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1、SCIENCE&ENGINEERING INDICATORS 2024:The State of U.S.Science&EngineeringScience and Engineering Indicators 2024National Science BoardDaniel Reed,National Science Board Chair Presidential Professor of Computational Science and Professor of Computer Science and Electrical and Computer Engineering Univ

2、ersity of UtahVictor R.McCrary,National Science Board Vice Chair Vice President for Research and Graduate Programs and Professor of Chemistry University of the District of ColumbiaSudarsanam Suresh Babu Governors Chair of Advanced Manufacturing and Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Materials S

3、cience Oak Ridge National Laboratory and University of Tennessee,KnoxvilleDeborah Loewenberg Ball William H.Payne Collegiate Professor of Education University of MichiganRoger N.Beachy Professor Emeritus of Biology Washington University in St.LouisVicki Chandler Provost Minerva UniversityMaureen L.C

4、ondic Associate Professor of Neurobiology and Anatomy University of Utah,School of MedicineAaron Dominguez Provost Catholic University of AmericaSuresh V.Garimella President University of VermontDario Gil Senior Vice President and Director of Research IBMDorota Grejner-Brzezinska Distinguished Unive

5、rsity Professor and Lowber B.Strange Endowed Chair The Ohio State UniversityMelvyn Huff Lecturer University of Massachusetts DartmouthSteven Leath President(retired)Iowa State University and Auburn UniversityMatthew Malkan Distinguished Professor of Physics and Astronomy University of California,Los

6、 AngelesJulia M.Phillips Executive Emeritus Sandia National LaboratoriesMarvi Matos Rodriguez Director of Engineering in Mobility and Surveillance for the P-8 Air Vehicle Integrated Product Team Boeing CompanyScott Stanley Vice President of Technology Techno PlanetKeivan Stassun Stevenson Professor

7、of Physics and Astronomy Vanderbilt UniversityAlan Stern Associate Vice President and Special Assistant to the President Southwest Research InstituteMerlin Theodore Group Leader for the Advanced Fibers Manufacturing Group in the Manufacturing Science Division Oak Ridge National LaboratoryWanda E.War

8、d Executive Associate Chancellor for Public Engagement University of Illinois Urbana-ChampaignBevlee Watford Professor of Engineering Education and Associate Dean for Equity and Engagement Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityStephen H.Willard Biotechnology Executive and LawyerHeather

9、Wilson President University of Texas,El PasoSethuraman Panchanathan,Member ex officio Director National Science FoundationJohn J.Veysey,Executive Officer Board Office Director National Science BoardNational Science BoardScience&Engineering Indicators2024The State of U.S.Science and Engineering 2024M

10、arch 2024|NSB-2024-3Science and Engineering Indicators 2024PrefaceThe National Science Board(Board,NSB)is required under the National Science Foundation(NSF)Act,42 U.S.C.1863(j)(1)to prepare the biennial Science and Engineering Indicators(Indicators)report for and transmit it to the president and Co

11、ngress every even-numbered year.The report is prepared by the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics(NCSES)within NSF under the guidance of the Board.Indicators provides information on the state of the U.S.science and engineering(S&E)enterprise over time and within a global context.T

12、he report is a policy-relevant,policy-neutral source of high-quality U.S.and international data.The indicators presented in the report are quantitative representations relevant to the scope,quality,and vitality of the S&E enterprise.This summary report,The State of U.S.Science and Engineering,detail

13、s key findings from the nine thematic reports that make up Indicators,providing in-depth data and information on science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)education at all degree levels;the STEM workforce;public perceptions and awareness of science and technology;U.S.and international rese

14、arch and development performance;invention,knowledge transfer,and innovation;and U.S.competitiveness in high-technology industries.Indicators also includes an interactive,online tool that enables state comparisons on a variety of S&E indicators.This summary report,the nine thematic reports,and the o

15、nline State Indicators data tool together make up the full Indicators suite of products.https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|1 2 3 4 15 22 35 36 40 43 45 46Table of ContentsKey TakeawaysIntroductionTalent:U.S.and Global STEM Education and Labor ForceElementary and Secondary Mathematics and Science|S&E Hi

16、gher Education in the United States|International S&E Higher Education and Student Mobility|The STEM Labor Market and the Economy|Demographic Composition of the STEM Workforce|Americans Perceptions about ScientistsDiscovery:U.S.and Global R&DGlobal R&D|U.S.R&D Performance and Funding Trends|Federal

17、Agency Funding of R&D and S&E Graduate StudentsTranslation:U.S.and Global Science,Technology,and Innovation CapabilitiesResearch Publications|Invention and Innovation|Knowledge-and Technology-Intensive Industry OutputConclusionGlossaryDefinitions|Key to Acronyms and AbbreviationsReferencesNotesAckno

18、wledgments and CitationAcknowledgments|Cover Image Credit|Recommended CitationContact UsReport Authors|NCSES2|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Key TakeawaysNational assessments show a sharp decline in elementary and secondary student mathematics performance since the COVID-19 pandemic.From 201

19、9 to 2022,average mathematics scores of fourth and eighth grade students dropped to levels last measured approximately 20 years ago.Enrollment of international science and engineering(S&E)graduate students at U.S.institutions has rapidly increased from approximately 200,000 in 2020,a pandemic-era lo

20、w point,to nearly 310,000 in 2022.International students on temporary visas accounted for about a third of S&E masters and doctoral degree recipients at U.S.institutions in 2021.The U.S.science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)workforce comprised 36.8 million people in diverse occupations

21、 that require STEM knowledge and expertise in 2021,accounting for 24%of the total U.S.workforce.Just over half of STEM workers did not have bachelors degrees or higher.Foreign-born individuals made up 19%of all STEM workers and 43%of doctorate-level scientists and engineers.Women account for lower s

22、hares of degree recipients in engineering and computer and information sciences than men.Women are underrepresented in the STEM workforce,and they accounted for 35%of all STEM workers in 2021.Hispanic or Latino,Black or African American,and American Indian or Alaska Native individuals are underrepre

23、sented among S&E degree recipients at the bachelors degree level and above and also among STEM workers with at least a bachelors degree.The United States is the largest performer of research and development(R&D),with$806 billion in gross domestic expenditures on R&D in 2021.Other top R&D-performing

24、countries include China($668 billion),Japan($177 billion),Germany($154 billion),and South Korea($120 billion).The United States is also among the worlds most R&D-intensive economies,with R&D expenditures equaling 3.5%of its gross domestic product in 2021.The absolute amount of federally funded R&D i

25、ncreased from 2011 to 2021;however,due to significant growth in R&D funded by businesses,the share of total U.S.R&D funded by the federal government decreased from 30%in 2011 to 19%in 2021.The business sector now funds 36%of basic research,close to the 40%share of basic research funded by the federa

26、l government.The federal government is the largest supporter of academic R&D,funding 52%of all R&D performed by higher education institutions and supporting 15%of full-time S&E graduate students in 2021.S&E articles published in open-access journals increased over 50-fold in the past two decades,fro

27、m 19,000 articles published in 2003 to 992,000 articles in 2022.Indicators of global science,technology,and innovation(STI)capabilities,such as S&E research publications,patenting,and knowledge-and technology-intensive(KTI)industry output,are concentrated in the United States,East and Southeast Asia

28、,and Europe.Over the past decade,China has significantly increased its share of global STI capabilities.China is the top overall producer of S&E publications and international patents and has the greatest KTI manufacturing output.The United States,which has a greater share of its publications among

29、the most highly cited S&E research,is the world leader in KTI services.These two countries are the largest contributors to a global network of artificial intelligence(AI)research publishing.Like K12 education outcomes,innovation capabilities and the STEM labor force are not uniform across the United

30、 States.U.S.patenting activity is concentrated along the coasts and in parts of the Great Lakes region,Texas,and the Rocky Mountains,a distribution similar to that of STEM employment and KTI industry production.https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|3IntroductionThe State of U.S.Science and Engineering sum

31、marizes key indicators that assess the status of the science and engineering(S&E)enterprise within the United States and illustrate the U.S.global position in multiple aspects of the S&E enterprise.This report provides high-level findings from the nine thematic reports that make up Science and Engin

32、eering Indicators 2024.Selected data from the nine thematic reports are grouped here into three major sections that relate to the S&E enterprise:talent,discovery,and translation.These three components collectively support U.S.global competitiveness in science,technology,and innovation(STI),in that s

33、cience,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)talent contributes to scientific discovery,which in turn is translated to society and the economy through innovation.The first section of the report describes the status of the U.S.STEM education system from elementary through the doctoral level and

34、 the STEM workforce,including the contributions of international students and workers.It also details the American publics perceptions about scientists.The second section,on research and development(R&D),discusses the position of the United States among the top R&D-performing countries and analyzes

35、patterns of U.S.R&D funding and performance among economic sectors and by type of R&D.The third and final section focuses on outputs of the S&E enterprise to provide insight into how the United States and other major countries and regions contribute to global knowledge and innovation.Finally,the rep

36、ort contains a sidebar with select indicators of national investments and capabilities in critical and emerging technologies(see sidebar Critical and Emerging Technologies).4|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024SubjectAverage scoreLowest-scoring economys averageUnited StatesTIMSS averageHighest-s

37、coring economys averageMathematicsScience0100200300400500600700Talent:U.S.and Global STEM Education and Labor ForceA globally competitive STEM education system equips Americans with the skills and knowledge needed to participate in the STEM workforce.STEM workers with a broad range of educational cr

38、edentials sustain the U.S.research enterprise and drive innovation in critical and emerging technologies,supporting the nations competitiveness in the global economy.Elementary and Secondary Mathematics and ScienceElementary and secondary education in mathematics and science are the foundation for e

39、ntry into postsecondary STEM majors and STEM-related occupations.1 Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,the United States ranked near the middle of advanced economies based on international mathematics and science assessments of students(Figure 1).In 2019,average Trends in International Mathematics and Sc

40、ience Study(TIMSS)assessment scores of U.S.eighth grade students in mathematics(515)and science(522)were similar to the average among advanced economies(532 in mathematics and 527 in science).Average scores of students from advanced economies in East and Southeast AsiaSingapore,Taiwan,South Korea,Ja

41、panwere among the highest and were significantly higher than average scores of U.S.students in both mathematics and science.2Figure 1.Average TIMSS mathematics and science scores of students in grade 8 among participating advanced economies:2019Note(s):TIMSS is Trends in International Mathematics an

42、d Science Study.The scale for TIMSS scores is 01,000.Source(s):International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement,TIMSS,2019.Indicators 2024:K12 Educationhttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|5YearAverage scoreAll studentsAsianWhiteMore than one raceNative Hawaiian or Other Pacific Is

43、landerHispanic or LatinoAmerican Indian or Alaska NativeBlack or African American20002003200520072009201120132015201720192022240250260270280290300310320The COVID-19 pandemic led to severe disruptions in elementary and secondary student learning in the United States,beginning with the abrupt switch t

44、o remote instruction for many students in March 2020.Student mathematics performance showed a sharp decline in 2022,compared with pre-pandemic performance in 2019.From 2019 to 2022,the overall average scores for eighth graders on the main National Assessment of Educational Progress(NAEP)mathematics

45、assessment dropped for all students,although the decline was not statistically significant for all racial and ethnic groups(Figure 2).3 Average scores in mathematics for all students in 2022 were lower than all previous assessments since 2005 for fourth graders and since 2003 for eighth graders.Figu

46、re 2.Average scores of U.S.students in grade 8 on the main NAEP mathematics assessment,by race or ethnicity:200022Note(s):NAEP is National Assessment of Educational Progress.Data are not available for all years.The scale for NAEP mathematics assessment scores is 0500 for grade 8.Hispanic or Latino m

47、ay be any race;race categories exclude Hispanic origin.Average scores declined from 2019 to 2022 by statistically significant amounts for all racial and ethnic groups shown except for American Indians or Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulatio

48、ns(2022)of the main NAEP 200022 mathematics assessments,NCES.Indicators 2024:K12 EducationThe NAEP long-term trend mathematics assessment,another national assessment of mathematics,also shows a significant post-pandemic decline in student scores(Figure 3).From 2020 to 2023,the average score for all

49、13-year-old students dropped by 9 points.Among student racial and ethnic groups,score declines included a 20-point drop for American Indian or Alaska Native students and a 6-point drop for White students.Scores for students in the 10th percentile those scoring near the low end of all assessment take

50、rsdropped by 14 points,whereas scores for students in the 90th percentile dropped by 6 points.As a result,the gap between students scoring in the 10th percentile(213)and the 90th percentile(322)widened to 109 points,the largest it has been since the assessment began in 1978.With respect to student s

51、ocioeconomic status,students eligible for free or reduced-price luncha commonly used indicator of family povertyscored significantly lower in 2023(253)than students ineligible for the program(287).Both groups of students experienced significant declines in test scores from 2020 to 2023.6|Science and

52、 Engineering Indicators 2024Student characteristicScore changeAll studentsAsianBlack or African AmericanHispanic or LatinoMore than one raceWhite10th percentile score25th percentile score50th percentile score75th percentile score90th percentile score-25-20-15-10-50Figure 3.Change in average student

53、scores for 13-year-old students on the NAEP long-term trend mathematics assessment,by student characteristic:202023Note(s):NAEP is National Assessment of Educational Progress.Hispanic or Latino may be any race;race categories exclude Hispanic origin.Data for Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

54、 students are suppressed for reasons of confidentiality and/or reliability.Changes in average scores from 2020 to 2023 for all groups shown are statistically significant at the 0.10 level.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)of the 2020 and 2023 NAEP long-term trend mathematics assessments,NCES.

55、Indicators2024:K12 EducationS&E Higher Education in the United StatesAlthough some students transition directly from high school to the STEM labor force,the nations S&E enterprise depends heavily on recipients of higher education degrees in S&E fields(see Glossary section for a list of S&E fields).4

56、 The number of certificates and degrees awarded in S&E fields increased at each degree level in the past decade,with total S&E awards(including all certificates and associates,bachelors,masters,and doctoral degrees)increasing from 982,000 in 2012 to 1,310,000 in 2021.The share of degrees awarded in

57、S&E fields increased for all levels except doctoral degrees;however,the share of degrees awarded in S&E fields was the highest at the doctoral level,with 66%of doctoral degrees awarded in S&E fields.Many groups of Americans remained underrepresented among S&E degree recipients when compared to their

58、 share of the U.S.population ages 2034 years old.The percentage of women varied significantly depending on S&E field,with women accounting for the lowest shares of degree recipients in engineering(24%of bachelors degrees in 2021)and computer and information sciences(22%).In 2021,American Indian or A

59、laska Native,Black or African American,and Hispanic or Latino students were underrepresented among S&E degree recipients at the bachelors level and above.Hispanic or Latino students were overrepresented among S&E associates degree recipients(Figure 4).5https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|7Selected popul

60、ationPercentAmerican Indian or Alaska NativeAsianBlack or African AmericanHispanic or LatinoNative Hawaiian or Other Pacific IslanderWhiteMore than one raceU.S.population(ages 2034)Certificate recipientsAssociates degree recipientsBachelors degree recipientsMasters degree recipientsDoctoral degree r

61、ecipients020406080100Figure 4.Race or ethnicity in the U.S.population and among S&E certificate and degree recipients:2021Note(s):Hispanic or Latino may be any race;race categories exclude Hispanic origin.Source(s):Census Bureau,U.S.population data,2021;NCES,IPEDS Completion Survey,2021.Indicators 2

62、024:Higher EducationMany students enter higher education through community colleges,which specialize in providing relatively affordable programs of study,including certificate and associates degree programs that require 2 years or less to complete.These institutions prepare students to enter the wor

63、kforce directly or to transition to primarily 4-year institutions.Community colleges awarded half(50%)of the 79,000 S&E certificates and three-fourths(76%)of the 155,000 S&E associates degrees awarded by U.S.institutions in 2021.The number and growth of higher education degrees awarded in S&E fields

64、 vary depending on the degree level.Bachelors degrees accounted for 66%of all S&E degrees awarded in 2021,with the largest numbers of bachelors degrees awarded in social sciences,followed by psychology,biological and biomedical sciences,and engineering.Masters degrees either prepare students for adv

65、anced STEM careers or mark a step toward obtaining a doctoral degree.The number of masters degrees awarded in S&E fields increased by 41%from 2012 to 2021,the greatest percentage growth of all degree levels.Masters degrees awarded in computer and information sciences53%of which went to students on t

66、emporary visas in 2021increased rapidly during this time to reach 54,000,surpassing the number awarded in engineering(47,000).Engineering was the most common field of S&E doctorate in 2021(11,000 awarded),and health sciences was the fastest-growing field of S&E doctorate,increasing from over 4,000 d

67、egrees in 2012 to over 7,000 in 2021.The cost of higher education,levels of student borrowing required to pay this cost,and students ability to repay student loan debt are topics of discussion among the public and policymakers.In 2020,the median amount borrowed among all 201516 bachelors degree reci

68、pients who had taken out federal student loans was$30,000 and the average was$41,000,indicating that some students borrowed much higher amounts.The total amount borrowed includes borrowing for education after completing the 201516 bachelors degree:graduates who had enrolled for an additional postsec

69、ondary degree or certificate had borrowed a median amount of$43,500,compared with a$27,000 median amount among 8|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024YearNumberBrazilChinaFranceGermanyIndiaJapanSouth KoreaUnited KingdomUnited States2011201220132014201520162017201820192020010,00020,00030,00040,0005

70、0,000students who had no further enrollment.By 2020,the median amount that 201516 bachelors degree recipients owed in education loans was 92%of what they had borrowed.Progress in repaying loans for this group of bachelors degree recipients differed by S&E degree field.For example,in 2020,median amou

71、nts owed were 59%of the amount borrowed for engineering and engineering technology,74%for computer and information sciences,and 101%for social sciences.Most S&E doctorate recipients do not incur student debt to support their graduate education.In 2021,large majorities(73%and above)of doctorate recip

72、ients in the following fields reported holding no debt related to their graduate education:physical sciences;computer and information sciences;mathematics and statistics;engineering;biological and biomedical sciences;geosciences,atmospheric sciences,and ocean sciences;multidisciplinary and interdisc

73、iplinary sciences;and agricultural sciences and natural resources(NCSES 2022a).These are also fields that tend to receive the support of the federal government and academic institutions.In social sciences and in health sciences,the proportion of doctorate recipients with no debt ranged between 53%an

74、d 63%;in psychology,it was 48%.International S&E Higher Education and Student MobilityThe worlds three most populous countries award the highest numbers of S&E first university degrees,roughly equivalent to bachelors degrees(see Glossary section for definition of first university degrees).6 India aw

75、arded 2.5 million first university degrees in S&E in 2020,followed by China(2.0 million)and the United States(900,000).On a percentage basis,Mexico and Turkey experienced the most rapid growth in S&E first university degree awards from 2011 to 2020.The United States had been a long-standing world le

76、ader in S&E doctorate awards but was surpassed by China in 2019.In 2020,China awarded 43,000 S&E doctorates,followed closely by the United States with 42,000 S&E doctorates awarded(Figure 5).7 China has been the top producer of doctorates in the natural sciences fields(i.e.,S&E fields excluding soci

77、al and behavioral sciences)and engineering since 2007.The number of S&E doctorates awarded in India grew rapidly in the mid-2010s but dropped from 26,000 in 2019 to 17,000 in 2020 amid COVID-19 pandemic-related disruptionsslightly below the number awarded in the United Kingdom.The United States meas

78、ures far higher than China and India in the share of its postsecondary-age population(individuals ages 2034 years old)earning S&E degrees;however,the share of the U.S.population earning S&E doctorates is lower than that of the United Kingdom or Germany.Figure 5.S&E doctoral degrees awarded,by select

79、ed country:201120Note(s):Data are not available for all countries for all years.Source(s):Educational statistics of OECD;NBS and MOE(China);MOE(India).Indicators 2024:Higher Educationhttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|9YearNumberDoctoralMastersBachelorsAssociates2012201320142015201620172018201920202021

80、20220100,000200,000300,000400,000500,000The United States is the most popular destination for internationally mobile students,hosting 15%of all international students worldwide in 2020.Students on temporary visas studying in the United States earn a small proportion of S&E undergraduate degrees but

81、a much higher share of S&E graduate degrees.In 2021,temporary visa holders earned 3%of S&E associates degrees,7%of S&E bachelors degrees,34%of S&E masters degrees,and 35%of S&E doctoral degrees.Between 2012 and 2021,the shares of S&E degrees earned by temporary visa holders increased for all degree

82、levels,although most substantially at the masters level.Among postsecondary degree recipients,those on temporary visas are more likely than U.S.citizens and permanent residents to earn their degree in S&E fields,especially at advanced degree levels.In 2021,57%of masters degrees awarded to temporary

83、visa holders were in S&E fields,compared with 19%for U.S.citizens and permanent residents.Among doctoral degree recipients,the vast majority(83%)of temporary visa holders earned degrees in S&E fields,compared with 59%of U.S.citizens and permanent residents.The overall high representation of temporar

84、y visa holders among S&E advanced degree recipients varies greatly by S&E field.In 2021,temporary visa holders earned 7%of doctoral degrees in psychology.In contrast,they earned more than half of doctoral degrees in computer and information sciences(59%),engineering(60%),and mathematics and statisti

85、cs(54%),all S&E fields that the National Science Board has linked to critical and emerging technologies crucial for national security and economic prosperity(NSB 2022).The number of international students on temporary visas who travel to the United States to earn postsecondary degrees in S&E fields

86、has increased substantially since the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020,up by 37%(almost 130,000 students)from fall 2020 to fall 2022(Figure 6).8 International S&E masters enrollment more than doubled from 2020 to 2022,pushing total international S&E graduate enrollment to nearly 310,000 i

87、n 2022,the highest level in the past decade.This increase has been driven by rapid growth in enrollment of S&E masters students from India,who are concentrated in computer sciences and engineering.Enrollment of S&E graduate students from China,the most common country of origin at the doctoral level,

88、has also increased since 2020,but not to the extent as enrollment of students from India.Figure 6.International S&E students on temporary visas enrolled in U.S.higher education institutions,by level of enrollment:2012 22Note(s):Numbers are rounded to the nearest 10.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulation

89、s(2022)of the SEVIS database,DHS,ICE.Indicators 2024:Higher Education10|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Thousands17,5487,3248,4621,76219,2562,0985,07812,07941,67373,891The STEM Labor Market and the EconomyThe U.S.STEM workforce comprised 36.8 million people in diverse occupations that require

90、 STEM knowledge and expertise in 2021,constituting 24%of the total U.S.workforce(Figure 7).9 The STEM workforce encompasses all workers who use STEM skills in their jobs,regardless of degree level.It includes 17.5 million workers with at least a bachelors degree and 19.3 million workers without a ba

91、chelors degree.The latter subgroup is defined as the skilled technical workforce(STW).Figure 7.U.S.workforce,by STEM occupation group and education level:2021Note(s):STEM is science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Numbers are rounded to the nearest thousand.Percent values shown are the shares

92、 of the total workforce.Source(s):Census Bureau,ACS,2021.Indicators 2024:Labor ForceThe STEM workforce includes S&E occupations and S&E-related occupations,as well as middle-skill occupations that require STEM skills but typically do not require a bachelors degree for entry(see Glossary section for

93、definitions of S&E,S&E-related,and middle-skill occupations).Of the 9.4 million workers in S&E occupations,7.3 million(78%)hold at least a bachelors degree(Figure 7).Most(62%)of the 13.5 million workers in S&E-related occupations also hold at least a bachelors degree.In contrast,of the 13.8 million

94、workers in middle-skill occupations,only 1.8 million(13%)have at least a bachelors degree.Over the past decade,the STEM workforce grew both in number and in the percentage of the total workforce.10 Between 2011 and 2021,STEM workers increased from 22%to 24%of the U.S.workforce.By educational attainm

95、ent,the STEM workforce with a bachelors degree or higher increased more(growth of 5.7 million workers)than the STW(growth of 1.4 million workers).The expansion of the STEM workforce during this period was also unequally distributed among the different types of STEM occupations.From 2011 to 2021,the

96、number of workers in S&E occupations increased by 62%(3.6 million),whereas S&E-related occupations increased by 26%(2.8 million)and middle-skill occupations increased by 6%(0.8 million).https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|11 75th percentile:25.827.8Workers in STEM occupations have higher employment rate

97、s and higher median earnings than their non-STEM counterparts.During the economic downturn associated with the coronavirus pandemic,STEM workers experienced a smaller decrease in their employment rate than non-STEM workers between 2019 and 2021.By 2021,the employment rate of the STEM labor force rem

98、ained higher than that of the non-STEM labor force(86%versus 79%).STEM workers also earned a higher median annual salary than non-STEM workers in 2021($69,000 versus$50,000).The prevalence of STEM workers throughout the United States is uneven.In 2021,the national share of workers employed in STEM o

99、ccupations was 24%,with STEM employment shares at the state level ranging from 20%to 28%(Figure 8).States with the highest shares(top quartile)of STEM workers with a bachelors degree or higher were primarily located on the West Coast and in the Northeast corridor from the Washington,DC,area to New E

100、ngland.States in the top quartile of shares of the STW(STEM workers without a bachelors degree or higher)employment were mostly in the South and Midwest.11Figure 8.Employment in the STEM workforce,by state:2021Note(s):STEM is science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Quartiles are based on poin

101、t estimates and do not account for sampling variability.Source(s):Census Bureau,ACS,2021.Indicators 2024:Labor ForceDemographic Composition of the STEM WorkforceWomen made up 35%of the STEM workforce in 2021,less than their share of the employed U.S.population(47%).12 Women made up 44%of STEM worker

102、s with bachelors degrees or higher and about a quarter of the STW(26%).With respect to type of STEM occupations,women accounted for a minority of workers in S&E occupations(27%)and in middle-skill occupations(10%)but a majority of workers in S&E-related occupations(65%).Racial and ethnic representat

103、ion also varies in the STEM workforce and within types of STEM occupations.Black or African American,Hispanic or Latino,and American Indian or Alaska Native individuals collectively accounted for 23%of the STEM workforce in 2021,compared with 30%of the total U.S.workforce(Table 1).Each of these grou

104、ps was underrepresented in the STEM workforce relative to their share of the total U.S.workforce and had the lowest levels of representation in S&E occupations in particular.For example,in 2021,Black or African American individuals made up 11%of all workers,8%of 12|Science and Engineering Indicators

105、 2024Occupation groupPercentBachelorsMastersDoctorateAll S&E occupationsS&E:computer and mathematical scientistsS&E:physical and related scientistsS&E:social and related scientistsS&E:engineersS&E-related occupationsNon-S&E occupations0102030405060STEM workers,and 7%of workers in S&E occupations.In

106、contrast,Asian individuals accounted for 18%of S&E workers,almost triple their share of the total workforce.Despite the underrepresentation of Hispanic or Latino workers in the overall STEM workforce,they accounted for a higher share of middle-skill STEM workers(22%)than their share of the total wor

107、kforce(18%).Table 1.Distribution of select racial and ethnic groups in the workforce,by occupational group:2021(Percent)Occupation groupWhiteHispanic or LatinoBlack or African AmericanAsianAmerican Indian or Alaska NativeSome other race or more than one raceAll workers59.818.211.06.30.44.3STEM62.914

108、.88.29.50.34.3S&E60.99.56.818.00.24.6S&E-related65.310.69.69.90.34.3Middle-skill62.022.57.73.40.54.0Non-STEM58.819.311.95.20.44.4Note(s):STEM is science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Hispanic or Latino may be any race;race categories exclude Hispanic origin.Source(s):Census Bureau,ACS,2021.

109、Indicators 2024:Labor ForceIn 2021,foreign-born workers(regardless of citizenship status)accounted for 19%of the STEM workforce.Foreign-born workers accounted for 19%of workers in S&E occupations at the bachelors degree level,37%at the masters degree level,and 43%at the doctorate level(Figure 9).Mor

110、e than half of doctorate-level computer and mathematical scientists and engineersoccupations associated with critical and emerging technologies by the National Science Board(NSB 2022)working in the United States were born outside the country.Including workers of all education levels,India and China

111、were the leading birthplaces of foreign-born S&E workers in the United States,accounting for 29%and 12%,respectively,of all foreign-born S&E workers.Figure 9.Foreign-born share of workers with a bachelors degree or higher,by highest degree level and occupation group:2021Source(s):NCSES,NSCG,2021.Ind

112、icators 2024:Labor Forcehttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|130102030405060708090100201620202022201620202022201620202022201620202022201620202022All education levelsHigh school diplomaor lessSome collegeCollege degreePostgraduate degreePercentEducation level and yearA great deal of confidenceA fair amoun

113、t of confidenceU.S.-trained S&E doctorate recipients who were on temporary visas at the time of graduation are a vital source of STEM workers for the U.S.economy.From 2018 to 2021,temporary visa holdersmost commonly from China or India accounted for 37%of U.S.S&E research doctorate recipients,and ov

114、er 70%of these S&E doctorate recipients stated that they intend to live in the United States in the year after graduation.NCSES surveys of S&E doctorate recipients 5 years and 10 years after receiving their doctorates show that a majority of those who were on temporary visas at the time of graduatio

115、n remained in the United States for significant amounts of time.When S&E doctorate recipients were surveyed in 2021 across all countries of citizenship and degree fields,the 5-year stay rate for those who were on temporary visas at graduation was 71%and the 10-year stay rate was 65%.Stay rates varie

116、d by doctoral field of degree as well as by country of citizenship at degree award.The 10-year stay rate for engineering,the most common S&E doctoral field of temporary visa holders,was 72%.In contrast,the 10-year stay rate for degree holders in social sciences,a less common doctoral field for tempo

117、rary visa holders,was 41%,the only field with a 10-year stay rate below 50%.S&E doctorate recipients with Chinese citizenship at graduation had higher than average 5-year and 10-year stay rates(88%and 81%,respectively).Americans Perceptions about ScientistsAmericans degree of trust in scientists has

118、 remained high for decades,although it varies by level of education and has fluctuated in recent years.13 In 2022,77%of adults in the United States expressed either“a great deal”or“a fair amount”of confidence in scientists to act in the best interests of the public(Figure 10).14 Looking at just the

119、response of“a great deal,”21%of adults overall indicated this level of confidence in 2016;this share increased to 39%in 2020(after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic)but then decreased to 28%in 2022.Figure 10.Respondents expressing confidence in scientists to act in the best interests of the public,

120、by education level:2016,2020,and 2022Note(s):Data collected in MayJune 2016,November 2020,and September 2022.Percentages do not add to 100%because not all responses are shown.Source(s):Pew Research Center,American Trends Panel(2016,2020,2022).Indicators 2024:Public Perceptions14|Science and Engineer

121、ing Indicators 2024Adults with higher levels of education typically express the greatest degree of trust in scientists,and those with the lowest level of education express the least trust.For example,in 2022,42%of adults with postgraduate degrees expressed“a great deal”of confidence in scientists to

122、 act in the best interests of the public(Figure 10).This share was higher than the share of adults with a college degree(32%)and those with some college(27%)who expressed the same degree of confidence,and it was double the share of adults with a high school diploma or less(21%).15https:/ncses.nsf.go

123、v/indicators|15YearBillions of current PPP dollarsUnited StatesChinaJapanGermanySouth KoreaUnited KingdomFranceTaiwan20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020210100200300400500600700800900Discovery:U.S.and Global R&DThe global competitiveness of the Unite

124、d States in STI is driven not only by the countrys development of a workforce equipped to perform technologically advanced activities but also by its investments in R&D.R&Dcreative and systematic work undertaken to increase knowledge and devise new applications for knowledgefosters scientific and te

125、chnological breakthroughs and leads to the development of new and improved processes,services,and products.STI competitiveness encourages a strengthened market and workforce,prompting improvements to national living standards,economic sectors,and infrastructure.Global R&DThe United States is the top

126、 performer of R&D,with$806 billion in gross domestic expenditures on R&D in 2021,according to statistics from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)(Figure 11).16 The other top R&D-performing economies are located in East and Southeast Asia and in Europe.China,the second-hi

127、ghest R&D performer,had$668 billion in R&D expenditures in 2021.The United States and China each have much greater R&D expenditures than the remaining top R&D performers,which include Japan($177 billion),Germany($154 billion),and South Korea($120 billion).Figure 11.Gross domestic expenditures on R&D

128、,by selected country or economy:200021Note(s):PPP is purchasing power parity.Data are for the top eight R&D-performing countries or economies.Source(s):OECD,MSTI,September 2023 release.Indicators 2024:R&D16|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Country or economyPercent20002021South KoreaTaiwanJapa

129、nGermanyChinaFrance012345In recent years,growth in R&D expenditures has varied considerably among the top R&D performers.According to OECD statistics,gross domestic expenditures on R&D began increasing rapidly in the mid-2000s in China,which surpassed Japan in 2009 and the combined R&D expenditures

130、of the European Union(EU-27)countries in 2013(see Glossary section for definition of EU-27).From 2011 to 2021,U.S.R&D expenditures increased by 89%,greater growth than France(44%)and Germany(60%)but less growth than South Korea and Taiwan,which both doubled R&D expenditures.Japan experienced the slo

131、west rate of growth among the top R&D-performing countries,with R&D expenditures increasing by 20%from 2011 to 2021.The major R&D-performing countries vary in their R&D-to-gross domestic product(GDP)ratios,known as R&D intensities(see Glossary section for definition).The United States,which has the

132、highest level of R&D expenditures,had an R&D intensity of 3.5%in 2021(Figure 12).However,several smaller economies with lower total R&D expenditures than the United States have higher R&D intensities,such as South Korea(4.9%)and Taiwan(3.8%).Although R&D intensities of all the major R&D performers i

133、ncreased from 2000 to 2021,they increased to different extents over this period.The United States increased R&D intensity from 2.6%in 2000 to 3.5%in 2021,surpassing Japan,which exhibited comparatively slower growth in R&D intensity.In 2000,South Korea and Taiwan both had lower R&D intensities than t

134、he United States.However,after experiencing the greatest percentage point increases in R&D intensity among the top R&D performers,South Korea and Taiwan had the highest R&D intensities by 2021.Figure 12.R&D intensity,by selected country or economy:2000 and 2021Note(s):Data are for the top eight R&D-

135、performing countries or economies.R&D intensity is R&D expenditures in each country divided by gross domestic product in each country.Source(s):OECD,MSTI,September 2023 release.Indicators 2024:R&Dhttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|17YearBillions of current dollarsBusinessHigher educationFederal governm

136、entNonfederal government and other nonprofits20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020210100200300400500600700Countries allocate different shares of their R&D expenditures across three types of R&D:basic research,applied research,and experimental developm

137、ent(see Glossary section for definitions).In 2021,the United States spent 15%($119 billion)of its total R&D expenditures on basic research,18%($146 billion)on applied research,and 67%($540 billion)on experimental development.South Korea and Japan were similar to the United States in their distributi

138、ons of R&D expenditures across the three types of R&D.Compared with the United States,Taiwan dedicated a lower share of its R&D expenditures to basic research(7%),and France dedicated a higher share(23%);however,in absolute terms,the United States spent far more on basic research than any other econ

139、omy.The business sector is the largest funder of R&D in the top R&D-performing countries,with lower shares funded by government,higher education,and private nonprofit institutions.In each of the leading R&D performers in East and Southeast AsiaChina,Japan,South Korea,and Taiwanthe domestic business

140、sector accounted for at least 75%of R&D funding in 2021.The domestic business share of R&D funding is lower but still a substantial majority in the United States(68%);among the top R&D performers in Europe(Germany,United Kingdom,France),the business share of R&D funding is closer to 60%.U.S.R&D Perf

141、ormance and Funding TrendsAlthough the U.S.business sector performs(or conducts)the most R&D,other sectorsincluding federal,state,and local governments;higher education institutions;and nonacademic,nonprofit organizationsalso perform and fund domestic R&D.17 R&D performed in the United States totale

142、d$717 billion in 2020 and,according to preliminary data,$789 billion in 2021.18 The business sector was the main driver of R&D performance.R&D performed by businesses accounted for 87%of increased R&D from 2011 to 2021(Figure 13).19Figure 13.U.S.R&D expenditures,by performing sector:200021Note(s):So

143、me data for 2021 are preliminary and may be revised later.Source(s):NCSES,National Patterns of R&D Resources(202122 edition).Indicators 2024:R&D18|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024YearBillions of current dollarsBusinessHigher educationFederal governmentNonfederal government and other nonprofit

144、s20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020210200400600The business sector funds(or pays for)most of the R&D performed in the United States,accounting for 75%of U.S.R&D funding in 2021,followed by the federal government,which funded 19%of R&D(Figure 14).20

145、 Nearly all(99%)of the business sectors R&D funding supports R&D performance within the business sector.In contrast,the federal government supports R&D performed by all sectors.In 2021,the federal government funded 52%of the R&D performed by the higher education sector,43%by nonprofits,and 4%by busi

146、nesses.Because a substantial share of federal R&D funding is directed toward R&D performed by other sectors,especially academic institutions,the federal government performs less R&D than the higher education sector but funds over six times more R&D than the higher education sector.Figure 14.U.S.R&D

147、expenditures,by source of funds:200021Note(s):Some data for 2021 are preliminary and may be revised later.Source(s):NCSES,National Patterns of R&D Resources(202122 edition).Indicators 2024:R&DThe majority of U.S.R&D performance is in experimental development(67%)and applied research(18%),and the bus

148、iness sector is the most active in both of these types of R&D.With its focus on new and improved goods,services,and processes,the business sector performs 91%of experimental development and 62%of applied research performed in the United States(Figure 15).Several industrieschemicals manufacturing(inc

149、luding pharmaceuticals and medicine);computer and electronic products;transportation equipment;professional,scientific,and technical services;and information servicesaccount for the vast majority of R&D performed by the business sector.The higher education sector is the largest performer of basic re

150、search(46%),and the federal government performs low shares of all types of R&D.https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|19Type of R&DPercentBusinessHigher educationFederal governmentNonfederal government and other nonprofitsPerformance of basic researchFunding of basic researchPerformance of applied research

151、Funding of applied researchFunding of experimental development020406080100Figure 15.U.S.R&D performance and funding,by type of R&D and sector:2021Note(s):Some data for 2021 are preliminary and may be revised later.Source(s):NCSES,National Patterns of R&D Resources(202122 edition).Indicators 2024:R&D

152、Federal funding of R&D increased from$127 billion in 2011 to$148 billion in 2021,but the share of total R&D funded by the federal government declined from 30%to 19%.This decline in the federal share of R&D funding occurred across all types of R&D(Figure 16).The federal government funded a majority o

153、f basic research performed in the United States from the early 1950s to the early 2010s.Although it is still the largest funder of basic research(40%in 2021),the federal governments share of basic research funding is now only slightly higher than the share funded by the business sector,which increas

154、ed from 20%in 2011 to 36%in 2021.Higher education institutions,which are the most significant performers of basic research,rely heavily on federal support for R&D.Federal funding of R&D performed by the higher education sector increased in dollar amount from 2011 to 2021 from$35.7 billion to$44.7 bi

155、llionbut the proportion of higher education R&D funded by the federal government declined from 59%to 52%over the same period.In contrast,the proportion of higher education R&D funded by higher education institutions themselves increased from 22%to 27%.The remainder of R&D performed by the higher edu

156、cation sector in 2021 was funded by nonprofit organizations(9%),businesses(6%),and nonfederal governments(5%).20|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Type of R&DBillions of current dollarsFederal funding level20112021Basic researchApplied researchExperimental development0102030405060Type of R&DPer

157、centFederal funding share20112021Basic researchApplied researchExperimental development0102030405060Figure 16.U.S.R&D performance funded by the federal government of each type of R&D:2011 and 2021Note(s):Some data for 2021 are preliminary and may be revised later.Source(s):NCSES,National Patterns of

158、 R&D Resources(202122 edition).Indicators 2024:R&DFederal Agency Funding of R&D and S&E Graduate StudentsIn 2021,a large majority of the federal governments R&D budget was obligated to the Department of Health and Human Services(HHS)(40%),the parent agency of the National Institutes of Health(NIH),a

159、nd to the Department of Defense(DOD)(37%).21 Most of the remaining federal R&D budget was allocated to the Department of Energy(DOE)(7%),the National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA)(6%),and the National Science Foundation(NSF)(4%).DOD directs the bulk of its R&D budget toward experimental

160、 development(86%in 2021).In comparison,DOE and NASA are more evenly https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|21AgencyNumberBiological and biomedical sciences and healthEngineeringPhysical sciencesMathematics and computer sciencesPsychology and social sciencesAgricultural sciences and natural resourcesMultidi

161、sciplinary and interdisciplinary studiesNIHNSFDODDOEUSDAOther HHSNASAOther02,5005,0007,50010,00012,50015,00017,50020,00022,50025,000distributed between basic research,applied research,and experimental development.Supplemental COVID-19 pandemic-related stimulus funding has vastly increased the share

162、of HHS R&D obligations directed toward experimental development(44%),which accounted for very little of total HHS R&D in the years prior to the pandemic.NSF focuses on basic research,which accounted for 86%of its R&D obligations in 2021.The federal government supported 15%of full-time S&E graduate s

163、tudents(mostly doctoral degree students)in 2021,a decline from the most recent high of 21%in 2004.22 The federal government supports a higher proportion of S&E doctoral degree students than S&E masters degree students(26%versus 5%),consistent across all fields of S&E.Among federal agencies,NIH and N

164、SF support the greatest number of S&E graduate students(Figure 17).In 2021,NIH supported about 23,000 students and NSF supported almost 22,000 students,collectively 54%of the almost 83,000 federally supported graduate students.NSF supports substantial numbers of students across a range of S&E fields

165、,whereas other agencies are more specialized in their financial support.In 2021,68%of full-time S&E graduate students supported by NIH were studying biological and biomedical sciences and health,56%of those funded by DOD were in engineering,and 91%of those funded by DOE were in engineering or physic

166、al sciences.23Figure 17.Full-time graduate students in S&E primarily supported by the federal government,by degree field and agency:2021Note(s):DOD is Department of Defense.DOE is Department of Energy.HHS is Department of Health and Human Services,excluding NIH.NASA is National Aeronautics and Space

167、 Administration.NIH is National Institutes of Health.NSF is National Science Foundation.USDA is Department of Agriculture.S&E includes health fields.Physical sciences includes geosciences,atmospheric sciences,and ocean sciences.Agricultural sciences includes veterinary sciences;natural resources inc

168、ludes conservation.Mathematics includes statistics;computer sciences includes information sciences.Source(s):NCSES,GSS,2021.Indicators 2024:Academic R&D22|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024YearThousandsChinaUnited StatesIndiaGermanyUnited KingdomJapanRest of world2003200420052006200720082009201

169、020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021202205001,0001,500Translation:U.S.and Global Science,Technology,and Innovation CapabilitiesInvestment in R&D and in a workforce equipped to perform technologically advanced activities enables scientific discovery,which supports the development of STI capa

170、bilities,including capabilities in critical and emerging technologies(see sidebar Critical and Emerging Technologies).In turn,STI capabilities result in scientific publications,patent activity,and knowledge-and technology-intensive(KTI)industry output.The United States is the world leader with respe

171、ct to many STI capabilities and outputs especially KTI servicesalthough overall invention and innovation output continues a long-term shift toward other regions of the globe,including China and India.Research PublicationsPublication of research in peer-reviewed literature is an important mechanism f

172、or disseminating new S&E knowledge,which supports the development of innovations and the vitality of KTI industries.24 Globally,six countries combined produced more than 50%of the worldwide peer-reviewed S&E publications in 2022:China(27%),the United States(14%),India(6%),Germany(3%),the United King

173、dom(3%),and Japan(3%)(Figure 18).The United States was the top producer of S&E articles until 2016,after which China has been the leading producer.From 2003 to 2022,annual S&E publications increased by roughly a third(36%)in the United States,whereas they increased approximately 10-fold in China and

174、 8-fold in India.Japan,the second-highest producer of S&E articles in 2003,experienced little change in publications output,falling to the sixth spot by 2020.Figure 18.S&E articles,by selected region,country,or economy:200322Note(s):Articles are fractionally counted and classified by publication yea

175、r and assigned to a region,country,or economy by authors institutional address.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by Science-Metrix of Elseviers Scopus abstract and citation database.Indicators 2024:Publications Outputhttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|23Publication yearIndexChinaUnited StatesInd

176、iaGermanyUnited KingdomJapan2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 20200.00.51.01.52.02.5The distribution of publications by field and by region,country,or economy is one indicator of research priorities and capabilities.In the United States,the United K

177、ingdom,Germany,and Japan,the largest proportion of journal articles published in 2022 was in the field of health sciences.In China,the largest proportion was in engineering.In India,the largest proportion was in computer and information sciences.S&E publications authored by researchers in the United

178、 States are highly impactful,as measured by the level of citations they receive.From 2003 to 2019,the highly cited article(HCA)index for the United States was stable at between 1.8 and 1.9,although it declined to 1.7 in 2020(Figure 19)(see Glossary section for definition of HCA).Because the baseline

179、 value for this index is 1.0,this means that the United States contributed nearly twice as many HCAs relative to its share of total publications.As of 2020,Germany had an HCA score similar to the United States(1.7),and the United Kingdom had the highest HCA score(2.2)out of the top producers of S&E

180、articles.China and India have increased their HCA scores simultaneously with their volume of scientific publishing,which indicates that their publication growth has been especially high among HCAs.Chinas HCA score increased from well below baseline in 2003(0.5)to 1.3 in 2020.Figure 19.Highly cited a

181、rticle index,by selected country:200320Note(s):The highly cited article index is a countrys share of the top 1%most-cited S&E publications divided by the countrys share of all S&E publications.The index is calculated on whole counts of publications.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by Science

182、-Metrix of Elseviers Scopus abstract and citation database.Indicators 2024:Publications OutputOpen-access(OA)publications provide free access to peer-reviewed scientific literature without requiring user fees or journal subscriptions.Scientists,institutions,and funders have offered support for incre

183、ased publication in OA venues through both open encouragement and requirements that funded research outputs be freely available(Brainard and Kaiser 2022).Between 2003 and 2022,the number of S&E articles published through each type of OA journal experienced far greater percentage-based growth than ar

184、ticles published in traditional closed-access journals(see Glossary section for definitions of four commonly used OA publication types)(Figure 20).Gold OA articles(which are articles published in fully OA journals as a matter of journal policy)increased over 50-fold,from 19,000 articles published in

185、 2003 to 992,000 articles in 2022.As a result of this rapid growth,Gold OA articles expanded from 2%of all S&E articles in 2003 to 32%in 2022.24|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Publication yearNumberClosed accessGold open accessGreen open accessOther journal-based open access20032004200520062

186、0072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020202120220200,000400,000600,000800,0001,000,0001,200,0001,400,0001,600,000Figure 20.S&E articles,by publication access type:200322Note(s):OA is open access.Articles refer to publications from a selection of conference proceedings and peer-reviewe

187、d journals in S&E fields from Scopus.Open-access types are mutually exclusive.Gold OA denotes articles published in journals that are entirely OA as a matter of journal policy.Green OA denotes articles that are self-archived by authors in OA repositories.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by S

188、cience-Metrix of Elseviers Scopus abstract and citation database.Indicators 2024:Publications OutputWhereas most(77%)S&E articles in 2003 were published in closed-access journals,just under half(49%)were published in closed-access journals in 2022.This expansion of OA publishing may represent a shif

189、t toward both a more open paradigm for the dissemination of research and a change in the structure of academic publishing,as many types of OA articles often require article processing fees from authors rather than fees from readers.Invention and InnovationThe global S&E enterprise regularly produces

190、 new basic knowledge and other outputs with direct benefits for society and the economy.These outputs include inventions(creation of new and useful products and processes as well as their improvement)and innovations(implementation of a new or improved product or business process that differs signifi

191、cantly from previous products or processes).25 Patents are one way that governments support invention by providing legal mechanisms for intellectual property protection.Patent documents provide detailed information that is widely used to understand invention activity.International patent application

192、s filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty(see Glossary section for definition of Patent Cooperation Treaty application)represent inventors interests in protecting their ideas internationally.Global patenting activity is at the highest levels in China(69,000 international patent applications in 202

193、2),the United States(58,000),the EU-27(51,000),and Japan(48,000)(Figure 21).The number of international patent applications from inventors based in China increased rapidly in the 2010s,resulting in a significant shift in the balance of patenting worldwide.Although the United States had more than twi

194、ce as many international patent applications as China in 2015,the two countries had similar application numbers in 2020,with China surpassing the United States for the first time in 2021.https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|25YearNumberChinaEU-27JapanSouth KoreaUnited States200020012002200320042005200620

195、07200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022020,00040,00060,00080,000Figure 21.Patent Cooperation Treaty applications,by selected region,country,or economy:200022Note(s):EU-27 is European Union.Countries are allocated using the receiving office for each Patent Cooperation Treaty ap

196、plication,which is based on the location of the inventors.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by 1790 Analytics of European Patent Bibliographic Data(EBD).Indicators 2024:InnovationAcross all countries,the largest share of international patent applications in 2022 was in the technology category

197、 of electrical engineering(37%),followed by chemistry(22%),instruments(17%),and mechanical engineering(16%),with other fields accounting for the remaining 7%.Patent applications in the field of electrical engineeringwhich includes semiconductors,computer technology,and digital communicationexperienc

198、ed the fastest growth,increasing more than fivefold from 19,000 in 2000 to 98,000 in 2022.Inventors from the United States were responsible for the largest share of international patent applications in chemistry and in instruments,accounting for 27%of the world total in each field in 2022.Patent app

199、lications from China were more focused in electrical engineering,where China-based inventors accounted for 37%of total international patent applications in this field.Inventors from the EU-27 accounted for the largest share(31%)of international patent applications in mechanical engineering.Patents i

200、ssued by the Patent and Trademark Office(USPTO)focus on inventions,both foreign and domestic,that are granted exclusive use rights in the U.S.market.Utility patents granted by the USPTO have increased both to domestic inventors and to inventors residing in other countries(see Glossary section for de

201、finitions of USPTO patents and utility patents).26 Of the 325,000 USPTO utility patents granted in 2022,a total of 142,000(44%)were granted to U.S.inventors.Foreign inventors share of USPTO patents increased from 52%in 2012 to 56%in 2022,reflecting the long-term trend of increased internationalizati

202、on of U.S.patents.Inventors from Japan(46,000)and the EU-27(40,000)accounted for the largest shares of foreign USPTO patent grantees in 2022,although patents granted to inventors from China(28,000)have been increasing at a faster rate than either Japan or the EU-27.26|Science and Engineering Indicat

203、ors 2024Zero1st Quartile:0.0060.0582nd Quartile:0.0590.1143rd Quartile:0.1150.2324th Quartile:0.2337.513Patenting activity is unevenly distributed across the United States and is highest in regions that also have strong concentrations of STEM workers and KTI industries.Patenting intensity is defined

204、 here as the number of utility patents granted to patent inventors in a county relative to its population.Counties with the highest patenting intensity are generally located in the Northeast,the West Coast,and in parts of the Great Lakes region,Texas,and the Rocky Mountains(Figure 22).In 2022,Santa

205、Clara County in Californias Silicon Valley region had the highest patenting intensity.Three of the countrys top five counties in patenting intensity were in the San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland combined statistical area.Patents were granted to inventors in 64%of U.S.counties in 2022.Figure 22.USPTO ut

206、ility patents granted to inventors per 1,000 residents,by U.S.county:2022Note(s):USPTO is Patent and Trademark Office.USPTO patents are allocated according to the address for each inventor listed on a patent.Source(s):NCSES;Science-Metrix;PatentsView,USPTO;Census Bureau,U.S.population data,2022.Indi

207、cators 2024:InnovationU.S.patenting rates are also uneven with respect to inventor demographic characteristics.Over the past two decades,the share of inventors who are women has increased,but women still account for a disproportionately low share of inventors(Figure 23).27 In 2022,11%of all USPTO pa

208、tents were granted to inventors identified as women,an increase from 7%in 2000.Women accounted for comparatively higher shares of inventors on design patents(16%)and chemistry patents(18%)in 2022 and for lower shares on mechanical engineering patents(6%).https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|27YearPercent

209、ChemistryDesign patentsElectrical engineeringOther fieldsInstrumentsMechanical engineeringAll patents2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021202205101520Figure 23.Inventors with female names on granted USPTO patents,by technology area and issue year:20

210、0022Note(s):USPTO is Patent and Trademark Office.The analysis of patenting by gender is based on patents granted by the USPTO.Fractional counting of inventors is used,with the credit for each patent divided equally between the inventors.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by 1790 Analytics of U

211、SPTO Bulk Data Storage System.Indicators 2024:InnovationU.S.universities frequently leverage their intellectual property by licensing protected discoveries to outside entities,often to newly established startup companies spun off from university research activity.In 2021,U.S.universities executed ab

212、out 8,800 new technology licenses or options;17%of these licenses and options were executed with startup companies,and 61%were executed with small companies(those with fewer than 500 employees).New university-associated startups increased from nearly 400 in 2000 to over 1,000 in 2021.Invention is th

213、e creation of something new and useful,and innovation is its implementation.An average of 9%of U.S.businesses,including 42%of software publishers,introduced a new product during the 3-year period from 2018 to 2020(Figure 24).Many of the industries with the highest innovation rates invest heavily in

214、R&D,including computer and electronics manufacturing and information technology(IT)intensive services.28|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024IndustryPercentAll industriesSoftware publishersData processing,hosting,and related servicesCommunications equipmentOther computer and electronic productsTe

215、lecommunicationsPharmaceuticals and medicinesScientific research and development servicesComputer systems design and related servicesOther transportationOther chemicalsMachinery01020304050Figure 24.U.S.companies reporting product innovation,by selected industry:201820Note(s):Industry classification

216、is based on dominant establishment payroll.Statistics are representative of companies located in the United States.Product innovations may be goods or services.Values are the share of firms reporting a product innovation in the 3-year period from 2018 to 2020.Other computer and electronic products e

217、xcludes communications equipment,semiconductors,and instruments.Other transportation excludes automobiles and aerospace.Other chemicals excludes agricultural chemicals,pharmaceuticals,and cleaning chemicals.Source(s):NCSES,ABS,2020.Indicators 2024:InnovationVenture capital plays a substantial role i

218、n the innovation process through investment in startups with high growth potential and early stage firms.Total venture capital investment has increased over the past decade,although it declined by 28%in 2022 following a surge of investment in 2021.In 2022,firms in the United States received 46%($248

219、 billion)of global venture capital investment,firms in Europe received 20%($107 billion),and those in China received 16%($88 billion).Venture capital investment in the United States increased fivefold from 2013 to 2022,which was nonetheless slower than the global average rate of venture capital inve

220、stment growth;as a result,the U.S.share of venture capital decreased from 66%in 2013 to 46%in 2022.Investment in China peaked at 39%of the world total in 2016just slightly behind the United States that yearbut has since declined substantially as a share of global venture capital investment.https:/nc

221、ses.nsf.gov/indicators|29 CRITICAL AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIESCritical and Emerging TechnologiesThe National Science and Technology Council(NSTC)has formulated a list of critical and emerging technologies,which it identifies as a“subset of advanced technologies that are potentially significant to U.S.

222、national security”(NSTC 2022).This sidebar provides select international comparisons of science,technology,and innovation capabilities in two technologies identified as critical and emerging by the NSTC:artificial intelligence(AI)and semiconductors.China and the United States are the two largest con

223、tributors to AI research,both in terms of their national publications output and extent of international coauthorship(Figure A).From 2003 to 2022,researchers from China authored 274,000 AI-related articles(measured on a whole-count basis),and researchers from the United States authored 134,000 artic

224、les.Collaborative research between the United States and China resulted in the largest number of coauthored articles of any country pair(14,000);furthermore,all of the 10 largest coauthorship country pairs include either the United States or China.India and Japan each produced more total AI-related

225、publications than the United Kingdom,but the United Kingdom coauthored more AI-related publications with both the United States and China than either India or Japan.International comparisons of AI-related patenting indicate the extent to which inventors across the world are developing intellectual p

226、roperty of potential commercial value that relies on AI,including AI capabilities developed via published AI research.After a period of slow growth in the early 21st century,AI patenting has expanded rapidly in the past several yearsmost prominently in China.The leading countries for international p

227、atents granted in AI are China(40,000 in 2022),the United States(9,000),South Korea(5,000),and Japan(3,000).From 2000 to 2016,U.S.inventors were granted the most international AI patents but were surpassed by Chinese inventors in 2017.In terms of functional applications,AI patents by Chinese invento

228、rs have specialized in computer vision,whereas U.S.inventors have received a comparatively large proportion of patents in knowledge representation.SIDEBAR30|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Figure A.AI collaboration network,by country:200322Note(s):AI is artificial intelligence.UK is United Ki

229、ngdom.Network diagram shows the number of cowritten articles by all pairs of countries within the top 60 producers of AI-related research based on whole counting for those pairs that cowrote 400 articles or more.AI article counts refer to publications from a selection of conference proceedings and p

230、eer-reviewed journals in S&E fields from Scopus that were classified as AI in the All-Science Journal Classification.Articles are classified by their year of publication and are assigned to a country on the basis of the institutional address(es)of the author(s)listed in the article.Links are only sh

231、own in a single direction,dictated by alphabetical order.The size of the nodes is proportional to the total number of AI-related articles written by each country.The width of the links between nodes is proportional to the quantity of articles both countries have cowritten.Positioning of nodes is def

232、ined using the Kamada-Kawai algorithm.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by Science-Metrix of Elseviers Scopus abstract and citation database.Indicators 2024:Publications Outputhttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|312.627.76.712.37.82.63.214.86.96.9051015202530United StatesTaiwanJapanSouth KoreaChi

233、naGermanyFranceSingaporeAustriaBelgiumSemiconductor patent share of total patents(%).3,6743,2623,0772,7232,165418201156939105001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,5004,000United StatesTaiwanJapanSouth KoreaChinaGermanyFranceSingaporeAustriaBelgiumNumber of semiconductor patents granted United States Taiwan J

234、apanSouth Korea China Germany France Singapore Austria Belgium Patent and Trademark Office(USPTO)utility patents granted in semiconductors show how inventors from both the United States and abroad are seeking commercial protection for their inventions in this critical technology in the U.S.market.Ap

235、proximately 3,700 USPTO semiconductor patents,22%of the total,were granted to U.S.-based inventors in 2022,with the remainder of semiconductor patents issued to foreign inventors(Figure B).The most common foreign inventor locations for USPTO semiconductor patentsTaiwan,Japan,South Korea,and Chinacol

236、lectively accounted for 68%of all USPTO patents granted in this technology category.These locations also had considerably higher shares of their total USPTO patents granted in semiconductors than did inventors from the United States.Taiwan,the most common foreign inventor location,had 28%of its USPT

237、O patents granted in semiconductors in 2022,one of the largest shares of any country or economy.Several European countries were also among the top foreign inventor locations,although semiconductors generally accounted for small shares of the total USPTO patents granted to these countries.Figure B.US

238、PTO utility patents granted in semiconductors,by country or economy:2022Note(s):USPTO is Patent and Trademark Office.USPTO patents are fractionally allocated among countries or economies based on the proportion of residences of all named inventors.Source(s):NCSES,special tabulations(2023)by Science-

239、Metrix of USPTO PatentsView.Indicators 2024:Innovation32|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024Sector and yearBillions of current dollarsRest of worldJapanChinaEU-27United StatesKTI services:2012KTI services:2021KTI manufacturing:2012KTI manufacturing:202102,0004,0006,0008,000Knowledge-and Technolo

240、gy-Intensive Industry OutputProduction and trade by KTI industries12 industries with high or medium-high R&D intensities(see Glossary section for definition of KTI industries)indicate the translation of S&E capabilities into the marketplace.28 The nine KTI manufacturing industries are pharmaceutical

241、s;chemicals and chemical products(excluding pharmaceuticals);computer,electronic,and optical products(including semiconductors);electrical equipment;motor vehicles,trailers,and semi-trailers;air and spacecraft and related machinery;railroad,military vehicles,and other transport equipment;other machi

242、nery and equipment;and medical and dental instruments.29 The three KTI services industries are IT and other information services,scientific R&D services,and software publishing.In 2021,the global value-added output of KTI industries(see Glossary section for definition of value-added output)was$10.6

243、trillion,including$3.3 trillion in KTI services and$7.3 trillion in KTI manufacturing(Figure 25).30 From 2012 to 2021,global value-added output increased by 68%for KTI services and by 41%for KTI manufacturing.Figure 25.Value-added output of KTI industries,by selected region,county,or economy and by

244、sector:2012 and 2021Note(s):EU-27 is European Union.KTI is knowledge and technology intensive.Source(s):S&P Global IHS Markit,special tabulations(2023)of the Comparative Industry Service Database.Indicators 2024:Industry ActivitiesThe United States is the largest provider of KTI services,with$1.3 tr

245、illion in value-added output in 2021.U.S.KTI services output more than doubled from 2012 to 2021,increasing the U.S.share of global KTI services from 30%in 2012 to 39%in 2021,nearly twice the EU-27s share(21%)of global KTI services in 2021.Although the value-added output of U.S.KTI manufacturing inc

246、reased from 2012 to 2021,the U.S.share of global KTI manufacturing was 19%in 2021,little changed from 20%in 2012.At the same time,China more than doubled its KTI manufacturing output,increasing its global share from 22%($1.1 trillion)to 33%($2.4 trillion).Although the United States has lower total K

247、TI manufacturing value-added output than Chinaand roughly the same as the EU-27it is the largest producer of two KTI manufacturing industries:air and spacecraft as well as medical and dental instruments.https:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|33Country or economyPercent share200220122022EU-27ChinaJapanSouth

248、 KoreaCanadaIndia010203040Exports are an indicator of a countrys competitiveness in the world market.Global gross exports of KTI manufacturing industries were$11.4 trillion in 2022;this total represents a 6.5%increase from 2021.In 2022,countries with the highest share of global KTI manufacturing exp

249、orts were China(21%),the United States(9%),and Germany(9%),although the combined share of EU-27 countries(including Germany)was highest at 31%.Global shares of KTI manufacturing exports for the EU-27 and United States declined slightly from 2002 to 2022,whereas Chinas share of the global total more

250、than tripled(Figure 26).Over the same period,the share of Chinas total manufacturing exports that were in KTI industries increased from 47%to 64%,surpassing the share for the EU-27(60%)and matching the share for the United States(64%).Figure 26.Share of global KTI manufacturing exports,by selected c

251、ountry or economy:2002,2012,and 2022Note(s):EU-27 is European Union.KTI is knowledge and technology intensive.KTI manufacturing exports include exports from the following industries:chemicals and chemical products;pharmaceuticals;computer,electronic,and optical products;electrical equipment;machiner

252、y and equipment not elsewhere classified;motor vehicles,trailers,and semi-trailers;air and spacecraft and related machinery;weapons and ammunition;and other transport equipment(the latter comprises railway locomotives and rolling stock manufacturing and transport equipment not elsewhere classified a

253、nd military equipment manufacturing).Source(s):S&P Global IHS Markit,special tabulations(2023)of the Comparative Industry Service Database.Indicators 2024:Industry Activities34|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024YearPercentAerospace product and parts manufacturingComputer and electronic products

254、(excluding semiconductors)IT and other information servicesMotor vehicles,bodies,and trailers and partsPharmaceutical and medicine manufacturingScientific research and development servicesSemiconductor manufacturingSoftware publishersAll industries(including KTI industries)20072008200920102011201220

255、132014201520162017201820192020202105101520253035 Because not all of the value of gross exports is generated in the exporting country,an important indicator of globalization and supply chains is the imported content of exports.This indicator captures the value of imported inputs embodied in exports.C

256、ompared with the average imported content share for all U.S.gross exports(11%in 2021),U.S.KTI manufacturing industries such as aerospace(15%),motor vehicles(28%),and pharmaceuticals(22%)have a relatively high share of foreign value added.In contrast,KTI servicessoftware publishers(1%),IT services(3%

257、),and scientific R&D services(5%)have much lower shares of foreign value added(Figure 27).Imported content shares of U.S.exports by the semiconductor manufacturing industry(6%)and by the rest of the computer and electronic product manufacturing industry(5%)have been in the single digits since 2017 a

258、nd 2012,respectively.Figure 27.Imported content share of U.S.gross exports,by exporting industry:200721Note(s):IT is information technology.KTI is knowledge and technology intensive.Industry data are based on the North American Industry Classification System.Source(s):BEA,Trade in Value Added Data.I

259、ndicators 2024:Industry Activitieshttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|35ConclusionU.S.global competitiveness in STI is supported through the nations investment and capabilities in STEM talent,R&D-driven discovery,and translation of knowledge into the economy and society through innovation.The data prese

260、nted in this report show the evolving nature of the position of the United States in the global S&E landscape.The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in short-term disruptions to S&E education and research and led to substantial declines in the mathematics performance of American elementary and secondary mat

261、hematics students;otherwise,global levels of research and innovation have continued to increase.With respect to long-term trends,aggregate levels of S&E resources and activity have shifted toward East and Southeast Asiain particular,China.The United States is the leading source of health sciences pu

262、blications and patenting in chemistry and instruments,whereas China is the top producer of S&E doctoral degrees,total S&E publications,and international patents.The United States performs more total R&D than any other country and is by far the largest performer of basic research.However,the U.S.R&D

263、systemand by extension,the nations competitivenessrelies heavily on foreign-born scientists and engineers,especially at the doctorate level.Rather than predominating across all elements of STI,the United States is distinguished by the strength of U.S.universities as destinations for international st

264、udents,its highly cited and collaborative S&E research,and its global leadership in KTI services.36|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024GlossaryDefinitionsApplied research:Original investigation undertaken to acquire new knowledge;directed primarily,however,toward a specific,practical aim or obje

265、ctive(OECD 2015).Basic research:Experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts,without any particular application or use in view(OECD 2015).Business sector:Consists of both private enterprises(regardless

266、of whether they are publicly listed or traded)and government-controlled enterprises that are engaged in market production of goods or services at economically significant prices.Nonprofit entities,such as trade associations and industry-controlled research institutes,are also classified in the busin

267、ess sector(OECD 2015).East and Southeast Asia:Includes China,Indonesia,Japan,South Korea,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore,Taiwan,Thailand,and Vietnam.European Union(EU-27):Twenty-seven member nations:Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,

268、Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,the Netherlands,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,and Sweden.Experimental development:Systematic work,drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience and producing additional knowledge,which is directed to producing new

269、 products or processes or to improving existing products or processes(OECD 2015).First university degree:A terminal undergraduate degree program;these degrees are classified within level 6(bachelors degree or equivalent)or as“long first degrees”within level 7(masters degree or equivalent)in the 2011

270、 International Standard Classification of Education.Foreign-born workers:Those born outside of the United States,regardless of citizenship.Foreign-born workers can be U.S.citizens or permanent residents.Government sector:Consists of all federal,state,and local governments,except those that provide h

271、igher education services,and all nonmarket,nonprofit institutions controlled by government entities that are not part of the higher education sector.This sector excludes public corporations,even when all of the equity of such corporations is owned by government entities.Public enterprises are includ

272、ed in the business sector(see Business sector)(OECD 2015).Higher education sector:Consists of all universities,colleges of technology,and other institutions providing formal tertiary education programs,whatever their source of finance or legal status,as well as all research institutes,centers,experi

273、mental stations,and clinics that have their R&D activities under the direct control of,or that are administered by,tertiary education institutions(OECD 2015).Highly cited article(HCA):An HCA ratio provides an indication of scientific impact(Waltman,van Eck,and Wouters 2013).The HCA ratio for a regio

274、n,country,or economy is calculated as the share of all articles published in a given year by authors with institutional addresses within that region,country,or economy that fall within the top 1%by citation count of all articles published that year,measured for each research field.The HCA ratio is i

275、ndexed to 1.00,so a region,country,or economy whose authors produce highly cited articles at the expected(i.e.,global average)rate has an HCA ratio of 1.00that is,1%of the regions,countrys,or economys articles are among the top 1%of the worlds HCAs.A region,country,or economy with an HCA ratio great

276、er than 1.00 is producing a disproportionately high level of articles with exceptional scientific impact,whereas a region,country,or economy whose authors produce relatively fewer influential articles will have an HCA ratio below 1.00.Innovation:A new or improved product or process(or combination th

277、ereof)that differs significantly from the units previous products or processes and that has been made available to potential users(product)or brought into use by the unit(process).The unit is a generic term to describe the actor responsible for innovations.It refers to any institutional unit in any

278、sector,including households and their individual members,according to the Oslo Manual 2018(OECD,Eurostat 2018).International patents:Original patents issued by any international jurisdiction,adjusted to count only the first issuance of a series or family of related patents.The unit of https:/ncses.n

279、sf.gov/indicators|37measurement is a patent family that shares a single original invention in common.All subsequent patents in a family refer to the first patent filed,or priority patent,and the indicator provides an unduplicated count of original or priority patents in any individual jurisdiction.T

280、he organization of these international patents around a single initial invention means that there may be fewer international patents than individual patents.Invention:Any new and useful process,machine,manufacture,or composition of matter,or any new and useful improvement thereof(USPTO 2023).Knowled

281、ge-and technology-intensive(KTI)industries:Industries classified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development as high R&D intensive and medium-high R&D intensive industries based on R&D intensity(see R&D intensity).Middle-skill occupations:Occupations that require a high level of sc

282、ientific and technical knowledge,although these occupations do not typically require a bachelors degree for entry.Middle-skill occupations are primarily in construction trades,installation,maintenance,and production.Open access(OA):OA refers to peer-reviewed publications that are accessible online t

283、o any reader without requiring a journal subscription or other fees from readers(Piwowar et al.2018).Several commonly defined types of OA have been adopted for the purposes of this analysis.Gold OA denotes articles published in journals that are entirely OA as a matter of journal policy.Hybrid OA re

284、fers to articles appearing in closed-access journals where the authors have paid a fee to make the article OA.Bronze OA denotes articles in closed-access journals that become OA after an embargo period of closed access or articles that appear available as OA despite lacking the license information t

285、o guarantee OA in the long term.Green OA denotes articles that are self-archived by authors in OA repositories,which are often maintained and administered by universities or other institutions.Patent Cooperation Treaty applications:An international agreement that allows entities to seek patent prote

286、ction for an invention simultaneously in each of a large number of countries by filing an“international”patent application.Such an application may be filed by anyone who is a national or a resident of a contracting state(WIPO 2023).Patent Cooperation Treaty applications include Patent and Trademark

287、Office(USPTO)patent applications(see USPTO patent).Patenting intensity:Number of patents per population in a geographic location.Patent and Trademark Office(USPTO)patent:As defined by the USPTO,a property right granted by the U.S.government to an inventor“to exclude others from making,using,offering

288、 for sale,or selling the invention throughout the United States or importing the invention into the United States”for a limited time in exchange for public disclosure of the invention when the patent is granted.Available athttps:/www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/glossary.Accessed 1 August 2023.U

289、SPTO applications are included in Patent Treaty Cooperation applications(see Patent Cooperation Treaty applications).Purchasing power parity(PPP):The price of a common basket of goods and services in each participating economy,measuring what an economys local currency can buy in another economy(Worl

290、d Bank 2023).PPPs convert different currencies to a common currency while adjusting for differences in price levels between economies,and thus they enable direct comparisons of R&D expenditures across countries.Research and development(R&D)funding(funders):Expenditures(or those that use expenditures

291、)to pay the costs of R&D performance.For example,the federal government provides funding to laboratories at higher education institutions to perform R&D at the laboratories.R&D funders may differ from R&D performers(see R&D performance).Research and development(R&D)intensity:A measure of R&D expendi

292、tures relative to size,production,financial,or other characteristics for a given R&D-performing unit(e.g.,country,sector,or company).Examples include R&D-to-gross domestic product(GDP)ratio used in R&D cross-national comparisons and R&D-to-value-added output ratio used to classify industries as know

293、ledge and technology intensive.Research and development(R&D)performance(performers):Intramural expenditures(or those that use intramural expenditures)to conduct R&D.For example,laboratories at higher education institutions perform R&D with funding from the federal government.R&D performers may diffe

294、r from R&D funders(see R&D funding).Research and(experimental)development(R&D):Creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledgeincluding knowledge of humankind,culture,38|Science and Engineering Indicators 2024and societyand its use to devise new applications of available k

295、nowledge(OECD 2015).Science and engineering(S&E)fields:Degrees awarded in the following fields:agricultural sciences and natural resources;biological and biomedical sciences;computer and information sciences;engineering;geosciences,atmospheric sciences,and ocean sciences;mathematics and statistics;m

296、ultidisciplinary and interdisciplinary sciences;physical sciences;psychology;and social sciences.At the doctoral level only,health sciences are also included in S&E fields of study because at this level these fields are more likely to be research oriented rather than practitioner oriented.Science an

297、d engineering(S&E)occupations:Occupations in the following five major categories:(1)computer and mathematical scientists;(2)biological,agricultural,and environmental life scientists;(3)physical scientists;(4)social scientists;and(5)engineers.Science and engineering(S&E)-related occupations:These occ

298、upations require science and technology expertise but are not part of the five major categories of the S&E occupations.S&E-related occupations include these four minor occupations:(1)health,(2)S&E managers,(3)S&E precollege teachers,and(4)technologists and technicians.Science,technology,engineering,

299、and mathematics(STEM)occupations:A subset of the U.S.workforce comprised of S&E,S&E-related,and STEM middle-skill occupations(see S&E,S&E-related,and Middle-skill occupations).Skilled technical workforce(STW):Workers in STEM occupations(S&E,S&E-related,and middle-skill occupations)who do not have an

300、 educational attainment of a bachelors degree or higher.Utility patent:Intellectual property protection for a potentially useful,previously unknown,and nonobvious invention.Value-added output:A measure of industry production that is the amount contributed by the country,industry,or other entity to t

301、he value of the good or service.It excludes the countrys,industrys,or other entitys purchases of domestic and imported supplies and inputs from other countries,industries,firms,and other entities.Key to Acronyms and AbbreviationsABS:Annual Business SurveyACS:American Community SurveyBEA:Bureau of Ec

302、onomic AnalysisDHS:Department of Homeland SecurityDOD:Department of DefenseDOE:Department of EnergyEBD:European Patent Bibliographic DataEU-27:European UnionGDP:gross domestic productGSS:Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and EngineeringHCA:highly cited articleHHS:Department o

303、f Health and Human ServicesICE:Immigration and Customs EnforcementIPEDS:Integrated Postsecondary Education Data SystemIT:information technologyKTI:knowledge and technology intensiveMOE(China):Ministry of Education(China)MOE(India):Ministry of Education(India)MSTI:Main Science and Technology Indicato

304、rsNAEP:National Assessment of Educational ProgressNASA:National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNBS(China):National Bureau of Statistics(China)NCES:National Center for Education StatisticsNCSES:National Center for Science and Engineering StatisticsNIH:National Institutes of HealthNSB:National Sc

305、ience Board NSCG:National Survey of College Graduateshttps:/ncses.nsf.gov/indicators|39 NSF:National Science FoundationNSTC:National Science and Technology CouncilOA:open accessOECD:Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPPP:purchasing power parityR&D:research and(experimental)develop

306、mentS&E:science and engineeringSEVIS:Student and Exchange Visitor Information SystemSTEM:science,technology,engineering,and mathematicsSTI:science,technology,and innovationSTW:skilled technical workforceTIMSS:Trends in International Mathematics and Science StudyUK:United KingdomUSDA:Department of Ag

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