleum Corporation,Gazprom,Petronas and Indias Oil and Natural Gas Corporation.In addition to these categories,other types of company play a key role in the oil and gas in

128、dustry.They include:Service companies that provide specialist engineering services for drilling,reservoir management,construction of infrastructure,and environmental impact management(e.g.SLB and Baker Hughes).Pure downstream companies that operate refinery and petrochemical sites(e.g.Marathon Petro

129、leum,Phillips 66,Essar,Reliance and Valero).IEA.CC BY 4.0 22 International Energy Agency|Special Report Trading companies whose business models tend to rely on owning only those physical assets that help optimise their position in the market(e.g.Vitol,Mercuria,Glencore and Gunvor).Midstream operator

130、s of pipeline systems(e.g.Enagas,Enbridge,TC Energy,Enterprise Products Partners and Kinder Morgan).Shipping companies operating tankers and LNG carriers(e.g.Maersk,Teekay,Euronav,Frontline and Mitsui).Storage companies that manage and lease tank capacity for crude and products(e.g.VTTI and OilTanki

131、ng).Retail companies that buy product directly from refiners or from traders in the local or international market(e.g.Couche-Tard,Kroger and Avia).Attention on the oil and gas industry often focuses on the role of the majors,but they own less than 13%of global oil and gas production and proved-plus-

132、probable(2P)reserves(Figure 1.1).NOCs and INOCs account for more than half of global production and close to 60%of the worlds oil and gas reserves.Their share of capital investment in upstream oil and gas projects is slightly lower,at around 45%of the global total.This is partly because they tend to

133、 own resources with lower-than-average development costs and partly because their assets tend to have slow decline rates,meaning lower levels of spending are required to maintain production.Figure 1.1 Ownership of oil and gas reserves,production and upstream investment by company type,2022 IEA.CC BY

134、 4.0.NOCs,including those with operations outside their home country,produce more than half of the worlds oil and gas.The majors produce 13%of the total.Note:INOCs=International national oil companies;NOCs=National oil companies.Source:IEA analysis based on Rystad Energy.20%40%60%80%100%ReservesProd

135、uction InvestmentReservesProduction InvestmentMajorsIndependentsINOCsNOCsOilNatural gasIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 23 1 Partnerships and joint ventures are prevalent across the oil and gas industry.Exploration and new field development are risky and complex processes,

136、and companies often split the ownership of any discovery or development to spread the risk and reward and to encourage technical and operational collaboration.Joint ventures mean the financial engagement and influence of companies can spread further than the oil and gas assets that they directly ope

137、rate.For example,of the oil and gas produced in 2022,the majors owned 20 million barrels of oil equivalent per day(mboe/d)and operated assets that produced 23 mboe/d;nearly three times as much oil and gas(60 mboe/d)was produced from assets in which they own more than 5%of production(Figure 1.2).Figu

138、re 1.2 Oil and gas production in 2022 by ownership,operator,and from assets in which companies have an equity stake greater than 5%IEA.CC BY 4.0.Companies production includes oil and gas from both operated and non-operated assets,but the influence of companies can extend well beyond this.Note:Equity

139、 share 5%=total production from all assets in which a company holds at least a 5%share of the produced oil and gas.Mergers and acquisitions are common in the oil and gas industry,with more than USD 200 billion worth of deals taking place annually on average between 2018 and 2022.These are used by co

140、mpanies to expand oil and gas production,diversify into new markets,acquire new technologies,benefit from economies of scale,and to increase clean energy holdings.The oil and gas industry spent around USD 15 billion acquiring clean energy ventures in 2022,around 10%of the total value of its mergers

141、and acquisitions in that year.A number of major deals have also taken place in 2023,including the purchase of US shale independent Pioneer Resources by ExxonMobil for USD 60 billion and the purchase of Hess Corporation for USD 53 billion by Chevron.20 40 60 80 100MajorsIndependentsINOCsNOCsEquity sh

142、are 5%OperatedOwnedmboe/dIEA.CC BY 4.0 24 International Energy Agency|Special Report The global oil and gas industry generated close to USD 3.5 trillion in revenue on average each year between 2018 and 2022(Figure 1.3).This includes revenue from crude oil and natural gas production as well as the ad

143、ditional value created from processing,refining,transporting and marketing the final products to consumers.There is a high degree of year-on-year variation in this figure,ranging from a low of USD 2 trillion in 2020,given the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic,to a historic record high of USD 5 trilli

144、on in 2022 during the global energy crisis.Figure 1.3 Use of revenue by the oil and gas industry,2018-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.The oil and gas industry has generated around USD 17 trillion of revenue since 2018.Half was paid to governments and 40%was spent developing and operating oil and gas assets.Note:

145、NOC domestic income=National Oil Company income generated in their home country.Around 50%of the revenue produced by the oil and gas industry since 2018 went to governments,either from royalties and taxes or from income generated by NOCs and INOCs in their home countries.A further 40%was capital and

146、 operating expenditure,and the remaining 10%was returned to shareholders through dividends and share buybacks or used to pay down debt.Companies have responded to the prospect of net zero transitions with a range of strategies.The most common approaches are to reweight overall production towards nat

147、ural gas,demand for which is perceived to be more durable through net zero transitions,and to take steps to reduce emissions from operations.Some companies have diversified their capital expenditure more substantially,moving into clean energy technology areas such as offshore wind,carbon capture,uti

148、lisation and storage(CCUS),low-emissions fuels,and electricity.Oil and gas companies with the largest proportions spent around 15-25%of their total capital budgets on clean energy in 2022 through mergers and acquisitions,joint ventures and direct investment.As a whole,the industry spent around USD 2

149、0 billion on clean energy,1 2 3 4 520182019202020212022Returns to shareholdersOperating costsCleanMidstreamUpstreamNOC domestic incomeTaxesOther:Capital expenditure:Government take:Trillion USD(2022,MER)and debt paymentsIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 25 1 representing le

150、ss than 3%of its total capital budget and around 1%of total clean energy investment globally.For the moment,the oil and gas industry remains a marginal force in directly building up a clean energy system(see Chapter 3).Box 1.1 Scenarios examined in this report Three scenarios provide a framework for

151、 the analysis in this report(Figure 1.4).These scenarios have been fully updated to reflect the latest economic and energy data and are described in detail in the World Energy Outlook 2023(IEA,2023a).Rates of economic growth 2.6%on average globally each year to 2050 and population growth are the sam

152、e across the scenarios.We focus our analysis mainly on the APS and the NZE Scenario,which achieve net zero transitions for the energy sector at different speeds.Figure 1.4 Energy-related CO2 emissions and total energy supply by scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Our scenarios paint very different pictures for t

153、he future of emissions and energy.The Stated Policies Scenario(STEPS)looks at what governments are actually doing rather than what they say they will achieve.It is an outlook based on a detailed sector-by-sector review of energy and climate policies and measures currently in place or under developme

154、nt by governments.In this scenario,each of the fossil fuels has a peak in demand before 2030,but declines after these peaks are relatively muted.Annual CO2 emissions are 20%below 2022 levels in 2050 and these trends are consistent with a temperature rise of around 2.4 C in 2100(with a 50%probability

155、).The Announced Pledges Scenario(APS)assumes that governments meet all of the climate-related commitments they have announced in full and on time.Pledges made by companies,businesses and industry organisations are also taken into account.Energy-related CO2 emissions soon peak and they are around 70%

156、lower than 2022 levels 10 20 30 4020102020203020402050STEPSAPSNZECO emissionsGt CO 200 400 600 80020102020203020402050EJTotal energy supplyIEA.CC BY 4.0 26 International Energy Agency|Special Report in 2050.There are also major reductions in all other energy-related greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions,incl

157、uding methane from fossil fuel operations.This pathway is consistent with a temperature rise of 1.7 C in 2100(with a 50%probability).The Net Zero Emissions by 2050(NZE)Scenario describes a pathway for the global energy sector to reach net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 without offsets from land-use meas

158、ures.Advanced economies reach net zero emissions earlier than emerging market and developing economies,and universal access to electricity and clean cooking is achieved by 2030.There are also efforts to cut down on methane and other GHG emissions.The global average surface temperature rise peaks at

159、just below 1.6 C around 2040 and then gradually falls to 1.4 C in 2100(with a 50%probability).1.3 Demand 1.3.1 Oil Global oil demand increased by just over 1 mb/d on average each year between 2010 and 2019.The Covid-19 pandemic caused a 9 mb/d drop in oil demand in 2020,the largest annual drop in hi

160、story,but demand has since rebounded and it stood at 96.5 mb/d in 2022.Oil provides a large range of the energy service demands required by society,including,for example,about 25 trillion passenger kilometres in cars,30 trillion tonne kilometres for trucks,320 million tonnes of high-value chemicals,

161、and many other outputs.In the STEPS,oil demand reaches a maximum level of 102 mb/d in the late 2020s before declining to 97 mb/d in 2050.There are large declines in oil use in cars,buildings and power generation,although most of this is offset by growth in oil use in trucks,aviation and petrochemica

162、ls.Net zero transitions require replacing existing uses of oil and gas and satisfying the growth in energy service demands in a low-emissions way.In the APS,oil demand soon peaks and declines to 93 mb/d in 2030 and 55 mb/d in 2050.In the NZE Scenario,demand falls to 77 mb/d in 2030 and 24 mb/d in 20

163、50(Figure 1.5).Road transport.Almost half of global oil use is currently in road transport,but this is under increasing pressure from the rise of electric vehicles(EVs).The EV market has been growing exponentially in recent years,and nearly 20%of new cars being sold globally in 2023 are electric.In

164、the APS,the share of electric car sales rises to nearly 45%in 2030 and 80%in 2050,reflecting electrification ambitions announced by governments,including a commitment by more than 40 governments to accelerate the transition to zero-emission cars and vans,as well as a major scale-up in EV manufacturi

165、ng hubs around the world that encourages consumers to choose to buy a domestically manufactured EV over an internal combustion engine(ICE)car.Electric and hydrogen heavy truck sales grow from 1%today to just under 20%of total sales in 2030 and 60%in 2050.IEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net ze

166、ro transitions 27 1 Figure 1.5 Oil demand by scenario,2000-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Road transport accounts for almost half of oil demand today and sees the largest changes to 2050.Oil use for petrochemicals is much more robust despite increases in recycling.Notes:Other includes buses,2/3 wheelers,agricul

167、ture,other energy sector,and other non-energy use.In the NZE Scenario,virtually no new ICE cars are sold from 2035,and all new trucks use electricity or hydrogen from 2040 in advanced economies and China,and from 2045 in the rest of emerging market and developing economies.To 2030,20%of the overall

168、reduction in oil demand comes from electrifying road transport(Figure 1.6).A further 5%of the reduction comes from behavioural change measures in road transport,including through improvements to public transport coverage and quality,and encouraging walking and cycling,car sharing and carpooling.By 2

169、050,1.5 billion of the 1.6 billion cars on the road are electric,and 140 million out of 180 million heavy-duty trucks and buses on the road are electric.Aviation.Around 5 mb/d of oil was used in domestic and international aviation in 2022,a substantial increase from levels in 2021,but still far belo

170、w the levels seen before the Covid-19 pandemic.Low-emissions fuels including liquid biofuels and low-emissions hydrogen-based liquids comprise less than 0.01%of the fuel used in aviation today.In the APS this share grows to 5%in 2030 and to over 35%in 2050,driven by government ambitions in the Unite

171、d States,the European Union,the United Kingdom and Japan,alongside industry initiatives.In the NZE Scenario,low-emissions fuels provide around three-quarters of fuel use in 2050.Behavioural changes stemming from greater use of high-speed rail,fewer business flights,and frequent flyer levies avoid 0.

172、6 mb/d of oil demand in aviation in 2050 in the NZE Scenario.30 60 90 12020002022mb/dHistorical20222050Cars and vansHeavy trucksAviationShippingBuildingsPowerFeedstockOther industryOtherSTEPS20222050APS20222050NZEIEA.CC BY 4.0 28 International Energy Agency|Special Report Shipping.Around 5 mb/d of o

173、il is consumed by ships annually,with a very small share of overall fuel use from low-emissions fuels(0.2%as biodiesel).In the APS this share grows to over 50%in 2050,mainly as a result of efforts to achieve the target set by the International Maritime Organization(IMO)to reduce emissions from marit

174、ime transport by at least half by 2050.1 In the NZE Scenario,increases are even larger and 85%of the fuel used by the worlds shipping fleet in 2050 comprises low-emissions fuels,predominantly hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.Figure 1.6 Reductions in oil demand in the APS and NZE Scenario IEA.CC BY

175、4.0.The electrification of cars and trucks makes the largest contribution to reducing oil use,with efficiency improvements and low-emissions fuels also playing an important role.Notes:Avoided demand=material efficiency,reductions in oil use in refineries from lower demand,and other structural and ec

176、onomic effects.Other=hydropower,geothermal,nuclear,district heating,and natural gas.Petrochemical feedstocks.Around 14 mb/d of oil was used as a feedstock in 2022,mainly to produce plastics.Demand for virgin plastics is set to grow rapidly,even though a number of policies to ban or reduce single-use

177、 plastics,improve recycling rates and promote alternative feedstocks have been announced.In the APS,these policies increase the global average collection rates for plastic waste from 16%today to 37%in 2050;despite this increase,oil use as feedstock still increases by 0.6 mb/d to 2030 and then only d

178、eclines slightly to 2050.The use of alternative feedstocks,including bio-based feedstock,remains a niche industry due to a considerable cost gap and competing demand with other sectors.In the NZE Scenario,the global average plastics collection rate increases to 50%in 2050 and,combined with an increa

179、se in the use of alternative feedstocks,this means oil use as a petrochemical feedstock peaks in the mid-2030s and declines to around 13.5 mb/d in 2050.1 In July 2023 the IMO adopted a revised version of its GHG emissions strategy that looks to achieve net zero emissions from international shipping

180、by 2050.Enforcement mechanisms are yet to be decided and so this is not included in the APS.20 40 60 80 100202220302050202220302050Wind and solarElectrificationLow-emissions fuelsEnergy efficiencyAvoided demandBehavioural changeOthermb/dAPSNZEIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitio

181、ns 29 1 Efficiency improvements also play a role in all end uses to reduce oil demand.In the NZE Scenario,oil use in buildings is eliminated by electrification of heating and cooking appliances,even as liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)is used as an intermediary solution to provide full access to clean co

182、oking;oil demand to produce power is replaced with solar and wind generation.Figure 1.7 Oil demand and CO2 emissions from oil use in the NZE Scenario,2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Three-quarters of the oil used in 2050 is in sectors where it is not combusted.Around 0.8 Gt CO2 is emitted from oil use in 2050,ma

183、inly from aviation and trucks.Note:Other non-energy use includes products not used in energy applications such as paraffin waxes,asphalt and bitumen.Oil demand of 24 mb/d remains in 2050 in the NZE Scenario,one-quarter of the 2022 level.Three-quarters of this is used in sectors where the oil is not

184、combusted,including as a petrochemical feedstock,and in products such as paraffin waxes,asphalt and bitumen(Figure 1.7).The remainder is combusted and this results in around 0.8 Gt CO2 emissions in 2050.This is mainly in the remaining diesel trucks on the road and from aviation,which are each respon

185、sible for around 200 Mt CO2 in 2050,as well as from shipping at 110 Mt CO2.These residual emissions are offset from within the energy sector through the use of direct air capture with CCUS(DACS)and bioenergy with CCUS(BECCS).1.3.2 Natural gas Natural gas markets were upended by Russias invasion of U

186、kraine.The sharp reduction in pipeline supply to Europe tightened global gas markets,resulting in record high prices and a drop in global demand of around 1%in 2022.Europe registered a record 13%fall in natural gas demand.Aggregate demand in emerging markets in Asia,the past engine of global gas 0.2

187、 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0CO emissionsGt COOtherEnergy sector own useCars and vansBuildingsShippingTrucksAviationOther non-energy usePetrochemical feedstock 5 10 15 20 25Demandmb/dIEA.CC BY 4.0 30 International Energy Agency|Special Report demand growth,fell for the first time ever,as the spikes in global pri

188、ces shook confidence in gas as an affordable alternative to coal or oil.Prices have moderated in 2023 and are expected to come under downward pressure in the second half of the 2020s as a large new wave of LNG export facilities starts operation.There is still significant scope for demand growth this

189、 decade,notably in industry,despite the near-term risks brought about by the supply squeeze.Nonetheless,increasingly cost-competitive low-emissions options for power generation and heating alongside increased climate ambitions among many emerging market and developing economies in Asia raise major q

190、uestions about the long-term outlook for natural gas demand.Figure 1.8 Natural gas demand by scenario,2000-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Gas demand declines steadily in the APS,with the largest reductions being in buildings and power.In the NZE Scenario there is little to no room for gas to act as a transition

191、 fuel.Global natural gas demand in 2022 was around 4 150 bcm,40%of which was consumed in the power sector,and around 20%in each of buildings and industry.In the STEPS,natural gas demand growth to 2030 is considerably lower than the 2.2%seen on average between 2010 and 2021.Demand peaks before 2030,a

192、fter which moderate growth in some emerging market and developing economies is offset by declines in advanced economies,resulting in relatively stable demand globally between 2030 and 2050.In the APS,global natural gas demand soon peaks and by 2030 is nearly 10%lower than in 2022(Figure 1.8).A modes

193、t net increase in demand in emerging market and developing economies between 2022 and 2030 is more than offset by reductions in advanced economies,where gas is gradually replaced by renewables and offset by efficiency gains,notably in the buildings sector.In the NZE Scenario,natural gas falls rapidl

194、y in all sectors and demand is 20%lower in 2030 than in 2022.There are several factors that contribute to a reduction in natural gas demand over time:1 0002 0003 0004 0005 00020002022bcmHistorical20222050PowerIndustryBuildingsLow-emissions hydrogenTransportOtherSTEPS20222050APS20222050NZEIEA.CC BY 4

195、.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 31 1 Renewables.Annual wind and solar capacity additions reach 500 gigawatts(GW)by 2030 in the STEPS,900 GW in the APS and 1 150 GW in the NZE Scenario.Each gigawatt of installed renewable capacity can displace anywhere in the range of 200-800 million

196、 cubic metres(m3)of natural gas in the power sector.The installed capacity of gas-fired power plants falls less quickly than overall generation because some capacity is either added or retained for flexibility purposes in both the APS and NZE Scenario.Leaving gas plants on the system is often necess

197、ary to support a renewables-rich grid,especially to manage seasonal variations in demand;this requires an appropriate market design to remunerate balancing services.Figure 1.9 Reductions in natural gas demand in the APS and NZE Scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Wind and solar play essential roles in reducing n

198、atural gas demand in the power sector.A wide range of other fuels and technologies are needed to reduce gas use in other sectors.Note:Other=nuclear and other renewables.Bioenergy.Around 30 bcm of natural gas is replaced by the use of biomethane in 2050 in the STEPS,compared with 75 bcm in the APS an

199、d 110 bcm in the NZE Scenario,primarily to serve remaining energy service demands met by gaseous fuels in buildings.Biomethane is sourced from organic wastes,residues and other feedstocks that do not compete with food or have harmful effects on biodiversity.Large volumes of natural gas are also disp

200、laced by modern solid bioenergy in industry,buildings and for power generation.Electrification.Around 140 bcm of natural gas is displaced through end-use electrification by 2050 in the STEPS,300 bcm in the APS and 600 bcm in the NZE Scenario(Figure 1.9).Of the total in the NZE Scenario,around 50%is

201、displaced by the use of electric motors in place of gas turbines in industrial facilities that require low-temperature heat,and another 40%is displaced by heat pumps in households,commercial buildings and small-scale industry.Electricity use for cooking and hot water along with the use of modern bio

202、energy enables households to eliminate natural gas use by 2050 in the NZE Scenario.EVs also replace most 1 5003 0004 500202220302050202220302050Wind and solarElectrificationLow-emissions fuelsEnergy efficiencyOtherbcmAPSNZEIEA.CC BY 4.0 32 International Energy Agency|Special Report compressed natura

203、l gas vehicles on the road,reducing the need for around 60 bcm of natural gas in the NZE Scenario in 2050.Other efficiency measures.Improvements in the energy efficiency performance of buildings helps to reduce gas use.Around 1.5%of buildings are currently being retrofitted to the highest performanc

204、e standards each year in advanced economies;this rises to nearly 2%by 2030 in the APS and 2.5%in the NZE Scenario.More efficient gas-fired power plants are employed in both the APS and NZE Scenario,which also help to avoid some gas use.There is 920 bcm of natural gas use remaining in 2050 in the NZE

205、 Scenario,around one-quarter of the level today(Figure 1.10).Natural gas is completely phased out in buildings,and its role in power generation is confined to dispatchable balancing;this requires around 100 bcm per year,or 95%less than the total amount of gas used in the power sector today.Around 60

206、%of natural gas in 2050 is consumed in facilities equipped with CCUS.This includes 330 bcm of natural gas combined with CCUS to produce low-emissions hydrogen,110 bcm used with CCUS in energy-intensive processes such as the production of cement,steel and primary chemicals,and 75 bcm used with CCUS i

207、n the power sector.A further 180 bcm is used as a feedstock or for other non-combustion purposes.Overall,average combustion emissions from natural gas fall from 1.8 kg CO2/m3 today to 0.3 kg CO2/m3 by 2050.Figure 1.10 Remaining natural gas demand in 2050 in the NZE Scenario,2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Around

208、 920 bcm of natural gas demand remains in the NZE Scenario in 2050,75%lower than in 2022.The emissions intensity of this gas drops by 85%.Note:The use of natural gas to produce on-site hydrogen is included in chemicals and iron and steel.200 400 600 8001 000DemandMerchant hydrogen productionPower se

209、ctorOil and gas extractionChemicalsOther non-energy useNon-metallic mineralsTransport and other own useIron and steelRemaining industryOtherbcm 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5CO emissionsGt COIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 33 1 1.4 Supply 1.4.1 Prices In our scenarios,oil and natura

210、l gas prices act as intermediaries between supply and demand to ensure that sources of supply meet changes in demand and hold the system in equilibrium.This balancing act means prices in our scenarios follow a relatively smooth trajectory;we do not attempt to anticipate the fluctuations or price cyc

211、les that characterise commodity markets.In practice,the potential for oil and gas price volatility is ever present,especially considering the profound changes that are needed in todays energy system to meet the worlds climate goals.In the APS,the policy focus on curbing oil and gas demand brings the

212、 prices at which the market finds equilibrium down from the levels in 2022:the international oil price falls to around USD 60/barrel in 2050 while gas prices in key importing regions remain in a band around USD 5-6 per million British thermal units(MBtu)(Table 1.1).In the NZE Scenario,oil and gas pr

213、ices quickly fall to the operating costs of the marginal project required to meet falling demand,and in 2050 they are around USD 25/barrel for oil and USD 2-5/MBtu for natural gas.These prices cover the operating expenses to lift oil and gas out of the ground of the marginal producer,the capital exp

214、enditure and operating costs of the required emissions reduction technologies,and upstream taxes.Table 1.1 Oil and natural gas prices by scenario STEPS APS NZE scenario Real terms(USD 2022)2010 2022 2030 2050 2030 2050 2030 2050 IEA crude oil(USD/barrel)103 98 85 83 74 60 42 25 Natural gas(USD/MBtu)

215、United States 5.8 5.1 4.0 4.3 3.2 2.2 2.4 2.0 European Union 9.9 32.3 6.9 7.1 6.5 5.4 4.3 4.1 China 8.8 13.7 8.4 7.7 7.8 6.3 5.9 5.3 Japan 14.6 15.9 9.4 7.8 8.3 6.3 5.5 5.3 Other price trajectories are possible,even while maintaining the overall demand trajectories in the APS and NZE Scenario.For ex

216、ample,moves on the part of producer economies with the lowest production costs to gain market share even as demand declines would likely lead to lower prices,at least for an initial period(see Section 1.6).Lower prices could also occur in the case of overinvestment in oil and gas supply.In this case

217、,projects would face even larger commercial risks,producer economies would face further headwinds,and it would risk pushing the 1.5 C goal out of reach(see Section 1.7).Higher price trajectories could occur if there are widespread efforts by large producers to restrict production.For example,in the

218、NZE Scenario,the oil market share of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC)rises from 36%in 2022 to 53%in IEA.CC BY 4.0 34 International Energy Agency|Special Report 2050.Production cuts could lead to large prices increases,especially as demand in the APS and NZE Scenario become

219、s increasingly concentrated in sectors with few alternatives(e.g.the aviation and petrochemical sectors).However,in the NZE Scenario,low prices and demand mean around 7 mb/d worth of projects would need to close by 2040 before the end of their technical lifetimes.Any efforts to drive up prices by re

220、stricting supply would likely mean this overhang stays on the market for longer,muting the overall magnitude of the price rise.Another possibility that could lead to higher and more volatile prices is if some large producers struggle to withstand the strains placed on their fiscal balances from lowe

221、r oil and gas income.This could have knock-on impacts for upstream operations and mean that oil and gas supply falls faster than demand.Venezuela provides a cautionary tale for how quickly oil production can fall if there are problems with resource management;production fell by 16%per year on averag

222、e between 2015 and 2020,around three times faster than the average decline in demand in the NZE Scenario.Higher prices and increased price volatility could also result if investor pressure or government policies lead to widespread shut-ins of existing production,or they prematurely close off investm

223、ent in oil and gas supply and companies cannot maintain capital spending on existing assets.In general,however,impacts would be moderated by continued declines in demand and by supply responses by other producers.1.4.2 Oil supply Conventional crude oil production peaked in the late 2000s just below

224、70 mb/d and is currently around 63 mb/d(65%of global oil production).If no new conventional crude projects were to start operations and there were to be no capital expenditure on any current sources of supply,we estimate that production would fall by around 8-9%every year(this is known as the“natura

225、l”decline rate).In practice,companies do invest in their current sources of supply and this slows the annual decline rate to around 4-5%(this is known as the“observed”decline rate).Under this condition,existing sources of conventional crude oil supply will decline to around 45 mb/d in 2030 and 20 mb

226、/d in 2050 as existing fields mature and projects reach the end of their lives.Offsetting some of this decline is production from new conventional crude oil projects that were recently approved for development.These projects come on line in the next few years and add close to 10 mb/d of oil producti

227、on in 2030(including 2.5 mb/d from projects that have been,or will be,approved in 2023).This means that production from existing and approved conventional crude oil projects declines by around 2%on average to 2030 and,once production from these approved projects peaks and starts to decline,by close

228、to 5%each year on average from 2030 to 2050.Other sources of supply make a major contribution to the oil supply balance today,but exhibit very different production dynamics from conventional crude oil fields:IEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 35 1 Natural gas liquids:19 mb/d

229、 was produced in 2022(20%of global oil production).These play an important role in the economics of gas field development by providing an additional revenue stream;their production is often governed by gas market dynamics.Tight oil:just over 8 mb/d was produced in 2022,95%of which was from the Unite

230、d States.Tight oil wells decline by around 60-70%within 12 months of first production(compared with a decline of around 6%for a conventional oil well).Decline rates at an aggregate level are therefore mostly driven by levels of investment and scheduled drilling.Extra-heavy oil and bitumen(EHOB):just

231、 under 4 mb/d was produced in 2022,95%of which was from Canada.Like tight oil,resources are spread over a large geographical area and new wells need to be drilled,or mines extended,to maintain production.For EHOB,the investment required for these wells is only a fraction of the initial upfront inves

232、tment for a project as a whole and so natural decline rates are generally assumed to be low.In the STEPS,although demand peaks before 2030,the annual average rate of decline thereafter is less than 0.2%to 2050 and investment in all types of production is required to ensure that there are no shortfal

233、ls in supply(Figure 1.11).Figure 1.11 Oil supply by scenario,2010-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.New conventional oil projects are needed in the APS,but no new projects are approved for development in the NZE Scenario and higher-cost projects are also closed from the 2030s.In the APS,oil demand falls by 0.5%eac

234、h year on average to 2030 and by around 2.5%each year between 2030 and 2050.In aggregate,no further hydrocarbon exploration is needed to meet these demand levels,although new conventional oil discoveries may in some cases be produced at a lower cost than existing sources of production.New convention

235、al crude oil 20 40 60 80 10020102020203020402050mb/dOil supply with no investmentNZEAPSInvestmentin existingand approvedprojectsInvestment in new supply in APSSTEPSAdditional investment in new supply in STEPSIEA.CC BY 4.0 36 International Energy Agency|Special Report projects are developed and small

236、-scale extensions of existing EHOB projects offset some of the underlying declines,as does continued drilling for tight oil(Table 1.2).Table 1.2 Global liquids and oil production by scenario(mb/d)STEPS APS NZE 2010 2022 2030 2050 2030 2050 2030 2050 World liquids supply 86.5 99.2 104.5 102.1 97.5 65

237、.4 83.7 35.7 World oil supply 85.3 97.1 101.5 97.4 92.5 54.8 77.5 24.3 World processing gains 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.9 2.4 1.6 2.3 0.7 World oil production 83.1 94.8 99.1 94.5 90.2 53.1 75.1 23.5 Conventional crude oil 67.4 62.8 61.3 58.2 54.9 29.8 48.0 15.8 Onshore 44.6 41.3 39.9 38.4 35.6 18.5 31.6 10.5 Of

238、fshore 22.8 21.6 21.4 19.8 19.3 11.4 16.3 5.3 Tight oil 0.7 8.3 11.1 10.2 10.3 6.9 7.6 1.8 Natural gas liquids 12.7 19.0 21.2 19.4 20.1 13.6 16.2 4.4 EHOB 2.0 3.7 4.4 5.5 3.9 2.5 3.0 1.5 Other production 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.0 OPEC share 40%36%35%43%35%45%37%53%Liquid biofuels 1.2 2.2 3.0 4

239、.5 4.8 7.0 5.6 5.4 Low-emissions hydrogen-based fuels 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 3.6 0.7 6.0 Note:OPEC=Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.Liquid biofuels and low-emissions hydrogen-based liquid fuels are expressed in energy equivalent volumes of gasoline and diesel,reported in million barrel

240、s of oil equivalent per day.In the NZE Scenario,oil demand declines by around 2.5%on average to 2030.This pace of decline is sufficiently strong that no new long lead time upstream conventional projects need to be approved for development.2 There is some ongoing investment in tight oil and EHOB prod

241、uction to avoid these declining very rapidly,but no new infrastructure is required for either source and both see steady declines in output over time.In total,production falls across all regions to 2030(Figure 1.12).After 2030,demand falls by more than 5.5%each year on average.This rate of decline i

242、s sufficiently fast that a number of higher-cost fields are closed before they reach the end of their technical lifetimes.In 2040,for example,more than 7 mb/d of oil production is closed earlier than would be implied by observed declines.Investment in existing oilfields in the NZE Scenario ensures t

243、hat supply does not fall faster than the decline in demand.For conventional oil,this is similar to the types of field extensions carried out in the past that slow the natural decline rate to the observed decline rate.It includes,for example,the use of infill drilling and improved management of reser

244、voirs,as well as some enhanced oil recovery.Investment is also needed to minimise the emissions intensity of operations.The NZE Scenario sees a 50%reduction in the global average GHG emissions intensity of oil and gas production between 2022 and 2030,and close to zero emissions from oil and gas oper

245、ations soon after 2040(see Chapter 2).2 A discussion on the lead time of projects is included in Chapter 7 of World Energy Outlook 2022(IEA,2022).IEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 37 1 Figure 1.12 Oil production by region in the APS and NZE Scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Production

246、 declines to 2030 across all regions in net zero transitions,with supply increasingly concentrated in large resource holders given their lower decline rates.Note:C&S America=Central and South America.1.4.3 Natural gas supply Russias invasion of Ukraine and its subsequent cuts to pipeline gas supply

247、created a scramble among importers,notably in Europe,to secure alternative sources of supply.Upstream spending on gas outside Russia increased by more than 15%in 2022 and more than 150 bcm of new supply will come online by the late 2020s from projects approved for development since the invasion grea

248、ter than the 100 bcm drop in Russian production in 2022.Although the near-term balance remains tight,this wave of new supply project announcements notably for LNG has eased fears of a supply deficit in the years ahead.But it also raises the risk of significant oversupply,especially if the world redo

249、ubles its commitment to a net zero pathway.Production dynamics for natural gas are broadly similar to those for oil.Conventional non-associated natural gas fields supply around 60%of current global gas demand and observed decline rates are around 4-5%per year on average.Gas volumes that are produced

250、 as a by-product of oil production(associated gas)make up around 10%of total global gas production today,and their supply dynamics are closely tied to the pace of reduction in oilfields.Unconventional gas which comprises shale gas,tight gas and coal bed methane provides the remaining 30%of gas suppl

251、y today.Shale and tight gas exhibit similar properties to tight oil and would decline rapidly if drilling were to stop.Decline rates for coal bed methane projects are more comparable to conventional gas.5 10 15 20 25 30 35APSNZE2022mb/d2022-50Middle EastEuropeC&S AmericaAfricaNorth AmericaEurasiaAsi

252、aPacificIEA.CC BY 4.0 38 International Energy Agency|Special Report Figure 1.13 Natural gas supply by scenario,2010-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.In the NZE Scenario,no new long-lead time gas projects are required and some production capacity is surplus to demand.In the APS,1 200 bcm of new production is requi

253、red in 2050.In the STEPS,new sources of gas supply are essential to meet demand and offset declines in existing sources of supply.Just over 400 bcm of new upstream supply comes online over the period to 2030.After 2030 demand remains broadly stable,but new projects are still needed to ensure a smoot

254、h balance between supply and demand at a regional level and around 2 900 bcm of new supply is required by 2050(Figure 1.13).Table 1.3 Global production of gases and natural gas trade STEPS APS NZE 2010 2022 2030 2050 2030 2050 2030 2050 Natural gas production(bcm)3 274 4 138 4 299 4 173 3 861 2 422

255、3 403 919 Conventional gas 2 769 2 871 2 894 3 016 2 742 1 940 2 363 627 Unconventional gas 504 1 266 1 405 1 157 1 119 482 1 040 293 Natural gas net trade(bcm)640 810 919 921 827 370 719 187 LNG 276 479 611 656 588 242 507 121 Pipeline 364 331 309 265 246 125 220 47 Low-emissions gases(bcme)23 39 8

256、9 324 197 1 161 414 1 797 Low-emissions hydrogen 0 2 23 99 80 809 232 1 385 Biogas 23 28 42 89 51 117 56 129 Biomethane 1 9 24 136 66 235 126 283 Note:bcme=billion cubic metres of natural gas equivalent.In the APS,demand declines by around 1%each year on average to 2030 and by around 2.5%each year f

257、rom 2030 to 2050(Table 1.3).Meeting this level of demand requires around 1 200 bcm of supply from new projects in 2050,which in aggregate can be met without any 1 5003 0004 50020102020203020402050bcmNatural gas supply with nofurther investmentNZEAPSInvestmentin existingand approvedprojectsInvestment

258、 in new supplyin APSAdditional investmentin new supply in STEPSSTEPSIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 39 1 further natural gas exploration.In the NZE Scenario,natural gas demand falls on average by 2.5%per year between 2022 and 2030.This could be met in aggregate without an

259、y new long lead time upstream conventional projects,but some projects that have already been approved help ensure gas demand can be met at the country and regional level,taking into account the availability of import and export infrastructure(Figure 1.14).Some investment also continues in unconventi

260、onal gas;for example,around 500 shale gas wells are drilled in 2030 in the United States(compared with around 2 500 wells that were drilled in 2022).Extensive efforts are also made to stop flaring and methane emissions,which unlock more than 100 bcm of additional annual supply globally in 2030.Betwe

261、en 2030 and 2040,demand in the NZE Scenario declines by around 7.5%per year,a rate faster than implied by aggregate declines in existing sources of production.Around 650 bcm of production capacity would be surplus to demand requirements in 2040 at the global level and some higher-cost projects would

262、 close before reaching the end of their technical lifetimes.After 2040,the surplus production falls to 400 bcm as demand reductions slow to around 5%on average per year,a consequence of ramping up the use of natural gas for hydrogen production.Figure 1.14 Natural gas production by region in the APS

263、and NZE Scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.In the APS,the sharpest drops in production occur in North America and Eurasia,while the Middle East remains resilient.Production declines in all regions under the NZE Scenario.Note:C&S America=Central and South America.LNG trade declines more slowly than overall natur

264、al gas demand in NZE Scenario.This means that gas production on average falls slightly less quickly in LNG-exporting regions than in LNG-importing regions.This is also a consequence of larger fields declining more slowly.Among exporting regions,North America records the largest fall in natural gas p

265、roduction in absolute terms in the NZE Scenario,whereas Eurasia falls the most in percentage terms.300 600 9001 2001 500APSNZE2022bcmNorth AmericaC&S AmericaEurope2022-50EurasiaMiddle EastAsia PacificAfricaIEA.CC BY 4.0 40 International Energy Agency|Special Report Box 1.2 Demand-and supply-side pol

266、icies in net zero transitions There is sometimes a debate around whether demand or supply should take the lead if the world is to successfully achieve net zero transitions.This distinction is unhelpful and risks postponing perhaps indefinitely the changes that are needed.Focusing narrowly on a“deman

267、d-led transition”implicitly leaves responsibility for change with consumers,and legitimises a passive approach from suppliers.Meanwhile,the idea of a“supply led transition”comes with a heightened risk of price spikes and volatility.In practice,no one committed to change can wait for someone else to

268、move first:successful net zero transitions will depend on suppliers and consumers working together,with all parties implementing supportive policies and regulations.In the APS and NZE Scenario,this means that a wide range of different policies are introduced to scale up both the demand and supply of

269、 clean energy and to reduce the demand and supply of fossil fuels and emissions in an equitable manner(Figure 1.15).Figure 1.15 Examples of policies to scale up demand and supply of clean energy and reduce the demand and supply of fossil fuels IEA.CC BY 4.0.Successful net zero transitions require po

270、licies on the supply and demand of fossil fuels and clean energy,with suppliers working together with consumers to reduce emissions Policies that boost the demand for clean energy include grants to encourage consumers to purchase an EV,or deployment targets for heat pump installations.Policies to he

271、lp scale up new sources of clean energy supply include competitive auctions for solar PV and wind,and providing concessionary finance for biofuel and low-emissions hydrogen production projects.These actions need to be coordinated among governments,major consumers and large energy suppliers to ensure

272、 the well-synchronised development of new clean energy value IEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 41 1 chains.For example,new low-emissions shipping fuels such as methanol or ammonia,along with associated bunkering infrastructure,needs to be available to fuel a burgeoning orde

273、rbook of vessels that are capable to run on these fuels.Policies reducing fossil fuel demand play a role in creating additional room for clean energy alternatives to expand.This includes,for example,policies to facilitate the early retirement or repurposing of coal-fired power plants along the lines

274、 of the Just Energy Transition Partnerships with South Africa,Indonesia and Viet Nam.These need to include adequate provision for the social impacts on affected workers and communities.In addition,in the NZE Scenario,sales of coal and oil boilers come to an end from 2025,and no new ICE cars are sold

275、 after 2035.Fossil fuel supply-focused policies help to ensure more secure and equitable energy transitions.This includes policies to reduce the emissions intensity of oil and gas supply,and help exporters achieve economic diversification and better manage the sharp reductions in fiscal income from

276、oil and gas sales(Chapter 4).In addition,policy makers need to work with industry to plan for the safe and responsible decommissioning of wells or pipelines when they are no longer needed,otherwise this could lead to major additional costs and environmental impacts.In the APS and NZE Scenario,there

277、are no explicit policies restricting resource extraction or centralised efforts to impose production quotas as the drops in oil and gas demand are assumed to be incorporated fully into the resource development plans of companies and countries.Efforts to reduce fossil fuel use and scale up clean ener

278、gy need to be carefully designed,anticipating possible feedback effects and interdependencies to avoid creating new vulnerabilities.The unplanned,chaotic or premature retirement of some existing fossil fuel infrastructure could have negative consequences for the reliability of the overall system;for

279、 example,if gas-fired power plants are rendered uneconomic even while they continue to provide valuable electricity system services.Bans on ICE vehicles or fossil fuel boilers would only be effective if clean energy alternatives are available.Policy makers would also need to consider the extent to w

280、hich existing fossil fuel infrastructure,such as gas pipelines or storage sites,could be repurposed to transport low-emissions gases.1.5 Refining and trade 1.5.1 Refining The refining industry has enjoyed favourable profits in recent years as the post-pandemic recovery in demand coincided with the f

281、irst net reduction in capacity in 30 years.However,todays high margins may not provide a good indication of the industrys future as it faces multiple challenges from net zero transitions.In all scenarios,the unbroken pace of demand growth seen over the past decades changes direction.Oil demand reach

282、es a peak in the 2020s and enters structural decline.This shift in demand trajectory creates a growing IEA.CC BY 4.0 42 International Energy Agency|Special Report mismatch between refining capacity and oil product demand,putting pressure on refineries that are older and less competitive.The growing

283、production of biofuels and the supply from natural gas liquids further exacerbate this pressure as they reduce the scope for refineries to serve liquid demand.These challenges are compounded by changing patterns of product demand.Transport fuels such as gasoline,diesel and kerosene have been the mai

284、n driver of demand growth over the past few decades.However,they account for the bulk of demand reductions in the coming decades.The decline in gasoline demand is particularly notable,with its share of oil product demand falling from 25%today to around 15%by 2050 in the STEPS and APS,and to nearly z

285、ero in the NZE Scenario.Demand for diesel and kerosene fares slightly better,maintaining their share of total demand in the STEPS and APS.But they experience a significant decline in the NZE Scenario as the long-distance transport and aviation sectors decarbonise.Demand for petrochemical feedstock(e

286、thane,LPG and naphtha)by comparison remains relatively resilient.In the NZE Scenario their share of total product demand reaches over 50%by 2050,up from 22%today,necessitating strategic adjustments by the refining industry to align with future market demands(Figure 1.16).One example of the strategic

287、 response by refiners to date is to integrate refineries with petrochemicals to secure long-term competitiveness(see Section 4.4.4).Figure 1.16 Oil product demand in the APS and NZE Scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Reductions in oil demand are accompanied by a major shift in product demand towards petrochemic

288、al feedstock.Note:LPG=liquefied petroleum gas.After the recent short-lived reduction in capacity,the industry is on track to add a host of new refineries despite a notable slowdown in demand growth.Over 6 mb/d of crude distillation capacity is slated to come online in the coming years,mostly in deve

289、loping 20 40 60 80 10020222030205020302050OthersDiesel and keroseneGasolineEthane,LPG and naphthamb/dAPSNZEIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 43 1 economies in Asia and the Middle East(IEA,2023b).This wave of capacity expansions is expected to be the last surge of new additi

290、ons,with limited capacity growth projected after 2030 across all scenarios.Table 1.4 Global refining capacity and runs by scenario(mb/d)STEPS APS NZE 2022 2030 2050 2030 2050 2030 2050 Refining capacity 102.7 105.2 105.8 99.4 62.9 87.5 29.2 Atlantic Basin 54.2 53.2 51.8 50.4 28.3 44.0 13.2 East of S

291、uez 48.5 52.0 54.0 49.0 34.6 43.5 16.0 Refinery runs 80.7 83.9 81.6 75.5 44.1 64.3 20.6 Atlantic Basin 42.5 40.5 37.4 36.5 18.3 30.8 8.6 East of Suez 38.2 43.4 44.1 39.0 25.8 33.5 12.0 In the STEPS,global refining activity peaks around 2030 and remains at todays levels through to 2050.In the APS,glo

292、bal refinery runs halve over the period to 2050.Refining activities in the East of Suez region surpass those in the Atlantic Basic well before 2030 given that they benefit from relatively resilient domestic demand or competitive feedstock(Table 1.4).Some refiners,especially those in the Atlantic Bas

293、in,have begun adapting to a new market environment by converting their facilities into biorefineries,expanding into low-emissions businesses such as EV component production,hydrogen production and plastics recycling,or considering closures.In the NZE Scenario,refinery runs reduce further to 20 mb/d

294、by 2050,around a quarter of todays level,mostly to produce petrochemical feedstock or other non-energy products such as asphalt and bitumen.1.5.2 Oil trade Global oil trade flows are increasingly concentrated on emerging market and developing economies in Asia,which currently account for just over 4

295、0%of global crude oil imports.Due to robust demand and limited domestic production,this regions share of global imports is set to rise to around 60%in both the STEPS and APS by 2050.The Middle East maintains its stronghold as the largest crude oil supplier,serving more than half of global import nee

296、ds in 2050 in both the STEPS and APS.Although Russian crude oil is finding buyers in Asian markets and elsewhere,Russias share of global crude oil exports continues to decline in all scenarios.North and South America play an increasingly important role in meeting the worlds crude oil requirements,co

297、mpensating for the loss of Russian volumes,as the reductions in the regions refining activity outstrip the impacts of falling domestic production.In the APS,the United States share of global crude oil exports grows from 6%now to 15%in 2050,underscoring the regions emerging role as a swing player in

298、global crude oil markets.In the NZE Scenario,the Middle East is set to play an outsized role in serving global crude oil markets as a low-cost producer,with its share of total exports surpassing 60%by 2050(Figure 1.17).IEA.CC BY 4.0 44 International Energy Agency|Special Report Figure 1.17 Crude oil

299、 imports by region and exporters shares by scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Crude oil import flows continue to focus on Asia;in the APS,the Middle Easts strong position as the largest exporter is joined by the United States growing role as a swing supplier.The majority of new refining facilities under develop

300、ment are located in todays exporting regions for refined products,namely China,India and the Middle East.This makes it challenging to justify new refinery investments in importing regions such as Africa and Central and South America as new facilities would face intense competition from incumbent ref

301、iners overseas seeking export outlets.As both exporters and importers increase their reliance on trade,there is an increase in product trade volumes in the short term in the APS and the subsequent decline in trade is less steep than the pace of demand declines.Gross oil product exports in 2050 in th

302、is scenario are broadly similar to todays levels despite an over 45%reduction in overall oil demand.Chinas evolving policy of regulating crude oil and product trade has significant implications for global oil trade flows,given its imminent position as the worlds largest refiner.To address excess pro

303、duct outputs and curb emissions in the refining sector,the Chinese government implemented quotas for both crude oil imports and oil product exports.In the first half of 2022 the reduction in product export quotas had a notable effect on global middle distillate supplies,leading to a surge in prices

304、for these products.Conversely,an easing of crude oil import and product export quotas in late 2022 contributed to a moderation of diesel prices.These instances demonstrate the substantial impacts of Chinas trade policy shifts on product trade balances,as any changes in its trade regulations can caus

305、e significant fluctuations in product supplies and prices worldwide,especially for middle distillates such as diesel and kerosene(IEA,2023b).20%40%60%80%100%2022203020402050From Middle EastFrom RussiaFrom North and South AmericaNZEExportersshares(right axis)10 20 30 40 502022203020402050ChinaIndiaOt

306、her AsiaEuropean UnionRest of worldAPSmb/dImporting regionsIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 45 1 1.5.3 Natural gas trade Around 20%of global natural gas production is traded over long distances,using either large-scale pipelines(440 bcm in 2022)or by liquefying the gas and

307、 shipping it by sea(530 bcm in 2022).Continued expansion of natural gas trade requires investment in this capital-intensive export infrastructure,which also requires high rates of utilisation.Buyers and sellers have therefore typically entered into long-term contracts with pre-agreed volumes that ju

308、stify the high upfront costs of the projects.Global natural gas trade in the STEPS increases by nearly 15%between 2022 and 2030 to reach 920 bcm.In the APS,growth slows to just 2%.In the NZE Scenario total trade contracts slightly,by 10%.Long-distance pipeline trade declines in all scenarios,diminis

309、hed by significantly lower requirements for long-term,fixed volumes of gas deliveries.Interregional pipeline trade falls by nearly 10%in the STEPS,25%in the APS and by 35%in the NZE Scenario between 2022 and 2030,as pipeline gas exports to Europe are rapidly reduced and a much lower level of pipelin

310、e-based trade takes place within North America.Figure 1.18 Existing and under-construction LNG liquefaction capacity and LNG trade by scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.In the NZE Scenario,LNG projects currently under construction are not necessary.In the APS,trade peaks by 2030 and the capacity utilisation of

311、plants would drop significantly.Notes:LNG trade reflects interregional trade between regions modelled in the Global Energy and Climate Model.LNG capacity is derated to 85%of nameplate capacity.LNG is,by comparison,relatively resilient,growing by nearly 30%in the STEPS,and by 25%in the APS to 2030.It

312、 declines by around 5%in the NZE Scenario over the same period,even as overall natural gas demand falls by 20%.In all scenarios,global gas trade continues to pivot toward LNG,as the relatively large share of destination-flexible volumes provides a better 200 400 600 800201520202025203020352040204520

313、50bcmExisting LNG capacityUnder constructionSTEPSAPSNZEIEA.CC BY 4.0 46 International Energy Agency|Special Report match with the variable speed of transitions away from gas in different regions and sectors.Portfolio players continue to act as important intermediaries between supply and demand.After

314、 2030,LNG trade grows moderately in the STEPS,falls by 4%per year in the APS and by 7%per year in the NZE Scenario(Figure 1.18).By 2050,demand for LNG in the APS is nearly 300 bcm lower than today and is 400 bcm lower in the NZE Scenario.This story of near-term resilience but longer-term decline rai

315、ses the question of whether investors are likely to recoup their invested capital,and what impact a possible surplus of LNG supply would have on benchmark gas prices.The world currently has around 650 bcm of annual nameplate liquefaction capacity,with a further 250 bcm under construction.In the APS,

316、since LNG demand no longer grows after 2030,the average capacity utilisation of LNG export terminals falls from around 90%between 2018 and 2022 to 80%by 2030.In the NZE Scenario,the sharp decrease in natural gas demand globally means that the majority of projects currently under construction are no

317、longer necessary.If they do go ahead,aggregate capacity utilisation would fall to 65%in 2030 and several plants that are unable to compete in a supply glut would likely end up closing or being repurposed as a facility able to trade hydrogen-based fuels such as ammonia or methanol.Figure 1.19 Deliver

318、ed cost of existing and under-construction LNG supply compared with gas prices in the NZE Scenario,2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.LNG exporters face intense competition for rapidly diminishing demand;most projects under construction fail to recoup their invested capital under NZE Scenario import prices.This out

319、come depends largely on whether projects are able to recover their costs in the low gas price environments of the APS and NZE Scenario.On average,the delivered cost of LNG is around USD 4.50/MBtu(Figure 1.19).The most cost-competitive sources of supply are projects that have paid off their initial i

320、nvested capital and benefit from low-cost feedgas and 246810 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800USD/MBtubcmUnited StatesAustraliaOtherQatarAfricaEuropean UnionChinaExporterWeighted average import priceIEA.CC BY 4.0 Chapter 1|Oil and gas in net zero transitions 47 1 low operating costs,such as the Qata

321、ri LNG trains that started up in the early 2000s.Around 40%of existing projects have yet to recover fully their invested capital,having been online for less than the typical 10-year period over which debt is recovered in project finance for large-scale LNG terminals.For projects under construction,a

322、verage delivered costs are estimated to be around USD 8/MBtu,and there is a risk that this may increase due to mounting cost inflation amid a crowded queue of projects.In the NZE Scenario a glut of LNG and pipeline capacity forms in the mid-2020s,and weighted average import prices in China and the E

323、uropean Union fall to levels last seen at the height of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.This puts strains on the profitability of both existing and recently commissioned LNG projects.While shut-in risks would only appear if prices fall below feedgas and variable operating costs,there would be a degree

324、 of risk that project sponsors write off the value of the assets.This would,to a large extent,depend on contractual terms:suppliers selling LNG cargoes on a long-term take-or-pay basis could pass much of the volume and price risk to offtakers.Given the low oil prices in the NZE Scenario,oil indexati

325、on would offer little protection to sellers unless a floor price were set(such as through an S-curve formula).For suppliers without firm offtake contracts,LNG cargoes would have to be sold on the spot market at short-run marginal costs in order to avoid shutting in.We estimate that the sponsors of a

326、round 70%of LNG export projects currently under construction would struggle to recover their invested capital in the NZE Scenario.In the APS gas prices are higher,but there are still some 80 bcm of projects or 40%of what is currently under construction that would not fully recover their invested cap

327、ital.1.6 Alternative supply pathways in the NZE Scenario The rapid deployment of clean energy technologies and energy efficiency is at the core of the net zero transitions set out in the APS and NZE Scenario.In the NZE Scenario it is the surge in clean energy investment that leads to the overarching

328、 supply,price and investment trends and removes the need for any new long lead time conventional oil and gas projects.The energy system transformation in the NZE Scenario is not the only possible pathway to reach the goal of net zero emissions by 2050.Similarly,the supply-side dynamics in the NZE Sc

329、enario are not the only way to meet a world with rapidly falling oil and gas demand.Some producers have also argued that higher levels of oil and gas demand and supply than seen in the NZE Scenario could be consistent with achieving net zero emissions by 2050.This would be by deploying much greater

330、levels of CCUS and negative emission technologies such as DACS and BECCS.This possibility is explored in Chapter 2.A number of producers have set out reasons why their resources should be preferred in a declining oil and gas market.Four arguments are most prevalent,revolving around the need to prior

331、itise:(i)resources in low-income countries that could be used to help boost economic development,(ii)resources with lower emission intensities,(iii)low-cost resources,and(iv)IEA.CC BY 4.0 48 International Energy Agency|Special Report energy security,with a view to limiting oil and gas imports(this m

332、ay also express itself in a preference for imports from geopolitical allies).In this section,we explore the implications,benefits and trade-offs of boosting production in countries with a preference for the above factors(Box 1.3).Oil and gas demand levels are assumed to remain the same as in the NZE

333、 Scenario,and so the increases in production are matched in aggregate by decreases elsewhere.This may lead to large changes in projected oil and gas prices as well as changes in supplier concentration,emissions levels and income for producer economies.Box 1.3 Description of NZE Scenario supply-side sensitivity cases The four cases described below illustrate different ways to think through oil and