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1、CO2Co n c e p t S t u d y t oOf f l o a d On b o a r d Ca p t u r e dR e p o r t p r e p a r e d b yC o mmi s s i o n e d b y Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 2 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation ContentsContents List of tablesList of tables .1212 List of figures

2、List of figures .1414 List of abbreviationsList of abbreviations .1616 Executive SummaryExecutive Summary .2121 1.1.Introduction to Liquid COIntroduction to Liquid CO2 2 and Onboard Carbon Capture Systemsand Onboard Carbon Capture Systems .3636 1.1 Overview.36 1.2 Characteristics of CO2.36 1.3 Liqui

3、d CO2 Properties.37 1.3.1 Physical Properties.38 1.3.1.1 Density.39 1.3.2 Chemical Properties.40 1.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties.41 1.4 Hazards Associated with CO2.42 1.4.1 Classification of CO2.42 1.4.2 Asphyxia.43 1.4.3 Toxicity.44 1.4.4 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions(BLEVE).46 1.4.5 Lo

4、w Temperature.46 1.4.6 Impurities in CO2 Stream.46 1.4.7 Phase Equilibria.48 1.4.8 Solubility of Water.49 1.4.9 Triple Point.50 1.5 Onboard Carbon Capture.50 1.5.1 CO2 Capture.51 1.5.2 CO2 Processing.52 1.5.3 CO2 Phase Selection.52 1.6 References.53 2.2.Onboard Storage of Captured COOnboard Storage

5、of Captured CO2 2 .5555 2.1 Storage Conditions.55 2.2 Selection of Materials.56 2.3 CO2 Storage Tanks.57 2.4 Capacity of LCO2 Storage Tanks.59 2.4.1 Capacity of LCO2 Tanks for Voyage CO2 Emission Reductions.59 2.4.2 Capacity of LCO2 Tanks for CII Compliance.65 2.4.3 Selected LCO2 Storage Capacity.70

6、 2.4.4 BOG Generation.70 2.5 Selected Design Profile.72 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 3 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 2.6 Location of Tanks.73 2.7 LCO2 Storage Tank Handling Equipment and Maintenance Regime.76 2.7.1 LCO2 Storage Tank Handling Equipment.76

7、 2.7.1.1 Discharge Pump.76 2.7.1.2 Booster Pump(External Discharge Pump).77 2.7.1.3 Reliquefaction Plant.77 2.7.1.4 Compressor.80 2.7.1.5 Heat Exchanger Condenser.81 2.7.1.6 Pressure Build-up Unit(PBU).81 2.7.1.7 Instrumentation,Controls and Safety Systems.81 2.7.1.8 Piping Systems and Valve Require

8、ments.82 2.7.1.9 Storage Tank Relief Valve.82 2.7.2 Maintenance Regime.82 2.7.2.1 Reliquefaction Plant.83 2.7.2.2 Compressor(Reciprocating Type).83 2.7.2.3 Heat Exchangers.83 2.7.2.4 Discharge Pump(Submersible or Deep Well Type)and Booster Pump.83 2.7.2.5 Pressure Relief Valve.84 2.8 References.84 3

9、.3.Onboard Captured Liquefied COOnboard Captured Liquefied CO2 2 Offloading ConceptsOffloading Concepts .8585 3.1 Overview.85 3.2 LCO2 Offloading Scenarios.85 3.2.1 Introduction.85 3.2.2 Inputs.85 3.2.3 Assumptions.86 3.2.4 Shortlisted Concepts.86 3.3 Process Descriptions.88 3.3.1 Equipment Descript

10、ion.88 3.3.2 Concept 1 Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal.91 3.3.3 Concept 2 Ship-to-Floating CO2 Storage with Intermediate LCO2 Receiving Vessel.93 3.3.4 Concept 3 Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal with Intermediate LCO2 Receiving Vessel.94 3.3.5 Concept 4 Ship-to-Terminal with ISO Tank Containers.96 3.4 Refe

11、rences.97 4.4.Design and Operation Standards for Offloading Liquid CODesign and Operation Standards for Offloading Liquid CO2 2 .9999 4.1 Overview.99 4.2 Existing Standards and Guidelines.99 4.2.1 Maritime Standards.105 4.2.1.1 Maritime Machinery Standards.105 4.2.1.2 Maritime Piping Standards.107 4

12、.2.1.1 Maritime Storage Standards.108 4.2.1.2 Maritime Safety Standards.109 4.2.2 Onshore Standards.114 4.2.2.1 Onshore Machinery Standards.114 4.2.2.2 Onshore Piping Standards.115 4.2.2.3 Onshore Storage Standards.123 4.2.2.4 Onshore Safety Standards.125 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Ca

13、rbon Dioxide Page 4 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 4.2.3 Gap Analysis.131 4.2.3.1 Maritime Standards.132 4.2.3.2 Onshore Standards.137 5.5.Design Principles and Guidelines for Offloading Liquid CODesign Principles and Guidelines for Offloading Liquid CO2 2 .140140 5.1 Design Temperature.

14、141 5.1.1 Maximum Ambient Design Temperature.141 5.1.2 Maximum Design Temperature.141 5.1.3 Minimum Design Temperature.142 5.2 Design Pressure.142 5.2.1 Maximum Design Pressure.142 5.2.2 Recommended Pressure Drop.143 5.3 Testing.144 5.4 Isolation.144 5.5 Measurement(Quality&Quantity).145 5.5.1 LCO2

15、Offload.145 5.5.1.1 Mass Flow and Density.145 5.5.1.2 Concentration and Composition.146 5.5.1.3 Temperature Measurement.147 5.5.1.4 Corrosion and Erosion Monitoring.148 5.5.2 LCO2 Storage.148 5.5.2.1 Mass Flow and Density.148 5.5.2.2 Concentration and Composition.149 5.5.2.3 Level Measurement and Ov

16、erspill Prevention.149 5.6 Gas Detection.151 5.7 Metocean Conditions.151 5.7.1 Tides.152 5.7.2 Currents.152 5.7.3 Wind.152 5.7.4 Typhoons/Hurricanes/Tropical Storms/Squalls.152 5.7.5 Waves.153 5.7.6 Visibility.153 5.8 Vessel Condition.154 5.9 Marine Infrastructure.154 5.9.1 On-shore Equipment.154 5.

17、9.1.1 Vessel Cranes.154 5.9.1.2 ISO Tank Container Lifting Equipment.154 5.9.2 Mooring Equipment.155 5.9.2.1 Mooring Equipment at Berth.155 5.9.2.2 Mooring Equipment at Anchorage.155 5.9.3 Fendering.155 5.9.3.1 Fendering Equipment at Berth.155 5.9.3.2 Fendering Equipment at Anchorage.155 5.9.4 Navig

18、ation.156 5.9.5 Anchorages.156 5.10 Design Principles for LCO Offloading.156 5.10.1 Loading Arms.156 5.10.2 Flexible Hoses.157 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 5 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 5.10.3 LCO Pumps.159 5.10.3.1 Net Positive Suction Head(NPSH).159

19、5.11 Design Principles for CO Piping Systems.160 5.11.1 Safety of Pipelines.160 5.11.1.1 Corrosion.160 5.11.1.2 Ductile and Brittle Fracture Propagation.161 5.11.1.3 Saturation Pressure.161 5.11.1.4 Stream Composition and Flow Assurance.161 5.11.1.5 Modelling Loss of Containment.161 5.11.1.6 Non-Met

20、allic Components.162 5.11.1.7 Fluid Hazard Classification.162 5.11.1.8 Pressure Relief.162 5.12 Design Principles for Intermediate LCO2 Receiving Vessel.162 5.13 Design Principles for Bulk LCO2 Storage.163 5.13.1 Onshore Storage.163 5.13.2 Safety of Storage Tanks.163 5.13.2.1 Pressure Relief Valves.

21、163 5.13.2.2 Pressure Management.164 5.13.3 Floating CO2 Storage.164 5.14 Safety Measures and Requirements.165 5.14.1 General.165 5.14.1.1 Hazards to Personnel.165 5.14.2 LCO Transfer Equipment and Components.166 5.14.3 LCO Boil-Off Gas Management Equipment.166 5.14.3.1 Re-Condensers(Liquefaction of

22、 Boil-off Gas).167 5.14.3.2 Reliquefaction System.168 5.14.3.3 Compressor.168 5.14.4 Emergency Shutdown Valves(Remotely Operated Isolation Valves).168 5.14.5 Emergency Shutdown System(ESD).168 5.14.6 Emergency Release System(ERS).169 5.15 References.170 6.6.Procedures for Offloading Liquid COProcedu

23、res for Offloading Liquid CO2 2 .172172 6.1 General.172 6.1.1 LCO Offloading Plan.172 6.1.2 Risk Assessment.172 6.1.3 Responsibility of Offloading Stakeholders.173 6.1.3.1 Person In Charge(PIC).173 6.1.3.2 Master(LCO2 Receiving Vessel).174 6.1.4 Communication.174 6.1.4.1 Communications between Vesse

24、l and Offloading Facility.174 6.1.4.2 Non-verbal Communications.174 6.1.5 Controlled Zones.174 6.1.5.1 Determination of Safety Zone.174 6.1.5.2 Determination of Security Zone.175 6.1.5.3 Determination of Marine Zone.175 6.2 Procedures for LCO2 Offloading.175 6.2.1 General.175 6.2.1.1 Planning phase.

25、175 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 6 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 6.2.2 Ship-to-Ship and Ship-to-Shore.176 6.2.2.1 Mooring LCO2 Receiving Vessel and Establishing Control Zones.176 6.2.2.2 Pre-offload.177 6.2.2.3 LCO Transfer.178 6.2.2.4 Post LCO Transfer.

26、180 6.2.3 ISO Tank Containers(Cassette).181 6.2.3.1 Lift Planning.181 6.2.3.2 Equipment Readiness.181 6.2.3.3 Competence of Personnel.182 6.2.3.4 Lift Execution.182 6.2.3.5 Loading/Unloading of ISO Tank Container.183 6.3 Environmental Protection Measures.185 6.3.1 CO Release Related to Offloading Op

27、erations.185 6.3.2 Guidance on how to Mitigate CO Release During Offloading Operations.185 6.4 Emergency Response Procedures.186 6.4.1 Introduction.186 6.4.2 Emergency Scenarios and Response.186 6.4.2.1 Extreme Weather.186 6.4.2.2 Loss of Moorings.187 6.4.2.3 Blackout.187 6.4.2.4 Loss of Communicati

28、on.187 6.4.2.5 Ship Collision/Allision.187 6.4.2.6 Over-pressurisation.187 6.4.2.7 Uncontrolled Venting.188 6.4.2.8 Loss of Pressure.188 6.4.2.9 LCO2/CO2 Loss of Containment(Toxic Impact).188 6.4.2.10 LCO2 Loss of Containment(Low Temperature Impact).189 6.4.2.11 Injury to Personnel.189 6.4.3 Main El

29、ements of ERP.189 6.4.4 Examples of Typical Emergency Responses.191 6.4.4.1 Emergency Scenario Uncontrolled Venting from LCO2 Offloading Ship(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).191 6.4.4.2 Emergency Scenario Uncontrolled Venting from LCO2 Receiving Vessel(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).192 6.4

30、.4.3 Emergency Scenario Uncontrolled Venting from LCO2 Receiving Vessel(during Ship-to-Shore offloading at terminal).193 6.4.4.4 Emergency Scenario LCO2/CO2 Loss of Containment(Toxic Impact)on the Offloading Ship(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).194 6.4.4.5 Emergency Scenario LCO2/CO2 Loss of Con

31、tainment(Toxic Impact)on the LCO2 Receiving Vessel(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).195 6.4.4.6 Emergency Scenario LCO2/CO2 Loss of Containment(Toxic Impact)on the LCO2 Receiving Vessel(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).196 6.4.4.7 Emergency Scenario LCO2/CO2 Loss of Containment(Toxic

32、Impact)at the Bulk Liquid Storage Terminal(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).197 6.4.4.8 Emergency Scenario LCO2/CO2 Loss of Containment(Low Temperature Impact)on the Offloading Ship(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).198 6.4.4.9 Emergency Scenario LCO2 Loss of Containment(Low Temperatur

33、e Impact)on the LCO2 Receiving Vessel(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).199 6.4.4.10 Emergency Scenario LCO2 Loss of Containment(Low Temperature Impact)on the Offloading Ship(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).200 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 7 Global Cen

34、tre for Maritime Decarbonisation 6.4.4.11 Emergency Scenario LCO2 Loss of Containment(Low Temperature Impact)at the Bulk Liquid Storage Terminal(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).201 6.4.4.12 Emergency Scenario Loss of Pressure on LCO2 Offloading Ship(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).2

35、02 6.4.4.13 Emergency Scenario Loss of Pressure on LCO2 Receiving Vessel(During StS Offloading at Anchorage).203 6.4.4.14 Emergency Scenario Loss of Pressure on LCO2 Offloading Ship(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).204 6.4.4.15 Emergency Scenario Loss of Pressure at Bulk Liquid Storage T

36、erminal(During Ship-To-Shore Offloading at Terminal).205 6.5 References.206 7.7.Safety StudiesSafety Studies .207207 7.1 HAZard IDentification(HAZID).207 7.1.1 Overview.207 7.1.2 Aim.208 7.1.3 Scope of Work.209 7.1.4 Typical Steps of an Offloading Cycle.209 7.1.5 HAZID Study.210 7.1.5.1 HAZID Object

37、ives.210 7.1.5.2 HAZID Methodology.210 7.1.5.3 Assumptions.211 7.1.5.4 Team Members.212 7.1.5.5 HAZID Nodes.215 7.1.5.6 HAZID Prompts/Guidewords.215 7.1.5.7 Characteristics of CO2.216 7.1.5.8 Hazards Associated with CO2.216 7.1.5.9 Documents Reviewed.216 7.1.5.10 Risk Acceptance Criteria.216 7.1.6 H

38、AZID Results.217 7.1.6.1 Results Discussion.217 7.1.6.2 Recommendations.220 7.2 Simultaneous Operations(SIMOPS).232 7.2.1 Overview.232 7.2.2 Aim.233 7.2.3 Scope of Work.233 7.2.4 Typical Steps of an Offloading Cycle.233 7.2.5 SIMOPS Study.233 7.2.5.1 SIMOPS Objectives.233 7.2.5.2 SIMOPS Methodology.

39、234 7.2.5.3 Assumptions.234 7.2.5.4 Team Members.236 7.2.5.5 SIMOPS Nodes.238 7.2.5.6 List of Possible Concurrent Activities.238 7.2.5.7 SIMOPS Prompts/Guidewords.239 7.2.5.8 Characteristics of CO2.239 7.2.5.9 Hazards Associated with CO2.239 7.2.5.10 Documents Reviewed.239 7.2.6 SIMOPS Results.240 7

40、.2.6.1 Results Discussion.240 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 8 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 7.2.6.2 Recommendations.242 7.3 Coarse Quantitative Risk Assessment(QRA).247 7.3.1 Overview.247 7.3.1 Aim.248 7.3.2 Scope of Work.248 7.3.3 Typical Steps of an Off

41、loading Cycle.248 7.3.4 Characteristics of CO2.248 7.3.5 Hazards Associated with CO2.248 7.3.6 QRA Methodology.248 7.3.6.1 Study Definition.248 7.3.6.2 Data Gathering.249 7.3.6.3 Hazard Identification.249 7.3.6.4 Risk Screening.249 7.3.6.5 Assumptions.249 7.3.6.6 Scenario Definition.249 7.3.6.7 Cons

42、equence Analysis.250 7.3.6.8 Frequency Analysis.251 7.3.6.9 Risk Analysis.251 7.3.6.10 Risk Assessment and Risk Reduction.252 7.3.7 Risk Acceptance Criteria.252 7.3.8 Scenario Definition.254 7.3.8.1 Hazard Identification.254 7.3.8.2 Representative LCO2 Offloading Concept.254 7.3.8.3 QRA Scenarios.25

43、4 7.3.9 Consequence Analysis.259 7.3.9.1 Release Rate Outcome.259 7.3.9.2 Toxic Gas Dispersion.259 7.3.10 Frequency Analysis.262 7.3.10.1 Initiating Release Frequency.262 7.3.10.2 Event Tree Analysis.262 7.3.11 Risk Results.263 7.3.11.1 Risk Contours at Anchorage.264 7.3.11.2 Risk Contours at Bulk S

44、torage Liquid Terminal.265 7.3.12 Sensitivity Study.265 7.4 References.266 8.8.Operating Personnel Competency StandardsOperating Personnel Competency Standards .267267 8.1 Overview.267 8.2 Proposed Competencies for Handling Captured Liquid CO2 Onboard Ships.268 8.3 Supplementary Information on Compe

45、tencies for LCO2 Handling for Shipboard and Shoreside Personnel.277 8.4 Discussion/Context.323 9.9.Readiness of Current Infrastructure for Liquefied COReadiness of Current Infrastructure for Liquefied CO2 2 OffloadingOffloading .325325 9.1 Overview.325 9.2 Existing LCO2 Transport Infrastructure.326

46、9.2.1 Nippon Gases Tilbury,Warrenpoint&Teesside Ports,UK.326 9.2.2 Loviisa Port-Finland.327 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 9 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 9.2.3 Food Industry CO2 Terminal.327 9.3 Planned LCO2 Transport Infrastructure.328 9.4 Suitable Locat

47、ions for Pilot Project.331 9.4.1 Northern Lights.331 9.4.2 Port of Gdansk.331 9.4.3 Port of Rotterdam.332 9.5 Integration with Existing Terminals.332 9.5.1 Liquid Bulk Terminals.332 9.5.1.1 Concept 1-Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal.334 9.5.1.2 Concept 3-Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal with Intermediate LC

48、O2 Receiving Vessel.334 9.5.2 Terminals Without Bulk Liquid Infrastructure.335 9.5.2.1 LCO2 Receiving Vessel.335 9.5.2.2 Floating CO2 Storage Units.339 9.5.3 Container Terminal.340 9.6 Technology Readiness of Offloading Assets.340 9.7 References.341 10.10.CAPEX and OPEX Model for Cost Estimation for

49、 InfrastructureCAPEX and OPEX Model for Cost Estimation for Infrastructure .343343 10.1 Methodology.343 10.1.1 CAPEX.344 10.1.2 OPEX.348 10.2 Results.349 10.2.1 CAPEX.350 10.2.1.1 Concept 1-Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal.350 10.2.1.2 Concept 2-Ship-to-Floating CO2 Storage with Intermediate LCO2 Receiv

50、ing Vessel.351 10.2.1.3 Concept 3-Ship-to-Liquid Bulk Terminal with Intermediate LCO2 Receiving Vessel.354 10.2.1.4 Concept 4-Ship-to-Terminal with ISO Tank Containers.356 10.2.2 OPEX.357 10.2.2.1 Offshore.358 10.2.2.2 Onshore.358 11.11.Ranking the Operability of ConceptsRanking the Operability of C

51、oncepts .359359 11.1 Methodology.359 11.2 End Use Applicability.359 11.3 Results for End Use Applicability.359 11.4 Operability Ranking.361 11.5 Results for Operability Ranking.362 11.6 References.365 12.12.Policy and Regulations RegimePolicy and Regulations Regime .366366 12.1 Introduction to the I

52、nternational Picture.367 12.1.1 The United Nations.367 12.1.2 The International Marine Organization.368 12.1.2.1 SOLAS(International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea).368 12.1.2.2 International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code(IMDG).370 12.1.2.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Po

53、llution from Ships(MARPOL).371 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 10 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 12.1.2.4 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter(LC),1972 and the 1996 London Protocol.372 12.2 United Kingdom.373

54、 12.2.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.373 12.2.2 Health,Safety and Environment.374 12.2.3 Policy Landscape for CCUS Pertinent to CO2 Offloading in Ports.376 12.3 European Union(EU).379 12.3.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.380 12.3.2 Health,Safe

55、ty and Environment.381 12.3.3 Policy landscape for CCUS pertinent to CO2 offloading in ports.381 12.3.3.1 European Union(EU).381 12.3.3.2 Denmark.383 12.3.3.3 Iceland.385 12.3.3.4 Norway.385 12.3.3.5 Netherlands.388 12.4 United States of America.389 12.4.1 Issues Related to International Transport o

56、f Captured CO2.389 12.4.2 Health,Safety and Environment.389 12.4.3 Policy Landscape for CCUS Pertinent to CO2 Offloading In Ports.390 12.5 Singapore.391 12.5.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.391 12.5.2 Health,Safety and Environment.392 12.5.3 Policy Landscape for CCUS Pert

57、inent to CO2 Offloading In Ports.392 12.6 Australia.393 12.6.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.393 12.6.2 Health,Safety and Environment.393 12.6.3 Policy landscape for CCUS pertinent to CO2 offloading in ports.394 12.7 South Korea.395 12.7.1 Issues Related to International

58、Transport of Captured CO2.395 12.7.2 Health,Safety and Environment.395 12.7.3 Policy Landscape for CCUS Pertinent to CO2 Offloading in Ports.396 12.8 China.396 12.8.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.396 12.8.2 Health,Safety and Environment.397 12.8.3 Policy Landscape for CC

59、US Pertinent to CO2 Offloading in Ports.397 12.9 Japan.398 12.9.1 Issues Related to International Transport of Captured CO2.398 12.9.2 Health,Safety and Environment.398 12.9.3 Policy Landscape for CCUS Pertinent to CO2 Offloading in Ports.398 12.10 References.399 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Cap

60、tured Carbon Dioxide Page 11 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Appendices Appendices(Available separately for download on GCMDs website)(Available separately for download on GCMDs website)Appendix A LCO2 Offloading Scenarios&Shortlisting of Concepts Appendix B Block Flow Diagrams(BFD)for th

61、e Shortlisted Concepts Appendix C Process Flow Diagrams(PFD)for the Shortlisted Concepts Appendix D HAZID Worksheets Appendix E SIMOPS Worksheets Appendix F QRA Assumptions Register Appendix G Project Aramis CO2 Specifications Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 12 Global C

62、entre for Maritime Decarbonisation List of tables Table ES 1 QRA study conclusions.28 Table ES 2 CAPEX estimates.31 Table ES 3 Breakdown of CAPEX estimates.31 Table ES 4 OPEX estimates.32 Table ES 5 Breakdown of OPEX estimates.32 Table ES 6 LCO2 concept operability ranking.33 Table 1.1 CO2 physical

63、and chemical properties.38 Table 1.2 Change in storage volume as the consequence of increasing CO2 storage pressure.39 Table 1.3 LCO2 density relative to pressure and temperature.40 Table 1.4 Effects of impurities on equilibrium pressure of CO2 mixtures at-50C .42 Table 1.5 Hazard rating of CO .43 T

64、able 1.6 Air quality indication corresponding to levels of CO2 in the air .43 Table 1.7 Physiological tolerance time for various carbon dioxide concentrations.44 Table 1.8 Concentration vs time consequences for CO2 inhalation .45 Table 1.9 CO2 toxicity thresholds.45 Table 1.10 CO2 quality recommenda

65、tions for ship transport(adapted).47 Table 1.11 Effect of impurities in CO2 stream.48 Table 2.1 Typical categorisation for LCO2 storage conditions.55 Table 2.2 Comparison between LP,MP and ISO tank container conditions of LCO2(adapted).56 Table 2.3 Material selection for ships carrying CO2(adapted).

66、57 Table 2.4 Typical conditions and properties across the transportation of CO2 .57 Table 2.5 Pressurised storage tank types found on ships.58 Table 2.6 Ship performance data for year 2021.59 Table 2.7 Daily average consumption at sea.60 Table 2.8 Calculated daily average CO2 emission.60 Table 2.9 C

67、O2 captured quantity assuming 70%capture rate.60 Table 2.10 Storage tanks optimal for vessel types.61 Table 2.11 LP,MP and ISO tank container storage conditions.61 Table 2.12 Storage requirements at LP,MP and ISO tank container conditions.61 Table 2.13 Storage capacity requirements for Panamax conta

68、iner ship.62 Table 2.14 Storage requirements for Panamax bulk carrier.63 Table 2.15 Storage requirements for LR2 tanker.64 Table 2.16 Panamax container ship CII requirement.66 Table 2.17 Panamax bulk carrier CII Requirement.66 Table 2.18 LR2 tanker CII requirement.66 Table 2.19 Total CO2 capture cal

69、culation methodology to achieve CII compliance(adapted).67 Table 2.20 Total annual CO2 capture requirement for CII compliance.68 Table 2.21 CO2 capture required for CII compliance for 20 day voyage.69 Table 2.22 Storage capacity required for CII compliance.69 Table 2.23 Factors affecting CO2 boil-of

70、f gas generation.70 Table 2.24 Conductive properties of storage tank.71 Table 2.25 Storage tank specifications.71 Table 2.26 BOG simulation.72 Table 2.27 Selected design profile for the study.73 Table 3.1 Four offloading concepts selected for the study.87 Table 3.2 Process equipment description.88 T

71、able 4.1 Summary coverage of existing design standards on LCO2 storage and offloading(applicable or adaptable).101 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 13 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Table 4.2 Summary coverage of existing operation standards on LCO2 storage an

72、d offloading(applicable or adaptable).103 Table 5.1 Recommended pressure drop for single phase gas process lines .144 Table 5.2 Impurities concentration recommended for CO2 quality in ship transport.160 Table 7.1 List of concerns and applicability to each LCO2 offloading concept(HAZID).207 Table 7.2

73、 HAZID team.212 Table 7.3 HAZID nodes.215 Table 7.4 Documents reviewed.216 Table 7.5 HAZID recommendations.221 Table 7.6 List of concerns and applicability to each LCO2 offloading concept(SIMOPS).232 Table 7.7 SIMOPS team.236 Table 7.8 SIMOPS nodes.238 Table 7.9 Documents reviewed.239 Table 7.10 SIM

74、OPS recommendations.243 Table 7.11 Salient findings of coarse QRA study.247 Table 7.12 UK HSE individual risk criteria.254 Table 7.13 QRA scenarios.255 Table 7.14 Release rates.259 Table 7.15 Toxic gas dispersion results.260 Table 7.16 Initiating release frequency.262 Table 7.17 Cases for risk asses

75、sment.263 Table 8.1 Specification of minimum standard of competence of basic training for ships carrying captured liquid CO2.270 Table 8.2 Different functions and levels of responsibility(for information).278 Table 8.3 LCO2 handling competency matrix shipboard and shoreside personnel.279 Table 9.1 S

76、uitability of infrastructure for offloading concepts.325 Table 9.2 Key for Table 9.1.325 Table 9.3 CO2 purity chart .328 Table 9.4 LCO2 infrastructure projects.329 Table 9.5 Comparison of liquid transfer vessels.333 Table 9.6 LCO2 carriers in service.336 Table 9.7 LCO2 carriers on order.336 Table 9.

77、8 Gas ships which can be re-purposed as LCO2 carriers.337 Table 9.9 Concept designs and prospective projects for LCO2 carriers.338 Table 9.10 Concept designs and prospective projects for LCO2 carriers.339 Table 9.11 TRL definitions .340 Table 10.1 CAPEX assumptions.344 Table 10.2 OPEX assumptions.34

78、9 Table 10.3 CAPEX summary.349 Table 10.4 Concept 1 CAPEX summary.350 Table 10.5 Concept 2 CAPEX summary.351 Table 10.6 Concept 3 CAPEX summary.354 Table 10.7 Concept 4 CAPEX summary.356 Table 10.8 OPEX summary.357 Table 10.9 Offshore operational and maintenance base costs per IRV/FCSU per year.358

79、Table 10.10 Onshore bulk liquid storage operational costs per year.358 Table 11.1 Captured CO2 end users.360 Table 11.2 Multi-criteria operability assessment of LCO2 offloading concepts.362 Table 12.1 Captured CO2 end users.368 Table 12.2 Framework from ENTEC report .379 Concept Study to Offload Onb

80、oard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 14 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation List of figures Figure 1.1 CO2 phase diagram(adapted).37 Figure 1.2 Comparison of phase diagrams for four CO2 binary mixtures .49 Figure 1.3 Solubility of water in pure CO2 .50 Figure 1.4 Onboard carbon capture and stora

81、ge process flow.50 Figure 2.1 Storage capacity requirements for Panamax container ship.62 Figure 2.2 Storage requirements for Panamax bulk carrier.64 Figure 2.3 Storage requirements for LR2 tanker.65 Figure 2.4 Amount of CO2 to be captured to achieve CII compliance.67 Figure 2.5 LCO2 storage tank(Ty

82、pe C Tank)location for container ships below deck.74 Figure 2.6 LCO2 storage tank(ISO tank containers)location for container ships above deck.74 Figure 2.7 LCO2 storage tank(Type C Tank)location for Bulk Carriers below deck.75 Figure 2.8 LCO2 storage tank(Type C Tank)location for Bulk Carriers above

83、 deck.75 Figure 2.9 LCO2 storage tank(Type C Tank)for Tankers above deck.76 Figure 2.10 Submerged Electric Type Discharge Pump(Courtesy Alfa Laval).77 Figure 2.11 Discharge Booster Pump.77 Figure 2.12 Direct reliquefaction plant.78 Figure 2.13 Cascade direct cycle reliquefaction plant.79 Figure 2.14

84、 Reliquefaction system integrated within the CO2 liquefaction plant.80 Figure 3.1 Overview of scope of IFP on LCO2 offloading.86 Figure 3.2 Concept 1 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal.92 Figure 3.3 Concept 2 Ship-to-floating CO2 storage with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel.93 Figure 3.4 Concept 3 Ship

85、-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel stage 1.95 Figure 3.5 Concept 3 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel stage 2.95 Figure 3.6 Concept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers.97 Figure 5.1 Pressure relations .143 Figure 5.2 Example of

86、Coriolis metering technology .145 Figure 5.3 Example of tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy(TDLAS)gas analysers .146 Figure 5.4 Continuous gas analyser .147 Figure 5.5 Non-intrusive temperature transmitter .147 Figure 5.6 Example of temperature transmitter .147 Figure 5.7 Example wireless ul

87、trasonic(UT)sensors .148 Figure 5.8 Coriolis flow meter .148 Figure 5.9 Fork density meter.149 Figure 5.10 Electronic remote sensors(ERS)system .150 Figure 5.11 Level gauge and tank gauging system solution .150 Figure 5.12 Tank gauging radar and tank gauging servo .150 Figure 5.13 Guided wave radar

88、technology .151 Figure 6.1 Schematic of LCO2 top spray connection filling.179 Figure 7.1 UK HSE tolerability of risk.253 Figure 7.2 LSIR contours Concept 3 LCO2 offloading between merchant ship and LCO2 receiving vessel at anchorage(assuming 70%vaporisation on ship collision scenario).264 Figure 7.3

89、 LSIR contours Concept 3 LCO2 offloading between LCO2 receiving vessel and bulk liquid storage terminal(assuming 70%vaporisation on ship collision scenario).265 Figure 9.1 Warrenpoint Harbour Facility .326 Figure 9.2 GERDA vessel loading LCO2 from trucks .327 Figure 9.3 Concept 1-Ship-to-liquid bulk

90、 terminal.332 Figure 9.4 Concept 3-Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel,stages 1 and 2.333 Figure 9.5 Concept 2-Ship-to-FCSU with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel.335 Figure 9.6 Concept 4-Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers.340 Concept Study to Offload Onboard

91、 Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 15 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Figure 10.1 Boundary of estimate.343 Figure 10.2 ACCE cost basis.344 Figure 12.1 Map of parties to the London convention and protocol.372 Figure 12.2 UK Port Regulatory Picture(British Ports Association,March 2023).373 Conce

92、pt Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 16 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation List of abbreviations AbbreviationAbbreviation DescriptionDescription ACCEACCE Aspen Capital Cost Estimator ALARPALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable ANSIANSI American National Standards Institut

93、e APIAPI American Petroleum Institute APRAPR Air Purification Respirator ArAr Argon ASMEASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers B Baraara Absolute Pressure in Bar B Bargarg Gauge Pressure in Bar BCGABCGA British Compressed Gases Association BFDBFD Block Flow Diagrams BLEVEBLEVE Boiling Liquid

94、Expanding Vapor Explosion BOGBOG Boil-off Gas BSBS British Standards BS ENBS EN British Standards(European)BVBV Bureau Veritas CAPEXCAPEX Capital Expenditure CCSCCS Carbon Capture and Storage CCTVCCTV Closed Circuit Television CCUSCCUS Carbon Capture,Utilisation and Storage CGACGA Compressed Gas Ass

95、ociation CHCH4 4 Methane CIICII Carbon Intensity Indicator COCO Carbon Monoxide COCO2 2 Carbon Dioxide CPCP Critical Point CSACSA Canadian Standards Association DGDG Dangerous Goods DNDN Nominal Diameter DNVDNV Det Norske Veritas DTLDTL Dangerous Toxic Load DPDP Differential Pressure EEAEEA European

96、 Economic Area Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 17 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation AbbreviationAbbreviation DescriptionDescription EEBDEEBD Emergency Escape Breathing Devices ENEN European Standard EOREOR Enhanced Oil Recovery ERCERC Emergency Release Coupling

97、 ERPERP Emergency Response Plan ERSERS Emergency Release Systems ESDESD Emergency Shutdown ETAETA Event Tree Analysis ETSETS Emissions Trading System EUEU European Union FCSUFCSU Floating CO2 Storage Unit FCSUFCSU-i i Floating CO2 Storage Unit with injection capability FIDFID Final Investment Decisi

98、on FSSFSS Fire Safety Systems GCMDGCMD Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation GHGGHG Greenhouse Gas GHSGHS Globally Harmonized System GWRGWR Guided Wave Radar H H2 2 Hydrogen H H2 2S S Hydrogen Sulphide HAZIDHAZID HAZard IDentification HFOHFO Heavy Fuel Oil HPHP High Pressure HSE HSE Health,Safe

99、ty and Environment IBCIBC International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk IECIEC International Electrotechnical Commission IFPIFP Invitation For Proposals IGCIGC International Code of the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases

100、 in Bulk IGFIGF International Code of Safety for Ship Using Gases or Other Low-flashpoint Fuels IMDGIMDG International Code for the Maritime Transport of Dangerous Goods IMOIMO International Maritime Organization IRVIRV Intermediate Receiving Vessel ISMISM International Safety Management Code Concep

101、t Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 18 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation AbbreviationAbbreviation DescriptionDescription ISOISO International Organization for Standardization ISGINTTISGINTT International Safety Guide for Inland Navigation Tank-Barges and Terminals ISPSIS

102、PS International Ship and Port Facility Security Code K K Kelvin LCOLCO2 2 Liquefied Carbon Dioxide LEDLED Light-Emitting Diode LFOLFO Light Fuel Oil LNGLNG Liquefied Natural Gas LOTOLOTO Lock Out Tag Out LPLP Low pressure LPGLPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas LR2LR2 Long Range 2 LSIRLSIR Location Specific

103、 Individual Risk LVSCLVSC Low Voltage Shore Connection M/EM/E Main Engine MARPOLMARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships MDMTMDMT Minimum Design Metal Temperature MEAMEA Monoethanolamine MEG4MEG4 Mooring Equipment Guidelines(4th Edition,2018)MLAMLA Marine Loading Ar

104、m MOCMOC Management of Change MPMP Medium Pressure MPAMPA Maritime&Port Authority of Singapore MPSMPS Maritime Performance Services MTMT Metric Tonnes N N2 2 Nitrogen NACENACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers NDTNDT Non-Destructive Testing NFPANFPA National Fire Protection Association NHN

105、H3 3 Ammonia NOxNOx Nitrogen Oxides NOPSEMANOPSEMA National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority NPSHNPSH Net Positive Suction Head NTPNTP Normal Temperature and Pressure Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 19 Global Centre for Maritime Decarboni

106、sation AbbreviationAbbreviation DescriptionDescription O O2 2 Oxygen OCCOCCS S Onboard Carbon Capture and Storage OCIMFOCIMF Oil Companies International Marine Forum OPEXOPEX Operational Expenditure OSHAOSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration PBUPBU Pressure Build-Up Unit PELPEL Permissib

107、le Exposure Limit PFDPFD Process Flow Diagrams PICPIC Person In Charge PMSPMS Preventive Maintenance System PPEPPE Personal Protective Equipment P Ppmpm Parts Per Million PRVPRV Pressure Relief Valve PSLPSL Product Specification Levels PSVPSV Pressure Safety Valve PTPTF FE E Polytetrafluoroethylene

108、QA/QCQA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Certification QCQC/DCDC Quick Connect/Disconnect Coupler QRAQRA Quantitative Risk Assessment RAGRAG Red-Amber-Green ROBROB Remainder on Board RPRP Recommended Practice SCBASCBA Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus SDSSDS Safety Data Sheet SIGTTOSIGTTO Society of In

109、ternational Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators SIMOPSSIMOPS Simultaneous Operations SLODSLOD Significant Likelihood of Death SLOTSLOT Specified Level of Toxicity SMSSMS Safety Management System SOSO2 2 Sulphur Dioxide S SO Ox x Sulphur Oxides SOLASSOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life

110、 at Sea(SOLAS),1974 SOPsSOPs Standard Operating Procedures SSLSSL Ship-to-Shore/Ship-to-Ship Link Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 20 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation AbbreviationAbbreviation DescriptionDescription STCWSTCW International Convention on Standards

111、 of Training,Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers STELSTEL Short Term Exposure Limits StSStS Ship-to-Shore/Ship-to-Ship TDLATDLAS S Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy TLVTLV Threshold Limit Value ToRToR Terms of Reference tpdtpd Tonnes-per-day TRLTRL Technology Readiness Level TtWTt

112、W Tank-to-Wake UKUK United Kingdom UK HSEUK HSE United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive UNUN United Nations UNCLOSUNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNFCCCUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USAUSA United States of America UPSUPS Uninterrupted Power Su

113、pply USCGUSCG United States Coast Guard VLE VLE Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium VTSVTS Vessel Traffic Services WPWP Working pressure Page 21 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Executive Summary Overview Overview The revised 2023 Internationa

114、l Maritime Organization(IMO)greenhouse gas(GHG)strategy identifies revised levels of ambition for the international shipping sector:to reduce carbon intensity by at least 40%by 2030,compared to 2008 and to reach net-zero GHG emissions by or around,i.e.,close to,2050.To achieve these ambitions,the IM

115、O GHG strategy emphasises energy-efficient ship designs and the adoption of zero or near-zero emission fuels and technologies.However,achieving zero emissions from ships involves either replacing fossil fuels with low-carbon alternatives or mitigating emissions from existing fuels,both of which pose

116、 challenges.While progress has been made in developing viable alternative fuels,like green or blue methanol,ammonia and hydrogen,their widespread adoption across the shipping fleet will take time and can be costly.Onboard carbon capture and storage(OCCS)emerges as a short to mid-term solution to red

117、uce emissions during this transition.While carbon capture and storage(CCS)technologies have been established onshore for some time,OCCS for ships has only gained traction recently as a feasible approach to meet emissions reduction targets.Its successful adoption will require a compelling economic ca

118、se,updated regulations,infrastructure development,and consensus on standards and guidelines.This study aims to explore and define conditions for the storage and handling of onboard captured CO2,as well as its offloading as liquefied CO2(LCO2)1 from ships to reception facilities.These facilities may

119、include shore terminals,floating CO2 storage units,or LCO2 receiving vessels.The effectiveness of OCCS for maritime decarbonisation hinges on successfully integrating carbon capture solution onboard ships and offloading the captured LCO2 to the onshore carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)val

120、ue chain.Liquid COLiquid CO2 2 Characteristics and Hazards Characteristics and Hazards The triple point,where the three phases(gas,liquid and solid)of a substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium,occurs for CO2 at a temperature of-56.6 C and pressure of 5.18 bara(absolute pressure in bar).CO2 ca

121、n be liquefied at various pressures and temperatures between the triple point(5.18 bara,-56.6 C)and the critical point(73.8 bara,31.1 C).Storage and offloading of CO2 should be carried out in its liquid state for more efficient and economic operations as a result of its high density at these conditi

122、ons.The hazards of CO2 include asphyxiation due to oxygen displacement and potential toxicity at higher exposure levels.Humans exposed to a CO2 concentration of 3%in air for an hour may experience toxicological symptoms of headaches and those exposed to CO2 concentrations of 17%in air for one minute

123、 may experience more pronounced toxicological symptoms and even death.While CO2 is not classified as acutely toxic under the Globally Harmonized System(GHS),its toxicity depends on 1 Liquefied carbon dioxide(LCO2)is carbon dioxide which has been converted to liquid form by cooling or/and compression

124、 for storage and transportation purposes.The term Liquid CO2 denotes the liquid phase of carbon dioxide.Page 22 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation concentration and exposure time.Some countries have defined threshold values within thei

125、r health and safety protocols.The review of The International Code of the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk(IGC Code)by the IMO Sub-Committee on Carriage of Cargoes and Containers proposes amending the classification for“carbon dioxide(high purity)”and“carbon dioxi

126、de(reclaimed quality)”to include toxicity,alongside its recognition as an asphyxiant.Other hazards of liquid CO2 include boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion(BLEVE),danger of low temperatures causing frostbite and structural failure,impacts of impurities affecting equipment integrity and transpo

127、rt efficiency,challenges posed by water presence and solubility,and risks associated with proximity to its triple point leading to solidification and dry ice formation.Managing CO2 impurities,water content and phase equilibrium is crucial for safe transportation,storage and integration into the CCUS

128、 value chain.Onboard Storage of Captured CO Onboard Storage of Captured CO2 2 The existing literature on CO2 properties,hazards,phase behaviour and CCS systems indicates that storing LCO2 at low pressure(LP)of 5.7 to 10 bara at-54.3C to-40.1C(working pressure(WP):8.0 bara at-50.0C)or medium pressure

129、(MP)of 14.0 to 19.0 bara at-30.5C to-21.2C(WP:16.0 bara at-30.0C)conditions as optimal for storing and handling onboard captured CO2.CO2 can be liquefied at various pressures and temperatures between the triple point(5.15 bara,-56.6 C)and the critical point(73.8 bara,31.1 C).Storage at MP conditions

130、 ensures safe operations away from triple-point conditions,mitigating the risk of dry ice formation whilst retaining LCO2 at high density.Alternatively,to lower capital expenditure(CAPEX),it may also be stored at LP conditions.The choice of storage and transport in liquid phase is primarily a densit

131、y consideration,with CCS value chain alignment dictating offloading in liquid phase.The liquefaction and storage of CO2 under either LP or MP conditions are both viable options,considering the process energy intensity and the storage efficiency(tonCO2/tonCO2+ton tank).Another option for storage is I

132、SO tank containers,in which LCO2 is stored at 18.0 to 24.0 bara(WP:22.0 bara)and-25.0 C to-20.0C.Some may favour storage at LP conditions due to a higher density of liquid CO2 and lower CAPEX,although finding the optimal balance away from the triple point for safe handling during offloading and tran

133、sportation remains crucial.Exploring the specifications of LCO2 quality reveals the impacts of impurities on operations and provides insights into the anticipated requirements for offloading.Even minor impurity concentrations,such as water content of more than 50 parts per million(ppm)or non-condens

134、able gases,such as hydrogen or nitrogen of more than 0.3%by volume,can cause storage tank and pipeline corrosion,form hydrates,increase compression power requirements,and jeopardise CO2 storage and transport pipeline safety.The triple point is influenced by the presence of impurities,such as nitroge

135、n more than 0.3%by volume,and must be accounted for in the system design.Processing captured CO2 to meet quality standards hinges on allowable impurity concentrations ensuring safe storage,offloading and transportation.The captured CO2 will need to meet product specifications,which is dictated by th

136、e end use of the offloaded CO2,whether for utilisation or geological sequestration.It will also need to meet the requirement specifications related to the handling of captured CO2.Materials suitability and containment types for onboard LCO2 storage tanks,considering the temperature range and the pre

137、sence of impurities,were evaluated.Semi-refrigerated Type C tanks(LP/MP conditions)and ISO tank containers emerged as the most feasible containment solutions for onboard LCO2 storage.Page 23 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Storage c

138、apacities were calculated to meet 12 20 days of voyage for a representative Panamax container ship,a Panamax bulk carrier and an LR2 tanker at a 70%capture rate,and to comply with CII regulations in 2023,2024,and 2025.Initially,the shipping industry is not expected to pursue 100%carbon capture,and i

139、nstead follows the decarbonisation regulatory obligations in designing OCCS capacities.Considering these aspects,a design profile was established,outlining possible storage conditions,tank types,and capacities for the above-mentioned vessel types.This served as the foundation for subsequent study ph

140、ases/stages.Onboard Captured Liquefied COOnboard Captured Liquefied CO2 2 Offloading Concepts Offloading Concepts The study shortlisted offloading concepts from a total of 162 possible permutations for the following variables:1.Ship type container ship/tanker/bulk carrier,2.Onboard storage above dec

141、k/below deck/above deck cassette(ISO tank container),3.Transfer type ship-to-ship/ship-to-shore,4.Intermediate storage LCO2 receiving vessel,5.In port storage LCO2 carrier/floating CO2 storage/shore storage,and6.Conditions of storage LP/MP/ISO tank container.Finally,four offloading concepts were sel

142、ected for this study:Concept 1 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal,Concept 2 Ship-to-floating CO2 storage with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel,Concept 3 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel,and Concept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers.These four concepts repres

143、ent the most practical and cost-effective solutions for near-term applications for offloading onboard captured and liquefied CO2.Additionally,between them,the concepts cover the key offloading steps for a wider range of offloading solutions,so they can be used as building blocks to explore and infor

144、m design and operational considerations more broadly.Design and Operation Standards for Offloading Liquid CODesign and Operation Standards for Offloading Liquid CO2 2An extensive scan was conducted to scrutinise the existing design and operational standards relevant for offloading LCO,focusing on th

145、e storage and offloading processes of CO2 captured onboard ships.This in-depth analysis aimed to categorise standards into four key areas:machinery,piping,storage,and safety.The goal was to identify existing gaps that could impact the safe and efficient offloading of LCO from onboard capture systems

146、.While the maritime sector lacks specific regulatory standards for onboard captured CO systems,classification societies have taken strides in formulating rules and guidelines for ships equipped with these systems,instilling confidence in their installation and operation.Although the IGC Code,tailore

147、d Page 24 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation for bulk liquefied gases,does not directly apply to onboard captured CO,it offers valuable insights into aspects,such as machinery,piping,storage,and safety.Well-established onshore sectors,

148、with their extensive experience in CCUS installations,also possess robust standards adaptable to the unique requirements of LCO offloading from ships.Additionally,existing standards for liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)/liquefied natural gas(LNG),sharing similar characteristics with LCO,can serve as a bl

149、ueprint for conceptualising efficient LCO offloading arrangements.To bridge the identified regulatory gaps,leveraging pertinent LCO standards from onshore sectors and drawing insights from LPG/LNG standards in both maritime and onshore sectors can offer viable solutions.The significant gaps identifi

150、ed were:Standardisation of storage systems and storage conditions is needed.Requirements need to bedefined for the characterisation of the LCO captured onboard ships,noting different geologicalstorage sites will have site-specific conditions(i.e.,pressure,temperature and impurity type andits concent

151、ration),which the offloaded LCO must match in order to enable CO2 to be stored orused.Port reception facilities and ship operators will require knowledge of such conditions at thepoint of offloading.The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL)Conventiondoes not acc

152、ount for onboard captured CO as a waste stream.Standards need to be set formeasuring and recognising any collected and transferred LCO,as well as those for establishingmonitoring,reporting and verification methods.Requirements for port reception facilities for the offloading of LCO are needed.Compet

153、ency and training standards are needed for personnel handling LCO offloading fromships.The majority of the above issues will likely be addressed by the IMO as OCCS gains traction in the maritime industry.Design Principles and Guidelines for Offloading Liquid CODesign Principles and Guidelines for Of

154、floading Liquid CO2 2 Chapter 5 of the report aims to establish comprehensive design principles and guidelines governing the offloading of onboard captured LCO to onshore and offshore storage facilities.As specific guidance on the design and use of offloading systems for onboard captured LCO is curr

155、ently lacking,this chapter consolidates foundational principles to drive the feasibility and advancement of onboard carbon capture.It covers several key areas:Detailed principles and guidelines for onboard captured LCO offloading and storage terminaldesigns:ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore.Specificati

156、ons for capturing and receiving vessel interfaces,ship-to-shore offloadingrequirements and associated safety equipment.The analytical methods and verification procedures to measure the quantity and quality of LCOduring custody transfer.These principles and guidelines are founded on engineering exper

157、ience,first principles,and insights from more established processes and build on existing standards governing LCO,LNG and LPG handling.Page 25 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation This chapter covers general design principles encompassin

158、g ambient design temperatures,process design temperatures,design pressure,pressure drop,testing requirements and isolation requirements.It describes principles and methods for measuring both the quantity and quality of offloaded LCO2 and its storage.The chapter extensively elaborates on design princ

159、iples and guidelines across various areas including gas detection,marine infrastructure,metocean conditions,loading arms,flexible hoses,pumps,pipelines,bulk storage tanks,intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel and floating CO2 storage.These insights aim to steer the design process and enhance operationa

160、l reliability.Evolving new technologies for OCCS and LCO2 handling might establish different LCO2 quality standards and requirements in the future,necessitating adaptations in the design of offloading systems accordingly.Safety measures and equipment including hazards to personnel,use of appropriate

161、 personal protective equipment(PPE),boil-off gas(BOG)equipment,emergency shutdown devices(ESD)and emergency release systems(ERS)are also addressed.Procedures for Offloading Liquid COProcedures for Offloading Liquid CO2 2 Chapter 6 outlines the operating procedures and the necessary steps in the LCO

162、offloading operation with a focus on minimising risks and optimising performance.Safety measures are incorporated in the procedures and environmental protection measures enumerated.They include general requirements,such as establishing an LCO offloading plan,conducting risk assessments,establishing

163、communication protocols,and defining safety,security,and marine zones.Additionally,this chapter outlines the responsibilities of personnel involved in offloading operations.The various stages of LCO offloading from ship-to-ship or ship-to-shore planning,pre-offload,transfer,and post-transfer phases

164、are detailed,along with their specific requirements.Procedures for loading/unloading ISO tank containers,encompassing lift planning,equipment readiness,personnel competence,and lift execution,are described thoroughly.Additionally,the chapter outlines environmental protection measures,providing guida

165、nce on mitigating CO release during offloading operations.Finally,the chapter details emergency response procedures for various scenarios like extreme weather,blackout,collisions,over-pressurisation,and personnel injury.It emphasises the significance of an emergency response plan(ERP),encompassing c

166、rucial actions,such as raising alerts,initiating shutdown protocols,establishing communication,planning evacuations,defining procedures,locating protective gear,outlining personnel duties,and conducting drills.This structured framework can ensure a coordinated and effective response to LCO release i

167、ncidents,prioritising safety,environmental protection,and operational integrity.It concludes by offering typical emergency response examples aligned with ERP guidelines.Safety Studies Safety Studies Safety studies comprising a hazard identification(HAZID)study,a simultaneous operations(SIMOPS)study

168、and a coarse quantitative risk assessment(QRA)study were carried out for the four shortlisted offloading concepts.HAZID study The aim of the HAZID study is to identify and risk assess the hazards associated with the four concepts.Given that this is a conceptual study,the HAZID also aims to identify

169、potential engineering/maritime/Page 26 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation logistic factors to be considered for the subsequent project phases.Due to the highly conceptual nature of the offloading concepts and the various underlying ass

170、umptions affecting risk evaluation,no risk ranking was performed at this stage in the HAZID process.Risk ranking can be performed with this study as a basis when details of vessels and specifications on concept design are available.A total of 131 scenarios were identified,with a number of concerns r

171、elated mainly to the safety,operational and feasibility aspects of the LCO2 offloading concepts.Some of the common concerns arising from the LCO2 offloading concepts included:Causes resulting in loss of containment of LCO2 and subsequent dispersion of a cold,dense CO2cloud or the development of cold

172、 temperature zones.Incompatibilities between merchant vessels and LCO2 receiving vessels/receiving terminals(i.e.,mooring loads/arrangement,weather profile at the shortlisted locations,berthing and fenderingrequirements,alignment of vessels,type of transfer equipment loading arm or hoses,locationof

173、cargo transfer manifold,vapour return capabilities,purging capabilities,design pressure,operational&safety philosophy,etc.).Impurities in LCO2 which can affect storage conditions and even possibly,the materials selectionfor the LCO2 offloading system.Unfamiliarity with LCO2 offloading processes,espe

174、cially when LP/MP or MP/LP interface isinvolved,coupled with inexperienced crew onboard merchant vessels.Undefined drying and purging requirements pre/post LCO2 offloading operations.Logistical concerns were raised for ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers.Container ships with OCCS using differe

175、nt fuel types may have different impurity type and levels in the captured CO2.Consequently,the container terminal might face challenges swapping empty LCO2 ISO tank containers with the container ships unless they adhere to the same standard specifications and do not surpass a uniformly defined LCO2

176、impurity level standard.Another concern raised was the expected voyage duration of a container ship and the BOG holding time of the ISO tank containers.The holding time may range from 30 to 90 days,depending on the environmental conditions and the initial filling conditions.Typically,ships may fill

177、up all LCO2 ISO tank containers onboard and swap them at one terminal in one go.However,with an expectation of having 10-15 LCO2 tanks fully filled before the next tank swapping,there is a risk that the tanks initially filled may exceed the BOG holding time if offloading is beyond 30 days.Throughout

178、 the HAZID discussions,it became evident that there is work yet to be completed to facilitate LCO2 offloading concepts.One of the primary concerns emphasised across all offloading concepts was the impurities of LCO2.Impurities not only pose a safety risk due to materials incompatibilities within the

179、 supply chain,but the type and concentration of impurities may also impede the progress of OCCS adoption.This is particularly significant as end-users may have different LCO2 impurity specifications.In total,54 recommendations were made to address the abovementioned concerns,which should be taken fo

180、rward into the next phase of the project or should be considered by interested parties that are further developing OCCS/LCO2 offloading concepts.SIMOPS study SIMOPS study A HAZID study for SIMOPS was conducted to further understand the impact of carrying out concurrent activities alongside LCO2 offl

181、oading operations.Page 27 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation The SIMOPS study also covered the four LCO2 offloading concept designs detailed in this study.A total of 35 concurrent activities scenarios were identified.Some of the signif

182、icant concerns raised include:Potential for dropped objects from concurrent activities.This may result in damage to the LCO2offloading equipment and pipeline while LCO2 transfer is in progress,leading to a subsequentloss of LCO2 containment.Dropped objects and loss of LCO2 containment will also be a

183、 risk forthe personnel involved in the SIMOPS.Loss of containment of LCO2 during LCO2 offloading operations affecting the other concurrentactivities in the vicinity(especially those at lower elevations).Loss of containment of alternate fuels(i.e.,LNG/LPG/Ammonia/Methanol)during simultaneousfuel bunk

184、ering.Manpower designation and distribution if multiple ship-to-ship(StS)operations are carried outat the same time.The SIMOPS discussion primarily focused on concept 1(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal),concept 2(ship-to-floating CO2 storage with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel and concept 3(ship-to-

185、liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel).Current regulations,such as the International Code for the Maritime Transport of Dangerous Goods(IMDG),classify CO2 as a non-flammable,non-toxic gas.Many terminals handle LCO2 ISO tank containers as ordinary containers during transfers.Co

186、nsequently,there are no significant impact or concerns regarding concurrent operations when LCO2 ISO tank containers are being transferred under concept 4(ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers).The transfer operation is considered the same as that for other ordinary containers.The offloading of

187、LCO2 from the ISO tank containers at the bulk storage facility is also considered a normal operation for the storage terminal.The requirements for SIMOPS for storage terminals vary based on the chemicals/materials they are storing,which will be covered by their own set of terminal operating procedur

188、es.Hence,the LCO2 offloading aspects of concept 4 were not further assessed.In total,there were 20 recommendations raised in the SIMOPS workshop addressing the abovementioned concerns,such as controlling the operating envelope of cranes,providing alarms for loss of containment of LCO2,carrying out g

189、as dispersion study,which should be taken forward in the next phase of the project or should be considered by interested parties that are further developing OCCS/LCO2 offloading concepts.QRA study QRA study A coarse QRA study was conducted to assess the overall risk arising from the shortlisted LCO2

190、 offloading concepts at a hypothetical anchorage location and a hypothetical onshore bulk liquid storage terminal.The Offloading concept 3(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel)was selected to be the representative concept due to increased complexity over the other off

191、loading concepts.Individual risk contours were produced to provide a visual representation of the potential risks within the areas surrounding LCO2 offloading operations.Several assumptions had to be made,including the assumption that LCO2 offloading operations will occur four times a week(208 times

192、 a year)at anchorage,and once a week(52 times a year)at the terminal with each offloading operation assumed to take eight hours.The QRA study conclusions are shown in Table ES 1 below.Page 28 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Table ES

193、 1 QRA study conclusions Table ES 1 QRA study conclusions Location Location Tolerable Risk Criteria Tolerable Risk Criteria Risk result Risk result Anchorage Anchorage This is the location where the merchant vessel is expected to offload LCO2 to the LCO2 receiving vessel via ship-to-ship transfer.1

194、x 10-4/yr for personnel risk.The risk criteria is adapted from the UK HSE ALARP framework whereby risk levels greater than 1 x 10-4/yr for the public group is considered to be intolerable.The 1 x 10-4/yr LSIR contour corresponding to the tolerable risk criteria for personnel onboard vessels or in th

195、e vicinity is not reached.Hence,the risk presented is lower than the specified criterion.Bulk Liquid Storage Terminal Bulk Liquid Storage Terminal This is the location where the LCO2 receiving vessel is expected to berth to offload LCO2.1 x 10-4/yr for personnel risk.The risk criteria is adapted fro

196、m the UK HSE ALARP framework whereby risk levels greater than 1 x 10-4/yr for the public group is considered to be intolerable.The 1 x 10-4/yr LSIR contour corresponding to the tolerable risk criteria for personnel onboard the vessel or in the vicinity of the LCO2 offloading facility is not reached.

197、Hence,the risk presented is lower than the specified criterion.ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable;LSIR Location Specific Individual Risk The coarse QRA study for LCO2 offloading is based on a concept design;key assumptions were made about the frequency of LCO2 offloading operations,the location

198、and layout of the LCO2 offloading facilities,as well as the safety margin used during parts count of the LCO2 offloading equipment,which would impact the outcome of the QRA.The study also conservatively assumed that any loss of containment would result in a horizontal dispersion of toxic cloud,thoug

199、h it is possible that some LCO2 is released into the sea for certain scenarios,which may dissolve in water and thus,reducing the amount of toxic gas being dispersed.Apart from the assumptions that impact QRA,the risk criteria also play an important role as they can vary depending on the risk appetit

200、e of the local regulatory authority or operating company,whichever is more stringent.Some examples may include additional risk criteria for different categories of land zoning,such as residential and industrial.,which are usually meant for onshore applications.While the introduction of representativ

201、e LCO2 offloading concept(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel)is within the tolerable risk criteria,the coarse QRA findings are only associated with the LCO2 offloading concept and do not take into consideration the potential existing risk profile of the vessels or t

202、he bulk liquid storage terminal,in the event they are storing and handling other hazardous materials.Therefore,it is also recommended that risk integration is considered in the next phase of the project or should be considered by interested parties that are further developing OCCS/LCO2 offloading co

203、ncepts.Operating Personnel Competency Standards Operating Personnel Competency Standards A challenge in offloading LCO2 from ships will be to ensure the competence of personnel engaged with handling LCO2 onboard ships.Accordingly,an analysis was conducted to assess the human-related aspects of stora

204、ge and handling of LCO2.This analysis led to the creation of competency standards for shipboard and shoreside operating personnel interfacing with LCO2.The International Convention on Page 29 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Standard

205、s of Training,Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers(STCW)takes precedence and the matrix proposed in this study may be used as a guideline.The competency standards are presented in this report via two frameworks.The first framework,“Proposed Competencies for Handling Captured Liquid CO2 Onboa

206、rd Ships”,focuses on shipboard personnel and uses the existing STCW requirements for minimum standards of competence with the International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other Low-Flashpoint Fuels(IGF Code)as a starting point.Other sections of STCW Chapter V for Tankers and for Liquefied G

207、as Tankers competency and training standards also serve as an input for creating the LCO2 shipboard framework.The framework is organised in the standard tabular format used in STCW.A second framework,“LCO2 Handling Competency Information Shipboard and Shoreside Personnel”,has been created as a suppl

208、ement to the proposed seafarers standards outlined above.The purpose of this second framework is to provide further details on seafarers competencies,as well as outline similar information for shoreside personnel and identify interactions,interfaces and commonalities for all involved with LCO2 opera

209、tions.In addition to competency standards,this report also highlights how prior experience of shipboard personnel can impact the speed of developing competencies for LCO2.The report also emphasises the importance of coordination and collaboration of all organisations involved to ensure efficient,saf

210、e and environmentally sound operations.The competency frameworks in this report should be used to design and refine appropriate company training requirements to mitigate captured LCO2 risks and enhance safety by ensuring personnel achieve the desired level of competency for their intended roles.User

211、s of this report should view the competency recommendations provided here within the context of their existing internal and regulatory training programs.Each operating company will need to determine the changes required within their existing programs to accommodate captured LCO2 related operations.R

212、eadiness of Current Infrastructure for Liquefied COReadiness of Current Infrastructure for Liquefied CO2 2 Offloading Offloading A review was conducted for the readiness of current infrastructure for LCO2 offloading(i.e.,facilities that can be used or with modifications or as new assets)relating to

213、the four offloading concepts defined in Chapter 3.There are limited publicly available examples of existing terminals handling CO2 as a product in ports.Nonetheless,the concepts developed as part of this study aim to integrate offloading of onboard captured LCO2 with existing port infrastructure as

214、far as practical.The potential remains for modifying or upgrading existing port facilities for pilot projects or near-term applications.From the work completed as part of this review,the following conclusions were drawn:LCO2 offloading is an industry in its infancy.It currently lacks operational exa

215、mples that work ina manner similar to the premise of this study.Several ports and facilities are currently developing infrastructure projects,with some in theconceptual design stage and others at the detailed design and execution levels.These projectsinvolve a diverse range of stakeholders from the

216、energy,manufacturing,and maritime industries.Northern Lights is the furthest along project for large-scale LCO2 offloading at a jetty or portfacility for a new/greenfield site.The construction of the receiving terminal and storage tanks is Page 30 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dio

217、xide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation currently in progress with operations expected to commence in 2025.However,a key driver for success of the Northern Lights project is the acceptance of this initiative and the brownfield adaptation of existing ports,from where LCO2 will be sent to the

218、receiving terminal.There are commercial facilities operational that handle food-grade LCO2 at ports.Currently,onlyfour to five ports regularly handle food grade CO from ships with storage capacity around 1,200 1,800 ton.However,this is a specialised industry and is not directly applicable to the sch

219、emesproposed as part of this study,due to differences in specification,impurities and quantitiesinvolved.The complexity of port operations for offloading LCO2 is a key concern for port facilities.Theimpact of introducing LCO2 offloading on port efficiency and operational performance needs tobe consi

220、dered.SIMOPS is one way to minimise impact on the current port operationalperformance but SIMOPS necessarily introduces coordination complexities.Space constraint isa further issue;available land is a highly valued asset and port operators may not have space forLCO2 storage infrastructure.These issu

221、es need to be addressed to convince port authorities onthe viability of these schemes.Modifications required to infrastructure at existing bulk liquid terminals are dependent on thetype of product and size range of vessels currently handled at the facility.oConcept 1(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal)doe

222、s not require major modification to jetty andberth infrastructure as tanker vessels will offload LCO2 at the bulk liquid terminal wherethey discharge their main liquid cargo.oConcept 3(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel)is likelyto require modification of jetty and

223、berth infrastructure due to a difference in dimensionsbetween an LCO2 receiving vessel and other vessels that a bulk liquid terminal isdesigned for.oConcept 4(ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers)requires limited modifications toa container terminal;provision should be made for LCO2 offloading

224、hazardous productzone for the storage of LCO2 ISO tank containers at the port facility.Concept 2(ship-to-floating CO2 storage with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel)uses an LCO2receiving vessel and floating CO2 storage:oIntermediate receiving vessels and floating storage are systems that are used t

225、oday withother liquefied gases.oExisting LCO2 carriers could be repurposed for use as a LCO2 receiving vessel or floatingCO2 storage although they are unlikely to have the optimised capacities for the expectedoperational profiles.CAPEX and OPEX Models for Cost Estimation of Infrastructure CAPEX and

226、OPEX Models for Cost Estimation of Infrastructure Capital expenditure(CAPEX)and operational expenditure(OPEX)models were developed for each of the four offloading concepts outlined in this study.Both CAPEX and OPEX models are to a Class 5 level(-50%/+100%).The estimates given within this report are

227、intended for cost information purposes and are not anindication of business plan feasibility.The scope of the CAPEX costs and OPEX estimation is the offloadinginfrastructure,intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel and onshore storage or floating CO2 storage for each Page 31 Concept Study to Offload Onboa

228、rd Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation concept.The CAPEX models do not consider the cost of the onboard carbon capture system and necessary storage tanks onboard the merchant vessel.The OPEX models do not consider the cost of the fuel for the intermediate LCO2 receivin

229、g vessel(IRV)and the floating CO2 storage unit(FCSU).The results of the CAPEX estimate are shown in Table ES 2 below.The base case of the CAPEX models assumes the purchase of a new IRV for concepts that deploy one such vessel.The alternative case assumes the purchase of a pre-owned IRV for cost savi

230、ngs.The FCSU cost is considered as new building cost for both base and alternative case as there are no existing vessels suitable to act as an FCSU today.Table ES 2 CAPEX estimates Table ES 2 CAPEX estimates Base CaseBase Case (Million USD)(Million USD)AlternativeAlternative Case Case(Million USD)(M

231、illion USD)Concept 1 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal$166-Concept 2 Ship-to-FCSU with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel$178$141 Concept 3 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel$244$207 Concept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers$33-A high-level breakdown of CAPEX e

232、stimate for each concept design is detailed in Table ES 3 below.Table ES 3 Breakdown of CAPEX estimates Table ES 3 Breakdown of CAPEX estimates Shore Eqpmt.(M USD)FCSU Eqpmt.(M USD)Ship Eqpmt.(M USD)IRV Eqpmt.(M USD)Total Eqpmt.(1)(M USD)Direct Field(2)(M USD)Indirect Field(M USD)Non-Field(M USD)Con

233、cept 1$90-$0.26-$96$114$9.2$43 Concept 2-$3.5(3)$0.26$4.2(4)$2.2$126(5)$1.3$50 Concept 3$90-$0.26$4.2(4)$97$169$9.8$66 Concept 4$13-$2.4-$16$21$2.5$9.6 NotesNotes:Eqpmt.Stands for equipment.(1)Includes design allowance(2)Includes total equipment cost(3)FCSU equipment cost excluding the marine loadin

234、g arm cost is included in direct field cost(4)IRV equipment cost is included in direct field cost(5)Includes IRV cost of USD 52M and FCSU cost of USD 68M.For alternative case,second-hand IRVcost is taken as USD 15M.The results of the OPEX estimate are shown in Table ES 4 below.The OPEX for onshore o

235、perations is based on Arups internal projects and a percentage of CAPEX(approximately 5%).For the onshore costs of concept 1(ship-to-liquid bulk terminal)and concept 3(ship-to-shore terminal with intermediate LCO2 Page 32 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Mar

236、itime Decarbonisation receiving vessel),direct costs for the shore facilities are taken from concept 1 and rounded to a value of USD 120M.For concept 4(ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers),a rounded direct cost of USD 25M is used.The OPEX for intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel and floating CO2

237、 storage unit have been estimated to be similar to the vessels ship management costs.Table ES 4 OPEX estimates Table ES 4 OPEX estimates Annual Operations CostAnnual Operations Cost (Million USD)(Million USD)Concept 1-Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal 5.5 Concept 2-Ship-to-FCSU with intermediate LCO2 rec

238、eiving vessel 11.4 Concept 3 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminal with intermediate LCO2 receiving vessel 10.3 Concept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers 1.0 A high-level breakdown of OPEX estimate for the different concept is detailed in Table ES 5 below.Table ES 5 Breakdown of OPEX estimates Tabl

239、e ES 5 Breakdown of OPEX estimates IRVIRV(MillionMillion USD)USD)F FC CSUSU(MillionMillion USD)USD)OnshoreOnshore(MillionMillion USD)USD)Concept 1Concept 1-$5.54 Concept 2Concept 2$4.74$6.64-Concept 3Concept 3$4.74-$5.54 Concept 4Concept 4-$1.02 Notes:The IRV and FCSU operations costs exclude fuel c

240、osts.Ranking the Operability of Concepts Ranking the Operability of Concepts The operability of each concept was assessed against various criteria,including impact on the host vessels operations,scalability,costs,ease of operation,safety and technology readiness.For this exercise,operability is defi

241、ned as the ability of an offloading concept to achieve a beneficial operation considering the aim of decarbonising marine vessels at scale.The benefits are generally categorised around cost-effectiveness and decarbonisation.Given the influence of the end user on the environmental impact of onboard c

242、arbon capture technology,the applicability of each concept to transfer LCO2 having varying levels of impurity has also been assessed separately.Four end uses were considered in the context of the offloading concepts:Sequestration 95%CO2 purity,Feedstock for synthetic fuels production 95%CO2 purity,P

243、age 33 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Medical use 99.5%CO2 purity,andFood/beverage 99.9%CO2 purity.Concepts operating with LCO2 in bulk(1,2 and 3)are better suited for sequestration and the production of synthetic fuels,and the con

244、cept of ISO tank containers(4)is better suited for offloading of higher grades of CO2.The applicability of the purity level of the LCO2 from the onboard carbon capture system requires an assessment of end use and processing requirements together.For higher purity requirements,the onboard carbon capt

245、ure system will be more complex and will consume more power.If the end use CO2 purity standard is low but still meets onboard processing requirements,it is likely to minimise the impact on the processing equipment onboard the host vessel.The multi-criteria assessment of the LCO2 offloading concepts

246、considered the categories of cost-effectiveness,ease of operation,safety and technology readiness,with results shown in Table ES 6 below.Table ES 6 LCOTable ES 6 LCO2 2 concept operability ranking concept operability ranking Operability Ranking ConceptConcept 1st Concept 2Concept 2 Ship-to-floating

247、COShip-to-floating CO2 2 storage with intermediate storage with intermediate LCOLCO2 2 receiving vessel receiving vessel FCSU with IRV will be able to receive multiple parcels and benefits from the increased flexibility for parcel size and offloading rates from the merchant ship,made possible by the

248、 IRV.This concept enables highest possible offloading rate and also the highest scalability.Concept 3Concept 3 ShipShip-toto-liquid bulk terminal liquid bulk terminal with with i intermediatentermediate LCOLCO2 2 receivingreceiving vesselvessel Bulk terminal with intermediate vessel is tied with Con

249、cept 2,where advantages of onshore storage over the FCSU concept are cancelled out by the additional complexity of jetty transfer and its availability.2nd Concept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containersConcept 4 Ship-to-terminal with ISO tank containers Offloading ISO tank containers is more fle

250、xible and has minimal infrastructure requirements.However,its lack of scalability results in it being a less favourable option compared to Concepts 2 and 3.The main opportunity for this concept will be in the pilot stage.3rd Concept 1 Ship-to-liquid bulk terminalConcept 1 Ship-to-liquid bulk termina

251、l Simpler offloading than concepts 2 and 3 due to a smaller number of stages.However,OPEX is relatively high compared to other concepts in terms of cost per unit of CO2 offloaded.This concept relies on jetty availability and the jetty opportunity cost makes it less favourable.Although not ranked the

252、 highest as a scalable solution for the mid-term(five to 10 years range),concept 4 is the most pilot ready concept today.However,the lack of scalability could disqualify it as a potential pilot.The barriers posed by scalability versus requirement for proof of concept should be evaluated prior to con

253、ducting any pilot.Policy and Regulations Regime Policy and Regulations Regime The availability of a regulatory framework for offloading LCO2 from ships is essential for the inclusion of the onboard captured CO2 in the carbon capture usage and sequestration(CCUS)supply chain,and its seamless transfer

254、 to onshore and offshore storage and/or utilisation facilities.Page 34 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation The regulatory and policy frameworks of several countries related to CCS were investigated and reviewed.The countries were select

255、ed based on their potential for early infrastructure development for offloading LCO2 and included the United Kingdom(UK),the European Union(EU),the United States of America(USA),Singapore,China,Japan,Korea and Australia.Additionally,the regulatory picture at a domestic level for the Netherlands,Denm

256、ark,Iceland and Norway(as part of European Economic Area(EEA)was also explored to provide additional context.The intent of the review was to explore the regulatory readiness,either enabling or restricting LCO2 offloading from ships.Furthermore,key issues at an international level were summarised,wit

257、h the overall aim of identifying regimes that would allow this operation to take place within their national jurisdiction.This review and investigation were conducted using the most up-to-date information available as of January 2024.For each country/region the following was explored:Linkage to the

258、international policy and regulatory landscape,specifically the London Convention andLondon Protocol governing CO2 transfer between countries.The general CCUS policy landscape which could provide enabling conditions and pathways for newregulation and any considerations of maritime transport of CO2 or

259、 onboard captured LCO2.A high-level picture of regulation for Health,Safety and Environment(HSE)risk management,pertinent to LCO2,noting this is often a complex landscape that would require project-specificconsiderations.The policy and regulatory landscape for offloading onboard captured LCO2 is cur

260、rently immature.Notably,MARPOL Annex VI addresses air pollution from ships but does not account for CO2 as a waste stream.IMO guidelines on lifecycle GHG intensity of marine fuels(LCA guidelines)account for OCCS in the tank-to-wake(TtW)emissions factor calculations,but the methodological guidance on

261、 how the captured CO2 is accounted for is yet to be developed.Furthermore,requirements for port reception facilities for LCO2 offloading need to be established.While the London Protocol provides a regulatory framework for CO2 transport and related carbon credits between countries,it presently does n

262、ot cover the transfer of CO2 captured in international waters to a country.Potentially,future amendments to the London Protocol could support the offloading of LCO2 captured in international waters.The lack of robust regulatory frameworks and policies may lead to a delay in the development,implement

263、ation and commercialisation of OCCS.On the other hand,the EU Emissions Trading System(ETS)applicable to maritime transport from January 2024 and IMOs potential implementation in 2027 of a market-based measure may incentivise OCCS adoption and LCO2 offloading infrastructure development.The EU ETS put

264、s a carbon price on CO2 emissions and shipping companies will need to surrender EU Allowances,to cover 40%of their fleets 2024 TtWCO2 emissions.By 2027,they will need to surrender allowances for all emissions.It is not needed to surrender allowances if the CO2 is captured onboard and permanently sto

265、red or utilised in accordance with the legislation requirements.The IMOs potential market-based measure incorporating a technical element and an economic element will also put a carbon price on CO2 emissions.Though the specifics of the scheme are yet to be worked out,it is expected to be in place fr

266、om 2027 onwards.Some countries,including the UK,USA,and select European nations,have demonstrated a more active focus on CCUS policy,potentially leading to enabling regulatory,policy,and commercial conditions for offloading onboard-captured CO2 over time.Generally,in the short term(up to 5 years fro

267、m now),CCUS policy largely concentrates on sequestering captured CO2,and in the medium term(between 5 and 10 years from now),on receiving bulk imports of CO2.There could be an opportunity to influence policymakers to consider including onboard-captured CO2 as part of this picture.Two regions(China a

268、nd Page 35 Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation South Korea)have regulatory frameworks under development for international transport of captured CO2.The regulatory landscape concerning HSE considerations related to offloading is intricat

269、e and often site-specific.Nevertheless,the existing HSE framework in many instances is likely to accommodate offloading requirements.While HSE considerations could impact the feasibility of offloading onboard captured CO2,this aspect needs careful assessment for individual projects.Concept Study to

270、Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 36 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation 1.Introduction to Liquid CO2 and Onboard Carbon Capture Systems1.1 OverviewThe revised 2023 International Maritime Organization(IMO)greenhouse gas(GHG)strategy identifiesrevised levels of ambition for the inte

271、rnational shipping sector:to reduce carbon intensity by at least 40%by 2030,compared to 2008 and to reach net-zero GHG emissions by or around,i.e.,close to,2050.Theselevels of ambitions are envisioned to be attained through the implementation of energy-efficient shipdesigns and the adoption of zero

272、or near-zero emission fuels,technologies and energy sources.Reducing zero emissions from ships requires either replacing the fossil fuels powering the majority of theshipping fleet with zero or near-zero carbon alternative fuels,or mitigating the emissions produced bythese fuels,or a combination of

273、both pathways to reach the ultimate goal of net-zero emissions.There has been significant progress in the development of viable zero or near-zero emission fuels for theshipping industry,such as methanol,ammonia(NH3)hydrogen and biofuels.Despite their viability andtechnological readiness,widespread d

274、eployment of these low-carbon fuels to cover the entire shippingfleet will take considerable time,and converting existing vessels can be prohibitively expensive.Urgency exists within the shipping industry to adopt solutions aligned with the IMO GHG strategymilestones.Onboard carbon capture and stora

275、ge(OCCS)emerges as a short to mid-term solution toreduce tank-to-wake(TtW)emissions while the low-carbon fuels are deployed at scale on ships and canbe the potential differentiator that facilitates the maritime industry in achieving net-zero greenhouse gasemissions.While carbon capture and storage(C

276、CS)has been a mature technology onshore for over 50 years,theconcept of OCCS for ships has just gained momentum as a viable approach for the shipping industry tomeet its carbon emissions reduction targets.OCCS has recently reached a technological readiness levelthat allows immediate extension of the

277、 existing asset lifetime within the evolving regulatory framework.Successful adoption of OCCS hinges on establishing compelling economic cases for various stakeholdersin the supply chain.Regulations must be updated to address practical deployment challenges.Substantial infrastructure scaling and inv

278、estment are needed,and consensus is required on a limitednumber of onboard and offloading solutions to establish industry standards that generate the necessaryeconomies of scale and scope for economic viability.This study aims to explore and define the conditions for handling and storing of captured

279、 CO2 onboard,as well as its offloading as liquefied carbon dioxide(LCO2)from ships to reception facilities.Thesefacilities may include shore terminals,floating CO2 storage units,or LCO2 receiving vessels.The effectiveness of OCCS as a decarbonisation pathway in the maritime sector depends on success

280、fullyintegrating the OCCS onboard ships,and more importantly,connecting the offloaded LCO2 to theonshore carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)value chain.1.2 Characteristics of CO2CO2 is a colourless and odourless gas,and being fully oxidised is neither reactive nor flammable.1CO2,depending o

281、n the temperature and pressure conditions,can exist in either gas,liquid or solid phasesor as a supercritical fluid.Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 37 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation At atmospheric pressure conditions,CO2 can exist only in the gaseous or soli

282、d phases,and it means that:At constant atmospheric pressure conditions,with a rise in temperature above-78.1 C,CO2 from solid phase transforms directly into the gaseous phase without entering the liquid phase,in a process known as sublimation.Conversely,at constant atmospheric pressure conditions wi

283、th a drop in temperature below-78.1 C,CO2 transforms from gaseous state to solid state forming dry ice,in a process known as deposition.Figure Figure 1 1.1 1 COCO2 2 phasephase diagramdiagram (adapted)(adapted)2 2 CO2 exists as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature and pressure of 31.

284、1C and 73.8 absolute pressure in bar(bara).In the supercritical phase,CO2 exhibits the density of a liquid and viscosity of a gas.The triple point for CO2 is where the three phases of gas,liquid and solid coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium,and these conditions occur at a pressure of 5.18 bara and

285、temperature of-56.6 C CO2 can be liquefied at various pressures and temperatures between the triple point(5.18 bara,-56.6 C)and the critical point(73.8 bara,31.1 C)along or above the liquid-gas curve shown in blue in figure 1.1.1.3 Liquid CO2 Properties In order to carry out the offloading process a

286、ccording to the concepts presented in Chapter 3,the properties of liquid CO2 need to be understood for safe and efficient offloading.The following section outlines properties that a designer should consider when specifying equipment and procedures for handling of liquid CO2.Compressible Liquid Conce

287、pt Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 38 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Storage and offload of CO2 must be carried out in its liquid state for efficient and economic operations as a result of its high-density conditions.As observed in Figure 1.1,the liquid region of CO

288、2 lies within a defined temperature and pressure range.The target conditions during storage and offload of liquid CO2 may be low pressure(LP)condition(5.7 to 10.0 bara at-54.3C to-40.1C)or at medium pressure(MP)condition(14.0 to 19.0 bara at-30.5C to-21.2C).Targeting these ranges ensures safe operat

289、ions away from the triple-point condition,mitigate dry ice formation whilst retaining liquid CO2 at high-density.A summary of the physical and chemical properties of CO2 is presented in Table 1.1.T Table able 1 1.1 1 COCO2 2 p physical and hysical and c chemical hemical p propertiesroperties Propert

290、yProperty ValueValue Molecular Molecular w weighteight 44.01 g/mol SublimationSublimation p pointoint -78.5 C Triple point pressureTriple point pressure 5.18 bara Triple point temperatureTriple point temperature -56.8 C Density,liquid at Density,liquid at 5.7 to 10 bara at 5.7 to 10 bara at-54.3C to

291、 54.3C to-40.1C40.1C 1170 1117 kg/m3 Density,liquid at Density,liquid at 14 14 toto 19 bara at 19 bara at-30.5C to 30.5C to-21.2C21.2C 1078 1037 kg/m3 Density,liquid at 18Density,liquid at 18 toto 24 bar24 bara a at at-2 25 5CC to to-2 20 0 C C 1032 1057 kg/m3 Specific Specific g gravity ravity 1.53

292、 Solubility in waterSolubility in water 0.148 g/100 g Flammable Flammable No 1.3.1 Physical Properties CO2 is a colourless and odourless gas at normal temperature and pressure(NTP)conditions of 20C and 1 atm.CO2 gas is heavier than air,with a specific gravity of 1.53(air=1).Therefore,it tends to acc

293、umulate at ground level when released into the environment.Due to its odourless properties,it is hard to detect CO2 during leak scenarios.The occupational exposure limit for CO2 is around 5,000 parts per million(ppm)over an eight-hour work shift.CO2 becomes a solid at temperatures below-78.5C at atm

294、ospheric pressure through deposition and is referred to as dry ice.Liquid CO2 cannot occur under atmospheric pressure and only exists at pressures above 5.18 bara,below the critical point temperature of 31.1C and above the triple point temperature of-56.8C.For the four concepts presented in chapter

295、3,liquid CO2 should be handled and transported between -20.0C and-54.3C depending on the mode of transportation and preferred pressure conditions.Handling and transporting liquid CO2 presents several challenges due to its unique physical properties.Maintaining the required low temperatures between-2

296、0.0C and-54.3C necessitates the use of specialised,thermally insulated equipment to prevent phase changes,where liquid CO2 can change from Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 39 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation liquid to gas or solid.Phase change can lead to catas

297、trophic events during offloading which include over-pressurisation of piping systems during liquid to gas or liquid to solid.The materials of construction for storage,transport vessels and piping systems must be able to withstand these extreme temperatures and pressures.In addition,where liquid CO2

298、is stored under high pressure,any breach in the containment system can lead to a high-pressure release,creating a jet of cold liquid CO2 that can cause cold burns if it comes into contact with exposed skin and potentially propelling fragments of the containment system.Furthermore,as CO2 is heavier t

299、han air and odourless,it can accumulate at ground level,posing a risk to safety.CO2 is not flammable,but it poses significant risks due to its asphyxiating properties.Concentrations of CO2 above 5%vol/vol in air can be harmful to humans,and concentrations above 12%can be immediately dangerous to lif

300、e and health.This calls for the use of specific detection systems and regular monitoring to ensure occupational exposure limits are not exceeded.Additionally,the risk of CO2 freezing requires careful consideration in the design and operation of equipment to prevent blockages and potential damage,as

301、well as ensuring personnel who are carrying out offloading operations use appropriate personal protective equipment(PPE).Lastly,the environmental impact of CO2,a potent greenhouse gas,necessitates robust measures to prevent leaks and mitigate their effects,reinforcing the need for high-integrity mat

302、erials and designs in all aspects of LCO2 operations.1.3.1.1 Density The density of CO2 is an important factor in the determination of the containment volume required for the storage capacity onboard the ship.A small variation in the pressure and/or temperature can cause significant change in the de

303、nsity of CO2.Table 1.2 describes the variation of CO2 density with changes in temperature and/or pressure taking the transport properties(15.0 barg,-30 C)in the Northern Lights Project as reference 3.Table Table 1 1.2 2 Change inChange in storagestorage volume as the consequence of increasing COvolu

304、me as the consequence of increasing CO2 2 storage prestorage pressure ssure 4 4 COCO2 2 pressure pressure barbarg g COCO2 2 temperature temperature CC COCO2 2 densitydensity kg/mkg/m3 3 COCO2 2 phasephase Required CORequired CO2 2 storage volume mstorage volume m3 3 1 1 15 1.84 Gas Increase by 99.8%

305、5050 25 131 Gas Increase by 87.8%7373 33 264 Gas Increase by 75.5%7373 30 535 Liquid Increase by 50.3%5050 14 827 Liquid Increase by 23.1%7 7 -50 1152 Liquid Reduction by 7.1%1515 -30 1076 Liquid Reference case barg Gauge pressure in bar The low density of CO2 in the gaseous phase at atmospheric pre

306、ssure precludes it as an option for onboard storage due to the large containment volumes that would be required(approximately twice the reference case).Although the gas can be compressed to increase its density,the containment volumes required still place the option at infeasible levels.Concept Stud

307、y to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 40 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation The density of solid CO2 is approximately 1500 kg/m3,and although it provides the best containment volume benefit,it is deemed infeasible mainly due to low temperatures involved,and complex loading and un

308、loading procedures.Liquefaction of CO2 into liquid CO2 provides the optimal balance in the fluid density towards the storage,handling and offloading of captured CO2 onboard ships.CO2 can be liquefied at various pressures and temperatures between the triple point(5.18 bara,-56.6 C)and the critical po

309、int(73.8 bara,31.1 C).When the temperature and pressure conditions approach the triple point,the risk of solidification and dry ice formation can increase especially during transport and offloading of liquid CO2.To put the changes in liquid CO2 density into perspective,Table 1.3 illustrates the dens

310、ity of liquid CO2 at pressures and temperatures between the triple point and critical point.Table Table 1 1.3 3 LCOLCO2 2 d density relative to pressure and ensity relative to pressure and temperatutemperature re 5 5 Pressure Pressure Temperature(C)Temperature(C)Density(kg/mDensity(kg/m3 3)5.18 5.18

311、 barabara -56.656.6 1176(Triple Point)(Triple Point)6 barg-53.5 1167 7 barg-50.0 1152 8 barg-47.0 1143 9 barg-43.0 1128 10 barg-41.0 1120 15 barg-30.0 1076 73.873.8 barabara 31.131.1 4 46868(Critical Point)(Critical Point)Note:bara=barg+atmospheric pressure 1.3.2 Chemical Properties One carbon dioxi

312、de molecule comprises 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms,with the chemical formula CO2 and a molecular weight of 44.01 g/mol.Liquid CO2 is essentially CO2(99%purity)without any impurities.CO2 dissolved in water forms an acidic solution.It is moderately soluble in water,with an equilibrium solubility o

313、f about 1.45 g/L at 25C due to the polar nature of the carbon dioxide molecule.CO2 does not react with or corrode most common materials.However,when dissolved in water,carbonic acid is formed which is corrosive.CO2 does not exhibit stability or biofouling issues during storage as it is a stable comp

314、ound and toxic to most living organisms.CO2 is a greenhouse gas,and operational leakages that occur during production,processing and transportation can contribute to a rise in GHG emissions.One of the key criteria for the design of LCO2 storage,handling and offload systems is to minimise operational

315、 leakages,which can significantly contribute to climate change.Implementing advanced leak detection systems and regular maintenance schedules,as well as specifying appropriate manifold and interfaces between offloading equipment can help minimise these leaks.Handling and transporting CO2 necessitate

316、s careful consideration of its chemical properties and potential environmental impacts.For instance,in order to manage a potential corrosive environment through the formation of carbonic acid,materials such as stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant alloys should be used in the construction of

317、storage and transport equipment.Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 41 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation The solubility of water in CO2,which increases with pressure and temperature,could lead to unexpected dissolution under certain operational conditions.Effective

318、 process control and robust dehydration measures in the capture process may be implemented to manage water content and mitigate this risk.To further ensure safety and efficiency,pressure and temperature monitoring systems can be installed.These systems work in tandem with the process control and deh

319、ydration facilities to maintain optimal conditions and prevent CO2 dissolution.Given the toxicity of CO2 to most living organisms,stringent safety measures such as regular leak detection tests,emergency response training,and the use of PPE are crucial.Maintaining high purity of liquid CO2(99%)requir

320、es rigorous quality control measures,such as regular sampling and analysis.The stability of liquid CO2 necessitates continuous monitoring of storage conditions to prevent unexpected reactions or issues.For example,temperature and pressure control systems can be used to maintain the CO2 in its liquid

321、 state and prevent phase changes that could lead to equipment failure or safety risks.1.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties Liquid CO2 is transported and transferred as a pressurised liquid at MP conditions(at pressure of 14.0 to 19.0 bara at-30.5C to-21.2C)or LP conditions(at pressure of 5.7 to 10 bara at

322、-54.3C to-40.1C).The storage conditions for liquid CO2 at LP or MP conditions results in multiple offloading configurations.Therefore,understanding its thermodynamic properties is crucial when developing a LCO2 offloading guideline.The pressure-temperature chart for CO2,Figure 1.1,illustrates the ph

323、ases at which CO2 exists at various temperatures and pressures.The process of evaporation occurs as heat is added,moving horizontally from the sublimation point through the triple point to the critical point.When heat is added at constant pressure,a phase change occurs,and the resulting evaporated g

324、as is known as“Boil-off Gas”(BOG).Phase change can also occur if the pressure is reduced without adding heat,leading to the instantaneous evaporation of a portion of the mass flow,known as flash gas.Additionally,if the pressure is reduced below its triple point,a phase change from the liquid to gase

325、ous state will occur.If both pressure and temperature are reduced below triple point to a condition above the solid gas curve,the liquid phase will change to solid phase and dry ice will form.It should be noted that presence of small amounts of impurities can also significantly alter pressure-temper

326、ature phase equilibria and two-phase regions.Minimal concentrations of impurities of hydrogen(H2)and nitrogen(N2)can increase vapour pressure making storage and offloading unfeasible due to elevated bubble-point pressures at low temperatures.A summary of the effects of impurities on vapour pressure

327、is summarised in Table 1.4.Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 42 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation Table Table 1 1.4 4 Effects of impurities on equilibrium pressure of COEffects of impurities on equilibrium pressure of CO2 2 mixtures at mixtures at-50C 50C 7 7 Mix

328、tureMixture Vapour pressureVapour pressure (bar(bara a)100%CO2 6.7 bara CO2 mixture 0.05 mol%N2 7.0 bara CO2 mixture 0.1 mol%N2 7.3 bara CO2 mixture 0.5 mol%N2 9.7 bara CO2 mixture 0.05 mol%O2 6.9 bara CO2 mixture 0.05 mol%H2 10.3 bara CO2 mixture 0.05 mol%CO 7.0 bara CO2 mixture 0.05 mol%Ar 6.8 bar

329、a Note:N2 Nitrogen,O2 Oxygen,H2 Hydrogen,CO Carbon Monoxide,Ar Argon 1.4 Hazards Associated with CO2 1.4.1 Classification of CO2 CO2 is classified as Class 2(Gases)and Division 2.2(non-flammable,non-toxic gases)based on the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods.It is assigned a UN c

330、ode of 2187.Based on Regulation(EC)No.1272/2008 on Classification,Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures(CLP Regulations),CO2 is aligned with existing European Union(EU)legislation to the United Nations Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals(GHS).The haza

331、rd ratings for CO2 provided by National Fire Protection Association(NFPA)are shown in Table 1.5.The flammability rating is 0 indicating it not being a fire hazard,the instability rating is 0 indicating it being stable and a special rating indicating it being a simple asphyxiant.However,the health ha

332、zard rating of 3 underscores the need for safety measures such as the use of PPE,regular safety training,and emergency response plans.As CO2 is a simple asphyxiant,adequate ventilation and monitoring systems are essential,especially in enclosed spaces,to prevent oxygen displacement and potential suf

333、focation risks.Despite CO2s fire hazard rating of 0,LCO2 should still be handled with caution.In the event of an external fire adjacent to LCO2 storage,its rapid expansion and oxygen displacement can create dangerous conditions,necessitating the inclusion of LCO2 considerations in fire safety plans.Concept Study to Offload Onboard Captured Carbon Dioxide Page 43 Global Centre for Maritime Decarbon