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1、Profiles and best practice guidelinesTed Trzyna,in collaboration with Joseph T.Edmiston,Glen Hyman,Jeffrey A.McNeely,Pedro da Cunha e Menezes,Brett Myrdal,Adrian Phillipsand other members of the IUCN WCPA Urban Specialist GroupCraig Groves,Series Editor;Adrian Phillips,Volume EditorUrban Protected A

2、reasDeveloping capacity for a protected planetBest Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No.22 IUCN WCPAs BEST PRACTICE PROTECTED AREA GUIDELINES SERIESIUCN-WCPAs Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines are the worlds authoritative resource for protected area managers.Involving collaboration amo

3、ng specialist practitioners dedicated to supporting better implementation in the field,they distil learning and advice drawn from across IUCN.Applied in the field,they are building institutional and individual capacity to manage protected area systems effectively,equitably and sustainably,and to cop

4、e with the myriad of challenges faced in practice.They also assist national governments,protected area agencies,non-governmental organisations,communities and private sector partners to meet their commitments and goals,and especially the Convention on Biological Diversitys Programme of Work on Prote

5、cted Areas.A full set of guidelines is available at:www.iucn.org/pa_guidelinesComplementary resources are available at:www.cbd.int/protected/tools/Contribute to developing capacity for a Protected Planet at: PROTECTED AREA DEFINITION,MANAGEMENT CATEGORIES AND GOVERNANCE TYPESIUCN defines a protected

6、 area as:A clearly defined geographical space,recognised,dedicated and managed,through legal or other effective means,to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.The definition is expanded by six management categories(one with a sub-division

7、),summarized below.Ia Strict nature reserve:Strictly protected for biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphological features,where human visitation,use and impacts are controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation valuesIb Wilderness area:Usually large unmodified or sligh

8、tly modified areas,retaining their natural character and influence,without permanent or significant human habitation,protected and managed to preserve their natural conditionII National park:Large natural or near-natural areas protecting large-scale ecological processes with characteristic species a

9、nd ecosystems,which also have environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual,scientific,educational,recreational and visitor opportunitiesIII Natural monument or feature:Areas set aside to protect a specific natural monument,which can be a landform,sea mount,marine cavern,geological feature suc

10、h as a cave,or a living feature such as an ancient groveIV Habitat/species management area:Areas to protect particular species or habitats,where management reflects this priority.Many will need regular,active interventions to meet the needs of particular species or habitats,but this is not a require

11、ment of the category V Protected landscape or seascape:Where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced a distinct character with significant ecological,biological,cultural and scenic value:and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustainin

12、g the area and its associated nature conservation and other valuesVI Protected areas with sustainable use of natural resources:Areas which conserve ecosystems,together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems.Generally large,mainly in a natural condition,wi

13、th a proportion under sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial natural resource use compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aimsThe category should be based around the primary management objective(s),which should apply to at least three-quarte

14、rs of the protected area the 75 per cent rule.The management categories are applied with a typology of governance types a description of who holds authority and responsibility for the protected area.IUCN defines four governance types.Governance by government:Federal or national ministry/agency in ch

15、arge;sub-national ministry/agency in charge;government-delegated management(e.g.to NGO)Shared governance:Collaborative management(various degrees of influence);joint management(pluralist management board;transboundary management(various levels across international borders)Private governance:By indiv

16、idual owner;by non-profit organisations(NGOs,universities,cooperatives);by for-profit organsations(individuals or corporate)Governance by indigenous peoples and local communities:Indigenous peoples conserved areas and territories;community conserved areas declared and run by local communitiesFor mor

17、e information on the IUCN definition,categories and governance type see the 2008 Guidelines for applying protected area management categories which can be downloaded at:www.iucn.org/pa_categoriesProfiles and best practice guidelinesTed Trzyna,in collaboration with Joseph T.Edmiston,Glen Hyman,Jeffre

18、y A.McNeely,Pedro da Cunha e Menezes,Brett Myrdal,Adrian Phillipsand other members of the IUCN WCPA Urban Specialist GroupCraig Groves,Series Editor;Adrian Phillips,Volume EditorUrban Protected Areasii IUCN(International Union for Conservation of Nature)IUCN helps the world find pragmatic solutions

19、to our most pressing environment and development challenges.IUCN works on biodiversity,climate change,energy,human livelihoods and greening the world economy by supporting scientific research,managing field projects all over the world,and bringing governments,NGOs,the UN and companies together to de

20、velop policy,laws and best practice.IUCN is the worlds oldest and largest global environmental organization,with more than 1,200 government and NGO members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160 countries.IUCNs work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 45 offices and hundreds of partners in

21、public,NGO and private sectors around the world.www.iucn.orgKorea National Park Service The Korea National Park Service(KNPS),established in 1987,manages 20 of the 21 national parks of the Republic of Korea,which together cover 6.6 per cent of its territory.The first protected area to be so designat

22、ed,in 1967,was Jirisan National Park in the south-central part of the Korean Peninsula.Two others are described in this volume:Bukhansan National Park at the edge of Seoul,the countrys capital,and Mudeungsan National Park in its fifth largest city,Gwangju.In 2012,KNPS,which is responsible to the Min

23、istry of Environment,began implementing a ten-year master plan aimed at ensuring a high level of professional and scientific management and high-quality tourist services.http:/english.knps.or.kr/Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da BioversidadeInstituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Biodiversidade(

24、ICMBio,Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation)manages a system of 313 federally protected areas in Brazil that cover an area of 75 million hectares of land.National parks,of which there are 70,are one of twelve categories of such protected areas and include Tijuca National Park in Rio

25、de Janeiro,which is profiled in this volume.ICMBio was created in 2007 out of Brazils main environmental agency to form an entity specifically dedicated to the management of federal protected areas.Its tasks include law enforcement,fire control,ecotourism,research,species reintroduction,and interact

26、ion with traditional populations living in and at the edges of Brazilian protected areas.www.ICMBio.gov.brConvention on Biological DiversityThe Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),which entered into force in December 1993,is an international treaty for the conservation of biodiversity,the sustai

27、nable use of the components of biodiversity and the equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources.With 193 Parties,the Convention has near universal participation among countries.The Convention seeks to address all threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services through

28、scientific assessments,the development of tools,incentives and processes,the transfer of technologies and good practices,and the full and active involvement of relevant stakeholders including indigenous and local communities,youth,NGOs,women and the business community.The tenth meeting of the Confer

29、ence of the Parties to the CBD,held in 2010,adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity for 2011-2020,comprising five strategic goals and 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets.The Plan is the overarching framework on biodiversity,not only for the biodiversity-related conventions,but for th

30、e entire United Nations system.www.cbd.int iiiIUCN WCPA Urban Specialist GroupThe Urban Specialist Group aims to strengthen the ability of the protected areas community to serve urban people,urban places and urban institutions,and promotes urban protected areas as a distinctive type of protected are

31、a.www.iucn-urban.orgIUCN World Commission on Protected Areas(WCPA)IUCN WCPA is the worlds premier network of protected area expertise.It is administered by IUCNs Programme on Protected Areas and has over 1,400 members,spanning 140 countries.IUCN WCPA works by helping governments and others plan prot

32、ected areas and integrate them into all sectors;by providing strategic advice to policy makers;by strengthening capacity and investment in protected areas;and by convening the diverse constituency of protected area stakeholders to address challenging issues.For more than 50 years,IUCN and WCPA have

33、been at the forefront of global action on protected areas.www.iucn.org/wcpaSouth African National ParksSouth African National Parks(SANParks)manages a system of 20 national parks in the Republic of South Africa covering over 3.7 million hectares of protected land representing the indigenous fauna,fl

34、ora,landscapes and associated cultural heritage of the country in arid,coastal,mountain and bushveld habitats.With the independence of South Africa in 1994,the focus for SANParks,supported by the government through the Department of Environmental Affairs,has been to make national parks more accessib

35、le to tourists in order to ensure that conservation remains a viable contributor to social and economic development in rural areas.It has continued high research and management standards,has expand the land under its protection and generates 75 per cent of its operating revenue.www.sanparks.orgSanta

36、 Monica Mountains ConservancyThe Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy is an agency of the State of California.Through direct action,alliances and partnerships,the Conservancys mission is to strategically buy back,preserve,protect,restore and enhance treasured pieces of Southern California to form an i

37、nterlinking system of urban,rural and river parks,open space,trails and wildlife habitats that are easily accessible to the general public in the second largest metropolitan area in the United States.An internationally recognized model of state government,the Conservancy has helped to create some 28

38、,000 hectares of public parkland,improved hundreds of recreational facilities,and granted funds for educational and interpretation programs that serve hundreds of thousands of people each year.www.smmc.ca.govInterEnvironment InstituteInterEnvironment Institute,based in California,is an independent p

39、ublic policy center affiliated with Claremont Graduate University.Since its founding in 1969,it has specialized in making connections that otherwise would be unlikely to happen.Internationally,it has done this by:convening and promoting high-level policy dialogues;producing resource guides that map

40、organizations;and defining the concept of sustainability,which cuts across political,social,cultural and economic,as well as ecological concerns.Thus,the Inter in InterEnvironment stands for interconnections,as well as international.Much of the Institutes work is done with or through IUCN,of which i

41、t has been a member since 1980.It provides the secretariat for the IUCN WCPA Urban Specialist Group.www.InterEnvironment.orgiv The designation of geographical entities in this book and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN,the Kore

42、a National Park Service,the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity,InterEnvironment Institute,the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Bioversidade,the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy,or South African National Parks concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or

43、of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN,KNPS,SCBD,InterEnvironment,ICMBio,SMMC or SANParks.This publication has been made possible in part by funding from the Korea National Park

44、 Service.InterEnvironment Institute,the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Bioversidade,the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy and South African National Parks provided significant in-kind contributions.Copyright:2014 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.Reproduct

45、ion of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written per

46、mission of the copyright holder.Citation:Trzyna,T.(2014).Urban Protected Areas:Profiles and best practice guidelines.Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No.22,Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.xiv+110pp.ISBN:978-2-8317-1652-7Back cover photo:Mountain lion in the Santa Monica Mountains,Los Angeles.St

47、eve Winter/National Geographic Society.2013 National Geographic Society.Used by permission.Designed by:Rick Caughman,Art5th Alley,Printed by:RDS Printing,Ontario,CaliforniaAvailable from:IUCN(International Union for Conservation of Nature)Global Protected Areas ProgrammeRue Mauverney 281196 GlandSwi

48、tzerlandTel+41 22 999 0000Fax+41 22 999 0002delwyn.dupuisiucn.orgwww.iucn.org/publications vForewordOn a recent day in crowded Seoul,Korea,an elderly couple stepped out of their apartment,took a short ride on a city bus,and went on a long walk in Bukhansan National Park,as they often do.They joined

49、many other Seoul residents who were hiking,climbing,picnicking and visiting ancient shrines along the parks granite mountain slopes and wooded valleys.They returned home well-exercised and refreshed from spending a few hours in nature.On that same day in Nairobi,Kenya,a busload of local schoolchildr

50、en watched a group of black rhino browsing in the middle of Nairobi National Park,just a few kilometres from the city centre.The park,at the edge of a large region of free-ranging wildlife,protects about 60 of these powerful animals,listed by IUCN as Critically Endangered.In London,a cabinet ministe

51、r deliberately arrived early for a press conference at the London Wetland Centre along the River Thames.He took a few minutes to collect his thoughts as he strolled along a boardwalk through a re-creation of natural reed marsh.The NGO that designed and manages the site encourages use of its well-app

52、ointed visitor centre for such high-level meetings.In Rio de Janeiro,Brazil,a university professor led a group of her students along a trail in Tijuca National Park.Stopping to survey the densely forested mountains,she explained that everything in their sight was a restoration.After the original for

53、ests were destroyed for coffee plantations,the mountains eroded,endangering the citys water supply.When they were reforested,recreational use was encouraged so that citizens would appreciate the forest and the reasons for its protection.And in Los Angeles,a young boy and his parents stepped off a bu

54、s after a short,free ride to a rugged section of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.They are immigrants who live in a rundown neighbourhood and lack the means to travel to more remote national parks.For them,this was their first experience of wild nature in their California home.The

55、se places are emblematic of urban protected areas,and the people are typical of those who use them.Although they are important for all the reasons why any protected area is important,urban protected areas are distinctive in two fundamental ways:they offer experiences in nature to the large numbers o

56、f people who live near them;and they build urban constituencies for nature conservation.As the author points out,the wildest and remotest places on Earth,the most imperilled species on Earth will be protected only if urban people care about nature where they live.Until recently,urban protected areas

57、 have been neglected by the international conservation community.That they are being given more attention is mainly due to the efforts of the Urban Specialist Group of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas.It is this group that has prepared this volume in WCPAs Best Practice Protected Area Gu

58、idelines Series.It is written primarily for managers of urban protected areas and those responsible for protected area systems;however it should also be useful to city officials,urban planners and others working to infuse nature into the built environment.And it will be increasingly relevant to the

59、managers of more remote protected areas,as many of these areas are now affected by urbanization in some way.As our cities continue to grow,we must not abandon the protection of natural areas to the pressures of urbanization,but should instead defend such places,and indeed try to create new space for

60、 nature within the urban fabriceven within the centres of cities.We also need to make nature more accessible to people,providing interpretation and education wherever possible.Connecting people to nature should be an imperative for the whole conservation movement,and urban protected areas are well p

61、laced to do this.Thus urban protected areas are vital to fulfilling both parts of IUCNs nature-focused and people-oriented mission:to influence,encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equ

62、itable and ecologically sustainable.Societies throughout the world must of course include the greater part of humanity that now lives in towns and cities;and a concern for equity must of course include a view about the needs of urban people.We believe that urban protected areas,as described here,can

63、 help bridge the gap between the compelling requirement of conservation and the social and economic imperatives of our times.Ernesto Enkerlin HoeflichChairIUCN World Commission on Protected AreasBraulio Ferreira de Souza DiasExecutive SecretaryConvention on Biological DiversityPark Bo HwanChairmanKo

64、rea National Park Servicevi PrefaceThis book is in three parts:Part1,Urbanprotectedareascontextand concept,provides a brief context to the growing interest in urban protected areas and then explains what urban protected areas are,why they matter and how they are distinctive.Part2,Profilesofurbanprot

65、ectedareas,describes protected areas in 15 metropolitan areas around the world.Part3,Bestpracticeguidelines,isorganized into four sections:protected areas and people;protected areas and places;protected areas and institutions;and the creation,promotion and improvement of urban protected areas.The gu

66、idelines are illustrated by references to examples taken from the 15 profiles,as well as from other locations.As far as possible,a global perspective has been taken but inevitably some countries figure more in the range of examples than others.Urban Protected Areas is in the well-established Best Pr

67、actice Guidelines series of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas.As is the case with other publications in the series,it aims to consolidate current best practiceand,like them,it will need updating over time in the light of new experience.When this happens it will include more from the exper

68、ience of other countries not yet covered here.It is designed primarily for managers of urban protected areas and those responsible for protected area systems,but it has been written in non-technical language with a broader readership in mind.Little has yet been published about the subject of urban p

69、rotected areas,so this text will introduce a number of ideas that may be new to protected area managers.However,many of the methods used to manage protected areas in urban environments are the same as those required elsewhere.This volume emphasizes management approaches that are especially relevant

70、to urban protected areas.Since these areas,and the political and social contexts in which they reside,vary greatly,it does not provide detailed recommendations,but instead it:sets out general guidelines;offers examples of problems,opportunities and solutions;and lists sources of further information

71、and assistance.This publication originated in a meeting of the IUCN WCPA Urban Specialist Group,which was convened following a workshop on urban protected areas at the Fifth IUCN World Parks Congress held in Durban,South Africa,in September 2003.The proceedings of that workshop,The Urban Imperative,

72、were published in 2005.Over the past decade,the Urban Specialist Group has held,and participated in,numerous meetings around the world to discuss urban protected areas.The groups leaders have visited many such areas and met with those concerned with their management.Production was authorized in earl

73、y 2012.An advisory group was appointed to guide the project,and workshops were held in Los Angeles,Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town to develop a detailed outline.A workshop and informal consultations at the IUCN World Conservation Congress,held in Jeju,Republic of Korea,November 2012,helped to refine th

74、e outline and identify additional sites and sources of information.Many members of the Urban Specialist Group have contributed to the project,as have numerous others.They are listed in the Acknowledgements section.As indicated above,the author recognizes that there will be a need to update this publ

75、ication from time to time.A major objective of updating would be to get a wider range of examples from around the world than has been possible to date.Suggestions for improving it,as well as accounts of experiences in using it,are welcome and may be sent to the author,Ted Trzyna,Ted_TrzynaInterEnvir

76、onment.org.viiAcknowledgementsMany people and organizations contributed to the project that produced this volume.I am grateful for their help.The project would not have been possible without a generous grant from the Korea National Park Service(KNPS).When KNPS offered to fund activities of IUCNs WCP

77、A,Nik Lopoukhine,then WCPA Chair,and Trevor Sandwith,Director of the IUCN Secretariats Global Protected Areas Programme,suggested that this long-planned project be included.Dongwon Shin,then KNPS Executive Director,agreed.Several other organizations provided substantial in-kind support:the Instituto

78、 Chico Mendes de Conservao da Bioversidade,Brazils protected areas agency;the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy;South African National Parks;and my own organization,InterEnvironment Institute.The advisory group for the project quickly became a team of collaborators.It consisted of:Joseph T.Edmiston

79、,Executive Director,Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy;Jeffrey A.McNeely,Senior Science Advisor,IUCN;Pedro da Cunha e Menezes,a Brazilian diplomat who has served as Manager of Tijuca National Park in Rio de Janeiro and as a Director in the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Bioversidade;Brett My

80、rdal,General Manager,Environmental Planning,South African National Parks,and a former Manager of Table Mountain National Park;and Adrian Phillips,a British conservationist who has served as a WCPA Chair,IUCN Programme Director,and Director General of the Countryside Commission for England and Wales.

81、John Davidson,cofounder and former Chief Executive of Groundwork,a British environmental regeneration organization,who also founded InterClimate Network,was actively involved in planning the project until his untimely death in May 2012.Glen Hyman of the Institut dtudes Politiques de Paris helped sha

82、pe the overall concept.He led two of the workshops held in early 2012 to plan the book(in Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town);he made presentations and consulted with delegates at the IUCN WCC(Jeju,Korea);and he drafted the parts of the book relating to Mumbai,Nairobi,So Paulo,human-wildlife interaction a

83、nd several other themes.Rick Caughman of Art5th Alley in Ontario,California,served as graphic designer.The project manager for the IUCN Secretariat was Pedro Rosabal,Deputy Director of the Global Protected Areas Programme,who was patient and understanding as unavoidable circumstances delayed progres

84、s.To gather information and ideas,I have visited protected areas in many cities around the world,including eight of those profiled in Part 2.Listed with my main contacts in each city,these were:CapeTown:BrettMyrdal,SouthAfrican National Parks,and George Davis and Tanya Layne,South African National B

85、iodiversity Institute;HongKong:FookYeeWong,FriendsofHongKongCountryParks,andEdmundYui-fong Lam,Hong Kong Country Parks Authority;London:DavidGoode,formerlyoftheGreater London Authority,and Kevin Peberdy,Wildlife and Wetlands Trust;LosAngeles:JosephT.Edmiston,Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy;Nairob

86、i:GideonAmboga,formerlyoftheKenya Wildlife Service;RiodeJaneiro:PedrodaCunhaeMenezes,Brazilian Ministry of External Relations;SanFrancisco:GregMoore,GoldenGate National Parks Conservancy;and Taipei:ShinWang,NationalTaiwanUniversity,Taiwan,Province of China.Glen Hymans visits to three cities resulted

87、 in profiles of protected areas.Listed with his main contacts,these were:Mumbai:Sunil Limaye,Sanjay Gandhi National Park;Nairobi:MichaelWanjau,KenyaWildlifeService(as well as Gideon Amboga,listed above);and SoPaulo:RodrigoVictor,ForestInstitute,State of So Paulo.For the profiles of protected areas i

88、n the other five cities,my main contacts were:Gwangju:Bong-hoHan,SeoulUniversity;Kingston:SusanOtuokon,Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust;Marseille:LouiseLzy-Bruno,UniversitdeParisOuestNanterreLaDfense;Seoul:JonghoonKi,MyongjiUniversity;and Sydney:MikePatrick,NewSouthWalesParks and Wildlife

89、Service.viii In addition to those listed above,the following people provided information,advice,contacts and comments on drafts:Susan M.Allen,Grahal Benatti,Alfred Bernhard,Fabiana Bicudo,Ernesto Castro,Emily Caughman,Tim Caughman,Nicholas Conner,Lisa Duarte,Penelope Figgis,Maria de Lourdes Figueira

90、,Peter Frost,Paul Gaithitu,Russell Galt,Lloyd Gardner,Karl Heinz Gaudry,Gary Geller,Paolo Giuntarelli,Paddy Gordon,Craig Groves,Lucy Hutcherson,Bernardo Issa,Peter Jacobs,Anne W.Kahihia,Tania Katzschner,Wanja Kimani,Julius Kipngetich,Wilson Korir,Mark Lellouch,Amy Lethbridge,Nora Liang,Hann Sheng Li

91、nn,Emma Lynch,Lisa McDonald,Antonio Machado,Geoffroy Mauvais,Chad Moore,Leigh-Ann Mossop,Amauri de Sena Motta,Gregg Oelofse,Michael Paparian,Alexandre M.Pedroso,Zwai Peter,George Rabb,Debra Roberts,Bittu Sahgal,Richard Saunier,Marinez Scherer,John Senior,Rorie Skei,Michael Slayen,Chris Spence,Daniel

92、 Toffoli,Branca Tressoldi,Karen Trevio,Ray Victurine,John Waugh,David Welch,Judy Ling Wong and Henrique Zaluar.I apologize if I have left anyone out.All errors of fact,faults of judgement and omissions are my responsibility.T.T.ixContentsForeword vPreface Acknowledgements ContentsExecutive Summary P

93、art 1:Urban protected areas context and concept 1 1.Context 2 2.Urban protected areas what they are 4 3.Impacts of urbanization on protected areas 6 4.How urban protected areas are distinctive 6 5.Why urban protected areas matter 7 References and selected resources 8 Box 1:Kinds of human settlements

94、 ranked by size 2 Box 2:Key Definitions 3 Box 3:Degrees of naturalness 4 Box 4:Forms of international recognition of urban protected areas 5Part 2:Profiles of urban protected areas 11 Note:The 15 profiles 11 World map showing location of areas profiled 12 1.Australia:Royal National Park,Sydney 14 2.

95、Brazil:Tijuca National Park,Rio de Janeiro 16 3.Brazil:Cantareira Range Complex of Protected Areas,So Paulo 18 4.China:Hong Kong Country Parks,Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 20 5.China:YangmingshanNationalPark,Taipei,Taiwan,ProvinceofChina22 6.France:Calanques National Park,Marseille 24 7.I

96、ndia:Sanjay Gandhi National Park,Mumbai 26 8.Jamaica:Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park.Kingston 28 9.Kenya:Nairobi National Park,Nairobi 30 10.Republic of Korea:Bukhansan National Park,Seoul 32 11.Republic of Korea:Mudeungsan Provincial Park,Gwangju 34 12.South Africa:Table Mountain Nationa

97、l Park and a municipal nature Reserve,Cape Town 36 13.United Kingdom:London Wetland Centre,London 40 14.USA:Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area and protected areas in the San Gabriel Mountains,Los Angeles,California 42 15.USA:Golden Gate National Recreation Area,San Francisco,California

98、46 References,selected resources and notes on the profiled areas 48x Chapter 6:Case Studies 71 6.1 The Lintulahdet Life Project:Restoring wetlands in Finland 74 6.2 Asiatic black bear restoration in South Korea 76 6.3 The Fandriana Marolambo Forest Landscape Restoration Project in Madagascar 78 6.4

99、Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme,Working for Woodlands,South Africa:Poverty,carbon and restoration 80 6.5 Applying traditional ecological knowledge to forest restoration in Lacandon forest,Mexico 82 6.6 Rehabilitation of the lower delta of the Senegal River in Mauritania 84 6.7 Restoration

100、in protected areas of the Atlantic Forest in Brazil 86 6.8 Habitat 141:Restoring habitats and linking protected areas in southern Australia 88 6.9 Restoring the land and honouring the history of Lyell Island in Gwaii Haanas,Canada 91 6.10 Restoring the marshlands of Iraq 93 6.11 The Springbrook Rain

101、forest Project:Restoring World Heritage rainforests in Australia 96 6.12 Oyster reef restoration in Canaveral National Seashore,USA 99References 101Bibliography 115Glossary 117Appendix 1:Index to Best Practices 119 Part 3:Best practice guidelines 51 Note:The 30 guidelines Guidelines 1-11:Urban prote

102、cted areas and people 1.Provide access for all;reach out to diverse ethnic groups and the underprivileged 52 2.Engender a local sense of ownership 55 3.Take advantage of volunteers and support groups 57 4.Communicate carefully 58 5.Demonstrate,facilitate and promote good environmental behaviour 60 6

103、.Demonstrate,facilitate and promote the health benefits of contact with nature and of good eating habits 61 7.Prevent littering 62 8.Prevent and prosecute crime against people and property 64 9.Reduce human-wildlife interaction and conflict;keep aware of emerging infectious diseases 65 10.Control po

104、aching 68 11.Control invasive species of animals and plants 69Guidelines 12-17:Urban protected areas and places 12.Promote connections to other natural areas 74 13.Help infuse nature into the built environment and break down the cultural barriers between the natural and the urban 77 14.Control encro

105、achment 80 15.Monitor and manage water 80 16.Manage wildfires 82 17.Reduce impacts of noise and artificial nighttime light;keep aware of research on electromagnetic radiation 83Guidelines 18-22:Urban protected areas and institutions 18.Cooperate with agencies that have shared or adjoining jurisdicti

106、ons 86 19.Cooperate with institutions that have complementary missions 87 20.Cast a wide net for advocates and allies 90 21.Cooperate with universities in training managers for urban protected areas;facilitate use of these areas for academic research and advanced learning 91 22.Learn from others exp

107、erience with collaboration;pay careful attention to structure and process,as well as substance 92 Guidelines 23-30:Promoting,creating and improving urban protected areas 23.Promote and defend urban protected areas 93 24.Work to make urban protected areas national and global conservation priorities 9

108、4 25.Create and expand urban protected areas 95 26.Promote rules and organizational cultures that respect the differences between urban and more remote protected areas 96 27.Recognize that political skills are critical to success,strengthen them and build political capital 97 28.Seek funding from a

109、wide range of sources 98 29.Take advantage of international organizations and exchanges 99 30.Improve urban protected areas through research and evaluation 100 References and selected resources 102 xiExecutive SummaryUrban protected areas:a matter of crucial concernOurs has become a planet of urban

110、dwellers in a very short time.Already,over half of humanity lives in urban areas.Two thirds will do so in the lifetimes of most people now living on Earth.This trend is already having profound consequences,for the environment and for people.Everywhere nature is being squeezed and people are losing c

111、ontact with it.The implications are many and diverse,but they make the conservation of nature ever more urgent and often more difficult to deliver.It is this that makes urban protected areas a matter of crucial concern.What they are Urban protected areas are protected areas situated in or at the edg

112、e of larger population centres.They meet IUCNs definition of a protected area and can be in any of its six Management Categories.In governance terms,most of them are the responsibility of national,state or provincial,or local governments;others are managed by NGOs or businesses;and some are collabor

113、ative or community efforts.They do not include conventional urban parks with lawns,flowerbeds and sports fields.How they are distinctive Urban protected areas are distinctive in several ways.They:Receivelargenumbersofvisitors,including many who visit frequently,even daily.Many of these visitors lack

114、 experience of wilder forms of nature.They tend to be much more diverse ethnically and economically than visitors to more remote protected areas;Relatetonumerousactorsintheurbanarena,including government decision-makers,communications media,opinion leaders,and key educational and cultural institutio

115、ns;Arethreatenedbyurbansprawlandintensifica-tion of urban development;Aredisproportionatelyaffectedbycrime,vandalism,littering,dumping,and light and noise pollution;and Aresubjecttosuchurbanedgeeffectsasmore frequent and more severe fires,air and water pollution,and the introduction of invasive alie

116、n species.Why they have a crucial roleUrban protected areas are important for all the reasons any protected area is important,such as providing ecosystem services,protecting species and supporting the local economy with income from tourism.However,they have a crucial role that sets them apart from o

117、ther protected areas.They provide opportunities for large numbers of urban people to experience nature,including many people who may not be able to visit more remote protected areas.This is important for two reasons:Regularcontactwithnatureisgoodforpeople.Aside from the benefits of outdoor exercise,

118、there is growing scientific evidence to support the idea that spending time in nature improves physical and mental health.Urban people are crucial for nature conservation,nationally and globally.Towns and cities are where most people live,where wealth is concentrated,and where communications and the

119、 media are based.Political leaders are under ever greater pressure to listen to what their electorate tells them is important.Conservation depends on support from urban voters,donors andcommunicators.Yetpeoplelivingincities have less and less contact with nature.Reconnecting them with nature is impo

120、rtant,if they are to tell their leaders that nature conservation is a priority.Profiles of urban protected areasUrban protected areas in 15 metropolitan areas are profiled in Part 2 of this volume.They represent different world regions,socioeconomic situations and natural environments,and they vary

121、greatly in terms of size and management styles:1.Australia:Sydney:Royal National Park has roads and facilities that make it feel safe to urban people disinclined to visit a more rugged,less developed park.xii 2.Brazil:Rio de Janeiro:Tijuca National Park,covered by almost entirely restored tropical r

122、ainforest,is managed jointly by the national and municipal governments.3.Brazil:So Paulo:The Cantareira Range complex of protected areas is a key part of a 2.3-million-hectare greenbelt.4.China:Hong Kong Special Administrative Region:The Hong Kong Country Parks cover 40 per cent of Hong Kongs otherw

123、ise developed territory.5.China:Taipei,Taiwan,Province of China:YangmingshanNationalParkisnotableforitsuniformed and highly motivated volunteer corps.6.France:Marseille:Calanques National Park includes islands and areas of sea,as well as forests,shrublands,vineyards and a cave with 27,000-year-old p

124、aintings.7.India:Mumbai:Sanjay Gandhi National Park contains several sacred sites and is home to a sizeable population of leopards.8.Jamaica:Kingston:Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park is managed by an NGO under contract with the national government.9.Kenya:Nairobi:Nairobi National Park,the

125、protected corner of a large savanna ecosystem,has an impressive array of wildlife species.10.Republic of Korea:Seoul:Bukhansan National Parks granite mountain slopes and wooded valleys can receive over 10 million visits a year.11.Republic of Korea:Gwangju:Mudeungsan National Park has buffer zones en

126、forced by the city government that protect it from advancing urban development.12.South Africa:Cape Town:Table Mountain National Park,part of a natural World Heritage site,protects unparalleled floral diversity.13.United Kingdom:London:Near the heart of the city,the London Wetland Centre is a re-cre

127、ation of wetlands,created and managed by an NGO.14.USA:Los Angeles,California:The Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area is a cooperative effort of the national and California state governments.15.USA:San Francisco,California:Golden Gate National Recreation Area,created in response to a cit

128、izens movement,includes major historic as well as natural sites.Best practice guidelinesIn Part 3,30 guidelines are set out in four groups,with examples.These guidelines are relevant to any protected area,but especially those in or adjoining large population centres:Guidelines 1-11:Urban protected a

129、reas and people1.Provide access for all;reach out to diverse ethnic groups and the underprivileged.For example,accommodate disabled people and choose words and symbols for compliance signs carefully.2.Engender a local sense of ownership.Engage writers,artists and other creative people and draw on th

130、eir works and ideas.Promote appreciation of cultural,as well as natural assets.3.Take advantage of volunteers and support groups.Tap into the large numbers of urban volunteers who can include many highly motivated and well-educated people.4.Communicate carefully and use a range of communication tech

131、nologies.In engaging with different kinds of audiences,listen carefully and tailor messages to each.Consider the benefits of using websites,blogs,social media and mobile apps,as well as print publications.5.Demonstrate,facilitate and promote good environmental behaviour.Provide information about the

132、 causes and consequences of climate change.Encourage energy efficiency,energy and water conservation,and the reduction,reuse and recycling of materials.6.Demonstrate,facilitate and promote the health benefits of contact with nature and of good eating habits.Help people understand that spending time

133、in nature improves physical and mental health.Make available nutritious,local and sustainable fresh food.7.Prevent littering.Draw on the results of local research on littering behaviour.Clean up litter frequently and provide plenty of containers.8.Prevent and prosecute crime against people and xiiip

134、roperty.Work closely with local law-enforcement agencies.Dispute the attitude that destruction of habitat is a victimless crime.Combat vandalism,including graffiti.9.Reduce human-wildlife interaction and conflict;keep aware of emerging infectious diseases.Help people protect themselves from predator

135、s and seek to maintain a balance between predators and their wild prey.Encourage a respectful attitude toward wildlife.Help people understand that degraded habitats encourage the transmission of diseases between other animals and humans.10.Control poaching.Enforce laws,participate in interagency ant

136、i-poaching efforts and understand the role of organized crime.Provide alternative sources of edible and medicinal plants where possible.11.Control invasive species of animals and plants.Realize that the main pathways by which invasive alien species invade new territory are urban.Survey lands and wat

137、ers regularly to detect new invasions.Participate in local and national partnerships for prevention,early detection,eradication and control.Guidelines 12-17:Urban protected areas and places12.Promote connections to other natural areas.Cooperate with other public agencies and NGOs to contain or guide

138、 urban sprawl and create and maintain buffer zones and corridors that connect to other natural areas and rural lands.13.Help infuse nature into the built environment and break down the cultural barriers between the natural and the urban.Participate in:region-wide nature conservation coalitions;proje

139、cts to develop comprehensive local biodiversity strategies;and efforts to protect,restore and introduce natural elements in the built environment.14.Control encroachment.Keep vigilant,enforce the law,seek help from local authorities and enlist the cooperation of local people.15.Monitor and manage wa

140、ter.Keep aware of water quantity and quality trends and projections due to climate change,and work closely with those who share responsibility for water management.16.Manage wildfires.Act aggressively to contain fires that threaten human life and property,control fires that threaten natural species

141、and ecosystems,work closely with those responsible for fire prevention and control in neighbouring urban areas,and keep aware of wildfire trends and projections due to climate change.17.Reduce impacts of noise and artificial nighttime light;keep aware of research on electromagnetic radiation.Promote

142、 appreciation of natural sounds and the night sky.Guidelines 18-22:Urban protected areas and institutions18.Cooperate with agencies that have shared or adjoining jurisdictions.Consider setting up formal or informal structures to facilitate coordination,and making written agreements on managing speci

143、fic problems.19.Cooperate with institutions that have complementary missions.Encourage and help natural history museums,zoos,aquaria and botanic gardens to provide information and exhibits about nature and conservation challenges in their regions.20.Cast a wide net for advocates and allies.Engage wi

144、th neighbours,support them whenever possible and seek allies from new sectors.21.Cooperate with universities in training managers for urban protected areas;facilitate use of these areas for academic research and advanced learning.Help disseminate and archive research results.22.Learn from others exp

145、erience with collaboration;pay careful attention to structure and process,as well as substance.Take advantage of people with entrepreneurial skills and experts in convening and negotiation.Guidelines 23-30:Promoting,creating and improving urban protected areas23.Promote and defend urban protected ar

146、eas.Understand their importance for conservation nationally and globally,as well as locally.Tailor and convey this message to different constituencies.24.Work to make urban protected areas national and global conservation priorities.Include them in conservation strategies and protected area system p

147、lans.xiv 25.Create and expand urban protected areas.Examine possible locations and work with land-use planning authorities to include protected areas as part of projected urbanization.26.Promote rules and organizational cultures that respect the differences between urban and more remote protected ar

148、eas.Educate conservation colleagues about these differences.27.Recognize that political skills are critical to success,strengthen them and build political capital.Improve staff political skills through training and mentoring.Organize visits and events for local leaders.28.Seek funding from a wide ra

149、nge of sources.Draw from the full range of funding sources available to support protected areas generally,as well as sources unique to a metropolitan area.29.Take advantage of international organizations and exchanges.Participate in them and draw on their resources as appropriate.30.Improve urban pr

150、otected areas through research and evaluation.Develop research agendas and help scholars to understand that urban protected areas are every bit as much proper protected areas as are more remote national parks and reserves.Urban protected areas and the future of protected areasAs urbanization continu

151、es apace,taking many different forms and spreading ever further outwards into lands that were previously unaffected by towns and cities,more and more protected areas become subject to its influence.So the experience that has hitherto been gained in long-established urban protected areas,and the corr

152、esponding concepts that have been developed there,will be increasingly important elsewhere.Every one of these lessons is therefore growing in importance in the management of protected areas generally,and urban protected areas may be ahead in the development of solutions.Part 1 Urban protected areas

153、context and conceptPart 1 Urban protected areas context and concept2|Urban Protected Areas1.ContextOurs has become a planet of urban dwellers in a very short time.Already,over half of humanity live in urban areas.Two thirds will do so in the lifetimes of most people now living on Earth.This trend is

154、 already having profound consequences,for the environment and for people.Everywhere nature is being squeezed and people are losing contact with it.The implications are many and diverse,but they make the conservation of nature ever more urgent and often more difficult to deliver.It is this that makes

155、 urban protected areas a matter of crucial concern.The United Nations estimate that only 30 per cent of people lived in towns and cities in 1950.This rose to 50 per cent by 2007.Between 2010 and 2030,the worlds urban population is projected to increase from 3.6 billion to 5 billion,raising the propo

156、rtion of urban dwellers to 60 per cent;it will be 67 per cent by 2050.Almost all this increase will take place in developing regions.Based on current trends,most of these new urban dwellers will live in overcrowded slums,often situated on marginal and dangerous land,without sanitation or easy access

157、 to clean water.According to the Cities Alliance(2001),a World Bank-based partnership of official development agencies and global associations of local authorities,ignoring this policy challenge risks condemning hundreds of millions of people to an urban future of misery,insecurity,and environmental

158、 degradation on a truly awesome scale.Contrary to a commonly held belief,megacities(urban agglomerations of 10 million inhabitants or more)account for less than four per cent of the worlds population.Most urban dwellers live in settlements with fewer than half a million inhabitants.Some of the world

159、s fastest growing cities have between one and five million people or are much smaller.The reasons for this growing urbanization are complex.Rural-to-urban migration and international migration account for most of it,but migration from cities to rural areas that then become urbanized also occurs.Wars

160、 can drive people into cities,but they can also have the opposite effect,depending on where people feel safer.Natural disasters can cause people to move out of cities,but these people may then contribute to urban growth elsewhere.Box 1KINDS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS RANKED BY SIZETerms used to describe t

161、he size or character of human settlements are rarely precise.The following are some widely used English-language terms with generally accepted definitions.They relate to space and people,rather than to governmental jurisdictions.Hamlet:a settlement smaller than a village Village or commune:a rural c

162、ommunity smaller than a town Town:a compactly settled area,larger than a village but smaller than a city City:a large or important populated place larger than a town Micropolis:a growing smaller city Metropolis:an important city and the densely populated surrounding areas that are socially and econo

163、mically integrated with it Urban agglomeration or conurbation:includes a central city and neighbouring cities linked to it,e.g.by continuous built-up areas,or by patterns of commuting Megacity:an urban agglomeration of 10 million or more Megapolis or mega-region:an integrated network of metropolitan

164、 and micropolitan areas.Megalopolis:a large and highly connected urban region.Tokyo,with 34.8 million people,is the most populous urban region in the world.Although nature is highly valued in Japanese culture,Tokyo has few natural areas(see the photo of one of these areas on page 101).Lukas Kurtz/Cr

165、eative Commons BY-2.0.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and conceptUrban Protected Areas|3As the world urbanizes,the distinction between urban and rural becomes less meaningful.For centuries,city and countryside have been seen as opposites.Now,in much of the world,differences between urban and ru

166、ral communities are becoming blurred as advanced technologies and the global economy penetrate areas formerly considered remote,as farming becomes ever more industrialized,and as urban and rural areas become more linked and interdependent.One feature of this trend is that urban settlements now take

167、many diverse forms(see Box 1).These global trends may be clear,but such aggregated data provides only crude measures.Moreover,these figures are based on national definitions of urban that use different criteria,and on numbers that sometimes derive from outdated or questionable census data.They also

168、hide wide regional and national variations in the degree of urbanization and the speed at which it is growing.According to the United Nations Population Division(2011),the proportion of people living in urban areas in the Americas,Europe and Oceania already exceeds 70 per cent.Although the figures f

169、or Africa and Asia are currently much lower,39 per cent and 44 per cent respectively,many cities in those regions will double their populations in the next 10 to 15 years.There are pronounced differences among countries within regions.In Asia,the urbanization figure is 17 per cent in Nepal and 18 pe

170、r cent in Sri Lanka,rising to 91 per cent in Japan and nearly 100 per cent in several Gulf countries.Rapidly urbanizing China has just passed the half-way mark,at 51 per cent.In Africa,the degree of urbanization ranges from 11 per cent in Burundi and 15 per cent in Malawi,to over 70 per cent in Alge

171、ria,Gabon,Libya and Tunisia.In the Americas,it is less than 45 per cent in Belize and 49 per cent in Guatemala,but more than 85 per cent in Argentina,Chile,Uruguay and Venezuela.Almost all protected areas are affected by urbanization,whether they are in urban or more remote settings.In turn,protecte

172、d areas can be used as a tool to limit or shape the growth of towns and cities.The pressures that urban areas exert on the natural world in general and protected areas in particular are exacerbated by the effects of climate change,especially more frequent and more intense weather events,and rising s

173、ea levels.More intense weather events demonstrate the value of protected areas to cities.For example,the unprecedented monsoon rainstorm that dumped almost a metre of rain on Mumbai,India,in 2005,caused severe flooding and loss of life,but it could have been much worse had it not been for Sanjay Gan

174、dhi National Park(see pages 26-27).Rising sea levels,combined with storm surges,will force migration to higher ground.Roughly a billion people live at sea level or just a few metres above it,and many of the worlds cities are situated in coastal lowlands.As conditions worsen,where will these people g

175、o?How will their resettlement,guided or unguided,affect protected areas?Rising seas will also submerge low-lying coastal protected areas in and near cities,making nature less accessible to urban residents and putting pressure instead on inland protected areas.As such coastal protected areas are dest

176、royed,the buffering role that they can play in offsetting the effects of storm surges,for example,will be eroded,leaving urban populations more at risk.The cities most immediately vulnerable to sea-level rise are Asian megacities sitting on subsiding river delta land.However,many other coastal citie

177、s throughout the world are vulnerable to flooding from storm surges,and will become uninhabitable well before they disappear underwater because of waterlogging and saltwater intrusion.More than words can tell,an interactive map posted by (2014)shows in graphic detail the inundations that would occur

178、 with quite small level global sea rises.This is the context in which we have focused on urban protected areas.Geographically,politically and socially they are at the front line of the tensions between the natural world that humankind inherited from the past and the increasingly urban-dominated one,

179、affected by a changing climate,that we are making for the future.Box 2KEY DEFINITIONS Nature in the context of protected areas,as defined by IUCN,always refers to biodiversity,at genetic,species and ecosystem level,and often also refers to geodiversity,landform and broader natural values(Dudley 2008

180、).Natural is generally used to describe anything that has not been made or significantly changed by humanssee also Box 3.Biodiversity,a contraction of biological diversity,is defined by Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity(1992):the variability among living organisms from all sources

181、including,inter alia,terrestrial,marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;this includes diversity within species,between species and of ecosystems.Article 2 defines ecosystem as a dynamic complex of plant,animal and micro-organism communities and their

182、non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.While meanings of nature and biodiversity overlap,there are important differences.Nature includes geological and geomorphological features and processes(sometimes called geodiversity);it also includes aesthetic,spiritual and other cultural elem

183、ents not usually associated with biodiversity.Among these cultural elements are landscapes and wild plants and animals appreciated for their beauty,as well as the history and legends associated with them.Biodiversity includes cultivated plants and domesticated animals.In the context of nature conser

184、vation,the words native or indigenous refer to organisms that occur naturally in a particular ecosystem or habitat without direct or indirect human actionssee also Box 3.(This is discussed further in Guideline 11,Control invasive alien species of animals and plants,along with explanations of such wo

185、rds as alien and naturalised).The words wild and wilderness are commonly used to describe areas that are uncultivated or uninhabited.In some countries,wilderness has a statutory definition,as in the Wilderness Act of 1964 in the United States:A wilderness.is an area where the earth and its community

186、 of life are untrammeled by man,where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and concept4|Urban Protected AreasUrban protected areas are at the heart of the struggle to create more sustainable prospects for both nature and people.Their importance cannot be

187、over-stated.2.Urban protected areas:What they areWe use the term urban protected areas to mean protected areas in or at the edge of larger population centres.Each phrase or word needs further explanation:A protected area is defined by IUCN as a clearly defined geographical space,recognised,dedicated

188、,and managed,through legal or other effective means,to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values(Dudley,2008).Edge is difficult to define exactly,because local situations vary.In this context,suburban areas are considered urban(the terms peri

189、-urban,urban fringe,and rural fringe are also used to describe the zone immediately surrounding an urban area;where an urban area abuts wildlands,the term wildland-urban interface is sometimes used).A larger population centre for this purpose can be anything from a town to a megacity(see Box 1).The

190、words city and town are used to describe urban areas,rather than local government arrangements or their geographic jurisdictions.The IUCN definition of a protected area refers to the long-term conservation of nature.Nature and natural are terms that can have various meanings in urban contexts.(See B

191、ox 2 for a discussion of these concepts.)Box 3DEGREES OF NATURALNESS In the context of urban protected areas,it may be useful to think of degrees of naturalness,from the most natural to the least:10 Natural virgin system(only natural elements and processes are present)9 Natural system(few exotic spe

192、cies are present)8 Sub-natural system(there is possibly an extended presence of wild exotic species,but with low impact)7 Quasi-natural system(extensive human activities,but with low physical impact)6 Semi-natural system(human infrastructure is scarce or concentrated;wild exotic species are possibly

193、 dominant,with native species considerably reduced)5 Cultural self-maintained system(processes are conditioned by extensive human activities,with native species altered and occasionally managed)4 Cultural assisted system(there are important infrastructures and/or conditioning of the physical environ

194、ment,with forced biological production and moderate addition of matter,usually with pollution added)3 Highly intervened system(still includes areas with natural,cultivated,or breeding biological production,mixed in a mosaic with buildings and other infrastructure)2 Semi-transformed system(biological

195、 production is not dominant;human elements predominate)1 Transformed system(human processes govern,with clear dominance of artificial elements)0 Artificial system(there is no self-maintained macroscopic life;microscopic life is absent or in containers)(adapted from Machado,2004).When presenting this

196、 index at conferences,its author,the Spanish biologist and conservationist Antonio Machado,sometimes uses an orchestral metaphor:above 5,nature holds the baton;below 5,man holds it.The urban protected areas described or mentioned in this book generally fall between 8 and 6 on this scale.Parts of the

197、m may fall in 9 or 5.By contrast,most urban parks are likely to fall into point 3 on the scale.While they may contain quite varied plant and animal life,this is often made up mainly of plant species that are not native to the area,as well as non-native animals.For example,New York Citys Central Park

198、 is sometimes cited for its high biodiversity as it has some 479 species(Explorers Club,2008),but most of these are not native to the region or even to North America.Nevertheless,non-native species can play a significant role in giving urban people some experience of nature.Many urban protected area

199、s were originally at the outer edge of a city but were gradually surrounded by expanding urban development.This was the case with 10,400-hectare Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai,Indiathe large green space at the center of the photo.NASA.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and conceptUrban Prot

200、ected Areas|5Box 4Conventional urban parks,with lawns,flowerbeds,playgrounds and sports fields,are not considered to be urban protected areas,although such places can be very useful in sustaining native animal species and connecting natural areas.(See also Box 3 and Guideline 12,Promote connections

201、to other natural areas.)Urban protected areas have no formal recognition internationally,nor is there a global inventory of urban protected areas.The World Database of Protected Areas(WDPAmanaged by the United Nations Environment Programmes World Conservation Monitoring Centre)includes many such are

202、as,but does not identify them separately(although maps on WDPAs interactive website,are helpful in identifying protected areas in and near urbanized places).However,a few national governments do identify urban protected areas:in Finland,for example,the Land Use and Building Act as amended in 2000 sp

203、ecifically authorizes designation of national urban parks that include natural areas important for the preservation of urban biodiversity.In terms of IUCNs Protected Area Management Categories,most urban protected areas are recognized either as Category II(national park)or Category V(protected lands

204、cape or seascape).However,there are urban protected areas in all six IUCN categories.In terms of other forms of international recognition,urban protected areas include marine protected areas,World Heritage sites,UNESCO Geoparks,Ramsar sites and biosphere reserves.Examples of all of these are listed

205、in Box 4.Forms of international recognition of urban protected areas IUCN Protected Area Management CategoriesThe following are examples of urban protected areas taken mainly from Parts 2 and 3 of this book:Category Ia,Strict nature reserve.Examples:Los Angeles area,Fern Canyon Research Natural Area

206、(page 45);Taipei,Danshuei River Mangrove Nature Reserve(page 23).Category Ib,Wilderness area.Example:Los Angeles area,Wilderness Areas in Angeles National Forest(page 45).Category II,National park.Examples:Nine of the protected areas profiled in Part 2 of the book are in this category.(Note that cat

207、egories are independent of the names of units.)Category III,Natural monument or feature.Example:Los Angeles area,California Coastal National Monument(page 44).Category IV,Habitat/species management area.Examples:Los Angeles,El Segundo Blue Butterfly Habitat Restoration Area(page 43);Cape Town,Edith

208、Stephens Nature Reserve(page 38).Category V,Protected landscape/seascape.Examples:Seoul:Bukhansan National Park(page 32);Hong Kong,Hong Kong Country Parks(page 20).Category VI,Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources.Example:San Juan,Puerto Rico,Bosque Estatal de Piones.For detailed

209、descriptions of IUCNs protected area categories,see Dudley,2008.Marine Protected Areas This is an umbrella term for protected areas in any IUCN category that include areas of terrain submerged by salt or brackish water,together with the overlying water and associated flora,fauna and historical and c

210、ultural features.Among the urban protected areas profiled in Part 2,those in Cape Town,Hong Kong,Los Angeles,Marseille,San Francisco and Sydney include marine components.Others are mentioned in Part 3.For comprehensive listings,visit MPA Global,the Marine Protected Areas Database,www.mpaglobal.org.W

211、orld Heritage sitesThese are designated by UNESCOs World Heritage Committee(whc.unesco.org).Two of the protected areas profiled in this book are World Heritage sites.In Rio de Janeiro,Tijuca National Park is within the Rio de Janeiro Carioca Landscapes between the Mountain and the Sea World Heritage

212、 Site(a cultural property).In Cape Town,Table Mountain National Park is part of the Cape Floral Region Protected Areas World Heritage Site(a natural property).Global GeoparksDesignated by UNESCO(www.unesco.org).Example:Hong Kong,Hong Kong Global Geopark(page 21).Ramsar sites Designated under the Ram

213、sar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance(www.ramsar.org).Examples:Hong Kong,Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay(page 21);San Francisco:San Francisco Bay and Estuary(page 46).Biosphere reserves Designated under UNESCOs Man and the Biosphere Programme(www.unesco.org/mab).Examples:The sites

214、 in So Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are parts of the Mata Atlntica(Atlantic Forest)Biosphere Reserve.Golden Gate National Park in the San Francisco area is within the Golden Gate Biosphere Reserve.The San Dimas Experimental Forest,mentioned in the Los Angeles profile,is a biosphere reserve.Part 1 Urban

215、protected areas context and concept6|Urban Protected AreasUrban protected areas are managed by various kinds of organizations:National governments.Most of the protected areas profiled in Part 2 are administered by national protected area agencies.State or provincial governments in federal systems.Ex

216、amples are the So Paulo Green Belt,managed by the Forest Institute of the State of So Paulo,Brazil (see page 18);and Royal National Park near Sydney,managed by an agency of the Australian State of New South Wales(page 14).Local governments:Examples are the Claremont Hills Wilderness Park in the Los

217、Angeles area(page 45),and the Edith Stephens Nature Reserve in Cape Town (page 38).Non-governmental organizations and local community groups:Examples are the London Wetland Centre,a project of the Wetlands and Wildlife Trust(page 40);and the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park next to Kingsto

218、n,Jamaica,which is managed for the national government by the Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust(page 28).Businesses:An example is the Irving Nature Park in Saint John,New Brunswick,Canada,which is owned and managed by J.D.Irving Limited,a large forestry and industrial firm(page 84).3.Impact

219、s of urbanization on protected areasUrbanization can have both positive and negative effects on protected areas and natural resources generally.On the positive side,concentrations of human population in cities can relieve pressure on more remote rural and natural areas,and result in economies of sca

220、le in such areas as energy,housing,transportation and solid waste reuse and recycling.But the negative side is usually much more evident.Urbanization leads to the depletion of water and forests,whilst generating solid,liquid and gaseous wastes.Such a combination of consumption and pollution can impo

221、se burdens on distant ecosystems,as well as those nearby.Other impacts of urbanization on protected areas include:fragmentation of habitat,edge effects,noise,light,human-wildlife conflicts,introduction of invasive alien species,fire along the wildland-urban interface,crime and littering.These impact

222、s,and how to avoid or minimize them,are discussed in Parts 2 and 3.Different forms of urbanization have different kinds of impact on protected areas,for example:Urban sprawl involves building on unprotected rural land between a city and a protected area,sometimes growing to the extent that it surrou

223、nds the protected area.Ribbon development involves building along roads radiating from a city,and is often a precursor of urban sprawl and thus accelerates the impacts on protected areas.Urban intensification and infill make it more difficult to preserve or restore small natural areas that remain in

224、 the city.Coalescing megapolitan regions occur when large-scale polycentric networks of metropolitan and smaller urban areas combine,often encompassing protected areas,and disrupting habitat connections and wildlife corridors.Tourism developments are usually enclaves,such as beaches or mountain reso

225、rts,but are commonly found near protected areas(indeed these areas are often promoted as attractions for tourists).Second-home and retirement developments are often located near or even within protected areas.Gateway communities are urban settlements that spring up at the access point to protected a

226、reas;some grow to become ugly,congested places that make it hard to appreciate the protected area next to them.Informal settlements,which are areas where groups of housing units have been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal claim to,sometimes encroach into protected areas.A final co

227、mment:as urbanization continues apace,taking many different forms and spreading ever further outwards into lands that were previously unaffected by towns and cities,more and more protected areas become subject to its influence.So the number of urban protected areas as defined above is growing.4.How

228、urban protected areas are distinctiveUrban protected areas have problems and opportunities that are often different in kind or in scale from those affecting protected areas elsewhere.Thus they:Receive large numbers of visitors,including many who visit frequently,even daily;Receive many visitors who

229、have not had experience of more remote protected areas or wilder forms of nature;Relate to urban populations that are typically much more diverse ethnically and economically than the rural or indigenous populations that usually live near or in other protected areas;Relate to numerous actors in the u

230、rban arena,such as:national,regional and local government agencies and elected officials;land-use planning authorities;and educational and cultural institutions;Are close to communications media and opinion leaders;Are threatened by urban sprawl and intensification of urban development,and often tar

231、geted for such urban infrastructure as roads,government buildings,garbage dumps and broadcasting antennae;Are disproportionately affected by crime,vandalism,littering,dumping and light and noise pollution that originate in adjacent urban areas;and Are subject to such urban edge effects as more frequ

232、ent and severe fires,the creation and use of undesignated trails,water pollution,the introduction of invasive alien plants and animals,loss of foraging habitat for wildlife,conflicts between humans and wild animals,and invasion by,and abandonment of,domestic cats and dogs.Part 1 Urban protected area

233、s context and conceptUrban Protected Areas|75.Why urban protected areas matterAll protected areasincluding urban protected areasmake a vital contribution to the planets health and to human well-being,by protecting endangered habitats and species,storing carbon and so forth.But,in a rapidly urbanizin

234、g world,urban protected areas are important in ways that set them apart from other protected areas.This is either because they perform functions that protected areas far from centres of population cannot perform;or because they do so to a far greater degree than is possible in other protected areas.

235、In summary,urban protected areas are important because they:Promote human health and well-being.Recreation in nature is good for people physically and emotionally.Nature is essential to peoples well-being.Most significantly,children need direct experience of nature for healthy physical,intellectual

236、and emotional development.Urban protected areas are especially well placed to help people in this way.They can also be useful as communal spaces for social interaction,promoting community cohesion.Help give urban people a sense of place.Urban protected areas connect urban people to their immediate s

237、urroundings,to their region,and to the Earth.They often define a citys identity.Build urban constituencies for nature conservation.Most people now live in urban areas and conservation increasingly depends on their support,as urban voters and urban donors.But urban people tend to have less and less c

238、ontact with nature.People will value nature only if they know it.The wildest and remotest places on Earth,the most imperiled species on Earth will be protected only if urban people care about nature where they live.Offer opportunities to learn about nature and sustainability.Urban protected areas ar

239、e often heavily used for nature study by schools,youth groups and adult groups,such as bird-watchers.Local universities use them for instruction and research.They offer excellent,accessible opportunities to demonstrate and promote good environmental behaviour.Provide ecosystem services.Urban protect

240、ed areas commonly provide a range of ecosystem services.These include:supplying and storing clean water;conserving marine and freshwater fisheries;reducing air pollution;and moderating the urban heat island effect,which causes urban areas to be significantly warmer than their surroundings.Bolster re

241、silience to climate change.Resilience in this context refers to the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its functionsbiological,chemical and physicalin the face of disturbance.Protecting and restoring natural areas in and around cities can enhance resilience to storms,flooding,sea rise,ocean storm s

242、urges and mudslides,thus protecting millions of people.In addition,there is much evidence that biodiversity itself enhances resilience of ecosystems.Contribute to green infrastructure within cities.Nowadays,many urban plans provide for a network of green spaces to improve the quality of urban living

243、.Urban protected areas can be essential anchor points in such networks,key parts of a green infrastructure that threads through the hard spaces and surfaces of the urban fabric.Support the local economy with income from tourism.Many urban protected areas attract substantial numbers of national and i

244、nternational tourists.They are not only attractive places to visit in their own right but they add to the tourist appeal of the nearby town or city.These benefits of urban protected areas are discussed in Part 3.Although urban protected areas are important for many reasons,providing opportunities fo

245、r recreation in nature is especially important.Here residents of San Francisco enjoy Crissy Field,a restored grassland and marsh habitat in Golden Gate National Recreation Area.USNPS.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and concept8|Urban Protected AreasReferences and selected resourcesBrinkhoff,Tho

246、mas.Major Agglomerations of the World.www.citypopulation.de.Population figures in this publication are taken mainly from this continuously updated interactive database,whose data are derived from recent national census figures.California Biodiversity Council.Scientific Definitions of Biodiversity.On

247、line page accessed 12 February 2014 http:/biodiversity.ca.gov/Biodiversity/biodiv_def2.html.Cities Alliance,www.citiesalliance.org.A global partnership for urban poverty reduction and promotion of the role of cities in sustainable development.Cities Alliance.2001.2001 Annual Report.Washington:Cities

248、 Alliance.Online document accessed 12 February 2014 http:/citiesalliance.org/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/CA_Docs/annual-reports/2001/intro.pdf.Cities and biodiversity outlook.2012.Montreal:Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.Online report accessed 12 February 2014 www.cbd.int/do

249、c/health/cbo-action-policy-en.pdf.Summarizes links among urbanization,biodiversity and ecosystem services,and presents 10 key messages for strengthening conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in an urban context.Climate Change 2007:Impacts,adaptation and vulnerability.2007.Geneva:Inte

250、rgovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Online document accessed 12 February 2014 www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4_wg2_full_report.pdfConvention on Biological Diversity.Posted on the website of the Secretariat of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity,with background and ex

251、planatory material,www.cbd.int.Dudley,Nigel.2008.Guidelines for applying protected area management categories.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,8.Online document accessed 12 February 2-14 http:/data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/paps-016.pdf.Dudley,Nigel,et al.2010.Natural solutions:Protected areas helping people co

252、pe with climate change.Gland,Switzerland;New York;and Washington,DC:IUCN-WCPA,TNC,UNDP,WCS,The World Bank,and WWF.Online document accessed 12 February 2014 in English;other languages available https:/cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/natural_solutions.pdf.Includes detailed discussions of ecosystem services

253、(Section 3)and the role of protected areas in responding to climate change(Section 4).Dunn,Robert R.,et al.2006.The pigeon paradox:Dependence of global conservation on urban nature.Conservation Biology 20:6,1814-16.Elmqvist,Thomas,et al.2013.Urbanization,biodiversity and ecosystem services:Challenge

254、s and opportunities:A global assessment.Dordrecht,The Netherlands:Springer.A part of the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook Project of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.Explorers Club.2008.Central Park Bioblitz 2006,Survey Results.New York:The Explorers Club.Online report access

255、ed 12 February 2014 http:/backup.explorers.org/bioblitz/bioblitz2006/bioblitz2006_results.php.G.Global Sea Level Rise Map.Online page accessed 12 February 2014 Seto,K.C.2013.Futures of global urban expansion:Uncertainties and implications for biodiversity conservation.Environmental Research Letters

256、8:014025.Kearny,A.T.,and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs.2012.2012 Global Cities Index.Chicago:A.T.Kearny.Document accessed 12 February 2014 index of naturalness.Journal for Nature Conservation 12:95-110.Online article accessed online 12 February 2014 www.teva.org.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/

257、machado.pdf.Many urban protected areas supply fresh water to cities.The Aqueduct of El Zegri in a protected area near Madrid,Spain.Calima/Creative Commons BY-3.0.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and conceptUrban Protected Areas|9Mcdonald,Robert J.,Kareiva,Peter,and Forman,Richard T.T.2008.The im

258、plications of current and future urbanization for global protected areas and biodiversity conservation.Biological Conservation 141:1695-1703.McGranahan,Gordon,et al.2005.Urban systems.In Millennium ecosystem assessment.Ecosystems and human well-being.Vol.1,Current state and trends.Washington,DC:Isla

259、nd Press.Online chapter accessed 12 February 2014 in English;also available in other languages www.maweb.org/documents/document.296.aspx.pdf.Trzyna,Ted,ed.2005.The urban imperative:Urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies.Sacramento,California:InterEnvironment for IUCN and the Santa Mon

260、ica Mountains Conservancy.Posted at www.iucn-urban.org.Includes case studies of several urban protected areas.UN-Habitat:United Nations Programme on Human Settlements,www.habitat.org.Produces periodic reports,including State of the worlds cities and the Global report on human settlements.United Nati

261、ons Population Division.World urbanization prospects 2011.2011.New York:UNPD.Report accessed 12 February 2014 http:/esa.un.org/unup.World Database of Protected Areas.Interactive database accessible at .A joint initiative of IUCN and the United Nations Environment Programmes World Conservation Monito

262、ring Centre.World Resources Institute,IUCN and United Nations Environment Programme.Global biodiversity strategy:Guidelines for action to save,study and use Earths biotic wealth sustainably and equitably.1992.Washington,DC:WRI,IUCN and UNEP.Some urban protected areas are rich in endemic species(spec

263、ies with restricted natural ranges).The Table Mountain tree pincushion(Leucospermum conocarpodendron subsp.conocarpodendron)is found only in and around Table Mountain National Park in Cape Town,South Africa.Abu Shawka/Creative Commons,public domain.Part 1 Urban protected areas context and concept10|

264、Urban Protected AreasPart 1 Urban protected areas context and conceptUrban Protected Areas|11Part 2 Profiles of urban protected areas Note:The 15 profilesThe 15 profiles of urban protected areas in Part 2,which are organised by country alphabetically,represent metropolitan areas in different world r

265、egions,climates and socio-economic situations.They include:four of the worlds fifteen largest urban agglomerations:Seoul,So Paulo,Mumbai and Los Angeles;and six of the twenty most globally engaged cities in the Global Cities Index:London,Hong Kong,Los Angeles,San Francisco,Seoul and Sydney.The urban

266、 protected areas profiled have a range of management regimes(see Urban protected areas:What they are,above).They include one with 17 million visits a year(Golden Gate National Recreation Area in the San Francisco area)and another that is closed off to the public entirely(Fern Canyon Research Natural

267、 Area in metropolitan Los Angeles).They range in size from 42 hectares(the London Wetland Centre)to 62,300 hectares(Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area in Los Angeles).Some have natural systems that are relatively intact,while one is a restored habitat(Tijuca National Park in Rio de Jane

268、iro)and another is a re-creation of nature(the London Wetland Centre).Most include historic,prehistoric or cultural sites.Two metropolitan areas,Cape Town and Los Angeles,are given more detailed treatment,both in their profiles and in the guidelines in Part 3,because they are particularly suitable f

269、or in-depth descriptions of the many challenges and opportunities faced by urban protected areas,as well as offering a range of innovative approaches.Each profile contains a map and a summary of the main characteristics of the area;each ends with a list of a few key lessons that can be drawn from th

270、e site in question.15912 732861413 4 511Satellite image:NASA10 1Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected AreasUrban Protected Areas|13 1.Sydney,Australia:Royal National Park 2.Rio de Janeiro,Brazil:Tijuca National Park 3.So Paulo,Brazil:Cantareira Range Complex of Protected Areas 4.Hong Kong Special Admin

271、istrative Region,China:Hong Kong Country Parks 5.Taipei,Taiwan,Province of China:Yangmingshan National Park 6.Marseille,France:Calanques National Park 7.Mumbai,India:Sanjay Gandhi National Park 8.Kingston,Jamaica:Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park 9.Nairobi,Kenya:Nairobi National Park10.Seou

272、l,Republic of Korea:Bukhansan National Park11.Gwangju,Republic of Korea:Mudeungsan National Park12.Cape Town,South Africa:Table Mountain National Park and a municipal nature reserve13.London,United Kingdom:London Wetland Centre14.Los Angeles,California,USA:Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation

273、Area and protected areas in the San Gabriel Mountains15.San Francisco,California,USA:Golden Gate National Recreation AreaPart 2 Profiles of Urban Protected Areas14|Urban Protected AreasRoyal National Park(IUCN Category II)is on the southern fringe of metropolitan Sydney,which has a population of 4.7

274、 million.The park is bounded by the open Pacific Ocean,a bay called Port Hacking,suburbs and a major transportation corridor.It has 16,000 hectares of heathland,open woodland,wet and dry hard-leaved forest,warm temperate and subtropical rainforest,freshwater swamps,estuarine wetlands and small marin

275、e elements.The first national park to be designated in Australia,in 1879,it is managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service of the State of New South Wales.(In Australia,apart from a few important exceptions,national parks and other protected areas are the responsibility of state or territoria

276、l governments,rather than the Australian authorities.)Use at capacity or beyondThis park has an estimated 4 million visits a year.Although public transportation is available,almost all visitors come by car on day trips for recreation and live within an hours drive.Most come at least monthly.There is

277、 a vehicle entry fee equivalent to about US$10.According to the state park service,an extensive road network and numerous facilities make Royal National Park attractive and safe to large numbers of people who would either be disinclined or too inexperienced to visit a more rugged,less developed park

278、.The most popular activities are car touring,picnicking at developed sites,short walks,and swimming and sunbathing at the beaches.Sydney has many immigrants from Europe,Asia and the Middle East,and in the park there is high ethnic diversity among recreational users.Because many of these visitors hav

279、e limited facility in English,signs with words have been replaced by ones with symbols.Rangers have expressed a need for training in cross-cultural communication.Sydney,AustraliaRoyal National ParkA popular park copes with visitor numbers,fire and pollutionA B C D E F G H I 1234567Royal National Par

280、k(boundaries in red)covers 16,000 hectares at the southern edge of metropolitan Sydney.Terralook map:USGS/Eros and NASA;Rick Caughman.Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected AreasUrban Protected Areas|15Among visitors who come for reasons other than recreation are some 70,000 schoolchildren who come for

281、field studies every year and Aboriginal people who come to visit prehistoric Aboriginal sites,particularly rock engravings,for cultural revival and educational purposes.According to the park management plan,the numbers of visitors to developed parts of the park are already high enough at times to en

282、danger the very quality of experience which visitors seek by coming to a natural environment.Moreover,the park is operating either at capacity or beyond in terms of the resilience of its natural assets to human impact.The plan calls for recreation planning on a regional scale to spread recreational

283、demand more equitably.Controlling fire and water pollution Royal National Park is at high risk from wildfire,which is often caused by arson.In 1994,over 90 per cent of its area burned,although not all lands were affected to the same degree.This followed a fire in 1988 in which over half the park bur

284、ned.Fire risk is predicted to increase due to climate change.Although the state park service regards fire as a natural phenomenon,one of the established physical factors of the Australian environment to which native plant and animal communities have become adapted,park managers are actively involved

285、 in fire control.This is to protect human life and property in and adjacent to the park,but also because unnaturally frequent and extensive fires reduce the diversity of habitats and species.Regeneration depends on re-colonization from areas surrounding a burned area,but the park is increasingly cut

286、 off from other natural lands by urban development.Park managers work closely with local authorities on fire protection.On the parks perimeter are fire radiation zones in which combustible vegetation is reduced at regular intervals.In any new development near the park,the state government requires f

287、uel reduction zones.On the other hand,recognizing that many plant and animal species depend on a mix of fire regimes for their survival,park officials have adopted science-based fire frequency and intensity goals for different types of plant communities.Results are monitored using geographic informa

288、tion systems.Another threat to the park is water pollution.Its main freshwater habitat,the Hacking River,rises outside its boundary and flows through it to the sea.The river is polluted by urban runoff from several towns in the upper watershed,as well as such point sources as a coal mine and a landf

289、ill.The runoff also spreads weeds.The park participates in a catchment management committee that coordinates efforts to cope with these problems,and seeks to have waste treatment and sediment control requirements included in development permits.In the parks marine areas,division of responsibility am

290、ong units of government makes it difficult to keep jet-skiers and boaters from damaging habitat.While the park has jurisdiction over submerged and intertidal lands in these areas,three separate agencies are responsible for fisheries,watercraft and pollution control.Key lessons Urban protected areas

291、near cities with multi-ethnic populations need to offer forms of information and interpretation that work in a variety of cultural situations.Urban protected areas are well placed to introduce nature to people who are not confident about it.Addressing pollution threats to urban protected areas often

292、 requires action elsewhere,for example upstream within the catchment.Selected resources and notes:See page 48.Rowboats and canoes are available for hire at the Audley boatshed on the Hacking River,built in 1893.Adam J.W.C./Creative Commons BY-SA-3.0.Bicyling is popular in the park.A guide to suitabl

293、e trails is posted online.Brian Giesen/Creative Commons BY-SA-3.0.Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected Areas16|Urban Protected AreasTijuca National Park(IUCN Category II)covers some 4,000 hectares of mountains within Rio de Janeiro,Brazils cultural capital and second largest metropolis.Rio is nickname

294、d the Cidade Maravilhosa(Marvellous City),mainly because of its stunning natural setting between an almost landlocked harbour,renowned beaches such as Copacabana and Ipanema,and Tijucas mountains.On Corcovado Mountain within the park is another symbol of Rio,the imposing statue of Christ the Redeeme

295、r.The park is managed jointly by the municipality and the national government.It has about 2.5 million visits a year.There is no visitor fee,except at Corcovado Mountain.The park is easily accessible by public transportation.There are some 1,000 kilometres of trails,of which 75 kilometres are manage

296、d and signposted.Origins and settingThe parks origins are to be found in the establishment of the Forest of Tijuca in 1861 by the Brazilian Imperial Government in what was then the countrys capital.Enlarged over the years,it was declared a national park in 1961.It is covered by largely restored Atla

297、ntic Forest(Mata Atlntica in Portuguese),a biome characterised by high species diversity and endemism.Once dominating the entire south-east facing slopes of Brazil,less than 10 per cent of this forest remains.The park is within the UNESCO Carioca Landscapes between the Mountain and the Sea World Her

298、itage Site(designated as a World Heritage cultural landscape in 2012).It is also within the much larger UNESCO Mata Atlntica Biosphere Reserve,which has core areas and buffer zones totaling 16,600,000 hectares.The Municipality of Rio de Janeiro has a population of 6.3 million;the Rio metropolis 12.8

299、 million;and the State of Rio de Janeiro,one of the 26 states of Brazil,16 million.Both the municipal and state governments manage protected areas within the municipal boundaries.Rio de Janeiro,BrazilTijuca National Park In the Marvellous City,a national park managed jointly with the municipalityA B

300、 C D E F G H I 1234567Tijuca National Park(boundaries in red)covers 4,000 mountainous hectares at the centre of metropolitan Rio de Janeiro.Terralook map:USGS/Eros and NASA;Rick Caughman.Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected AreasUrban Protected Areas|17Forest restoration and species reintroductionIn t

301、he early 19th century,the original forests on Rios mountains were cut down to make room for coffee plantations.The result was erosion and a much-degraded watershed on which Rio depended for its drinking-water supply.To correct this,the government expropriated and reforested the mountain lands.In thi

302、nking that was unusual and far-sighted for its time,leaders provided infrastructure for recreational use of the forest to encourage Rios citizens to become familiar with it and understand the reasons for its protection.Also unusual at a time when monocultural forest plantations were prevalent,refore

303、station was mainly with trees native to the region.As a result,an environment conducive to natural forest regeneration emerged.Some fauna native to the forest disappeared over the years,including toucans and boa constrictors.Non-native species were introduced,sometimes with serious consequences.For

304、example,a marmoset brought in from the Brazilian Northeast reproduced quickly and threatened bird populations.In the late 1960s,local scientists began a fauna restoration project in Tijuca.Its aims were to:recover mammal,bird and reptile populations;cultivate plant species on which these animals dep

305、end;and control hunters and animal predators.From specimens captured in nearby forests,the group reintroduced boa constrictors,seven mammal species,and 25 bird species,including toucans.Although not all reintroductions have succeeded,the project contributed to a process in which Tijucas forest is be

306、coming a mature forest ecosystem,and one which superficially resembles a pristine forest.Joint management by the city and national governmentsAs the population of metropolitan Rio nearly doubled from 1960 to 1990,urban pressures on the park mounted,especially from neighbouring favelas(shantytowns).A

307、t the same time,the national government neglected its urban national parks,considering them less important from the standpoint of nature conservation than the countrys remote protected areas.In Tijuca,trails were abandoned,most entrance gates and guard houses went unstaffed,and anti-poaching patrols

308、 were suspended.Wildfires were set,feral cats and dogs invaded,and tons of garbage were left uncollected.In the meantime,two national parks on the edge of the metropolis gained new visitor centres and acquired new 4x4 vehicles.Unfortunately,this sent the message to the millions of people living near

309、 Tijuca that caring for urban protected areas was not a national priority.In 1999,pressed by public opinion,Rios Mayor and the national Minister for the Environment signed an agreement for Tijucas joint management.Its rationale was that intensive public use,watershed protection and national policy o

310、n protected areas were all important objectives and could be reconciledand that the area should therefore be managed to achieve a variety of complementary aims.The park continues to be managed jointly by the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro and the national Ministry of Environment,represented by the I

311、nstituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Bioversidade(ICMBio,the Chico Mendes Institute for Conservation of Biodiversity),the entity responsible for all Brazils national protected areas.In 2011,this cooperative effort evolved further,into the Carioca Protected Areas Mosaic,which encompasses all 28 nati

312、onal,state,and local protected areas situated within the municipalitys boundaries.The Mosaic has an executive secretary and works to harmonize management of these protected lands.So far,it has arranged for joint law enforcement,joint training,and exchanges of equipment.Its main projects now are crea

313、ting a 250-kilometre trail initially linking eight of the areas,and raising public awareness of the need for connectivity among protected areas and other green spaces.Key lessons Urban protected areas often require major,long-term programmes of ecosystem restoration.Support from public institutions

314、must be maintained at all times as such areas are always vulnerable to outside pressures if neglected.What often begins as a small,local initiative can develop into a major urban protected area of strategic significance.Selected resources and notes:See page 48.Within the park,40-metre-high Cristo Re

315、dentor(Christ the Redeemer)stands on the top of Corcovado Mountain.Gustavo Flacci/Creative Commons BY-SA-2Once extirpated in the park,toucans were successfully reintroduced in the 1960s.Common toucan(Ramphastos toco).Jorge Andrade/Creative Commons BY-2.0.Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected Areas18|Ur

316、ban Protected AreasSo Paulo,Brazils commercial centre,is South Americas largest metropolitan area,with a population of 20 million.The Municipality of So Paulo is also the capital of the State of So Paulo,the most populous of Brazils 26 states.The Cantareira Mountains north of the city are covered by

317、 an important remnant of the species-rich Mata Atlntica(Atlantic Forest)see page 16.In the late 19th century,about a third of this mountain range was designated as a forest reserve to protect the growing citys water supply.The reserve was later made a state park and continues to provide almost half

318、the urban areas water,as well as numerous recreational and educational opportunities.Brazils most visited state parks,urban gateways to naturePartly inside the city limits and managed by the Forest Foundation of the state government,79-square-kilometre Cantareira State Park(IUCN Category II)contains

319、 over 850 wildlife species and nearly 700 plant species.There are some 90,000 visits each year to the parks interpretive trails,picnic sites and environmental education programmes.The small adjacent Alberto Lfgren State Park(174 hectares)receives a further 720,000 visits a year,making this the most

320、visited state park complex in Brazil.(See the map below for locaions.)The So Paulo City Green Belt Biosphere Reserve Cantareira State Park is a major core area of the So Paulo City Green Belt Biosphere Reserve,which includes 2,331,700 hectares in 78 municipalitiesan area considerably larger than the

321、 official So Paulo Metropolitan Region,which is composed of 39 of these local governments.The Green Belt Biosphere Reserve was established in the early 1990s on the recommendation of the So Paulo State Forest Institute after a citizens movement succeeded in stopping construction of a ring road throu

322、gh So Paulos peripheral forests.Although it retains a separate identity,in 1993 UNESCO made it an integral part of the much larger Mata Atlntica Biosphere Reserve.So Paulo,BrazilCantareira Range Complex of Protected Areas Expanding protected areas within a metropolitan green beltA B C D E F G H I 12

323、34567Older and newly created protected areas in the Cantareira Range north of So Paulo.The older ones,Cantareira and Alberto Lfgren state parks,are shaded in blue-green.The newly created ones are:Itapetinga and Itaberapa state parks,shaded in light green;Guarulhos State Forest,shaded in yellow;and P

324、edra Grande Natural Monument,which is in two sectionsthe area shaded in orange is for mixed use,while the area shaded in red is more strictly protected.Terralook map:USGS/Eros and NASA;Rick Caughman.Part 2 Profiles of Urban Protected AreasUrban Protected Areas|19The biosphere reserve is guided by a

325、management council drawn from the entire region that provides a framework for regular exchange among planners,politicians and civil society.The reserve operates ten job training centres that provide nature-related skills to urban youth.A major expansion of protected areasAlthough the Cantareira moun

326、tain range has included several protected areas for many years,much of the forested catchment outside these has been vulnerable to urban sprawl.To remedy this,the State of So Paulo in 2009 began an ambitious process to designate an additional 28,600 hectares for state protection,almost quadrupling t

327、he size of this protected area complex.The first public step in creating these new protected areas(see map)was a decree placing a seven-month moratorium on land transformation within the target area.Only a short time was allowed by this law to complete the designation process,so extensive preparatio

328、n preceding the decree was crucial to the expansions eventual success.The creation of new state parks requires purchase,transfer or expropriation of private and municipally controlled land.Attempting this at so large a scale would obviously have been impossible without strong political support from

329、the highest levels.The state governor was briefed frequently about progress,and as the expansion included seven different municipalities,regular meetings with each of them also helped build support for the process.Given the stakes for individual landowners,drawing the new park boundaries was a delic

330、ate and especially participative process.After the provisional area was decreed,state officials cooperated closely with local authorities and landowners.Together they surveyed the entire perimeter of the proposed parks,tailoring the precise boundary to ecological,economic and political realities on

331、the ground.Although this cooperative approach was time-consuming,it helped to bring the participants together.The final boundaries of the new protected areas were set out in 2010.Despite being contiguous with Cantareira State Park,the newly created Itaberaba and Itapetinga state parks retained their

332、 local names so as to promote a sense of local identity.For Pedra Grande Natural Monument and Guarulhos State Forest,different kinds of protected status were applied to allow compatible land uses to continue.Although precise land cost surveys are still incomplete,local real-estate values suggest an

333、acquisition cost of more than US$1 billion.This demonstrates a strong commitment to protecting nature in and around one of the worlds biggest and most dynamic cities.Key lessons What may begin as protection for,say,water supply can become the foundation for the creation of an urban protected area that is much-visited,protects endangered species and functions as a strategic component in city plann