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1、Exploring the future of vegetable oils01Exploring the future of vegetable oilsOil crop implications Fats,forests,forecasts,and futuresINTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATUREE.Meijaard,M.Virah-Sawmy,H.Newing,V.Ingram,M.J.M.Holle,T.Pasmans,S.Omar,H.van den Hombergh,N.Unus,A.Fosch,H.Ferraz de Ar

2、ruda,J.Allen,K.Tsagarakis,M.C.Ogwu,A.Diaz-Ismael,J.Hance,Y.Moreno,S.OKeeffe,J.Slavin,M.Slingerland,E.M.Meijaard,N.Macfarlane,R.Jimenez,S.A.Wich,D.SheilAbout IUCNIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations.It provides public,private and non-governme

3、ntal organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,harnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member

4、organisations and some 16,000 experts.It is a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,tools and international standards.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stake

5、holders including governments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,local communities,Indigenous peoples organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development.Working with many partners and supporters,IUCN implements a large

6、and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide.Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities,these projects work to reverse habitat loss,restore ecosystems and improve peoples well-being.www.iucn.orghttps:/ the future of vegetable oilsOil crop implication

7、s Fats,forests,forecasts,and futuresE.Meijaard,M.Virah-Sawmy,H.Newing,V.Ingram,M.J.M.Holle,T.Pasmans,S.Omar,H.van den Hombergh,N.Unus,A.Fosch,H.Ferraz de Arruda,J.Allen,K.Tsagarakis,M.C.Ogwu,A.Diaz-Ismael,J.Hance,Y.Moreno,S.OKeeffe,J.Slavin,M.Slingerland,E.M.Meijaard,N.Macfarlane,R.Jimenez,S.A.Wich,

8、D.SheilThe designation of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,o

9、r concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs

10、,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Government of France and the French Development Agency(AFD);Ministry of Environment,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);the Sw

11、edish International Development Cooperation Agency(Sida);the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC);and the United States Department of State.This publication has been made possible in part by funding from Soremartec SA and Soremartec Italia,Ferrero Group,in the frame of the Sustainable N

12、utrition Scientific Board.Published by:IUCN,Gland,Switzerland in collaboration with the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board(SNSB)Produced by:IUCN Oil Crops Task Force&Sustainable Nutrition Scientific BoardCopyright:2024 IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Rep

13、roduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior writt

14、en permission of the copyright holder.Citation:Meijaard,E.,Virah-Sawmy,M.,Newing,H.S.,Ingram,V.,Holle,M.J.M.,Pasmans,T.,Omar,S.,van den Hombergh,H.,Unus,N.,Fosch,A.,Ferraz de Arruda,H.,Allen,J.,Tsagarakis,K.,Ogwu,M.C.,Diaz-Ismael,A.,Hance,J.,Moreno,Y.,OKeeffe,S.,Slavin,J.,Slingerland,M.,Meijaard,E.M

15、.,Macfarlane,N.,Jimenez,R.,Wich,S.,Sheil,D.(2024).Exploring the future of vegetable oils.Oil crop implications Fats,forests,forecasts,and futures.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,and SNSB.ISBN:978-2-8317-2271-9(PDF)DOI:https:/doi.org/10.2305/KFJA1910Cover design:Abiyasa AdigunaLayout,graphics:Abiyasa AdigunaE

16、xploring the future of vegetable oilsiiiContentsKey insights,actions&takeaways Foreword The future of vegetable oils Foreword The role of vegetable oils in sustainable nutrition Main narratives Future scenarios Executive summary Recommendations Contributors Acknowledgements Conflict of interest disc

17、losure List with tables,figures,boxes GlossaryChapter 1:Introduction1.1 The IUCN Oil Crops Task Force 1.2 The Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board1.3 The impact and importance of vegetable oils:a comprehensive analysis1.4 Vegetable oils and international agreements 1.5 MethodologyChapter 2:Vegetab

18、le oils,their global importance and key sustainability issues2.1 Background2.1.1 Why use oils and fats?2.1.2 Defining oils and fats2.1.3 The history of oil production and use2.2 Oil crop fundamentals2.2.1 Ecology of oil crops2.2.2 Where are oil crops grown?2.2.3 What were the major expansion phases

19、of different oil crops?2.2.4 Crop yields,field sizes and land requirements2.3 Vegetable oil use and demand2.3.1 Edible oil characteristics2.3.2 Other oil uses and the role of meal2.3.3 Biofuels2.3.4 Interchangeability between different oils2.3.5 Growth in vegetable oil demand2.3.6 Why are most veget

20、able oils so cheap?Chapter 3:Food systems,value chains and transformations3.1 Production,trade,and consumption modalities inherent in vegetable oils 3.2 Value chains3.3 Transitioning towards resilient vegetable oil systemsChapter 4:Impacts and outcomes4.1 The environmental outcomes 4.1.1 Crops and l

21、oss of natural ecosystems and their services4.1.2 Biodiversity threat abatement and ecological restorationvi viii xiii xvi xx xxii xxiii xxvii xxviii xxix xxx xxxiii11 124 6888111114141517212323262829303036364045494949 53Exploring the future of vegetable oilsiv4.1.3 Agricultural intensification and

22、annual and perennials oil crops 4.1.4 Fertiliser needs4.1.5 Soil health4.1.6 Invasive species4.1.7 Water needs and impacts4.1.8 Oil crops and their climate impacts4.1.9 Examples of improved oil crop management4.1.10 Conclusions on environmental outcomes4.2 The social impacts of oil crop production4.

23、2.1 Introduction4.2.2 Impacts of land conversion4.2.3 Impacts of agrochemical use4.2.4 Impacts on poverty and livelihoods4.2.5 Impacts on local equity4.2.6 Impacts of different forms of smallholder organisations and support on rights and livelihoods4.2.7 Impacts on labour rights4.3 Nutritional and h

24、ealth contexts4.3.1 Oils and fats as part of a healthy diet 4.3.2 Impacts on food security,nutritional quality,and obesity4.3.3 Food nutrition labelling4.3.4 Conclusions on nutritional and health contexts4.4 Perceptions of oils and their impactsChapter 5:Global trade and governance5.1 Global trade5.

25、2 The role of power and vested interests in trade5.3 The role of finance5.4 An overview of key international standards,policies,and regulations5.5 Multi-stakeholder Voluntary Sustainability Standards Limitations and opportunities5.5.1 Voluntary standards in relation to mandatory standards and govern

26、ment control5.5.2 Relative benefits of Voluntary Sustainability Standards5.5.3 The importance of Voluntary Sustainability Standards for investors5.6 Mandatory blending and sustainability for biodiesel5.7 The EUDR lifts and lowers the bar for sustainability5.8 Conclusions on global trade and governan

27、ceChapter 6:Key future developments6.1 Changing technology and practices in production6.2 Future consumption6.3 Geopolitical trends6.4 Climate change6.5 RegulationsChapter 7:Scenarios,unknowns and choices7.1 Scenarios7.2 What we do not but should know7.3 Choices and recommendationsEndnotesAppendix55

28、606162646667707171747680848687898990949697102102105108110111111112115118119120122122127130134137142142144146151177Exploring the future of vegetable oilsvAn intensive production landscape growing three dominant vegetable oil crops corn,sunflower,and soy,by ArtSvitlyna,2019,Adobe Stock.Exploring the f

29、uture of vegetable oilsviThere is no good or bad oil crop.There are only good and bad practices.Key insightsKey actionsPlanning and growing all oil crops to minimise harm and maximise benefits to people and the planet.Empowered by clear and reliable information on the impact of oil crops,consumers c

30、an make informed choices that benefit themselves,the environment,and global communities.Governments,producers,traders,and retailers all have a role to play in providing the transparency consumers need to make informed choices.Good practicesGood choicesExploring the future of vegetable oilsviExplorin

31、g the future of vegetable oilsviiGlobal significance Key insightsOil crops use 37%of all agricultural land.Thus,their future significantly influences global land use,prosperity,health,climate,and the environment.Demand for oil is growing,and thus the pressure of land for growing oil crops.Government

32、s,businesses,and investors should make vegetable oils a crucial policy,cross-cutting food,energy,agriculture,land use,and biodiversity consideration.They must ensure that vegetable oil demand is met on existing agricultural land and respecthumanrights.ConsiderationsPractices matterNo vegetable oil c

33、rop is intrinsically good or bad.Whether a crop is good,bad,better,or worse,depends on how and where they are produced,financed,traded,speculated upon,and consumed.Consumers and investors should demand a rights-based approach,transparency,and accountability.Where expansion is needed,it should not ha

34、ppen in natural ecosystems or negatively impact people.Preferences and culinary traditions need to be acknowledged.Transparency for informed decisionsObjective guidance for oil consumers and investors is lacking.Improving traceability and transparency enables informed decision-making and helps hold

35、producers,investors,and buyers accountable.There has to be more transparency in vegetable oil systems.This includes making issues that are often overlooked more transparent and disseminating a more nuanced view of impacts from vegetable oil systems.Responsible governance for sustainabilityResponsibl

36、e governance in oil crop production requires a combination of legislation and Voluntary Sustainability Standards(VSS)to reduce harm.Strong auditing and assurance systems are important for both mandatory and voluntary governance systems.Key insightsConsiderationsKey takeawaysExploring the future of v

37、egetable oilsviiiForewordhis report explores what we need to do to improve the environmental,socio-economic,and nutritional outcomes of vegetable oil production.Most vegetable oils are extracted from plant seeds and fruits,constituting a distinct group of commodities with wide-ranging applications,i

38、ncluding cooking oils,cosmetics,and biofuels.Soybean,palm,sunflower,rapeseed,and coconut oils are the most widely used globally,but many other oils are in local use in different parts of the world(Figure 1).This report discusses the production,trade,and consumption of vegetable oils,which are associ

39、ated with various concerns and challenges.Globally,vegetable oil crops account for over one-third of all agricultural lands and the current production value of vegetable oils is estimated at over US$265 billion,annually.To support growing demand,the areas allocated for oil crops continue to expand.W

40、hile this expansion appears necessary to sustain our growing global population,it also drives biodiversity decline and climate change.Although there are major economic benefits,the social impacts from vegetable oil production are profound.There are serious concerns around human rights and livelihood

41、s in production environments.Respecting rights,feeding people,and sustaining a biodiverse,productive,and liveable environment is the challenge we face.Humans need fats.Fats constitute 2535%of adult daily energy needs,and also provide essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins.Nearly 800 million

42、people(10%of the global population)do not get enough fat to satisfy their daily needs a concerning fat gap(see Glossary).Closing this gap is a vital global task.Simultaneously,among many wealthier consumers,Soybeans,prized for their high oil content,yield seeds that can be extracted to produce soybe

43、an oil,a widely used cooking oil and essential ingredient in various food products,by watkung,2019,Adobe Stock.Jon Paul Rodrguez,Chair of IUCN Species Survival CommissionKristen Walker,Chair of IUCN Commission on Environmental,Economic and Social PolicyAngela Andrade,Chair of IUCN Commission on Ecos

44、ystem Managementobesity and related health concerns are increasing,in part due to overconsumption of fats.These divergent situations require distinct solutions.Few oil crops are solely used to produce vegetable oil.For example,soy and maize are predominantly used for food and animal feed,while rapes

45、eed and palm oil are common feedstock for biofuel production.Any forecasts of future needs and impacts need to consider these different uses and their alternatives for a comprehensive assessment.The future of vegetable oilsExploring the future of vegetable oilsixPerceptions of vegetable oils reporte

46、d in scientific literature and global media are primarily shaped by international trade and Western consumption patterns,with a focus on globally dominant crops like oil palm,soybean,rapeseed,and sunflower.However,to fully inform inclusive policies,other oil crops must also be considered.These other

47、 oil crops are often neglected in global analyses and tend to be less well known with many remaining overlooked,yet continue to play significant roles in local diets,cultures,and economies.To improve the environmental,socio-economic,and nutritional outcomes of vegetable oils,a comprehensive approach

48、 is necessary,considering the multiple values associated with lands that produce these oils.Concentrating solely on individual crops and their oil production provides a narrow perspective that overlooks the larger context of the vegetable oil industry.No crop is good or bad in and of itself,and much

49、 depends on the contexts,including where and how it is planted,owned,managed,traded and consumed.The production and consumption of vegetable oils occur within distinct systems that are defined more by factors,such as production scale,trade,consumption patterns,and the specific landscape within which

50、 these systems operate,rather than the particular crops within them.Lastly,it is important to set goals.The future of vegetable oil crops should align with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,the goals and targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity,human rights frameworks,and

51、 other relevant global sustainability pursuits.Important decisions lie ahead for the future of these vegetable oil systems,encompassing their complexities and wider relationships.While we,in the IUCN,may not have all the answers,we possess valuable knowledge.By seeking commonalities,identifying pitf

52、alls to avoid,and exploring options,we can inform people and organisations that are addressing the challenge of meeting global vegetable oil demands.Palm oil,derived from the fruit of the oil palm,is a versatile and widely used vegetable oil but negative media coverage has resulted in mixed percepti

53、ons from consumers on its use and application,by alenthien,2019,Adobe Stock.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxA visual guide to the world of vegetable oilsVegetable oils come in a diverse array of shapes and colours,each favoured for its distinct flavour profiles,nutritional attributes,and culi

54、nary applications across various regions that reflect the cultural preferences and traditions they are cherished in.PALM OIL(INCL.PALM KERNEL OIL)Palm oil stands as the most widely consumed vegetable oil globally,with Indonesia,Malaysia,Thailand,and Nigeria being its biggest producers.It also plays

55、an important role in many traditional African cuisines.Oil palm fruit bunchPalm oil is derived from the outer parts of the fruitSOYBEAN OILAs the second most consumed vegetable oil,soybean oil is known for its neutral taste and widespread use in processed foods.Soybean oil is extracted from the seed

56、sRAPESEED OILVersatile rapeseed(canola)oil ranks third,valued for its heart-healthy qualities and mild flavour.SUNFLOWER OILCelebrated for its light taste and vitamin E,shines as a prime option for culinary creations.OLIVE OILHighly valued in Mediterranean cultures for its rich flavour and health be

57、nefits.COTTONSEED OILWith its neutral flavour,it is commonly used in processed foods due to its stability and affordability.Global distribution of vegetable oilsNote:the icon placements provide a general sense of their locations on the map rather than pinpointing specific parts of the countries.NPal

58、m kernel oil derived from the kernelFigure 1 The worlds main oil crops A visual guide to the world of vegetable oils.Source:Data compiled by the report editors.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxiGROUNDNUT OILIts distinctive nutty taste makes it a popular choice for stir-fries and deep-frying ap

59、plications.MAIZE OILHas a mild flavour and is often used in cooking and baking,making it a versatile option.COCONUT OILCherished for its tropical sweetness,adds a unique flavour and aroma to cooking.SESAME OILWith its rich nutty taste,it is a staple in Asian cooking as a touch to enhance flavours.SA

60、FFLOWER OILIts high smoke point is valued for frying and sauting while maintaining the dishs flavours.LINSEED OILRich in omega-3 fatty acids,it is typically used as a dietary supplement.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxiiField of flax flowers,the source of linseed,which is used to produce lins

61、eed oil,in Wiltshire,UK,by Ruud Morijn,2020,Shutterstock.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxiiiForewordhis report makes an important contribution to understanding the meaning and implications of sustainable nutrition,a powerful concept at the heart of our scientific boards mission.We study this

62、topic at the nexus of food production,the environment in which this occurs,the people in that environment,and the nutritional and health impacts on consumers through the lens of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence.By pulling together relevant information from socio-economic,environmental,nutritiona

63、l,and social perception angles,the current report identifies key unknowns that can become important focal points for our Artificial Intelligence and Big Data studies.The concept of sustainable nutrition aims to be a driving force for healthy,nutritious,and sustainable food solutions.Humanity is faci

64、ng a quadrilemma:to produce more food,ensure its nutritional adequacy,avoid negative social impacts,and avoid the expansion of cultivated lands at the expense of natural environments.These complex issues cannot be solved in isolation.The need for a new approach is evident:one that optimises health a

65、nd nutritional outcomes,while effectively restoring the key ecosystems and farming livelihoods on which humanity depends.Solving this problem could make an important contribution to help fix our global food system.The recognition in this report that oils and fats are essential in healthy diets,and t

66、hat many people in the world experience a fat gap,is important.We know that the global population is increasing and,therefore,Edible oils,such as olive oil,are a source of dietary fats,which are an essential nutritional component of a balanced diet,by Africa Studio,2014,Adobe Stock.Professor Ranaan

67、Shamir,Chair of the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Boardfat gaps will continue to grow unless more fats can be produced and brought to those most vulnerable to undernutrition.At the same,overconsumption of fats,especially in ultra-processed foods,is a growing societal problem that needs to be addr

68、essed.In this tricky interplay between increasing production for some consumers and reducing consumption by others,the current report finds broad patterns of how this can be achieved while minimising negative environmental and social impacts.One significant concern identified by this report is the i

69、nadequate state of nutritional and health science related to vegetable oils,both as products and ingredients.This deficiency renders the resulting health guidelines of limited utility.The only viable solution in this context would be the establishment of a comprehensive,globally-shared database and

70、the exploration of innovative methods,leveraging artificial intelligence,to effectively discern the most relevant markers for labelling food components.This initiative should not only encompass macro-level considerations but also delve into the finer details of chemical components and metabolites,fo

71、cusing on their nutritional and health implications.Such an undertaking should be a collaborative endeavour involving multiple countries to facilitate the requisite correlations.The role of vegetable oils in sustainable nutrition Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxivGlobal consumer choices in ve

72、getable oilsDifferent countries around the world exhibit distinct culinary traditions and dietary preferences,which is reflected in their diverse use of vegetable oils.Global consumer choices reflect only the internationally traded oils and fats and overlook hundreds of oils that are produced and co

73、nsumed locally.NSUNFLOWER OILA key component of Russian cuisine due to its neutral flavour,high smoke point,and high domestic production.PALM OILA staple in many African countries,where it is used for frying,cooking,and flavouring traditional dishes.In its refined form it is used in thousands of pro

74、ducts.SOYBEAN OILA prominent cooking medium in India,celebrated for its affordability and high smoke point.by Ezume Images,2019,Adobe Stockby M.studio,2021,Adobe Stockby Arkadiusz Fajer,2021,Adobe StockFigure 2 What oils and fats are consumed in different countries?Priority consumer choices in veget

75、able oils,by country.Source:Data compiled by the report editors.GROUNDNUT OILAn important staple in African and Asian cuisines with a distinct aroma.by artitwpd,2016,Adobe StockExploring the future of vegetable oilsxvRAPESEED OILAlso known as canola oil,a staple in Canadian cuisine for its light fla

76、vour and perceived benefits for cardiovascular health.SOYBEAN OILA prevalent choice in the US,valued for its neutral taste and diverse applications,from sauting and frying to baking and salad dressings.SOYBEAN OILExtensively utilised in Brazil,playing a central role in cooking and frying due to its

77、affordability and versatility in various regional dishes.Palm oilPalm kernel oilSoybean oilRapeseed oilMaize oilCoconut oilOthersSunflower oilOlive oilCottonseed oilGroundnut oilby airborne77,2016,Adobe Stockby BRAD,2016,Adobe Stockby Gustavo,2021,Adobe StockCOCONUT OILThe traditional edible oil in

78、most Pacific nations.by Orion Media Group,2019,Adobe StockExploring the future of vegetable oilsxviScale of opportunityOil crops play a crucial role in human health and well being,as well as for the global environment.Covering a substantial portion of the Earths surface,oil crops occupy around 543 m

79、illion hectares(mha),accounting for 37%of the total land area dedicated to agricultural crop production.Notably,the expansion of land allocated to vegetable oil crops has outpaced that of other commodities.Moreover,unless there are major policy changes vegetable oils will continue to be cultivated a

80、s a by-product of animal feed production for meat animals,as well as for biofuel,surfactant,and other purposes,even if the production of edible oils meets global fat demands.Acting in vegetable oil production areas represents 2%of the total global opportunity for reducing species extinction risk thr

81、ough abating threats to species in their current habitats and 5%of the opportunity from habitat restoration.Values and interestsThe challenges in vegetable oil production,trade,and consumption go beyond the technical aspects and touch on numerous sociocultural aspects.Therefore,solutions must be hol

82、istic,addressing diverse interests and values.In our study,recognising and aligning our values is crucial.This means navigating conflicts between economic efficiency and equity and rights in complex global systems.Efficiency optimises resource use,while equity ensures just distribution of benefits a

83、nd costs.The transformation of vegetable oil systems must uphold human rights and align with the Sustainable Development Goals(SDG)and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.Nutritional contextsThe nutritional significance of edible oils remains a significant blind spot,with numerous unc

84、ertainties.While affordable edible oil has played a crucial role Main narratives Our analysis raises various questions and provides insights that translate into the following key narratives regarding the future of vegetable oils.in meeting our nutritional requirements,it is also linked to the someti

85、mes-unhealthy consumption of processed foods and a reduction in the intake of vegetables,fruits,and pulses.Furthermore,perceptions around vegetable oils are marred by misinformation and a lack of transparency regarding their nutritional value.These perceptions and culinary traditions determine which

86、 oils people prefer to consume(Figure 2).There is a need to shift the focus towards access to high-quality food and its overall nutritional quality rather than individual components.Environmental,social,and economic impactsOil crop production can often have significant negative environmental,social,

87、and economic impacts,especially when pursued on industrial scales and in areas with poor governance and regulatory frameworks.Deforestation and losses of other natural ecosystems are a key environmental concern in vegetable oil production.While timing has varied,globally threatened ecosystems have b

88、een replaced by industrial oil crop systems for cotton,rapeseed,coconut and sunflower cultivation,broadening the perspective beyond terrestrial biodiversity impacts associated with oil palm and soybean.The most prominent social impacts are those related to land rights,inappropriate and excessive use

89、 of chemicals,and economic exploitation.On the other hand,as a global source of energy and nutrition,many vegetable oils offer a less land-hungry alternative to animal products(although oil crops and animal feed are closely related),and oil crops are often a key driver of development in rural areas,

90、and,under the right conditions,bring income and other benefits to local people.Local ecological knowledge,practice,governance,and social contexts,along with the food systems in which a crop is embedded,are crucial when assessing Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxviithe impacts of oil crops,as w

91、ell as the efforts to mitigate the risks associated with their production.While social and environmental impact assessment is an ongoing process,scientists are trying to transition from singular crop impact evaluation to adopting a systemic perspective,exploring alternative metrics beyond mere impac

92、t and yield averages.Different food systems coexist,yielding diverse effects.For example,impacts vary widely with production scales and levels of mechanisation.This suggests that it makes more sense to not focus on crop impacts as such,but rather on the impacts of typical systems,and how they can be

93、 improved.With systems we mean the way by which these crops are produced,traded,and consumed and the socio-economic context in which these value chains are embedded.Perennial production systems generally offer environmental advantages,including lower fertiliser and pesticide requirements,and promoti

94、ng biodiversity and healthier soils.However,their longer production cycles and higher upfront costs limit flexibility.Mixed cropping,mosaic landscapes,and agroforestry present promising opportunities for vegetable oil production,showcasing environmental and social resilience while achieving comparab

95、le yields to monocultural systems.Analysing the social and economic impacts of vegetable oil production demands distinct approaches such as rights-based methodologies,economic assessments,and value chain perspectives whether considering these impacts together or separately.Structuring discussions ar

96、ound both the positive and negative impacts require careful attention,posing an ongoing challenge.To comprehend rights violations,it is vital to grasp contextual conditions,including the role of value chains in generating broader impacts,be they positive or negative.Product differentiation becomes f

97、undamental for addressing aspects like quality,governance,and production and trade systems.Economic exploitation remains poorly assessed in large regions of the world,necessitating a clear separation between value chain analyses and the social outcomes they entail.Large-scale production emerges as a

98、 notable contributor to exploitation,warranting a more responsible approach.Smallholder production offers benefits for both people and nature compared to large-scale production.Furthermore,smallholder crop systems achieve more Sustainable Development Goals outcomes than their industrial counterparts

99、.Deforestation and related social and environmental impacts in tropical forest regions are a major political issue in the Global North,whereas impacts in their own regions are often overlooked.Non-governmental organisation campaigns influence social media,and the framing that governs many viewpoints

100、.For example,palm oil has been vilified but production of other oils,even the beloved olive oil,has severe environmental impacts when industrially produced.Figure 3 indicates a great degree of variation of different environmental impacts between and within different vegetable oil crops.The environme

101、ntal impacts of oil crops1 litrePalm oilSoybean oilOlive oilRapeseed oilSunflower oilGHG emissions(kg CO2eq)n2204974111.8k519Land use(m2year)Acid(g SO2eq)Eutroph.(g PO43eq)Scty.water(kL eq)0510153.62.42.92.52.5Mean7.36.35.43.83.601020301.75.37.95.28.4Mean2.41126111803060 03060 0100200Figure 3 The en

102、vironmental impacts of five important vegetable oils.Global variation in greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions,land use,terrestrial acidification,eutrophication,and scarcity-weighted freshwater withdrawals,within and between five oils.Source:Prepared by the report editors based on Poore&Nemecek(2018)1.10thpc

103、10thpc10th percentileMedianMean90th percentileArrow indicates the 90th percentile is outside of the chart rangeExploring the future of vegetable oilsxviiiValue chain and power in food systemsThe globalised and industrialised nature of edible oil production and trade has led to inequities,with most b

104、enefits staying at corporate levels,and those that reach the local level favouring landowners and wealthy farmers.Disadvantaged groups,including Indigenous peoples,women,and the rural poor,receive fewer benefits,and are subject to exploitation and other rights violations.Agrifood companies and trade

105、rs from industrialised nations benefit the most from the vegetable oil industry,even if production occurs elsewhere.However,the similarity of most edible oils for many uses contributes to flexible and resilient food systems in industrialised nations.Shorter value chains,involving a reduced number of

106、 economic operators,benefit local producers,manufacturers,and consumers.Entrenched powers impede food system transparency and transformation.Climate changeThere are two different aspects to the relationship between climate change and vegetable oil production.Firstly,in addition to emissions related

107、to production and transportation,the expansion of vegetable oil crops into natural environments is a major contributor to climate change through forest clearance,natural grassland conversion and peatland drainage,emitting significant carbon dioxide and potentially releasing methane and nitrous oxide

108、.Converting natural ecosystems to oil crops causes microclimate shifts,temperature increases,and reduces rainfall,which in turn reduces yields,thus driving further expansion.On the other hand,climate change also affects oil crops.Extreme weather events are projected to become significantly more freq

109、uent,leading to substantial reductions in oil crop production,with potential impacts such as a loss of agriculture-based employment,resource disputes,and mass migration,but also expansion of crops into new climatic zones.Improved growing conditions might occur at higher latitudes that are currently

110、not suitable for oil crops.Best practiceMany people have ill-informed views about vegetable oils through exposure to polarised and biased media.Our analysis shows that there are no good or bad oil crops,and the impacts of any oil crops vary widely depending on production,trade,and Olive oil producti

111、on requires far greater land use per annum than other vegetable oils,by T photography,2009,Shutterstock.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxixconsumption scales,as well as the respective governance and regulatory contexts.This insight invites a more nuanced appreciation of best practice.While imp

112、act assessment is an ongoing process in business,this report recommends efforts to transition from individual crop impact evaluation to adopting a systemic approach that explores alternative metrics beyond mere impact and yield averages that better captures co-benefits and multiple values in food sy

113、stems.Tailoring strategies for best practices in global value chains to local contexts is essential,and there is also an important role to be played by universally agreed standards,principles and criteria for production,processing,and trade.This parallel need has been partly addressed in initiatives

114、 like the roundtables for soy or palm oil.A novel perspective is emerging,highlighting that comprehensive governance demands a balanced blend of mandatory and voluntary tools.This adaptable approach caters to diverse scenarios,spanning from local landscapes to worldwide systems.Achieving effective g

115、overnance and ensuring the future resilience of oils necessitates the synergy of various elements.These encompass customary governance structures,governmental policies and regulations,expansive landscape-level measures,such as jurisdictional land use planning,and valuable voluntary tools like standa

116、rdised systems or attractive financial incentives for producers.This combined approach has the potential to optimise governance effectiveness and cultivate sustainable outcomes,in line with the Sustainable Development Goals and other international standards.To provide consumers with more informed ch

117、oice,new technologies are emerging to improve transparency of vegetable oil value chains,which exposes impacts and improves the opportunities for rewarding good practice and related improvements.There is considerable scope for improving agricultural practices that offer better environmental outcomes

118、,including improved soil health and biodiversity conservation,and reduce negative social impacts.Mixed cropping and agroforestry,for example,present promising opportunities for vegetable oil production,but the products,values,costs,and benefits derived are perceived differently at the local and regi

119、onal scales and depending on who is asked.Furthermore,the interchangeability of edible oils,driven by the desire to maintain low prices,poses challenges for the development of alternative agriculture.Comprehensive regulations and safeguards are necessary for all oils due to the ease of interchangeab

120、ility.Finally,increasing the proportion of small-scale local food production can yield positive outcomes for both the individuals who currently rely on such systems and the larger global production landscape.Cooperation between industrial and smallholder production can support innovation exchange an

121、d multiple values in landscapes.Voluntary standardsTailored combinations of governance tools are essential to effectively address the social and environmental risks posed by vegetable oils,promoting sustainable practices.While robust voluntary standards can be instrumental,their efficacy relies heav

122、ily on effective auditing.Unfortunately,the direct payment of auditors by assessed companies can create incentives for underreporting non-compliance.Despite financial links,auditor experience,certification protocols,unannounced audits,and peer review quality can also influence underreporting.This is

123、sue is notably documented in palm oil certification systems and potentially extends to other vegetable oils.Instituting institutional reforms that mitigate such risks is crucial for the credibility of these systems.For instance,the Rainforest Alliances new cocoa certification in Ghana adopts a risk

124、and competence-based allocation approach,avoiding direct financial links.Instead,it assigns certification bodies to certificate holders based on risk and competence,aiming to address the challenge without severing the financial connection.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxFuture scenarios Perc

125、eptions about vegetable oils are often polarised and poorly informed.In consequence decisions too are poorly informed.Partly,to counter these often polarised views,we draw some cartoon scenarios that capture and exaggerate aspects that may help inform future trends.We do not know the future.No one d

126、oes.The objective of these future scenarios is not prediction but insight into different societal options and their possible consequences.We use extreme scenarios to force our thinking to suggest clear implications of the wide-ranging scenarios and alternative futures.These extreme options provide f

127、ood for further introspection about these complex systems.A fuller account is presented in the main report.Figure 4 What if?Possible outcomes from some extreme assumptions about the world of vegetable oils.Source:Prepared by the report editors.What if?SCENARIO 1What if all food oil were produced by

128、algae or other microbial processes?High-tech oils will require a lot of feed stock(the microbes need nutrients)and energy.We do not expect major volumes in the next decade,but the technologies are advancing rapidly and who knows in the longer term?If these systems do become cheap and productive at a

129、 sufficiently large scale it will transform food oil with major knocks on oil monopoly and impacts on land use.SCENARIO 2What if monoculture is the only culture?A lot of people would lose their livelihoods and their food cultures,but consumers could have cheaper food and spare land for biodiversity

130、and carbon only over the short term.Over the long term,monocultures pose significant risks to diversified food systems.SCENARIO 3What if we all became vegetarian?It would benefit global biodiversity,climate,and the majority of people,though we have concerns for pastoralists,fishers and hunter-gather

131、ers.A reduction in meat consumption in industrial countries would reduce pressure on land and related resources.SCENARIO 4What if we ran the world on vegetable oils for biofuel?At present a staggering amount of additional land would be needed,or 10 times the currently planted oil palm area.This woul

132、d have major knock on impacts on land-use and users.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxiSCENARIO 9To simplify regulation needs,can one oil do it all?This is probably a bad idea because it will involve over-use of one type of ecosystem suited to that oil crop(for example,tropical humid areas for

133、 oil palm).Consumers can no longer access their favourite oils,but palm and soy can meet most global needs.For maximum production by area palm wins compared to other crop oils.SCENARIO 10What if more financial institutions invested in smallholder agriculture?There is a huge credit gap so far,but inv

134、estment at scale accompanied by digital innovation has the potential to revolutionise smallholder agriculture.SCENARIO 5What if there were no tariff barriers and regulations at production or consumption levels?In a neoliberal world,big business would gain but many workers,smallholders and much biodi

135、versity would likely lose.SCENARIO 6Can countries achieve self-sufficiency through domestic production?Probably a bad idea.In the next 10 years,Europe would have a massive fat gap(short fall in availability).SCENARIO 7The climate wild card A temperature rise of 2.4oC?Climate instability will hit edi

136、ble oils hard.While many of us will have bigger problems,production areas will shift and there will be marked challenges in sustaining sufficient production.SCENARIO 8Climate change hits 4.4oC?Maintaining oil crops will not be the main concern.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxiiExecutive summ

137、ary This report is a collaboration between the IUCN Oil Crops Task Force and the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board.tending to be greatest for large-scale monoculture production,especially where it involves the heavy use of chemicals and a high level of mechanisation.This suggests that while the

138、 different oil crops each have specific characteristics,some of which affect their impacts,it is more important methodologically not to focus on crop impacts as such,but rather on the impacts of the food systems in which these crops are produced,traded,and consumed,and how these systems can be impro

139、ved.The best food systems appear to be those that add value in producing countries and are generally associated with local and regional economic growth,lower environmental impacts(such as reduced agrochemicals use,more heterogenous landscapes),and less concentration of power.Such systems often opera

140、te alongside larger scale industrial production systems that have the resources to develop production-related infrastructure,research novel production methods,and invest in sustainable practices.The system transitions required to minimise negative future impacts of meeting the growing oil demand sho

141、uld be safeguarded by aligning new approaches with the Sustainable Development Goals,the requirements under the goals and targets of the CBDs global biodiversity framework,and international human rights frameworks.As a society concerned about the negative impacts of agricultural production on societ

142、y,our planet,and our health,we need to move beyond the debate about good and bad crops,and towards the debate between bad and better production,processing,trade,and consumption.By providing science-based insights,the authors of this report hope to contribute to a better future for vegetable oils.The

143、 former group was set up in 2017 by three International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN)Commissions with the goal of generating a more solid scientific basis for discussions about,initially,the biodiversity impact of palm oil production and,later,more generally the socio-economic and environme

144、ntal context of vegetable oil production.The Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board carries out independent research on the sustainability of nutrition,primarily through complex sciences and Big Data approaches and a specific focus on the nutritional and health context of vegetable oils.The current

145、study is unique in its comprehensive assessment of an important group of crops that occupy 37%of all agricultural crop land and the impacts of this production.We reviewed the scientific and grey literature and consulted 25 vegetable oil experts working in government,private sector,non-government,and

146、 research sectors.Results of our initial data gathering were discussed during a one-week workshop in June 2023,when the main structure of the report was decided,as well as key narratives.Following internal reviews by the members of the IUCN Oil Crops Task Force and Sustainable Nutrition Scientific B

147、oard,the report was revised.The final draft was reviewed by three external reviewers through a double-blind review process managed by IUCNs Chief Scientist.The review comments and our responses are publicly available on the Oil Crops Task Force website.By analysing social and environmental impacts i

148、t becomes clear that these impacts occur across all production systems but are especially severe when large areas of natural environments are converted for crop expansion,and in areas of poor governance.Impacts also vary widely with production scales and levels of mechanisation,with negative impacts

149、 Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxiiiRecommendations For influencersThe report targets influencers(such as those that influence media,debates,and policies)and highlights the numerous positive outcomes that can be achieved through improving vegetable oil systems.These benefits include improved

150、 well-being,reduced poverty,increased biodiversity,and the effective mitigation of the impacts of climate change.It also highlights the need to address the many negative outcomes in large-scale industrial production,especially human rights violations,agrochemical pollution,and habitat loss.These neg

151、ative aspects must be acknowledged and addressed in any efforts to promote sustainable practices.The intended audience includes governments,traders,farmers associations,and processors,who all play a crucial role in the realisation of sustainable oil systems.The report emphasises the importance of re

152、specting the rights of and supporting smallholder and local oil production systems due to their positive socio-economic outcomes and contribution to food security.While these local production and consumption systems alone may not feed the world,they have the potential to make much greater contributi

153、ons to doing so in the future,and play vital roles in their respective communities.The report acknowledges that within each vegetable oil system,there are both good and bad actors and outcomes,and urges for a nuanced perspective.A systemic approach is recommended to effectively address various chall

154、enges.The report underscores the significance of considering food systems and contexts as they influence the impacts that arise.Having diverse systems is seen as beneficial for increasing societal resilience.For researchersWe identify several key knowledge gaps that require attention,noting that it

155、is crucial to use research findings to inform and influence effective policy decisions.Firstly,there is a need for a more comprehensive incorporation of social factors into environmental analyses and vice versa.Secondly,research on vegetable oils has strongly focused on internationally traded oils a

156、nd overlooked those in local value chains,which are often of considerable nutritional and cultural importance.Research must prioritise rights-based approaches,as rights are non-negotiable.Secondly,more research on transitioning to mixed cropping systems,perennial crops,intercropping,and regenerative

157、 agriculture is needed to explore sustainable alternatives.Thirdly,research should investigate new finance mechanisms that consider the holistic value of oil systems,beyond just yields and profits.Scientists need to acknowledge and clarify the myths,gaps,and biases in available knowledge on vegetabl

158、e oil,paying special attention to how scientific opinions have evolved over time.This requires greater transparency and requires addressing the issue of invisibles,the often-overlooked aspects of the food industry.Invisibles are the blind spots in systems that occur because of underrepresented voice

159、s and methodologies which bias some factors and perspectives from others.The report has identified the need for approaches that explore broader positive and negative outcomes of vegetable oil systems,as well as using alternative metrics that are better able to capture co-benefits and multiple values

160、,beyond mere yield and impact averages.Big Data analysis,complex systems and Artificial Intelligence will play an increasing role in analysing complex system outcomes but need to overcome challenges of data quality and bias(e.g.severe underrepresentation of local oil production and consumption syste

161、ms in international science).Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxivFor financial institutionsThere is a need for financial institutions to address the risks associated with current investment strategies in the industry.Financial institutions can help to uphold suitable governance mechanisms at c

162、ompany,value chain and jurisdictional levels,through their investment policies.Engaging in discussions with shareholders and investment funds for responsible investment is vital.Divestment is the easy option and better is to explore means of conditioning investment on verified sustainable production

163、.This includes promoting positive examples,such as the disinvestment by Norwegian funds from non-compliant palm oil companies,which can encourage responsible practices.Financial institutions should sign up to international standards for sustainable vegetable oil value chains.Expanding ethical consum

164、ption into major consumer markets such as China and India should be a priority to foster responsible and sustainable practices globally.Greater investment and other forms of financial support should also be available for small-scale production,including regenerative agriculture,perennial crops,and o

165、ther agricultural systems that require time to develop.For instance,investments in tree crops that may not generate profits for the initial 20 years can lead to sustainable outcomes.The value of crops should not solely be defined by yield per crop but also their social,environmental,and cultural asp

166、ects.New forms of financing and markets should be explored for crops and food systems that provide multiple values.Expanding ethical consumption into major consumer markets such as China and India should be a priority to foster responsible and sustainable practices globally.”“Intensive agriculture,c

167、haracterised by vast areas of monoculture,is often associated with negative social and environmental outcomes,by Roger de la Harpe,2020,Adobe Stock.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxvFor business and governmentsThe vegetable oil market has expanded tremendously through policies and actions bet

168、ween governments and businesses.Ensuring the future resilience of vegetable oil trade chains,landscapes,and their various uses requires proactive measures,also between governments and businesses.Establishing a high degree of transparency regarding impacts and mitigation strategies is pivotal.Effecti

169、ve hybrid governance strategies that uphold transparency and respect for rights are essential.The report highlights that policies and safeguards can only be upheld when governments and businesses work together with a rights-based approach.This includes robust safeguards,encompassing both mandatory g

170、lobal and regional instruments,including the United Nations Human Rights Instruments,the International Labour Organization Conventions,and EU regulations as well as national legislative requirements,and voluntary measures,such as the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights,the OECD Guidel

171、ines for Multinational Enterprises and the Accountability Framework Initiative,and Roundtable standards,jurisdictional programmes,and financial incentives.Positive investment in conservation and poverty reduction beyond legal requirements,particularly in critical biodiversity areas,and the promotion

172、 of agroecological production systems also play a significant role.As we look into the future,the human population will increase,especially in Africa,and closing the fat gap will become more challenging.At the same time,there will also be major advances in farm technology,automation and robotics tha

173、t could boost vegetable oil production.Yet,climate change will impact the production and resilience of supply chains.Given the challenging future ahead,this report highlights the need for diverse food systems,and the need for actors in those systems to cooperate,in particular industrial and small-sc

174、ale systems.Collaboration between food systems can enhance innovation through technology exchange but can also build resilience through landscapes with multiple values.Smallholder agriculture plays a critical role in such multi-functional landscapes.To strengthen innovation and resilience in globall

175、y connected oils value chains,governments and businesses will need to work proactively together and focus on multiple values,rather than only on,for example,feeding the world,climate change or energy security.For consumersConsumers deserve reliable information.Beyond just differing perspectives,disp

176、utes can arise from conflicting claims and perceptions related to factual matters that can be resolved through empirical evidence.In a world currently marked by polarisation and susceptible to misinformation,transparency and objectivity become crucial to steer policymaking and trade.Informed consume

177、r choices require measures and standards that are equally applicable to producers in Borneo,Belgium and Barbados.Enhancing the widespread availability of accurate information concerning vegetable oil production and its food system context could guide consumers in making well-informed decisions about

178、 oil use.Such decisions should factor in the diverse spatial,temporal,cultural,and power-related ethical considerations.Effectively capturing these considerations in product labelling and other product information should equip consumers with better information for decision making that reflects their

179、 values.For social mediaSocial media tends to amplify the polarised views about vegetable oils good oils are made better,and bad ones are made worse.There is a need to work with social media influencers to reduce this dichotomy between good and bad by providing them with access to more nuanced views

180、.This would provide one way to break through the global myths around oils that appear to be driven strongly by western views on oils which overlook non-western perspectives.The report highlights that policies and safeguards can only be upheld when governments and businesses work together with a righ

181、ts-based approach.”“Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxviUsing influencers from non-western backgrounds may be one way to strengthen accurate views on the relative costs and benefits of different vegetable oils.The important closure of the fat gap might be one angle to address how important it

182、is to get things right towards future oil production and consumption.For growing producer and consumer countriesTogether,Brazil,China,India and South-East Asian and African-producing countries yield and consume a substantial and growing amount of global vegetable oil.As major consumers of the oils t

183、hemselves,certain countries with rapidly growing populations and concomitant increasing oil demand play important roles in the evolving cultivation,production,and processing standards,and only if their people and politicians support these activities can key sustainability concerns be met.As major pr

184、oducers,these countries aspire to be self-reliant with the potential to provide direct benefits to their people and minimise social,economic and ecological harms.However,the ambition to earn export revenues from vegetable oils can often sideline other values.This report recommends more nuanced,fact-

185、based discourse on policies for oils,more multi-livelihood value-based approaches,focused regulatory standards for production and processing,and better understanding of current and future risks,especially as these countries are at the intersection of production and consumption.This report also empha

186、sises that countries with major fat gaps should aim for more self-reliance.In particular,Africa should become more self-reliant with regards to oil production to meet growing local demand,reducing dependence on imported oils.Stimulating existing food systems of smallholders for oil production and gi

187、ving support for cooperation between industrial and smallholders,for oil production is necessary to prepare for the future.For Voluntary Sustainability StandardsRobust voluntary sustainability standards can have an important role among other tools in companies(mandatory)due diligence toolboxes.Robus

188、tness concerns strong legal,social and environmental criteria,not only on deforestation,but for example also on responsible chemicals management.It is also key for standards to go beyond this towards more regenerative and agroecological practices.Crucial for standards are good quality assurance crit

189、eria and practices.As part of this,auditors should no longer be paid directly by companies,to ensure that audits are genuinely independent.Effective management of existing production landscapes is essential to mitigate the costs of expansion while addressing the growing global demand for vegetable o

190、ils,by 2seven9,2017,Shutterstock.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxviiContributorsREPORT EDITORS AND MAIN AUTHORSErik Meijaard,Malika Virah-Sawmy,Helen Newing,Verina Ingram,Mukhlish Jamal Musa Holle,Thijs Pasmans,Syazwan Omar,Heleen van den Hombergh,Nabillah Unus,Ariadna Fosch,Henrique Ferraz

191、de Arruda,James Allen,Konstatinos Tsagarakis,Matthew Chidozie Ogwu,Andrea Diaz-Ismael,Jeremy Hance,Yamir Moreno,Sinad OKeeffe,Joanna Slavin,Maja Slingerland,Emily Mae Meijaard,Nicholas Macfarlane,Randall Jimenez,Serge Wich,Douglas Sheil Chapter 1:IntroductionErik Meijaard,Jeremy Hance,Matthew Chidoz

192、ie Ogwu,Thina Arifin,Nabillah Unus,Rona Dennis,Syazwan Omar,Douglas Sheil Chapter 2:Vegetable oils,their global importance and key sustainability issues Erik Meijaard,Thijs Pasmans,Matthew Chidozie Ogwu,Douglas Sheil Chapter 3:Food systems,value chains and transformationsMalika Virah-Sawmy,Verina In

193、gram,Helen Newing,Heleen van den Hombergh,Erik Meijaard Chapter 4:Impacts and outcomes Erik Meijaard,Helen Newing,Syazwan Omar,Mukhlish Jamal Musa Holle,Ariadna Fosch,Henrique Ferraz de Arruda,Joanne Slavin,Nabillah Unus,Safwanah Nimattulah,Clara Zemp,Emily Mae Meijaard,Rona Dennis,Jesse Abrams,Sina

194、d OKeeffe,Nicholas Macfarlane,Randall Jimenez,Serge Wich,Douglas Sheil Chapter 5:Global trade and governance Thijs Pasmans,Heleen van den Hombergh,Helen Newing,James Allen,Malika Virah-Sawmy,Emily Meijaard,Andrea Diaz-Ismael,Maja Slingerland Chapter 6:Key future developments Malika Virah-Sawmy,Ariad

195、na Fosch,Henrique Ferraz de Arruda,James Allen,Douglas Sheil,Erik Meijaard Chapter 7:Scenarios,unknowns and choicesMeijaard,E.Virah-Sawmy,M.,Helen Newing,Verina Ingram,Thijs Pasmans,Heleen van den Hombergh,Yamir Moreno,Douglas SheilExploring the future of vegetable oilsxxviiiAcknowledgementsThis rep

196、ort was developed with the financial support of Soremartec SA and Soremartec Italia,Ferrero Group,and its Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board.The funders had no role in study design,data collection,and analysis,decision to publish,or preparation of the manuscript.Our analyses of consumer percepti

197、ons are based on research led by Kantar for Soremartec SA from 21 October to 10 November 2022 in 17 countries,with a nationally representative sample of 1,000 respondents in each country.We thank Dirk Hlscher,Holger Kreft,Nathaly Guerrero Ramirez for their help in developing the text on oil palm agr

198、oforestry.We thank Tadar Tamja,Jagadeesh Sunkad,Simon Lord,Joseph Poore,Lucas Kurniawan,Eddy Esselink,Lana Fadel,Tomas Steppe,Jonathan Ledgard,Juliet Telfer,Ludovic Larbodire,Thomas Brooks,Juha Siikamki,Frans Claassen,Matin Qaim,Marcus Colchester,Phil Howard,Johan Verburg,Joanne Slavin,Stephen Nicho

199、lson,Shivnayan Aggarwal,and Amalia Leguizamon for their expert input during online workshops and interviews.We thank the Orthodox Academy of Crete and specifically Katerina Karkala-Zorba for hosting our workshop during which we developed many of the ideas in this study.We thank Yasmeen Amir and Thin

200、a Ariffin for their help in background research.Special thanks to Thomas Brooks and Marcus Colchester for their initial input into conceptualizing this study and helping obtain institutional support from IUCN,and for other IUCN Oil Crops Task Force members who provided input on report development:Da

201、rrel Webber,Marc Ancrenaz,Sin Yun Chin,Benis Egoh,Paul Hartman,and Kim Carlson.We are grateful to three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on an earlier version of this report.Finally,we thank the IUCN publications team,especially Sarina van der Ploeg,IUCNs Publications Officer for

202、guiding the peer review and publication process.We are also grateful to the members of IUCNs Editorial Board and Publication Committee for providing feedback on earlier versions of this report and for signing off on the final version.Last but not least,we thank Diwata Hunziker for proofreading the r

203、eport before its publication.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxixConflict of interest disclosureIUCNs Code of Conduct for Commission Members requires that“any authors receiving any payment of special consideration from persons or organisations whose purpose is to influence the decisions,polici

204、es or actions of the IUCN”,declare a potential conflict of interest.Erik Meijaard and Joanne Slavin are independent members of the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board.The Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board research is carried out independently thanks to the financial support of Soremartec SA

205、and Soremartec Italia,Ferrero Group.The funder has no role in study design,data collection and analysis,decision to publish,or preparation of any manuscript.The Scientific Board brings high-level competences and warrants network with the most respected and known associations.Through a Memorandum of

206、Collaboration between the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board and Borneo Futures Sdn Bhd,the host organisation for the IUCN Oil Crops Task Force,signed on 2 April 2023 in Brunei Darussalam,it was agreed that on behalf of the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board(SNSB),Borneo Futures would coordi

207、nate the research and reviews needed to develop the study.Borneo Futures,as well as any SNSB member,agreed that any study carried out within the scientific field would be conducted in an independent,honest,ethical,and professional manner.Malika Virah-Sawmy,Heleen van den Hombergh,Douglas Sheil,Nicho

208、las Macfarlane,Serge Wich,and Erik Meijaard are members of the IUCN Oil Crops Task Force.Douglas Sheil and Serge Wich have facilitated student research in palm oil concessions.Heleen van den Hombergh works for IUCN NL on vegetable oil issues.None of the remaining authors have declared a conflict of

209、interest.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxList with tables,figures,boxesList of figuresThe worlds main oil crops A visual guide to the world of vegetable oils What oils and fats are consumed in different countries?The environmental impacts of five important vegetable oils What if?Possible ou

210、tcomes from some extreme assumptions about the world of vegetable oils Current impacts of all food production on nature A conceptual framework for vegetable oil systems The global trade in vegetable oils in 2023 Relative contribution of different oils and fat sources to total global production over

211、the past 100 years Allocation of global land to agricultural,cropland,and major oil crops The global distribution of the main oil producing crops Global production of oil crop seeds and fruits in 2020 Export value of oils from the Netherlands in four different years Variation in average oil yields p

212、er country for the 10 largest producer countries Land globally allocated to different oil crops between 1961 and 2021 Main oil producing crops and average field sizes Trends in vegetable oil application in percentages of total Typical lipid profiles of different vegetable oils Traditional palm oil e

213、xtraction in Guinea Soy products derived from processing An overview of feedstocks and production processes for different biofuels Production of major vegetable oils in 2021 Global maps showing oil crop production volumes in tons per year per country in 1961 and 2021 Cost per person per day by food

214、group and region for a healthy diet Variation in vegetable oil prices between 1991 and 2021 Food systems and value chains of five major vegetable oils Generic value chain for vegetable oils Actors in value chains Evaluation of the potential impacts of unproductive palm oil replanting in Sumatra Cana

215、dian rapeseed and soybean expansion into areas that were deforested between 2001 and 2022 Opportunity for reducing species extinction risk through threat abatement or restoration actions across the global footprints of different oil crops Threat abatement in all oil crop footprints Potential restora

216、tion actions in all oil crop footprints Two options for achieving both food production and biodiversity conservation objectives The difference between annual and perennial crops Synthetic fertiliser use in 2018 Fertiliser needs per tonne of oil produced The geography of global agricultural water sca

217、rcity Oil palm agroforestry in Tom Au,Par,Brazil Experimental design that tests the ecological restoration outcomes of tree island establishment in oil palm-dominated landscapes Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 F

218、igure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 x xiv xvii xx 2 3 9 12 13 15 16 17 21 21

219、22 23 24 26 26 28 30 31 33 34 37 41 43 44 52 53 54 54 57 58 60 61 65 67 68Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxiIntegrated Pest Management fact sheet The social impacts of vegetable oil production Indigenous peoples and oil crop production areas Aerial agrochemical application is indiscriminate

220、and can have negative consequences The four pillars of food security Sunflower oil production in Tanzania is widely promoted as a successful means of poverty reduction Waste-adjusted average consumption of plant,dairy,and meat fats per person by region in 2018 Examples of products making specific cl

221、aims about palm oil Nutri-Scores for fats FATitudes Evolution of the percentage of monthly tweets associated with vegetable oils Leratos Mums Melon Seed Soup with Pounded Yam cooked with palm oil Relative contribution of export,import,production and domestic disappearance of vegetable oils per count

222、ry Relative production volumes of vegetable oils for main producer and consumer countries and global figures Concentration in food and agricultural markets Top 10 creditors in soybean and palm oil markets in 2022 Top 10 investors in soybean and palm oil markets in 2022 Criteria coverage around the e

223、conomic,social and environmental dimensions by the different Voluntary Sustainability Standards that certified oil vegetable crops Degree of coverage of environmental criteria in voluntary sustainability standards Degree of coverage of economic criteria in voluntary sustainability standards Future s

224、cenario:What if all food oil were produced by algae or other microbial processes?Future scenario:What if monoculture is the only culture?Future scenario:What if we all became vegetarian?Future scenario:What if we ran the world on vegetable oils for biofuel?Future scenario:What if there were no tarif

225、f barriers and regulations at production or consumption levels?Future scenario:Can countries achieve self-sufficiency through domestic production?Future scenario:Climate change hits 4.4C?Future scenario:To simplify regulation needs,can one oil do it all?Future scenario:what if more financial institu

226、tions invested in smallholder agriculture?Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Figure 44 Figure 45 Figure 46 Figure 47 Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure 54 Figure 55 Figure 56 Figure 57 Figure 58 Figure 59 Figure 60 Figure 61 Figure 62 Figure 63 Figure 64 Figure 6

227、5 Figure 66 Figure 67 Figure 68List of tablesDifferent growth forms and plant characteristics of selected oil producing plantsMain growing regions and climatic zones where the major oil crops are grownFlavour characteristics and common uses of vegetable oils in foodA different way of making decision

228、s in oil food systemsRelative presence of oil crops based in threatened ecosystemsExamples of different management types of vegetable oil crops and impacts on biodiversity,ecosystem services and yields Examples of perennial oil crops and their key characteristics Oil crops and their associated Globa

229、l Risk Score and LevelThe water required to produce a tonne of oil for each oil cropRelative water scarcity for different oil crops based on global analysisMain oil crops and their carbon emission,which include carbon opportunity costs and production emissionsChange in calorie intake in developing,i

230、ndustrialised countries,and ChinaInfluential factors that contribute to the concentration of trade and power among agrifood tradersTable 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 69 73 74 77 82 84 91 94 95 97 98 100 102 103 106 108 108 115

231、116 117 123 125 128 129 131 133 136 138 13914 15 25 45 50 55 59 62 64 65 66 92 105Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxiiBox 1 Box 2 Box 3 Box 4 Box 5 Box 6 Box 7 Box 8 Box 9 Box 10 Box 11 Box 12 Box 13 Box 14 Box 15 Box 16 Box 17 Box 18 Box 19 Box 20 Box 21 Box 22 Box 23 Box 24 Box 25 Box 26 Bo

232、x 27 Box 28List of boxesWhat are vegetable oil crops?Triglycerides:the oils and fats molecules Why oil palm plantations and olive orchards are not forests India taking off as major palm oil consumer and increasingly producer The difference between canola oil and rapeseed oil The role of food technol

233、ogy in oils and fatsVegetable oils in bioplastics Typology of biofuels Hard choices optimising all Sustainable Development Goals Transparency in value chains of oils Different temporal contexts of biodiversity loss and oil cropsOil crops threatening high diversity grasslandTwo key concepts for biodi

234、versity and vegetable oilsWhat are human rights?Who are smallholders?The impacts of vegetable oil production on food securitySunflower oil production in Tanzania:some unexpected impacts on equityDilemma of local to global system transition:Blessing or a social curse?Independent babassu oil producers

235、Fundamental Principles and Conventions under the International Labour Organization Fats are an essential part of healthy dietsFat gap estimates may miss important local oil production and consumptionNutri-ScorePalm oil perceptions from the perspective of a Nigerian cookInsights into the role of a pa

236、lm oil trader The hourglass shape of global food systemsAddressing flaws in certification systemsJurisdictional approaches for vegetable oilsTable 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table S1 Table S2Overview over the most relevant policies for the vegetable oilsSome voluntary sustainability standards rel

237、evant for the vegetable oils Voluntary Sustainability Standards that are linked to soybean,oil palm,peanut,coconut,rapeseed or sunflowerThe five main food system typologies globally Extraction yields of different oil crops Agrochemicals used in five oil crops and their direct and indirect impacts110

238、 111 112 178 180 1832 11 14 19 20 23 27 28 44 47 49 51 56 71 80 81 84 85 86 87 89 90 95 99 103 106 113 114Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxiiiTERM Biobased economy C-number in lipids Circular economy Convention on Biological Diversity Customary lands Domestic disappearance Downstream Environ

239、mental human rights defenders Family farm FAO Fat gap Fats and oils Food security Food system Human rights Indigenous peoples GlossaryDESCRIPTION The bioeconomy encompasses the production and use of renewable biological resources from land and sea,like crops,forests,fish,animals and microorganisms t

240、o produce food,feed,materials and energy.The numbers in a lipid name are used to describe the fatty acid chains on the lipid.The numbers are generally presented in the format(number of carbons in fatty acid chain):(number of double bonds in fatty acid chain),for example,16:0 would be 16 carbons in t

241、he fatty acid chain with zero double bonds,or the numeric representation of palmitic acid.A model of production and consumption,which involves sharing,leasing,reusing,repairing,refurbishing,and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible,thereby extending the life cycle of prod

242、ucts.It implies minimising waste.When a product reaches the end of its life,its materials are kept within the economy wherever possible.The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)is a multilateral treaty.The Convention has three main goals:the conservation of biological diversity(or biodiversity);th

243、e sustainable use of its components;and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity,and it is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable developmen

244、t.Lands,territories,and resources that are governed by Indigenous peoples and local communities according to their established collective system of customary rules and norms.Domestic disappearance refers to the use of a commodity in a certain country.It includes a broader scope of disappearance such

245、 as processing into new products,final ingredients as well as direct consumption of that commodity.Domestic disappearance is,however,not equal to final consumption by consumers of that country as processed products and ingredients could be exported(or imported)to other countries as well.In this repo

246、rt,domestic disappearance is based on FAOSTAT data and calculated by combining production and import,minus the export of the commodity(oil)concerned.Downstream in a value chain refers to activities after processing and manufacturing,getting the finished goods to the end consumer(s).“individuals and

247、groups who,in their personal or professional capacity and in a peaceful manner,strive to protect and promote human rights relating to the environment,including water,air,land,flora and fauna”.UN General Assembly(2016).A/71/281.2“An agricultural holding which is managed and operated by a household an

248、d where farm labour is largely supplied by that household”.3Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is a specialised agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to eliminate hunger.This is a measure of how much more fat would need to be produced and consumed in the

249、world to bring all regions to within the recommendations of a healthy diet,requiring that fats meet 27.5%of energy intake.4Fats and oils are lipids.They are important energy stores in animals and plants.Fats are solid at room temperature whereas oils are liquids.“All people,at all times,have physica

250、l,social and economic access to sufficient,safe and nutritious food that meets peoples dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.5A sustainable food system is one that delivers food security and equitable nutrition without compromising the socio-economic and environmental we

251、ll-being of future generations.This means that it is profitable,has broad-based benefits for society,and a positive or neutral impact on the natural resource environment.Human rights are rights that are inherent to all human beings.They are protected in international law by a set of global human rig

252、hts treaties and protocols.Rights are defined as universal,Inalienable,indivisible,and non-discriminatory.6 As well as individual rights,international law also recognises certain collective rights,including the collective rights of indigenous people.7There is no single definition of Indigenous peopl

253、es,because such a definition may not be workable in all contexts.However,Indigenous peoples have unique and distinctive cultures,languages,legal systems and histories,and most have a strong connection to the environment and their traditional lands and territories.They also often share experiences of

254、 discrimination and marginalisation.Self-identification is a key criterion for indigeneity.8Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxivKunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework Lipids Local communities MhaMt Peasants Planetary boundaries Rights-based approach RSPO Smallholders Substitution Supp

255、ly chain Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)Transesterification Upstream Value chain Vegetable oils The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(GBF)is an outcome of the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference.The GBF was adopted by the 15th Conference of Parties(COP15)to the Convention on

256、 Biological Diversity(CBD)on 19 December 2022.It has been promoted as a Paris Agreement for Nature.It is one of a handful of agreements under the auspices of the CBD,and it is the most significant to date.Any of a diverse group of organic compounds including fats and oils,that are grouped together b

257、ecause they do not interact appreciably with water.Non-Indigenous traditional communities,including Afro-descendant communities and others who have collective customary systems of land tenure and social organisation.This term is commonly used in this sense in international law and policy.Million hec

258、tares(1 million hectares=2.47 million acres=ca.the size of Jamaica,Lebanon,Gambia or Cyprus.Million metric tonnes.One metric tonne=1,000 kg.To give an idea of the magnitude of this metric,one million metric tonnes weighs about the same as 20 times the weight of the RMS Titanic.“A peasant is a man or

259、 woman of the land,who has a direct and special relationship with the land and nature through the production of food or other agricultural products.Peasants work the land themselves and rely above all on family labour and other small-scale forms of organising labour.Peasants are traditionally embedd

260、ed in their local communities,and they take care of local landscapes and of agro-ecological systems.The term peasant can apply to any person engaged in agriculture,cattle-raising,pastoralism,handicrafts related to agriculture or a similar occupation in a rural area.This includes Indigenous people wo

261、rking on the land.The term peasant also applies to the landless.9The basic idea of the Planetary Boundaries framework is that maintaining the observed resilience of the Earth system in the Holocene is a precondition for humanitys pursuit of long-term social and economic development.The framework des

262、cribed nine planetary life support systems essential for maintaining a desired Holocene state,and attempted to quantify how far seven of these systems had been pushed already.Boundaries are defined to help define a safe space for human development.10A rights-based approach consists of two complement

263、ary strategies to meet the overall aim of fulfilment of rights,in line with international law and standards.It involves supporting rights-holders to claim and fulfil their rights,and at the same time working to ensure that duty-bearers meet their obligations to respect,protect and fulfil rights.Gove

264、rnments are the primary duty-bearers(they hold the primary obligations),but businesses,non-governmental organisations and others are also duty-bearers.Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil is a member-based organisation established in 2004 with the objective of promoting the growth and use of sustainab

265、le palm oil products through global standards and multistakeholder governance.Farmers who rely principally on family labour,lack formal corporate management structures,and typically,grow a mixture of crops for home consumption and for markets.Generally,they own less than 2 ha of land,although defini

266、tions differ between countries and organisations(see Chapter 4.2).This refers to the ability to swap one type of oil for another due to similar chemical properties and functionality,such as using rapeseed oil or palm oil as biofuelsThe network of all the individuals,organisations,resources,activitie

267、s,and technology involved in the creation and sale of a product,from the delivery of source materials from the supplier to the manufacturer,through to its eventual delivery to the end user.The management and logistics of getting a product from A to B.The Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)are a coll

268、ection of 17 interlinked objectives designed to serve as a“shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet,now and into the future”.The SDGs are:no poverty;zero hunger;good health and well-being;quality education;gender equality;clean water and sanitation;affordable and clean ene

269、rgy;decent work and economic growth;industry,innovation and infrastructure;reduced inequalities;sustainable cities and communities;responsible consumption and production;climate action;life below water;life on land;peace,justice,and strong institutions;and partnerships for the goals.The SDGs emphasi

270、se the interconnected environmental,social,and economic aspects of sustainable development by putting sustainability at their centre.Transesterification is the general term used to describe an important class of organic reactions where an ester is transformed into another one,resulting in a vegetabl

271、e oil product with different characteristics.Upstream in a value chain refers to activities related to sourcing and transportation of raw materials needed in a manufacturing processThe processes,inputs,outputs,and stakeholders involved in creating and adding value to a product,from the plant-based r

272、aw material,through processing and production,to delivery to final consumers,and ultimately its disposal.Vegetable oils,or vegetable fats,from the seeds,nuts,or fruits of plants.Exploring the future of vegetable oilsxxxvAn aerial perspective captures a coconut tree plantation in Ratchaburi,Thailand,

273、by AUUSanAKUL+,2019,Adobe Stock.Exploring the future of vegetable oils11.1 The IUCN Oil Crops Task ForceThe IUCN Oil Palm Task Force was established to implement the IUCN Resolution 61:“Mitigating the impacts of oil palm expansion and operations on biodiversity”,adopted at the IUCN World Conservatio

274、n Congress in Hawaii,in September 2016.The Resolution requested key deliverables for the Task Force,“building upon existing studies focused on the impacts of palm oil expansion and operations on biodiversity,land use planning and best practices”.Following the publication of its high-impact study on

275、Oil Palm and Biodiversity in 2018 11,the group was renamed the Oil Crops Task Force,recognising the need to examine oil crops more broadly.With this name change,the Task Force also took on a broader mandate of looking at other impacts in addition to those on biodiversity.Using the latest scientific

276、information,the Oil Crops Task Force will give guidance to the IUCN and others concerning vegetable oils.Making use of IUCNs extensive knowledge base,the Task Force also seeks to comprehensively guide thinking on the complex issues of agro-industrial and smallholder vegetable oils production,trade,a

277、nd consumption.The Task Force seeks to inform and foster inclusive decision-making processes that fully engage Indigenous peoples,local communities,and other stakeholders.It also provides technical guidance to strategies for appropriate land-use planning at landscape,national,and regional levels,whi

278、le considering environmental,regulatory,and local rights concerns.In 2021,the Terms of Reference for the Oil Crops Task Force were updated to balance biodiversity concerns with other social,economic and environmental impacts.This required the consideration of the Sustainable Development Goals and ot

279、her relevant international standards,such as those related to human rights.This revised mandate expanded on the key objectives of Resolution 61 to include all major oil-producing crops and identifying conditions for sustainable and responsible production of all major oil crops.1.2 The Sustainable Nu

280、trition Scientific Board The Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board is a research team brought together to investigate sustainable nutrition.Composed of international scientific experts from different disciplines,the group has a broad science-based perspective.Its members are leaders in the environm

281、ental,nutritional,health,and epidemiological sciences,who collaborate in the fields of health,environment,nutrition,big data and artificial intelligence.1The Oil Crops Task Force Force also seeks to comprehensively guide thinking on the complex issues of agro-industrial and smallholder vegetable oil

282、s production,trade,and consumption.”“Introduction Exploring the future of vegetable oils2Figure 5 Current impacts of all food production on nature.Source:Prepared by the report editors,adapted from UNCCD(2022)12.The environmental impacts of food production52%of total agricultural land are degraded70

283、%of freshwater use are accounted by agriculture80%of global deforestation are attributed to agriculture29%of global GHGs are released by food systems into the air 70%of terrestrial biodiversity loss are caused by drivers linked to food production50%of freshwater biodiversity loss are caused by drive

284、rs linked to food production1.3 The impact and importance of vegetable oils:a comprehensive analysisAgricultural expansion is a major driver of biodiversity loss and climate change(Figure 5),but remains necessary for food production and numerous other goods and services.We focus here on vegetable oi

285、ls(Box 1),an important component of both agricultural expansion and a source of nutrition,industrial feedstocks,and fuel.Steering future vegetable oil production,trade,processing,and consumption into a direction that causes fewer negative social,environmental,and health impacts represents an importa

286、nt contribution towards goals for human rights,biodiversity,climate,chemical use,and sustainable development.Our current study has limitations.For example,we are missing many local and small-scale production systems.These include,for example,subsistence systems that have not been the subject of in-d

287、epth investigation.What are vegetable oil crops?Supplies and consumption of oils and fats are generally described in terms of seventeen commodity oils.Of these,four derive from livestock(animals)while 13 derive from plants.Here we focus on plant-derived oils and fats(referred to as vegetable oils).T

288、his selection excludes cocoa butter with an annual production of around 1.7 million tonnes,which is used nearly exclusively in making chocolate.Nor does it include oils consumed in the form of nuts(such as tung nuts,almond,walnut)or grains.Production and trade data relate primarily to crops grown an

289、d harvested for the oils that they contain(such as palm,rape,and sunflower)or for which oils represent a significant byproduct(such as cottonseed,soybean,and maize/corn).Box 1Exploring the future of vegetable oils3Nonetheless,our research indicates various patterns.For example,many oil crops are ass

290、ociated with high usage of fertiliser,pesticides,fungicides,and herbicides,the use of whichhas implications for both the environment and human health.Another example is the prevalence of negative social impacts on rural communities in contexts where governance is weak and industrial-scale systems co

291、ncentrate power in the hands of a few.We identified the socio-economic,environmental,and health impacts of different vegetable oil crops and sought commonalities and differences.We focused primarily on oil palm,soybean,rapeseed,and sunflower,but also looked at groundnut,maize,cotton,coconut,linseed,

292、and sesame,as well as oils that are increasingly seen in global markets such as shea.Vegetable oil systemsFigure 6 A conceptual framework for vegetable oil systems.Source:Prepared by the report editors,adapted from Marshall et al.(2021)13.Climate changeGlobalisation and tradeIncome growth and distri

293、butionUrbanisationPopulation growth and migrationPolitics and leadershipSocio-cultural contextExternal driversFood value chains Food production systems and input supply Storage and distribution Processing and packaging Retail and marketingFood environments Food availability Food affordability Produc

294、t properties Vendor properties Food messagingIndividual factors Economic Cognitive Aspirational SituationalConsumer behaviour Consumer behaviourDietsNutrition and health outcomesOther social economics&environmental impactsOur analysis has revealed recurrent patterns which are often more related to t

295、he scale and type of vegetable oil systems rather than the crops used in these systems.For example,the impacts of industrial-scale oil palm and soybean are more alike than industrial-scale oil palm in Southeast Asia and subsistence oil palm in West Africa.There are no inherently good or bad crops,bu

296、t there are better and worse ways to produce,trade,or use them.Recognising this,we focus more on systems of production(Figure 6),rather than the crops.For the different systems,we synthesise what is known and what we need to know for a better future.Where the data are clear,we summarise what to avoi

297、d,what to seek,and where better solutions may occur.Exploring the future of vegetable oils41.4 Vegetable oils and international agreementsThis report was developed in the context of global governance frameworks across fine thematic areas:biodiversity,climate change,human rights,sustainable developme

298、nt,and responsible use of chemicals.Considering the pressing challenges posed by biodiversity loss and climate change,the fundamental frameworks established to address these issues serve as essential pillars.To ensure the future resilience of global vegetable oil production,it is imperative to align

299、 governance strategies with the principles outlined in these agreements.Recognising the inherent interconnectedness between climate and biodiversity goals,a twinning approach is needed within the realm of effective governance,fostering synergies between efforts aimed at both aspects.Furthermore,the

300、preservation of human rights and socio-economic well-being emerges as a pivotal concern that demands attention.An awareness of international legal requirements on human rights is essential.These are set out by the UN and the International Labour Organization(ILO)in various Declarations and Conventio

301、ns developed since 1948.An exploration of voluntary standards is also warranted,including the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),as these frameworks encompass critical dimensions that must be addressed in the pursuit of holistic governance.

302、A central point of convergence across these considerations is the responsible utilisation of chemicals in agriculture.The judicious use of chemicals holds significant implications for sustainable practices across climate,biodiversity,and human rights fronts.THE KUNMING-MONTREAL GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY F

303、RAMEWORK.At the end of 2022 this framework was adopted with major goals for curbing biodiversity loss towards 2030 and 2050.Among these goals is that biodiversity should be sustainably used and managed while maintaining and enhancing natures value to people.It also includes a 30/30 target:by 2030,30

304、%of the Earths surface of land and sea should be protected.THE PARIS AGREEMENT,established on 12 December,2015,during the UN Climate Change Conference(COP21)in Paris,is a legally binding international treaty designed to combat climate change.It gained enforcement on 4 November,2016,with participatio

305、n from 196 Parties.The primary objective is to cap the global temperature rise at under 2C above pre-industrial levels and strive for 1.5C.To achieve this target,global emissions must peak by 2025 and decrease by 43%by 2030.The Paris Agreement is notable for uniting nations and focusing on adapting

306、to climate effects,necessitating transformations rooted in scientific knowledge.THE UN GUIDING PRINCIPLES ON BUSINESS AND HUMAN RIGHTS are grounded in the recognition of:States existing obligations to respect,protect and fulfil human rights and fundamental freedoms;The responsibility of business ent

307、erprises as specialised organs of society performing specialised functions,required to comply with all applicable laws and to respect human rights;and The need for rights and obligations to be matched to appropriate and effective remedies when breached.These Guiding Principles apply to all States an

308、d to all business enterprises,both transnational and ABCRecognising the inherent interconnectedness between climate and biodiversity goals,a twinning approach is needed within the realm of effective governance,fostering synergies between efforts aimed at both aspects.”“Exploring the future of vegeta

309、ble oils5others,regardless of their size,sector,location,ownership and structure.They are underpinned by existing international and national laws on protecting human rights.In the case of vegetable oils,they should translate into respect for local laws,for the rights of landowners and land users,sur

310、rounding communities,plantation and farm workers,and workers further upstream in the value chain.Mandatory as well as voluntary standards should take all these issues onboard.THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS(SDGS)are 17 United Nations-defined societal-environmental,social,and economic goals that sh

311、ould ideally be targeted in combination.However,they are prone to competing objectives and are not mandatory,which can lead to poor compliance.Vegetable oils are important for achieving no poverty(SDG 1),zero hunger(SDG 2),good health and well-being(SDG 3),and,in the form of biofuels,may play a role

312、 for clean energy(SDG 7).Furthermore,the sustainable management of vegetable oil production is important for decent work and A Congolese woman processing palm oil for food consumption and soap manufacturing,by MONUSCO Photos,2015,Flickr.economic growth(SDG 8),responsible consumption and production(S

313、DG 12),all the biospheric SDGs(6,13,14,15),and the equality related SDGs(5 and 10).The SDGs can,therefore,serve as a checklist for vegetable oils policy rather than a framework.CHEMICALS TREATIES:MONTREAL,STOCKHOLM,AND ROTTERDAM CONVENTIONS.Hazardous pesticides have far-reaching environmental and he

314、alth implications,impacting biodiversity and leaving food tainted with residues that endanger consumers.These threats extend to farming and nearby communities.Global governance of these chemicals is guided by three key treaties:the 1987 Montreal Protocol,the 1998 Rotterdam Convention,and the 2001 St

315、ockholm Convention.The Montreal Protocol and Stockholm Convention prohibit the production,use,and trade of listed pesticides.In contrast,the Rotterdam Convention operates a prior informed consent procedure,allowing parties to decline imports of pesticides under the treaty.Exploring the future of veg

316、etable oils61.5 MethodologyA team of experts selected for their geographic or thematic knowledge on vegetable oils were invited to be lead authors.This core team drew on their networks of contacts to bring in additional expertise to join or contribute to the fact finding and writing.Authorship of th

317、e full report or individual chapters was decided based on the amount of input provided.Between January and November 2023,we reviewed available publications and literature related to vegetable oils.Because of the complex nature of the topic and the often-qualitative nature of the claims and evidence,

318、we used a non-systematic literature review with narrative synthesis to generate insights about vegetable oils 14.More details on the analyses conducted for the current study are provided in the Appendix.We consulted 25 vegetable oil experts working in government,private sector,non-government,and res

319、earch sectors.Initial results from the literature review and expert consultation were discussed during a one-week workshop in June 2023,when key narratives and the structure of the report were decided.At the workshop,we also developed draft infographics for facilitating interpretation of key concept

320、s in the text.Our illustrator and designer was closely involved from the start of the writing process and present at the workshop.The draft report underwent rigorous review processes before publication,facilitated by the IUCN Secretariat.Internal reviews were initially conducted by members of the Ta

321、sk Force and the Sustainable Nutrition Scientific Board to ensure that the reports findings were accurate and aligned with the Task Forces mandate.Additionally,the final draft was subjected to external double-blind peer review by three experts who provided valuable feedback.The authors responses to

322、this feedback are publicly available on the Oil Crops Task Forces website.Photos from the one-week workshop where key narratives of the report were decided,by Abiyasa,2023.Exploring the future of vegetable oils7Oils and fats are essential to most food preparations,by U2M Brand,2020,Adobe Stock.Explo

323、ring the future of vegetable oils82.1 Background 2.1.1 Why use oils and fats?Oils and fats play an important role in our daily lives.They are present in a wide range of food and non-food products,including cosmetics,animal feed,and biofuels.The global demand for oils and fats is facilitated by advan

324、cements in extraction,refrigeration,and preservation techniques,enabling the widespread trade of oilseeds and kernels (Figure 7).Soybeans,for example,surpassed wheat as the most valuable traded agricultural commodity in 2002,while palm oils export value ranks third and 2Culinary traditions across th

325、e globe use oils and fats to enhance the flavour and texture of dishes,by Mahi,2020,Adobe Stock.Vegetable oils,their global importance and key sustainability issues is steadily approaching wheats level.Consequently,the decisions made by oils and fats traders and food manufacturers regarding the choi

326、ce of oil are not solely based on domestic factors such as production,demand,or income.Instead,these decisions are influenced by myriad factors,including consumer preferences,food culture,trade policies,global price fluctuations,desired product attributes,and the possibilities of modification.To com

327、prehend the social and environmental impact of oils and fats,it is essential to understand their characteristics,applications,and interconnectedness.This chapter delves into the basics,exploring the nature and functions of oils and fats.Exploring the future of vegetable oils9Global oil trade routes:

328、imports and exportsVegetable oils traverse the globe in a complex dance of export and import,linking agricultural landscapes and culinary cultures across continents.NINDONESIA&MALAYSIAThe two biggest export markets of palm oil,specialising in crude palm oil and palm kernel oil production.by nelzajam

329、al,2017,Adobe StockRUSSIAThe leading exporter of sunflower oil.by Pixel-Shot,2020,Adobe StockFigure 7 The global trade in vegetable oils in 2023.Source:Data compiled by the report editors from 15;for details see Appendix.Palm oilPalm kernel oilSoybean oilRapeseed oilMaize oilCoconut oilSesame oilLin

330、seed oilSunflower oil Olive oilCottonseed oilGroundnut oilImport and export routesNote:the line thickness provides a rough indicator of export volumes,with Indonesia leading as the largest vegetable oil exporter with palm oil,followed by Brazil with soybean oil.Dotted lines indicate trades that are

331、not officially recorded in FAO data.Exploring the future of vegetable oils10BRAZIL&ARGENTINAGlobally,the two greatest exporters of soybean oilby oticki,2017,Adobe StockCANADAThe dominant exporter of rapeseed oil.by doris oberfrank-list,2018,Adobe StockDomestic disappearanceCountries with values appr

332、oaching 1 represent major oil producers focused primarily on export markets.Those with values near 0.5 are also active exporters but allocate a significant portion of their production to meet domestic demand,approximately half.Countries around the 0 mark match their production closely to domestic co

333、nsumption.Conversely,nations with values below-1 stand as net importers,needing to bring in more oils than they produce to satisfy their domestic needs.10.50-0.5-1-1.5-2No dataExploring the future of vegetable oils112.1.2 Defining oils and fatsAll vegetable oils and fat molecules share the same structure(Box 2).By combining different types of fatty acids,multiple varieties of oils and fats can be