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1、THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSTHE STATUS OF WOMEN IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRome,2023Required citation:FAO.2023.The status of women in agrifood systems.Rome.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cc5343enThe designations employed and the presentation of mater

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11、gh publications-salesfao.org.Requests for commercial use should be submitted via:www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request.Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to:copyrightfao.org.Cover photograph:FAO/Luis TatoNIGER-A man and a woman work together to remove nuts from a drying mach

12、ine.CONTENTSCONTENTSFOREWORD viiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xABBREVIATIONS xvOVERVIEW xviiNumerical highlights xxviPolicy highlights xxviiiCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION 2From agriculture to agrifood systems 5Taking a gender-transformative approach 10Improvements in the availability 11of sex-disaggregated data Structu

13、re of the report 12CHAPTER 2GENDER AND WORK IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS 22Key findings 22Introduction 24Gender patterns of work in agrifood systems 26Beyond participation:rural womens access 44to quality jobs in agrifood systems Inequalities in economic outcomes 52CHAPTER 3GENDER INEQUALITIES IN RESOURCES 6

14、4IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSKey findings 64Introduction 66Education 67Land 67Water 80Livestock holdings 84Technology 87Extension and advisory services 91Information and communications technologies 93Financial inclusion 98CHAPTER 4WOMENS AGENCY,NORMS AND POLICIES 106IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSKey findings 106Introdu

15、ction 108Empowerment and agency 109Social norms,policies and legal frameworks 120CHAPTER 5GENDERED RESILIENCE TO SHOCKS AND STRESSES 132Key findings 132Introduction 134Gendered implications of the COVID-19 pandemic 136Gendered implications of climate change 144Gendered implications of conflicts 151C

16、HAPTER 6TRANSFORMING AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS 160AND ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITYIntroduction 160Addressing norms and policies 163Reducing gender inequalities 168in womens work and productivityImproving womens access to resources 173Addressing gender inequalities in 181resilience to shocks Way forward for tran

17、sformative,equitable,empowering agrifood systems 183NOTES 190GLOSSARY 213ANNEXESAnnex 1.Classification,data sources and regional 217estimates of agrifood-system employmentAnnex 2.Detailed results on the link between 220womens empowerment and nutrition Annex 3.Methodology for estimating the benefits

18、224of closing the gender gaps in farm productivityand wagesAnnex 4.Methodology for estimating the benefits 228of reaching small-scale producers with development interventions that focus on womens empowermentiiiFIGURESCHAPTER 11.1 Conceptual framework for agrifood systems 51.2 Proportion of men and w

19、omen employed in 7agrifood systems,with countries ordered by log of GDP 1.3 Framework for gendered agrifood systems 9CHAPTER 22.1 Employment in agrifood systems remains 27important for women,despite decrease in agricultural employment since 20052.2 Almost 40 percent of all workers 28in agrifood syst

20、ems are women2.3 The share of women in agriculture has been 31slowly declining in most parts of the worldin the past 20 years2.4 Women make up a large share of off-farm 35agrifood systems workers at all levels of development2.5 Women retailers are more likely to trade 37in less lucrative agrifood pr

21、oductsand achieve lower profits2.6 Women are more likely than men to be in 45vulnerable forms of employment2.7 Men work more hours than women 49in agriculture and agrifood systems2.8 Gender inequalities in unpaid care work 50are observed all around the world withsignificant variations across countri

22、eswithin regions2.9 Gender differences in farm size are 55associated with a smaller gender yield gap,while gender differences in education,ageand access to inputs and technology areassociated with a larger gender gapCHAPTER 33.1 Good examples of legal and policy reforms for 72advancing womens land r

23、ights exist in all regions3.2 A majority of reporting countries score well 73in the areas of marital property and inheritance3.3 Men are more likely to have landownership 73rights than women3.4 Share of women among all agricultural 78landowners or holders of secure tenure rights over agricultural la

24、nd3.5 The share of women among landowners 79increased in more than half of reportingcountries over the last decade3.6 Only 22 percent of countries report high levels 81of womens participation in integrated water resources management3.7 Gender gaps in access to irrigation 82have not changed in recent

25、 years3.8 Gender gaps in livestock ownership persist 843.9 Gender gaps in ownership of large ruminants 85are more consistent,while the trendsin the ownership of poultryand smallruminants are more mixed3.10 Changes in individual livestock ownership 86vary by type of animal and by sex3.11 Female farme

26、rs continue to trail behind men 88in access to improved seeds and fertilizer3.12 Gender inequalities in ownership of 89mechanized equipment are not improving3.13 Female farmers continue to have less access 91to extension services than do men3.14 Internet access has continued to increase 93for both m

27、en and women while the gender gap has reduced3.15 Gender gaps in internet usage have reduced 94in all regions but remain particularly high in Africa3.16 Rural women are less likely than 95rural men to own a mobile phone3.17 Access to mobile internet has increased 96substantially for both women and m

28、en inthe last few years,but the gender gaphas started to widen again3.18 The gender gap in mobile internet use 97in the rural population is higher thanthat in mobile ownershipivCONTENTSCHAPTER 44.1 One-third of agrifood-system interventions 113in projects in Africa and South Asiaincreased household

29、gender parity 4.2 Womens and mens empowerment increased 113in projects in Africa and South Asia,but most projects had no impact4.3 Womens control over income,asset ownership 114and group membership increased inprojects in Africa and South Asia4.4 Livestock interventions positively impact 116 womens

30、assets and income but may increase time burdens4.5 Gender discrimination varies by 122region and country4.6 Wife-beating remains acceptable 123in many countries 4.7 In the majority of countries,most people 124believe young children suffer when mothers work4.8 A majority of people support womens 125o

31、wnership of land in North and sub-Saharan Africa4.9 Laws on womens participation in business 126are improving globally4.10 Most agricultural policy documents include very 127few measures to promote gender equality;sub-Saharan Africa performs best4.11 Agricultural policies recognize womens 128contrib

32、ution and gender inequalities in the sector,but gender-responsive policy formulation remains weakCHAPTER 55.1 The 20072008 economic crisis led to a small 137decline in employment in agrifood systemsglobally for both women and men,but withlarge differences across regions and sexes5.2 Womens employmen

33、t in agrifood systems 138was hit harder by the COVID-19 pandemic,particularly in southeastern Asia andLatin America and the Caribbean5.3 Conflict reduces work intensity for both 155women and men,but more for menCHAPTER 66.1 A high percentage of bilateral development 187finance focused on agricultura

34、l and ruraldevelopment mainstreams orfocuses exclusively on gender TABLESCHAPTER 22.1 Fewer women globally are engaged in the 36more profitable transporting and wholesaletrading in agrifood systems2.2 The gender gap in land productivity between 54 female-and male-managed farmsof the same size is 24

35、percent2.3 The gender gap in labour productivity 58between male and female plot managersis 35 percent2.4 The structural effect,associated with 59discrimination,explains the largest share ofthe gender gap in agricultural wage employmentCHAPTER 33.1 Level of protection for womens land rights 71in nati

36、onal lawsCHAPTER 44.1 Mixed results on empowerment are seen 115in many projects4.2 The strength of evidence on womens 117empowerment varies by outcomeCHAPTER 55.1 The effects of armed conflicts on labour 154outcomes in 29 sub-Saharan African countriesCHAPTER 66.1 Evidence on the link between womens

37、170land rights and selected agrifood systems outcomesvBOXESCHAPTER 11.1 Gender gaps in food insecurity:exploring 13 differences across countries and demographic categories 1.2 Intersectionality:beyond gender 16 considerations in agrifood systems1.3 SPOTLIGHT:Gender-based violence 17CHAPTER 22.1 Work

38、 versus employment in agrifood systems:24 a methodological note2.2 Gender and age patterns of employment 29 in agrifood systems2.3 Male outmigration,the feminization of 31 agriculture and implications for womens empowerment2.4 Gender roles,relations and vulnerabilities 38 in the Omena value chain ar

39、ound lake Victoria2.5 Gender and intersectionality:43 stories from livestock,fisheries and forestry2.6 Gender-based violence and work 44 in agrifood systems2.7 Many wage workers in companies 48 linked to global agrifood value chains are women,young and migrant2.8 Time use versus time-use agency 512.

40、9 The Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder 53 decomposition approach2.10 Gender productivity gaps reported in 56 the state of food and agriculture 2010-2011 and the limitations of comparing male-and female-headed farms2.11 SPOTLIGHT:Indigenous Peoples and gender 60 in agrifood systemsCHAPTER 33.1 Land,water and

41、gender-based violence 823.2 Womens rights to land in the law 843.3 The collection of sex-disaggregated survey 90 data on land rights3.4 SPOTLIGHT:Social Protection 1133.5 Cash transfers and intimate partner violence 116CHAPTER 44.1 Measuring womens empowerment and 110agency and the Womens Empowermen

42、tin Agriculture Index4.2 Aspirations and role models 121CHAPTER 55.1 The COVID-19 pandemic and rural women 140in Africa5.2 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on 141rural women in Central Asia5.3 Climate change and child labour in agriculture 150in Cte DIvoire,Ethiopia,Nepal,and Peru5.4 Gender differenc

43、es in food insecurity in Ukraine 1525.5 Definition of conflict 1535.6 Gender-based violence in conflict and 156humanitarian settingsCHAPTER 66.1 What are gender-transformative 164approaches?6.2 Engaging men and boys in 167normative change 6.3 Involving both spouses for gender equality 1766.4 Legal a

44、id can strengthen womens awareness 178of their land rights6.5 The costs and benefits of 198gender-transformative approachesviMONGOLIA-A woman serving food to her family.FAO/K.PurevraqchaaCONTENTSviiFOREWORDIf we tackle the gender inequalities endemic in agrifood systems and empower women,the world w

45、ill take a leap forward in addressing the goals of ending poverty and creating a world free from hunger.This report shows how the creation of work in agrifood systems for women,especially rural women,enhances their well-being and provides opportunities for economic growth,incomes,productivity and re

46、silience.For the first time in more than a decade,FAO is providing a comprehensive picture of the status of women working not only in agriculture,but across agrifood systems.The report contains extensive new data and analyses about the challenges women face,particularly in rural areas,and provides a

47、ctionable and policy-oriented evidence about what has succeeded in improving equality.Womens empowerment and gender equality are not only a key part of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)by 2030,but are also intrinsically important for womens and mens well-being.SDG 5 calls on us to ac

48、hieve gender equality and empowerment for all women and girls by 2030 a deadline that is fast approaching.This report shows that,despite the increasing attention placed on gender since the Fourth World Conference on Women,held in Beijing in 1995,there are still large gaps in achieving gender equalit

49、y in agrifood systems.While women have gained more access to some resources such as digital technology and financial services over the past decade,the gaps are either unchanged or growing in far too many areas,particularly for rural women.For example,since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic,the g

50、ap between womens and mens food insecurity has grown to 4.3 percentage points,with significantly higher food insecurity among rural women.Rural women are less likely than rural men to own a mobile phone.Improvements in reporting on womens landownership and tenure demonstrate just how far we are from

51、 gender equality,with a significantly larger share of men in agricultural households compared with women owning land in 40 out of the 46 countries reporting on SDG Indicator 5.a.1.Closing these gaps and others,such as the gaps in agricultural productivity and agricultural wages,where women earn 82 c

52、ents for every dollar earned by men,would greatly improve food security,nutrition and increase economic growth.viiiQU DongyuFAO Director-GeneralThe changes required to meet SDG 5 are far-reaching.Nevertheless,they are possible given positive progress made in the capacity of governments,international

53、 institutions,civil society and other stakeholders to plan and invest more intentionally in both gender equality and womens empowerment.This report shows that comprehensive investment in womens empowerment can be transformative,even with the same level of public resources.Ensuring that policies and

54、projects have a more explicit focus on empowerment,including better access for women to resources and assets and enhancing their decision-making power,will help increase incomes and resilience for women,their households and communities particularly in rural areas.Gender equality and womens empowerme

55、nt is embedded in the FAO Strategic Framework 20222031,and is mainstreamed in our efforts to achieve the four betters:better production,better nutrition,a better environment and a better life for all,leaving no one behind.With the publication of this report,FAO makes a commitment to do even more to

56、deepen our focus on gender equality and womens empowerment,with particular attention to rural and small scale women producers.This includes advocating for policy frameworks that seek to address social norms and structural constraints,and utilizing gender-transformative approaches to a greater extent

57、 in our projects and programming for inclusive rural development.Efficient,inclusive,resilient and sustainable agrifood systems depend on the empowerment of all women and gender equality.Women have always worked in agrifood systems.It is time that we made agrifood systems work for women.We encourage

58、 all stakeholders to make a commitment to join us in increasing equality.12FOREWORDIf we tackle the gender inequalities endemic in agrifood systems and empower women,the world will take a leap forward in addressing the goals of ending poverty and creating a world free from hunger.This report shows h

59、ow creation of work in agrifood systems for women,especially rural women,enhances their well-being and provides opportunities for economic growth,incomes,productivity and resilience.For the first time in more than a decade,FAO is providing a comprehensive picture of the status of women working not o

60、nly in agriculture,but across agrifood systems.The report contains extensive new data and analyses about the challenges women face,particularly in rural areas,and provides actionable and policy-oriented evidence about what has succeeded in improving equality.Womens empowerment and gender equality ar

61、e not only a key part of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)by 2030,but are also intrinsically important for womens and mens well-being.SDG 5 calls on us to achieve gender equality and empowerment for all women and girls by 2030 a deadline that is fast approaching.This report shows tha

62、t,despite the increasing attention placed on gender since the Fourth World Conference on Women,held in Beijing in 1995,there are still large gaps in achieving gender equality in agrifood systems.While women have gained more access to some resources such as digital technology and financial services o

63、ver the past decade,the gaps are either unchanged or growing in far too many areas,particularly for rural women.For example,since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic,the gap between womens and mens food insecurity has grown to 4.3 percentage points,with significantly higher food insecurity among r

64、ural women.Rural women are less likely than rural men to own a mobile phone.Improvements in reporting on womens land ownership and tenure demonstrate just how far we are from gender equality,with a significantly larger share of men in agricultural households compared with women owning land in 40 out

65、 of the 46 countries reporting on SDG Indicator 5.a.1.Closing these gaps and others,such as the gaps in agricultural productivity and agricultural wages,where women earn 82 cents for every dollar earned by men,would greatly improve food security,nutrition and increase economic growth.The changes req

66、uired to meet SDG 5 are far-reaching.Nevertheless,they are possible given FOREWORDQU DongyuFAO Director-Generalpositive progress made in the capacity of governments,international institutions,civil society and other stakeholders to plan and invest more intentionally in both gender equality and women

67、s empowerment.This report shows that comprehensive investment in womens empowerment can be transformative,even with the same level of public resources.Ensuring that policies and projects have a more explicit focus on empowerment,including better access for women to resources and assets and enhancing

68、 their decision-making power,will help increase incomes and resilience for women,their households and communities particularly in rural areas.Gender equality and womens empowerment is embedded in the FAO Strategic Framework 2022-31,and is mainstreamed in our efforts to achieve the Four Betters:Bette

69、r Production,Better Nutrition,a Better Environment and a Better Life for all,leaving no one behind.With the publication of this report,FAO makes a commitment to do even more to deepen our focus on gender equality and womens empowerment,with particular attention to rural and small scale women produce

70、rs.This includes advocating for policy frameworks that seek to address social norms and structural constraints,and utilizing gender-transformative approaches to a greater extent in our projects and programming for inclusive rural development.Efficient,inclusive,resilient and sustainable agrifood sys

71、tems depend on the empowerment of all women and gender equality.Women have always worked in agrifood systems.It is time that we made agrifood systems work for women.We encourage all stakeholders to make a commitment to join us in increasing equality.FOREWORDixThe status of women in agrifood systems

72、was prepared by a team from the Inclusive Rural Transformation and Gender Equality Division(ESP)of FAO led by Lauren Phillips and Benjamin Davis,under the overall guidance of Mximo Torero(Chief Economist).Lauren Phillips,Erdgin Mane and Vanya Slavchevska coordinated the technical contributions and b

73、ackground papers prepared by experts from FAO,partner organisations and academia.A special thanks to Tacko Ndiaye,Libor Stloukal and the ESP Gender team.All individuals are affiliated with the ESP Division unless otherwise specified.Chapter 1Benjamin Davis led the research and writing team for Chapt

74、er 1.Additional authors include:Lauren Phillips and Erdgin Mane.Annarita Macchioni Giaquinto provided statistics and analyses,and Natalia Piedrahita created graphics.Audrey Pereira and Ilaria Sisto wrote the spotlight on gender-based violence;Audrey Pereira wrote the box on intersectionality.Carlo C

75、afiero(ESS);Romina Cavatassi,Ilaria Sisto,Vanya Slavchevska,Libor Stloukal and Sara Viviani(ESS)provided additional input.Chapter 2Vanya Slavchevska,Benjamin Davis and Erdgin Mane co-led the research and writing team for Chapter 2.Additional authors include:Valentina Costa and Natalia Piedrahita.Add

76、itional input was provided by Lauren Phillips,Gustavo Anrquez(Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile);Ilaria Sisto and Marwan Benali.Natalia Piedrahita,Marwan Benali and Silvia Vilimelis Lpez prepared the figures.Yonca Gurbuzer(ESS)coordinated access to data from the International Labour Organizati

77、on(ILO Harmonized Microdata),as well as reviewed and contributed to the data analysis.Christina Rapone and Giorgia Prati revised the box on the feminization of agriculture.Elena Aguayo(PSUI)co-wrote the spotlight on Indigenous Peoples.Audrey Pereira wrote the boxes on time-use versus time-use agency

78、,and gender-based violence and work in agrifood systems.Alexis Pellier and Mariola Acosta helped with boxes and the spotlight.Livia Celardo and Marcello Vicovaro(both ESN)provided data on food retailers from selected territorial markets.Patrizia Fracassi,Shinuna Gartner,Ti Kian Seow(all ESN)and Sere

79、na Stepanovic,Random Dubois(both World Vision US);Jedidah Ganira(World Vision Kenya)provided the findings of the study presented in Box 2.4.We are grateful to Talip Kilic(World Bank)who commented on and edited the first draft of the chapter,as well as Amparo Palacios-Lopez(World Bank)who provided co

80、mments on the labour productivity methodology.Chapter 3 Vanya Slavchevska led the research and writing team for Chapter 3.Additional authors include:Mariola Acosta,Huda Alsahi,Nimra Azhar,Annarita Macchioni Giaquinto,Martha Osorio,Ilaria Sisto and Muriel Veldman.Elsa Valli,Mari Kangasniemi and Audre

81、y Pereira wrote the spotlight on social protection.Natalia Piedrahita,Martina Improta(ESA);Carly Petracco(ESA)and Nimra Azhar prepared the figures.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSxACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAdditional inputs were provided by Lauren Phillips,Benjamin Davis,Libor Stloukal,Erdgin Mane,Yonca Gurbuzer(ESS),Veronic

82、a Boero(ESS),Ana Paula de la O Campos(ESA);Isabelle Carboni(GSMA);Nadia Jeffrie(GSMA);Matt Shanahan(GSMA)and Joseph Feyertag(ODI).Alexis Pellier(FAOFR)provided support in compiling the references section.We are also grateful to Cheryl Doss(University of Oxford),who commented on and edited the first

83、draft of the chapter and GSMA,who shared data with us from their annual consumer survey data for 2021.Chapter 4Lauren Phillips,Audrey Pereira and Mariola Acosta co-led the research and writing team for Chapter 4.Additional inputs were provided by Benjamin Davis,Martha Osorio,Ilaria Sisto and Vanya S

84、lavchevska.Ivanna Beatriz Valverde,Silvia Vilimelis Lpez and Ghita Abouyoub provided support for the GaPo Analysis.Natalia Piedrahita provided graphics support and Alexis Pellier provided support on data and graphics related to institutions.We are grateful to Agnes Quisumbing(IFPRI)and Els Lecoutere

85、(CGIAR GENDER platform)who commented on and edited several drafts of the chapter.Chapter 5Lauren Phillips and Erdgin Mane co-led the research and writing team for Chapter 5.Additional authors include Annarita Macchioni Giaquinto,Valentina Costa,Mariola Acosta and Romina Cavatassi.Additional inputs w

86、ere provided by Benjamin Davis,Vanya Slavchevska,Ilaria Sisto,Marwan Benali,Adriano Bolchini,Ariane Genthon,Natalia Piedrahita,Audrey Pereira,Elsa Valli and Mari Kangasniemi.We are grateful to Elizabeth Bryan(IFPRI),who read,commented on and edited the first draft of the report.We are also grateful

87、to Tilman Brck,Piero Ronzani and Wolfgang Stojetz(all ISDC),who commented on the first draft and provided graphical inputs on conflicts.We are grateful to OER and the Global Network Against Food Crises for their contribution to the preparation of this chapter.Chapter 6Lauren Phillips,Vanya Slavchevs

88、ka and Mariola Acosta co-led the research and writing team for Chapter 6.The section on social protection was authored by Mari Kangasniemi,Audrey Pereira and Elsa Valli.Additional inputs were provided by Benjamin Davis,Erdgin Mane,Ilaria Sisto and Hajnalka Petrics.We are grateful to Melle Tiel Groen

89、estege from GSMA for his review of the section on digitalization.The methodology on estimating the gains in terms of GDP and food security from closing the farm productivity and wage gaps in agrifood systems was prepared by Erdgin Mane and Gustavo Anrquez,with inputs from Marwan Benali,Annarita Macc

90、hioni Giaquinto,Natalia Piedrahita,and Vanya Slavchevska.It was reviewed by Benjamin Davis,Maximo Torero and Carlo Cafiero.The methodology on utilizing projects which empower women to increase incomes and resilience was written by Romina Cavatassi,and the calculations were completed by Romina Cavata

91、ssi,Lauren Phillips and Vanya Slavchevska,with support from Alexis Pellier and Giuseppe Maggio(Universit degli Studi di Palermo and IFAD).They were reviewed by Benjamin Davis,Mximo Torero,Paul Winters(University of Notre Dame)and Aslihan Arslan(IFAD).We are grateful to Sara Savastano and IFAD for al

92、lowing use of data from the IFAD11 Impact Assessment for these estimations.xiThe box with evidence on the cost effectiveness of gender-transformative approaches was supported by Michael OSullivan and Aletheia Amalia Donald of the World Banks Gender Innovation Lab,with additional drafting by Alexis P

93、ellier.Huda Alsahi helped write parts in the sections on digitalisation,and Ghita Abouyoub and Martha Osorio contributed to the sections on land.Throughout this report,all sections on gender-based violence were led by Audrey Pereira and Ilaria Sisto,with input from Lora Forsythe(University of Greenw

94、ich).Additional inputs on gender-based violence were provided by Benjamin Davis and Lauren Phillips.Report reviewColleagues in the following FAO divisions provided comments on various sections of the report:ESA,ESP,ESS,EST,ESN,LEG,PSUI,ESF,and TCI.The Directors and Deputy Directors of the Economic a

95、nd Social Development(ES)stream provided comments.Gender Focal Points(GFPs)in FAO headquarters and Regional Offices provided comments in the earlier drafts and during the GFPs meeting.A team of scientists from the GENDER Impact Platform read and provided written comments to the first draft of the re

96、port.Background papersSix background papers for this report were prepared by the CGIAR GENDER Impact platform,which also contributed to the co-organisation of the first expert consultation held in June 2022 and prepared the related report.Authors included(alphabetically by last name):Esther Leah Ach

97、andi(ILRI);Muzna Alvi(IFPRI);Edidah Lubega Ampaire(IDRC);Elizabeth Bryan(IFPRI);Lucia Carrillo(IFPRI);Afrina Choudhury(WorldFish);Steven Cole(IITA);Nicoline de Haan(CGIAR GENDER Platform);Marlne Elias(The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT);Linda Etale(IRRI);Simone Faas(IFPRI);Gundula Fis

98、cher(IITA);Alessandra Gali(ILRI);Hom Gartaula(CIMMYT);Tatiana Gumucio(Clark University);Melissa Hidrobo(IFPRI);Sophia Huyer(ILRI);Humphrey Jumba(ILRI);Katrina Kosec(IFPRI);Els Lecoutere(CGIAR GENDER Platform);Hazel Malapit(IFPRI);Margaret Najjingo Mangheni(Makerere University);Ruth Meinzen-Dick(IFPR

99、I);Avni Mishra(IRRI);Emily Myers(IFPRI);Dina Najjar(ICARDA);Eileen Nchanji(The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT);Ana Maria Paez Valencia(The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT);Ranjitha Puskur(IRRI);Agnes Quisumbing(IFPRI);Catherine Ragasa(IFPRI);Bhim Reddy(IRRI);Claudia Ring

100、ler(IFPRI);Greg Seymour(IFPRI);Niyati Singaraju(IRRI);Katie Tavenner(independent consultant);Jennifer Twyman(independent consultant);Bjorn Van Campenhout(IFPRI)and Haley Zaremba(The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT).The report also drew from additional papers prepared by(alphabetically

101、by last name):Gustavo Anrquez(Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile);Carlo Azzarri(IFPRI);Marwan Benali,Tilman Brck(ISDC);Elizabeth Bryan(IFPRI);Carlo Cafiero(ESS);Valentina Costa,Benjamin Davis,Yonca Gurbuzer(ESS);Anne Karam(KIT Royal Tropical Institute);Froukje Kruijssen(KIT Royal Tropical Insti

102、tute);Annarita Macchioni Giaquinto,Erdgin Mane,Gianluigi Nico(World Bank);Natalia Piedrahita,Rhiannon Pyburn(KIT Royal Tropical Institute);Claudia Ringler(IFPRI);Piero Ronzani(ISDC);Nicholas Sitko,Vanya Slavchevska,Cedric Steijn(KIT Royal Tropical Institute);Wolfgang Stojetz(ISDC)and Sara Viviani(ES

103、S).xiiExpert consultationsExternal participants included:Gustavo Anrquez(Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile);Aslihan Arslan(IFAD);Carlo Azzarri(IFPRI);Stephanie Barrientos(Global Development Institute at The University of Manchester);Brenda Behan(WFP);Nicole Brandt(Global Affairs Canada);Tilman

104、 Brck(ISDC);Elizabeth Bryan(IFPRI);Isabelle Carboni(ISDC);Luc Christaensen(World Bank);Maarten de Groot(Global Affairs Canada);Nicoline de Haan(CGIAR GENDER platform);Aletheia Donald(World Bank);Cheryl Doss(University of Oxford);Stephan Dohrn(Radical Inclusion);Marlne Elias(The Alliance of Bioversit

105、y International and CIAT);Nikita Eriksenhamel(Global Affairs Canada);Linda Etale(IRRI);Cathy Farnworth(independent consultant);Maria Floro(American University);Lora Forsythe(University of Greenwich);Haris Gazdar(Research Collective);Melissa Hidrobo(IFPRI);Marya Hillesland(University of Oxford);Steve

106、n Jonckheere(IFAD);Susan Kaaria(African Women in Agricultural Research and Development AWARD);Naomi Kenney(University of Strathclyde,Glasgow);Aslihan Kes(USAID);Talip Kilic(World Bank);Katrina Kosec(IFPRI);Chiara Kovarik(Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation);Els Lecoutere(CGIAR GENDER Platform);Flora M

107、ak(Global Affairs Canada);Hazel Malapit(IFPRI);Cristina Manfre(Technoserve);Michael OSullivan(World Bank);Amparo Palacios Lopez(World Bank);Athur Mabiso(IFAD);Giuseppe Maggio(Universit degli Studi di Palermo and IFAD);Cristina Manfre(Technoserve);Jemimah Njuki(UN Women);Katja Osterwalder(WFP);Ranjit

108、ha Puskur(IRRI);Rhiannon Pyburn(KIT Royal Tropical Institute);Agnes Quisumbing(IFPRI);Farzana Ramzan(USAID);La Rouanet(World Bank);Greg Seymour(IFPRI);Anatoliy Shatkovskyy(Global Affairs Canada);Bimbika Sijapati Basnett(PROSPERA);Niyati Singaraju(IRRI);Meredith Soule(USAID);Wolfgang Stojetz(Internat

109、ional Security and Development Center);Vicki Wilde(Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation)and Alberto Zezza(World Bank).Internal participants within FAO included:Lois Archimbaud,Veronica Boero,Ida Christensen,Piero Conforti,Ana Paula De la O Campos,Patrizia Fracassi,Yonca Gurbuzer,Mari Kangasniemi,Aida K

110、halil,Tacko Ndiaye,Nicholas Sitko,Margret Vidar and all of the members of the ESP team who contributed to the preparation of the report.We are grateful for the many useful comments we received during CSO consultations which included members from:Action Against Hunger,ActionAid USA,African Indigenous

111、 Womens Organization,Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa(AGRA);AIDOS,Associated Country Women of the World(ACWW);Association of Women in Agriculture Kenya,CARE International,Central Asia Pastoral Alliance,National Federation of Pasture User Groups,EcoAngola,FECOFUN,Food Rights Alliance,Heifer In

112、ternational,Human Dignity and Environmental Care Foundation(HUDEFO);Indigenous Information Network(IIN);International Alert,International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD);Jagaran Community Development Centre,Jamaica Network of Rural Women Producers,Mercy Corps,Organismo Participati

113、vo de Avaliao da Conformidade(Opac);Palestinian Center for Economic Development,Pastoral Womens Council(PWC);RECONCILE,Rural Women Assembly,Sahel Consulting,Self Employed Womens Association(SEWA);Netherlands Development Organization(SNV),Voluntary Service Overseas,WADI,Womens Association of Deir el

114、Ahmar and independent consultants.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSxiiiThe following organisations provided case study materials or other relevant materials:Global Affairs Canada,CARE Canada and CARE International,World Bank Gender Innovation Lab,Center for Strategic and International Studies(CSIS)and Mercy Corps.Ed

115、itorial,administrative&communications supportViviana Di Bari led the production of the report.The publication was greatly enhanced by Bruce Ross-Larson and Joe Caponio(both Communications Development,Inc)who provided editorial and content-structuring support.Paul Neat led copy-editing,with support f

116、rom Sylvie Baumgartel.Creative design,graphics and layout provided by M&C Saatchi World Services.Art&Design supported with the layout and graphic design.Ambra Sangiorgio,Nathalie Silvestri and Hebah Abu Afifeh provided administrative support throughout the process,while Stenio Andrade and Fiona Funk

117、e provided support on the facilitation and organisation of the expert consultations.Isabella Clemente,Francesca Jones,Deborah Basilici and Olivera Luketic provided additional support.Mariola Acosta,Annarita Macchioni Giaquinto,Audrey Pereira,Lea Berthelin and Alexis Pellier provided support with the

118、 references of the report and helped to address copy-editing issues.Ilaria Sisto,Audrey Pereira and Alexis Pellier prepared the Glossary for the report.Olivier Lavagne dOrtigue(ESS)produced the maps in the report.Translations were delivered by the Language Branch(CSGL)of the FAO Governing Bodies Ser

119、vicing Division(CSG).Viviana Di Bari and Melina Archer led outreach and communications for the report and expert workshops.The team in the Communication Office has provided excellent support,especially the Publications team.The communications campaign was designed by M&C Saatchi Group.We gratefully

120、acknowledge the financial contribution made by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to support the communication and dissemination of the report.xivABBREVIATIONSAFS:agrifood systemsBMI:body mass indexCEDAW:Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against WomenDDS:dietary diversi

121、ty scoreDHS:Demographic and Health SurveysFIES:Food Insecurity Experience Scale GALS:Gender Action Learning SystemGaPO:Gender in Agricultural Policies Analysis ToolGBV:gender-based violenceGDP:gross domestic product GSMA:Global System for Mobile Communications AssociationGWP:Gallup World PollICLS:In

122、ternational Conference of Labour StatisticiansICT:information and communications technologyIFAD:International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFPRI:International Food Policy Research InstituteILO:International Labour OrganizationILOSTAT:International Labour Organization StatisticsILRI:International

123、 Livestock Research InstituteIPC/CH:Integrated Food Security Phase ClassificationCadre HarmonisIPV:Intimate Partner ViolenceISIC:United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic ActivitiesITU:International Telecommunication UnionJP RWEE:Joint Programme:Accelerating Pro

124、gress Towards Rural Womens Economic EmpowermentLN:Natural logarithmLSMS+:Living Standards Measurement Study-PlusLSMS-ISA:Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture NDC:nationally determined contributionPPP:Purchasing Power ParityPRO-WEAI:Project Level Womens Empowerment in

125、Agriculture IndexOECD:Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentRuLIS:Rural Livelihoods Information SystemSDGs:Sustainable Development Goals SOFA:State of Food and Agriculture Report,FAOUNDESA:United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDP:United Nations Development Program

126、meUNFCCC:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNFPA:United Nations Population FundUNICEF:United Nations Childrens FundUSAID:United States Agency for International DevelopmentWEAI:Womens Empowerment in Agriculture IndexWFP:World Food ProgrammeWHO:World Health OrganizationABBREVIATIONS

127、xvGROWLETSEQUALITYGROWLETSEQUALITYOVERVIEWTHE STATUS OF WOMEN IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSAgrifood systems are a major employer of women globally and constitute a more important source of livelihood for women than for men in many countries.Empowering women and closing gender gaps in agrifood systems thus enh

128、ances the well-being of women and their households,reducing hunger,boosting incomes and strengthening resilience.This report provides a comprehensive overview of the status of women in agrifood systems.It analyses the multiple sources of inequality that constrain their participation,well-being and e

129、mpowerment;describes policies and approaches that have supported gender equality and womens empowerment;and details how womens equal participation in agrifood systems can transform individual and global outcomes.Despite the importance of agrifood systems for womens livelihoods and the welfare of the

130、ir families,womens roles tend to be marginalized and their working conditions are likely to be worse than mens irregular,informal,part-time,low-skilled,labour-intensive and thus vulnerable.Women also have higher burdens of unpaid care,limiting their opportunities for education and employment.This is

131、 true both for women working in primary agricultural production,with wages and productivity systematically lower than those of men,and for women working in off-farm segments of agrifood systems,where their work is mostly in lower-value nodes.Women may not be systematically excluded from high-value,e

132、xport-oriented value chains or from entrepreneurship in agrifood systems,but their participation is usually constrained by discriminatory social xviiixviiinorms and barriers to knowledge,assets,resources and social networks.Womens access to land,inputs,services,finance and digital technology which i

133、s key to working in agrifood systems continues to lag behind mens.In many countries there still is much to do to ensure that women own land in equal proportion to men and that legal frameworks protect their rights.It is alarming how little the gaps in womens access to extension and irrigation and ow

134、nership of livestock have closed over the past decade,although it is encouraging that gaps in their access to financial services,mobile internet and mobile phones are narrowing.Discriminatory social norms and rules affecting women and girls are at the heart of gender inequality and are slow to chang

135、e.Attitudes towards womens work outside the home,the acceptability of gender-based violence and other norms affecting womens livelihoods in agrifood systems remain dangerously restrictive in much of the world.Formal policies and strategies may increasingly identify the constraints and inequalities t

136、hat women face,but few national policies specify objectives to address them.This is despite the evidence that a broader approach to womens empowerment reducing the barriers to their participation and changing the norms and rules that constrain it has great benefits for womens well-being and for wide

137、r society as a whole.Such an approach also has substantial co-benefits for womens livelihoods,earnings,health and nutrition of their children.SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC-A woman,after collecting figs,her only source of livelihood,dries them in the sun.OVERVIEWFAO/Jafaar Al MereixixCoping mechanisms and res

138、ilience to shocks and stressors are shaped by gender inequalities,and shocks and crises have a greater negative impact on womens livelihoods in agrifood systems than they do on mens.During the COVID-19 pandemic,womens food insecurity rose faster than mens,and job losses in both primary agricultural

139、production and off-farm segments of the agrifood systems were much more pronounced for women than for men.Women were called on to draw down their more limited assets and savings more quickly than were men.During climate shocks,womens more limited resources and assets constrain their adaptive capacit

140、y and resilience.These challenges to womens full and equal employment in agrifood systems hold back their productivity and sustain wage gaps.Closing the gender gap in farm productivity and the wage gap in agrifood systems would increase global gross domestic product by 1 percent(or nearly USD 1 tril

141、lion).This would reduce global food insecurity by about 2 percentage points,reducing the number of food-insecure people by 45 million.Womens empowerment is also key to economic and social outcomes.Benefits from projects that empower women are higher than those that just mainstream gender.More than h

142、alf of bilateral finance for agriculture and rural development already mainstreams gender,but only 6 percent treats gender as fundamental.If half of small-scale producers benefited from development interventions that focused on empowering women,it would significantly raise the incomes of an addition

143、al 58 million people and increase the resilience of an additional 235 million people.Womens work in agrifood systemsAgrifood systems are a major employer of women.Globally,36 percent of working women and 38 percent of working men work in agrifood systems as of 2019.For both women and men,this repres

144、ents a decline of about 10 percentage points since 2005,driven almost exclusively by a reduction in employment in primary agricultural production.Agrifood systems are a more important source of livelihood for women than for men in many countries.In sub-Saharan Africa,66 percent of womens employment

145、is in agrifood systems,compared with 60 percent of mens.In southern Asia,women overwhelmingly work in agrifood systems(71 percent of women,versus 47 percent of men),although fewer women than men are in the labour force.Agrifood systems are a key source of employment for young women,especially those

146、aged 1524.In general,women account for a greater share of agricultural employment at lower levels of economic development,as inadequate education,limited access to basic infrastructure and markets,high unpaid-work burden and poor rural employment opportunities outside agriculture severely limit wome

147、ns opportunities for off-farm work.Women make up well over 50 percent of the agricultural labour force in many sub-Saharan African countries.About half of the labour force in agriculture is female in several countries in Southeast Asia,including Cambodia,the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic and Viet

148、Nam.AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS ARE A MORE IMPORTANT SOURCE OF LIVELIHOOD FOR WOMEN THAN FOR MEN IN MANY COUNTRIES.xx PERU A rural woman in the field tending her crops.Women who work in agricultural production tend to do so under highly unfavourable conditions.They tend to be concentrated in the poorest countr

149、ies,where alternative livelihoods are not available,and they maintain the intensity of their work in conditions of climate-induced weather shocks and in situations of conflict.Women are less likely to participate as entrepreneurs and independent farmers and are engaged in the production of less lucr

150、ative crops.Often,women are unpaid family workers or casual workers in agriculture.Social norms may also constrain women from producing crops and participating in activities dominated by men.The gender gap in land productivity between female-and male-managed farms of the same size is 24 percent.On a

151、verage,women earn 18.4 percent less than men in wage employment in agriculture;this means that women receive 82 cents for every dollar earned by men.Moving from primary agricultural production to off-farm work in agrifood systems has historically led to improved livelihoods for both women and men.Ho

152、wever,the roles of women in off-farm work in agrifood systems are more likely to be in less profitable value chains and activities or on worse terms than those of men due to restrictive traditional social norms or poor access to assets and resources.Womens greater burden of unpaid domestic and care

153、work,such as cleaning,cooking and caring for household members,contributes to inequalities in labour-market participation and outcomes.This is particularly evident in low-and middle-income countries.In rural areas,womens unpaid-work burden is greater than that of men in large part because of the tim

154、e they spend collecting water.The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the disproportionate burden women shoulder in unpaid care of children and other family members and the implications of this burden for womens time and employment.Womens access to assets,services and resourcesWomens access to assets and

155、resources key to agrifood systems such as land,inputs,services,finance and digital technology continues to lag behind mens.Gaps directly related to agricultural production remain substantial,but gender gaps in education,finance and information and communications technology,which are particularly imp

156、ortant for developing off-farm businesses and employment opportunities in agrifood systems,are closing more quickly.Nevertheless,sustained,quality access to assets and resources remains a challenge.Women in agricultural households remain significantly disadvantaged in landownership compared with men

157、;half the countries reporting on Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 5.a.2 have weak legal protections for womens land rights.The percentage of men who have ownership or secure tenure rights over agricultural land is twice that of women in more than 40 percent of the countries that have reported

158、on womens landownership(Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 5.a.1),and a larger percentage of men than women have such rights in 40 of 46 countries reporting.Even so,the share of women among landowners increased in 10 of OVERVIEWFAO Peruxxi18 countries over the last decade,with marked improvement

159、s in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia.Progress has been slow in closing gaps in womens access to irrigation and in ownership of livestock.On average,men own more livestock than do women and are more likely than women to own large livestock such as cattle.These gaps have chan

160、ged little in the last decade,although gaps in ownership of smaller species such as sheep and poultry tend to be narrower.Women in agriculture still have significantly less access than men to inputs,including improved seeds,fertilizers and mechanized equipment.On a positive note,the gender gap in ac

161、cess to mobile internet in low-and middle-income countries fell from 25 percent to 16 percent between 2017 and 2021,and the gender gap in access to bank accounts narrowed from 9 to 6 percentage points.Women are as likely as men to adopt new technologies when the necessary enabling factors are put in

162、 place and they have equal access to complementary resources.Agency,norms and policiesDiscriminatory social norms in agrifood systems create power imbalances between men and women and limit the choices available to women,who usually are more involved in unpaid care and domestic work.Such norms commo

163、nly restrict womens mobility and limit their options for non-domestic work and market activities and their access to and control over assets and income.Gender-based discrimination in social institutions varies by region and country but remains unacceptably high globally.This constrains womens full a

164、nd productive employment in agrifood systems(as sellers,employers or employees)and affects their ability to access and benefit from services,technologies and rural organizations.Advancing gender equality and womens empowerment is critical to womens well-being and to society at large and thus has int

165、rinsic value.Significant advances in measuring womens empowerment in agrifood systems over the past decade show that womens empowerment has a positive impact on agricultural production,food security,diets and child nutrition.Addressing gender equality and womens empowerment means addressing constrai

166、ning social norms and rigid gender roles affecting how women participate in agrifood systems.Increasing attention has been placed on addressing constraints created by discriminatory social norms and gender-blind policies and laws in agrifood systems.Projects have increasingly aimed at increasing wom

167、ens empowerment and at measuring the impact of interventions on both agency and empowerment.To do this effectively,men,boys and community leaders must all be engaged in gender-transformative processes.SRI LANKA-A woman farmer watering crops.FAO/Ishara Kodikara xxiiThe extent to which national policy

168、 frameworks address gender issues improved over the past decade.National policies and budgets in East Africa and Latin America,for example,have increasingly highlighted structural gaps in access to land,inputs,services,finance and digital technology and included efforts to produce gender-responsive

169、outcomes.However,the extent to which agricultural policies specifically address gender equality and womens empowerment varies.Even though more than 75 percent of agricultural policies that FAO analysed recognized womens roles and/or challenges in agriculture,only 19 percent had gender equality in ag

170、riculture or womens rights as explicit policy objectives.And only 13 percent encouraged rural womens participation in the policy cycle.Resilience and adaptation to shocksCoping mechanisms and resilience to shocks and stressors are shaped by gender inequalities.Shocks and crises have a large impact o

171、n womens livelihoods in agrifood systems,and these shocks and crises are multiple and often overlapping.In many countries,these shocks and crises occur in contexts of very high gender inequalities.The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the related economic crisis have been intensified and shaped b

172、y gender inequalities in agrifood-system livelihoods.Globally,22 percent of women lost their jobs in off-farm agrifood systems work in the first year of the pandemic,compared with only 2 percent of men.The gap in food insecurity between men and women widened from 1.7 percentage points in 2019 to 4.3

173、 percentage points in 2021.Womens care burden also increased:in Honduras and Uganda,for example,lockdown measures increased girls domestic and care burden and reduced their school attendance more than they did those of boys.The incidence and perceptions of gender-based violence soared,especially dom

174、estic violence and abuse against women and girls,largely as a result of intrahousehold tensions caused by lockdowns,school closures and food and financial insecurities.Women often have more sensitivity to climate shocks and natural disasters than do men and have different resilience capacity.While w

175、omen are not inherently more at risk from climate change and shocks,resource and other constraints can make them more sensitive to their effects and less able to adapt to them,increasing their vulnerability.For example,womens work burdens,including hours worked in agriculture,tend to decline less th

176、an mens during climate shocks such as heat stress.Discriminatory gender norms limiting womens mobility and their ability to access extension services and climate information present further obstacles to climate adaptation.Women are also often underrepresented in climate policy decision-making at all

177、 levels.GENDER-BASED DISCRIMINATION IN SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS VARIES BY REGION AND COUNTRY BUT REMAINS UNACCEPTABLY HIGH GLOBALLY.OVERVIEWxxiiiConflict and insecurity remain key drivers of food crises and food insecurity.Women are often more vulnerable than men to acute food insecurity because they fac

178、e additional risks,barriers and disadvantages.Violent conflicts also have gender-differentiated impacts on mobility,gender-based violence,health and education outcomes,and political and civic engagement.Conflict increases employment in agriculture more for women than for men.However,while it reduces

179、 the working hours of both men and women,womens working hours are reduced less than those of men.Reducing gender inequalities in livelihoods,access to resources and resilience in agrifood systems is a critical pathway towards gender equality and womens empowerment and towards more just and sustainab

180、le agrifood systems.These improvements are possible when an enabling environment exists and interventions are well designed to tackle the multidimensional and interrelated challenges facing women and men.Gender-transformative approaches show promise in changing discriminatory norms across a broad ar

181、ray of areas.Available data indicate that such approaches are cost-effective and have high returns.However,more work is needed on developing pathways to implement gender-transformative approaches at scale.It is also critical to improve productivity and close gaps related to access to assets and reso

182、urces.Interventions alleviating womens workloads and improving their productivity have been particularly successful when they address care and unpaid domestic work burdens,strengthen womens capacities through education and training,improve access to technology and resources,and strengthen land-tenur

183、e security.Access to child care has a large positive effect on mothers employment in and returns to agrifood-system activities.Closing the gender gaps in landownership and secure tenure is particularly important as secure land rights have multiple positive impacts.Gaps can be narrowed through a comb

184、ination of implementing reforms on land registration,increasing land-rights awareness and access to community-based legal aid,and fostering womens participation in local land institutions.Additionally,services(such as What has worked and how to move forward KYRGYZSTAN-Rural women harvesting their cr

185、ops.GENDER-TRANSFORMATIVE APPROACHES SHOW PROMISE IN CHANGING NORMS,ARE COST-EFFECTIVE AND HAVE HIGH RETURNS.FAO/Vyacheslav Oseledkoxxivextension)and resources(such as technology)must be designed with womens needs in mind.Digital tools and information and communications technology can facilitate clo

186、sing multiple gaps.Group-based approaches are important for increasing womens empowerment and resilience to shocks and stressors such as the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change.They encourage the uptake of technology and increase adaptive capacity.They can also increase womens participation in clim

187、ate policy processes.Social protection programmes have increased womens employment and enhanced womens resilience.They have facilitated climate adaptation,improved well-being in contexts where risks from climate change are high and helped in the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and the impacts of

188、 extreme weather events resulting from climate change.As a way forward,three elements are critical.First,the collection and use of high-quality data,disaggregated by sex,age and other forms of social and economic differentiation,and the implementation of rigorous qualitative and quantitative gender

189、research are paramount for monitoring,evaluating and accelerating progress on gender equality in agrifood systems.Despite improvements in the past ten years,significant gaps remain in the availability,scope and granularity of data,and in the evidence on what works and under what conditions for build

190、ing more inclusive agrifood systems.Second,localized interventions which address multiple inequalities that have been proven to close gender gaps and empower women in agrifood systems should be carefully scaled up,taking into consideration the local context.While engaging with communities and househ

191、olds on gender-biased local norms through gender-transformative approaches remains critical,to reach scale governments,international organizations,civil society organizations and the private sector must influence positive changes in gender norms and improve womens access to resources through nationa

192、l policies,campaigns and large-scale integrated programmes.Only by reaching scale can we achieve large benefits for womens well-being and significant gains in economic growth and food security.Finally,interventions must be designed to close gender inequalities and empower women.Interventions are mor

193、e likely to bridge gender gaps in agrifood systems and bring about positive and lasting improvements in womens welfare when they integrate explicit actions towards gender equality and womens empowerment.When possible,they should use transformative approaches at community and national level to addres

194、s discriminatory gender norms and attitudes.Doing so can drive major improvements in incomes and resilience.KENYA-Two young women inspect the health status of local chickens.OVERVIEWTHE INCREASE IN SEX-DISAGGREGATED DATA AND MEASUREMENT OF EMPOWERMENT ARE KEY TO EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMING AND POLICY.FAO/

195、Luis TatoxxvAgrifood systems are a major employer of both women and men.Globally,36 percent of working women are employed in agrifood systems,along with 38 percent of working men.For both women and men,this represents a decline of about 10 percentage points since 2005,driven almost exclusively by a

196、reduction in employment in primary agricultural production.Globally,21 percent of all workers in the fishery and aquaculture primary sector are women and almost 50 percent of all workers in the entire aquatic value chain(including pre-and post-harvest)are women.Female workers are significantly more

197、likely than male workers to work part-time or in other vulnerable positions.The gender gap in land productivity between female-and male-managed farms of the same size is 24 percent.Men have greater ownership or secure tenure rights over agricultural land than do women in 40 of 46 countries reporting

198、 on Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 5.a.1.Women engaged in wage employment in agriculture earn 82 cents for every dollar that men earn.Agrifood systems are a more important source of livelihood for women than for men in many countries.In sub-Saharan Africa,66 percent of womens employment is i

199、n agrifood systems,compared with 60 percent of mens employment.In southern Asia,71 percent of women in the labour force work in agrifood systems versus 47 percent of men.NUMERICAL HIGHLIGHTSxxviWhile 75 percent of policy documents relating to agriculture and rural development from 68 countries recog

200、nize womens roles and/or womens challenges in agriculture and rural development,only 19 percent included policy goals related to gender.The gap in food insecurity between men and women widened from 1.7 percentage points in 2019 to 4.3 percentage points in 2021.Closing the gender gap in farm producti

201、vity and the wage gap in agrifood-system employment would increase global gross domestic product by 1 percent(or nearly USD1 trillion).This would reduce global food insecurity by about 2 percentage points,reducing the number of food-insecure people by 45 million.If half of small-scale producers bene

202、fited from development interventions which focused on empowering women,it would significantly raise the incomes of an additional 58 million people and increase the resilience of an additional 235 million people.Globally,22 percent of women lost their jobs in the off-farm segment of agrifood systems

203、in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic,compared with only 2 percent of men.The gender gap in womens access to mobile internet in low-and middle-income countries narrowed from 25 percent to 16 percent between 2017 and 2021,and the gender gap in access to bank accounts narrowed from 9 percentage p

204、oints to 6 percentage points.OVERVIEWxxviiPOLICY HIGHLIGHTS Increasing womens empowerment is essential for womens well-being and has a positive impact on agricultural production,food security,diets and child nutrition.Gender-transformative approaches to change restrictive social norms are cost-effec

205、tive and have high returns,but more work is needed on developing pathways to implement gender-transformative approaches at scale.Enhancing womens rights to own or have secure tenure over agricultural land has positive impacts on empowerment,investment,natural-resource management,access to services a

206、nd institutions,resilience and food security,reducing gender-based violence and increasing womens bargaining power.Access to formal child care has a large positive effect on mothers employment in and returns to agrifood-system activities.Improving womens access to agricultural extension is important

207、 to maximize food security and nutritional outcomes and to facilitate womens participation across agrifood systems.INCREASING WOMENS EMPOWERMENT IS ESSENTIAL FOR WOMENS WELL-BEING AND HAS A POSITIVE IMPACT ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION,FOOD SECURITY,DIETS AND CHILD NUTRITION.ITALY Two small-scale food

208、producers from the Syrian Arab Republic visit the vegetable gardens of the University of Gastronomic Sciences.FAO/Aamir Qureshixxviii PAKISTAN A woman carries her daughter as she arrives to work at a vegetable field.Group-based approaches are important for increasing womens empowerment and resilienc

209、e to shocks and stresses such as the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change.They have also proven effective for increasing womens participation in climate policy processes,for increasing uptake of technology and increasing adaptive capacity.Social protection programmes have increased womens employment

210、 and enhanced womens resilience.They have also facilitated climate adaptation,improved well-being in contexts where climate risk is high and helped in recovering from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and climate shocks.The increase in efforts to collect sex-disaggregated data and measure empower

211、ment in its multiple dimensions is central to improving the design and effectiveness of programming and policy in terms of gender equality and empowerment.However,major gaps remain in the availability of sex-disaggregated data on access to productive assets and services,climate-change adaptation and

212、 resilience,and nutrition.Data and research are also limited on women and men who face additional inequalities due to age,socioeconomic status,ethnicity,Indigenous identity and remoteness.ACCESS TO FORMAL CHILD CARE HAS A LARGE POSITIVE EFFECT ON MOTHERS EMPLOYMENT IN AND RETURNS TO AGRIFOOD-SYSTEM

213、ACTIVITIES.OVERVIEWFAO/Aamir QureshixxixGROWLETSEQUALITYIN AGRIFOODSYSTEMSCHAPTER 1GROWLETSEQUALITYIN AGRIFOODSYSTEMSGROWLETSEQUALITYIN AGRIFOODSYSTEMSCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONThe State of Food and Agriculture(SOFA)201011:Women in Agriculture Closing the gender gap for development1 made the business cas

214、e for closing existing gender gaps in accessing agricultural assets,inputs and services.It documented the tremendous costs of gender inequality not only for women but also for agriculture and,through agriculture,for the broader economy and society as a whole.Much has happened since 2011.The critical

215、 importance of achieving gender equality and empowering women as a goal of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is increasingly recognized and accepted at all levels of governance.Increased attention has been given to gender equality in agricultural policymaking,development and humanitarian i

216、nterventions,and institutional strengthening and to enhancing womens participation in positions of leadership.Significant improvements have been made in the availability of sex-disaggregated data and gender statistics.An increasing amount of research has explored the nature and drivers of womens emp

217、owerment and gender equality.However,while some gender gaps have been reduced,little or no progress has been achieved in others.Women represent half of the global population but continue to be systematically disadvantaged across different dimensions of welfare and economic livelihoods.In 2021,for ex

218、ample,globally 31.9 percent of women were moderately or severely food insecure compared with 27.6 percent of men,a gap of 4.3 percentage points(see Box 1.1).2 Women and girls face barriers and constraints that men and boys do not as a consequence of rigid gender norms and roles,unequal power dynamic

219、s and discriminatory social structures.The dramatic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic exposed the fragility of earlier gains in womens empowerment and highlighted the implications of the persistence of structural inequalities and multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination affecting women and gi

220、rls.These impediments to womens progress are compounded by the additional challenges posed by climate,economic and price shocks,conflicts and the increasing risks of gender-based violence.FAO/Luis Tato2CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION TAJIKISTAN A woman harvesting a local variety of apples.INDIA-Workers in a

221、shrimp pre-processing unit of a seafood plant.SINCE 2011,WHILE SOME GENDER GAPS HAVE BEEN REDUCED,LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN OTHERS.FAO/Nozim Kalandarov3CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION UGANDA-A woman stores grain in a silo to avoid post-harvest losses.agrifood systems that has been produced o

222、ver the last decade.The report also provides policymakers and development actors with an extensive review of what has worked and makes specific recommendations on the way forward.The report highlights the centrality of intersectionality how multiple and often overlapping and intersecting factors suc

223、h as age,gender,ethnicity,health,disability and socioeconomic,marital and migration status combine to create different modes of discrimination,social exclusion,and privilege in addressing gender equality and womens empowerment(see Box 1.2).It also places greater emphasis on the intertwined nature of

224、 the social and economic dimensions of womens and mens lives.The phenomenon of gender-based violence is included where relevant throughout the report(see Spotlight 1.3).A global consensus on the interdependence of development objectives emerged in the 2000 Millennium Development Goals and the 2015 S

225、ustainable Development Goals.This underlined the centrality of addressing gender equality within a broader approach to sustainable economic and social development.In this report we thus move beyond the focus of SOFA 2011 women in agriculture towards one on broader gendered agrifood systems within dy

226、namic processes of agricultural,rural and structural transformation.Moreover,since 2011 the societal objective has moved beyond reaching equality in economic activities to gender equality and womens empowerment,both as goals in and of themselves and as means to improve an array of welfare outcomes.A

227、s a consequence,the policy space has moved from closing gender gaps towards the adoption of gender-transformative approaches,which explicitly address both the formal and informal structural constraints to equality and more balanced power relations.The status of women in agrifood systems goes far bey

228、ond an update to the SOFA 2011 report on women in agriculture,in that it provides a comprehensive view of the status of women in agrifood systems globally.It presents new data and findings about how women participate in,and benefit from,agrifood systems and investigates how shocks in agrifood system

229、s have a differential impact on men,boys,women and girls and the coping strategies with which they have responded.The report reflects not only on how gender equality and womens empowerment are central to the transition towards sustainable and resilient agrifood systems but also on how the transforma

230、tion of agrifood systems can contribute to gender equality and womens empowerment.It provides a comprehensive analysis of the available evidence on gender equality and womens empowerment in FAO/Sumy Sadurni4FROM AGRICULTURE TO AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSMoving from a focus on the status of women in agriculture

231、 to women in agrifood systems broadens substantially the coverage and the findings of this report.Agrifood systems comprise the entire range of actors and their interlinked activities that add value in food and non-food agricultural production and related off-farm activities such as food storage,agg

232、regation,post-harvest handling,transportation,processing,distribution,marketing,disposal and consumption(Figure 1.1).Food systems a subset of agrifood systems comprise all food products derived from crop and livestock production,forestry,fisheries and aquaculture and from other SOURCE:FAO,IFAD,UNICE

233、F,WFP&WHO.2021.The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021.Transforming food systems for food security,improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all.Rome,FAO.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en sources such as synthetic biology.Globally,these food systems produce some 11 billion

234、 tonnes of food each year and almost four billion people worldwide live in households linked to food systems livelihoods.3Agrifood systems also interact with non-food supply chains.This includes purchase of inputs such as fertilizer,pesticides and farm and fishing equipment and provision of inputs f

235、or the production of non-food commodities(e.g.cotton for textiles).Agrifood systems and their diverse production systems are in turn shaped and influenced by broader economic,social and natural environments.The key actors in agrifood systems include primary producers;service providers such as those

236、supplying inputs and post-harvest,storage,transport and food processing services;and food distributors,wholesalers and retailers.Households and men and women within households participate as self-employed production units and small businesses,wage workers and as final consumers.Figure 1.1 Conceptual

237、 framework for agrifood systemsCHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONAGRIFOOD SYSTEMSNON-AGRICULTURAL ORIGIN Non-foodNon-food supply chains AGRICULTURE-CROPS,LIVESTOCK,FORESTRY,FISHERIES AND AQUACULTUREFOOD SYSTEMSActors and activities involved in the production,storage,aggregation,post-harvest handling,transport,p

238、rocessing,distribution,marketing,disposal and consumption of food.5CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONAgrifood systems are dynamic and changingAgrifood systems are dynamic and continually changing,both driving and being influenced by processes of agricultural,rural and structural transformation.4 Agrifood system

239、s historically have been successful in providing enough food for a growing world population and have contributed to poverty reduction and increased welfare,but this has been at the cost of increasingly negative nutritional and health outcomes,environmental unsustainability and inequality.A concerted

240、 and directed effort is required to move agrifood systems towards nutritional,environmental and equality objectives.5Most employment for both women and men is found in agrifood systems in low-and middle-income countries and specifically in agricultural(including crop,livestock,fisheries and forestry

241、)production,which continues to be the main motor of economic development and poverty reduction.But as economies develop,the proportion of men and women working in agrifood systems falls(Figure 1.2,Panel A).This trend is driven primarily by a reduction of employment in agricultural production.Within

242、agrifood-systems employment,the composition shifts from agricultural production(Figure 1.2,Panel B)to off-farm activities,including transport,processing,distribution,storage and marketing(Figure 1.2,Panel C).The gender differences in these patterns are described in detail in Chapter 2.Agricultural,r

243、ural and structural transformation,and the shift of employment out of agriculture and agrifood systems they imply,are accompanied by increases in labour productivity and an improving average standard of living.The shift of employment in agrifood systems from agriculture to non-agricultural,off-farm

244、activities is part of this process.As this occurs,better-paid jobs for both men and women are increasingly found in off-farm activities in agrifood systems and outside agrifood systems.However,as is described in Chapter 2 of this report,women do not benefit as much as men from the opportunities prov

245、ided by this process.This is true in agricultural production,the off-farm segment of agrifood systems and outside agrifood systems.WOMEN DO NOT BENEFIT AS MUCH AS MEN FROM THE OPPORTUNITIES PROVIDED BY AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL TRANSFORMATION.6Figure 1.2 Proportion of men and women employed in agrifood

246、 systems,with countries ordered by log of GDP SOURCE:Costa,V.,Piedrahita,N.,Mane,E.,Davis,B.,Slavchevska,V.&Gurbuzer,Y.L.(forthcoming).Womens employment in agrifood systems.Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems,2023.Rome,FAO.Panel A:Share of employment in AFS vs ln(GDP per cap

247、ita in PPP)in 2019 for women and menPanel B:Share of employment in agriculture out of employment in AFS vs ln(GDP per capita in PPP)in 2019 Panel C:Share of employment in off-farm AFS out of employment in AFS vs ln(GDP per capita in PPP)in 2019 CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION5.05.56.06.57.07.58.08.59.09.510.

248、010.511.011.512.0ln(GDP per capita)020406080100Share of employment in agrifood systemsPanel A:Share of employment in AFS vs ln(GDP per Capita In PPP)in 2019 for women and menMenWomen56789101112ln(GDP per capita)0204060801001030507090Share of employment in agriculture out of AFSPanel B:Share of emplo

249、ymentin agriculture out of employmentin AFS vs ln(GDP per Capita In PPP)in 201956789101112ln(GDP per capita)Share of employment in off-farm AFS out of AFSPanel C:Share of employmentin off-farm AFS out of employmentin AFS vs ln(GDP per Capita In PPP)in 2019020406080100103050709056789101112ln(GDP per

250、capita)0204060801001030507090Share of employment in agriculture out of AFSPanel B:Share of employmentin agriculture out of employmentin AFS vs ln(GDP per Capita In PPP)in 201956789101112ln(GDP per capita)Share of employment in off-farm AFS out of AFSPanel C:Share of employmentin off-farm AFS out of

251、employmentin AFS vs ln(GDP per Capita In PPP)in 20190204060801001030507090WomenMen7CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION BANGLADESH Two women work to dry fish.AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY STRUCTURAL INEQUALITIES LINKED TO GENDER.From agrifood systems to gender-responsive agrifood systemsTaking the framewo

252、rk for gendered agrifood systems from Njuki et al.(2022)6 as a starting point(Figure 1.3),we look at womens participation in all parts of agrifood systems,on and off farm(production,processing,distribution,marketing,entrepreneurship and consumption).This framework facilitates a focus on specific out

253、comes generated by agrifood systems such as nutrition,empowerment,sustainability and a wider range of livelihoods;considers a broad set of resources,policies and norms;and addresses new challenges and shocks such as climate change and COVID-19,and the growing overlap of these challenges with conflic

254、t.Value chains within agrifood systems(including agricultural production,processing,distribution and storage,and marketing),the food environment and consumer behaviour are all subject to biophysical,environmental,technological,infrastructural,political,economic,sociocultural and demographic drivers(

255、blue boxes in Figure 1.3).Each of these drivers is conditioned by structural inequalities linked to gender and/or intersecting social and economic differentiation,which are referred to throughout this report.The drivers are also influenced by shocks and vulnerabilities(as described in Chapter 5)that

256、 often have different impacts on women and men,girls and boys,in part due to gendered and social groupspecific differences in access to resources,services and local institutions that can mitigate the negative impacts of shocks.7 These shocks and vulnerabilities may arise from a range of idiosyncrati

257、c risks(limited to a specific individual and/or household)and covariate risks(shared by a broader community or region).Chapter 5 focuses primarily on three covariate risks:the COVID-19 pandemic,climate change and conflict.Agrifood systems are themselves characterized by structural inequalities linke

258、d to gender and/or intersecting social and economic differentiation at the individual or structural level,which are rooted in formal or informal institutions and practices(dark green box in Figure 1.3).Chapter 3 covers structural inequalities in the access to and control over assets,resources,servic

259、es and information,while Chapter 4 examines womens agency,gender and social norms and policies and governance.The interaction of the various elements of agrifood systems with the drivers and formal and informal structural and individual inequalities influences outcomes of gender equality and womens

260、empowerment and dietary,economic,livelihood and environment outcomes.Chapter 2 examines the implications for economic and livelihood outcomes,while Chapter 4 examines dietary outcomes and gender equality and womens empowerment.FAO/GMB Akash8Figure 1.3 Framework for gendered agrifood systems SOURCE:N

261、juki,J.,Eissler,S.,Malapit,H.,Meinzen-Dick,R.,Bryan,E.&Quisumbing,A.2022.A review of evidence on gender equality,womens empowerment,and food systems.Global Food Security,33,100622.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100622CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONSTRUCTURAL GENDER INEQUALITIESGENDERED SHOCKS AND VULNERAB

262、ILITIESBiophysical and environmentalVALUE CHAINS Production Processing Distribution and storage MarketingCONSUMER BEHAVIOURChoices on what to eat based upon:Price Income Information PreferenceFOOD ENVIRONMENT Availability Affordability Promotion,advertising and information Quality&safetyWOMENS AGENC

263、Y(choices,bargaining power,preference,capacities,aspirations)GENDERED SOCIAL NORMS(expectations,traditions,etc)Technology and infrastructureACCESS TO AND CONTROL OVER RESOURCES(information,education,land,finances,technology,etc.)POLICIES AND GOVERNANCESYSTEMICINDIVIDUALINFORMALDRIVERSFORMALPolitical

264、 and economicSocioculturalDemographic Dietary outcomesGender equality and womens empowermentEconomic and livelihood outcomesEnvironmental outcomesDOMAINS OF GENDER INEQUALITYOUTCOMES9CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONTAKING A GENDER-TRANSFORMATIVE APPROACHIn addition to taking a gendered agrifood-system approac

265、h,the report reflects current thinking around gender equality and womens empowerment in agriculture and agrifood systems.This has evolved from focusing on gender gaps to promoting gender-transformative change.Gender-transformative change hinges on challenging formal and informal structural constrain

266、ts to equality and power relations that maintain and exacerbate inequalities and hinder womens empowerment.6,8 Addressing these structural constraints requires fostering individual and systemic change across the formal and informal spheres of life at multiple interrelated scales(society,state,market

267、s,community,groups,household and individual)and across the domains of agency,relations and structures.6,7,9,10 Gender-transformative approaches entail moving beyond stand-alone interventions targeting single areas of constraint such as womens limited access to resources and services towards designin

268、g and implementing solutions that could change the system in a lasting manner by removing the underlying structural constraints and building positive and equal non-discriminatory gender norms and roles,with more equitable gender relations within households,communities and organizations.6,11,12 Chapt

269、er 6 reviews recent experiences with gender-transformative approaches.Womens empowerment has become increasingly recognized as an objective in and of itself,as well as a means for achieving improved welfare outcomes for women,their families and communities.Kabeer(1999)defines empowerment as“the proc

270、ess by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability.”13 This process incorporates three interrelated and interacting domains:resources,agency and achievements.Resources include access to actual and future claims to material,human and social reso

271、urces,which are influenced by local rules,norms and different institutions within each context.Agency is the ability to set ones own goals and act to achieve them.It includes processes of decision-making,negotiation,deception and manipulation.Achievements are well-being outcomes that,within the cont

272、ext of agrifood systems,include returns to labour,agricultural productivity and food security.Gender gaps in access to the resources defined above,in agricultural productivity and in benefits derived from engaging with agrifood systems are visible manifestations or symptoms of structural constraints

273、 to equality.This report considers all three domains of resources,agency and achievements in Chapters 2,3 and 4 to track progress towards womens empowerment in order to achieve gender equality in agrifood systems.NIGER A group of women at work,basket weaving and cracking local nuts.FAO/Luis Tao10IMP

274、ROVEMENTS IN THE AVAILABILITY OF SEX-DISAGGREGATED DATAThe broader focus of this report is facilitated by a significant increase in the availability of sex-disaggregated data.We have at our disposal many more different kinds of data than were available in 2011.A multitude of qualitative studies have

275、 emerged in recent years.More abundant sex-disaggregated global data are available across a variety of domains,including food insecurity,labour and access to finance and digital services.The establishment of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and corresponding indicators has fostered increased ava

276、ilability of country-level data on key dimensions of womens empowerment,such as access to land.National household and labour-force surveys have also enhanced the availability of sex-disaggregated data and gender statistics.This has been accompanied by a large increase in project and stand-alone hous

277、ehold surveys with a primary focus on gender equality and womens empowerment,with corresponding sex-disaggregated detail.Using this enhanced sex-disaggregated data,the report has tried to move beyond comparison between female-and male-headed households,given the ample literature that underscores the

278、 limitations of such analysis.However,this has not been entirely possible because in many low-and middle-income countries farm activities in the household are carried out jointly by multiple household members and because of the still-limited availability of sex disaggregated data across time and spa

279、ce.Nationally representative sex-disaggregated data related to self-employment activities(in agriculture and off-farm),time use and access to assets are mostly available only in a relatively small number of countries in the Living Standards Measurement Study Integrated Surveys on Agriculture(LSMS-IS

280、A)and Living Standards Measurement Study Plus(LSMS+)initiatives.For this reason,much of the cross-country comparative analysis of access to and use of productive resources,technology and extension is still limited to female versus male household head(and derivations thereof).Despite a large increase

281、 in projects and interventions fostering gender equality and womens empowerment in rural areas,along with related studies and analysis,available evidence documenting successful strategies to close gender gaps remains limited.Relatively few impact evaluations have been carried out and these often fai

282、l to capture change in the underlying discriminatory social norms and entrenched unequal power dynamics sustaining gender inequality.The strategies documented are of relatively small scale and offer incremental steps towards the achievement of gender equality and womens empowerment.RIGOROUS EVIDENCE

283、 ON SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES TO CLOSE GENDER GAPS IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS REMAINS LIMITED.CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION11CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION OMAN A woman in a factory works packaging food.STRUCTURE OF THE REPORTChapter 2 provides an overview of womens work and productivity in agrifood systems.It provides a wea

284、lth of new data related to the participation of women and men in various parts of agrifood systems;where and how women participate in agrifood value chains;the quality of work in which women are engaged,including the gender wage gap in agrifood-systems employment;and the differences in land and labo

285、ur productivity between men and women.Chapter 3 investigates how womens access to and control over assets,resources,services and local institutions has evolved in the last decade.It presents new data regarding womens access to land and water resources,including security of access to these resources;

286、reconsiders womens access to the traditional complimentary resources and services necessary for agricultural production;and presents recent data on digital agriculture and rural womens access to information and communications technologies.Chapter 4 examines the role of agency in empowering women,dra

287、wing on new research that defines,measures and attributes womens choices,bargaining power,preferences,capabilities and aspirations in agrifood systems.It reviews a growing body of evidence on the positive association of empowerment with improvements in diets,child nutrition,productivity and househol

288、d-level food security.The chapter also investigates the informal social norms and roles that influence gender relationships,as well as the more formal laws,policies and institutions that shape womens participation in agrifood systems.Chapter 5 assesses how shocks and crises impact the opportunities

289、and challenges for women and men in agrifood systems.It reviews the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic,climate change and conflicts,emphasizing the overlapping nature of crises and the pathways through which these crises have specific impacts on women and girls.Chapter 6 draws out the main lessons lear

290、ned from each of the previous chapters.In doing so,it highlights what has worked in improving womens role in agrifood systems in practice and recommends actions for the future.The chapter presents key elements that are common across most successful interventions and provides insights on what works.F

291、AO/Fahad Al Dhuhli12BOX 1.1 GENDER GAPS IN FOOD INSECURITY:EXPLORING DIFFERENCES ACROSS COUNTRIES AND DEMOGRAPHIC CATEGORIESWomen are more food insecure than men in every region and the gap has widened since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic.i Globally,the gap between men and women in the preval

292、ence of moderate or severe food insecurity(Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 2.1.2)increased from 1.7 percentage points in 2019 to 4.3 percentage points in 2021,driven largely by the widening differences in Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia.More than 939 million women aged 15 or older ex

293、perienced moderate to severe food insecurity in 2021,compared with 813 million men in the same age class(Figure A).The gender gap varies considerably across countries.Most of the 24 countries where food insecurity is significantly higher among women than among men are concentrated in Africa,Asia and

294、 Latin America and the Caribbean(Figure B).Food insecurity is significantly higher among men in only four countries.Figure A The gender gap in moderate or severe food insecurity has widened since 2019 SOURCE:FAOSTAT,Suite of Food Security Indicators,15 January 2023.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#dat

295、a/FS0510152025303520142015201620172018201920202021Prevalence of severe food insecurity for menPrevalence of severe food insecurity for womenPrevalence of moderate to severe food insecurity for menPrevalence of moderate to severe food insecurity for women0200400600800100012002014201520162017201820192

296、0202021Number of men experiencing severe food insecurityNumber of women experiencing severe food insecurityNumber of men experiencing moderate to severe food insecurityMillionsNumber of women experiencing moderate to severe food insecurityPrevalence of food insecurity(%)Number of men and women age 1

297、5+experiencing food insecurityCHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION13Figure B Many more countries show significantly higher food insecurity among women than among men SOURCE:FAOSTAT,Suite of Food Security Indicators,15 January 2023.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FSSignificantly higher food insecurity among me

298、nNo dataSignificantly higher food insecurity among womenDifference in men and womens food insecurity is not significant NOTES:Final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by Indi

299、a and Pakistan.The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONAn econometric analysis of Food Insecurity Experience Scale(FIES)ii data collected through the Gallup World Poll(GWP)iii from more than 700 000 individuals in 121 countries before a

300、nd after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic shows that women in rural areas and men and women in the 25-34 age group have been disproportionally affected since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic(Figure C).iv At the global level,people between the age of 15 and 24 and those over 65 are generall

301、y more food secure,and females in the age group 2534 are more food secure than those aged 3564.The differences by sex,residence and age are significant even after controlling for income,education,employment,marital status and household composition,indicating that other unobserved factors,including g

302、ender norms and discrimination,continue to hinder womens food security in rural areas.BOX 1.1 GENDER GAPS IN FOOD INSECURITY(2019-2021):EXPLORING DIFFERENCES ACROSS COUNTRIES AND DEMOGRAPHIC CATEGORIES14Women often have lower levels of education and less full-time employment and participation in the

303、 labour force than do men and come from households with less income.At least 57 percent of the current gap in food insecurity between women and men would disappear if these three gender gaps were eliminated.ivNOTE:Mane et al.(forthcoming)iv use a Tobit model to analyse the socioeconomic determinants

304、 of food insecurity(Figure C),Figure C Food insecurity has disproportionally increased among rural women since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemicFemale-.08-.06-.04-.02020Female*RuralFemale*Age 1524Female*Age 2534Female*Age 65+Age 1524Age 2534Age 65+Rural2014201920202021NOTES:i.FAO,IFAD,United Nat

305、ions Childrens Fund(UNICEF),WFP&World Health Organization(WHO).2022.The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022.Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable.Rome,FAO.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cc0639enii.Cafiero,C.,Viviani,S.&Nord,M.2018.Food security m

306、easurement in a global context:The Food Insecurity Experience Scale.Measurement,116:146152.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.10.065iii.Gallup.2022.Country data set details.In:Gallup.Cited 15 December 2022.https:/ are women more food insecure than men?Exploring socio-economic drivers and the

307、role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap.Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems,2023.Rome,FAO.NOTES:Lines represent 95%confidence intervals.SOURCE:Mane,E.,Macchioni,G.A.,Cafiero,C.&Viviani,S.(forthcoming).Why are women more food insecure than men?Exploring socio-econo

308、mic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap.Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems,2023.Rome,FAO.defined as the probability of moderate or severe food insecurity,by regressing it on the following variables:Female=1 if sex is female;Rural=1 if individu

309、al lives in a rural area;four age groups(15-24,25-34,35-64 and 65 plus);and other control variables(marital status,employment status;education level,number of household members aged 15 or more,the number of household member younger than 15 and income per capita in international USD purchasing power

310、parity).BOX 1.1 GENDER GAPS IN FOOD INSECURITY:EXPLORING DIFFERENCES ACROSS COUNTRIES AND DEMOGRAPHIC CATEGORIESCHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION15CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONBOX 1.2 INTERSECTIONALITY:BEYOND GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMSThe behaviour,choices and opportunities of wom

311、en and men are shaped by multiple overlapping and compounding factors that lead to social and economic differentiation(Figure A).At the individual(or intrapersonal)level,these factors include gender,age,ethnicity,religion,disability and marital,economic,migration and health status.Social and economi

312、c differentiation are also influenced by context-specific social norms,roles and traditions(interpersonal);public and private institutions,policies and governance(structural);and the broader climate and environment(ecological).Adopting an intersectional perspective to gender equality and womens empo

313、werment involves explicit recognition of all these factors in problem analysis and the design of programmes and policies.iFigure A Multilevel conceptualization of intersectionality SOURCES:Authors adaptation from:Fletcher,A.J.2018.More than women and men:A framework for gender and intersectionality

314、research on environmental crisis and conflict.In C.Frhlich,G.Gioli,R.Cremades,&H.Myrttinen,eds.Water Security Across the Gender Divide(pp.3558).Springer International Publishing.New York,New york,USA.https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64046-4_3Rai,S.S.,Peters,R.M.H.,Syurina,E.V.,Irwanto,I.,Naniche,D.,

315、&Zweekhorst,M.B.M.2020.Intersectionality and health-related stigma:Insights from experiences of people living with stigmatized health conditions in Indonesia.International Journal for Equity in Health,19(1),206.https:/doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01318-w NOTE:i.UN Partnership on the Rights of Persons

316、with Disabilities and UN Women.2021.Intersectionality resource guide and toolkit:An intersectional approach to leave no one behind.New York,USA,United Nations Partnership on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and UN Women.This report stresses the importance of an intersectional perspective in r

317、esearch,policies and programmes to support development of inclusive agrifood systems.Examples in this report include migrant women wage workers in global commodity chains(Chapter 2);time use agency and household structure in Nepal(Chapter 2);mobile internet use along the rural-urban divide(Chapter 3

318、);womens monogamy/polygamy marital status and experience of intimate-partner violence in cash-transfer programmes in Ghana and Mali(Chapter 3);and the gender specificities of child labour and climate change in Cte dIvoire,Ethiopia,Nepal and Peru(Chapter 5).INTRAPERSONALgender,age,religion,ethnicity,

319、marital status,socioeconomic statusECOLOGICALclimate,environment,pandemicsSTRUCTURALpolicies,institutions,governanceINTERPERSONALnorms,expectations,traditions16SPOTLIGHT 1.3 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCEGender-based violence(GBV)refers to harmful acts targeted towards men and women or groups of individuals

320、based on gender.i Such acts cause economic,psychological,physical and/or sexual harm and are deeply entrenched in gender inequality,power imbalances and harmful social norms.GBV transcends economic,geographic and social boundaries and has long-lasting consequences for the individuals directly affect

321、ed and for their families and communities.It may be perpetrated by intimate partners,relatives,friends,acquaintances or strangers;online or offline;and in private or public spaces.GBV highlights the increased vulnerability of women and girls to violence as a result of their subordinate status in soc

322、iety,unequal power relations and gender roles.ii GBV is also increasingly being used to refer to men and boys and to people who do not follow traditional gender roles including LGBTIQ+an inclusive term representing individuals who identify as lesbian,gay,bisexual,trans and gender diverse,intersex,qu

323、eer and questioning.iiEstimates of gender-based violenceGlobally,one-third of women have been subjected to physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime.iii Most of this is intimate-partner violence(IPV)perpetrated by men against women:27 percent of women between the ages of 15-49 who have been

324、in a relationship have suffered some form of IPV.Thirty-eight percent of all murders of women are committed by intimate partners.iv Such numbers are considered underestimations given that GBV,including IPV,is typically underreported.v Violence against men,boys and LGBTIQ+people is often overlooked a

325、nd severely underreported because of the stigma attached to such violence and because the victims lack resources and support.viReported levels of physical and sexual violence vary widely by context,but such violence occurs in every setting.Figure A shows the percentage of rural women reporting physi

326、cal and sexual violence in selected countries around the world since 2015.Women reporting any physical violence ranges from 7 percent in Armenia to 64 percent in Sierra Leone,while any sexual violence ranges from 1 percent in Armenia to 28 percent in Papua New Guinea.GLOBALLY,ONE-THIRD OF WOMEN HAVE

327、 BEEN SUBJECTED TO PHYSICAL AND/OR SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN THEIR LIFETIME.CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION17CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONFIGURE A Physical and sexual violence among rural women remains high05101520253035404550556065Sierra LeoneLiberiaUgandaGambiaMaliUnited Rep.of TanzaniaCameroonRwan

328、daBurundiZambiaZimbabweMalawiNigeriaAngolaChadMadagascarBeninEthiopiaSouth AfricaSenegalMauritaniaJordanPhysicalTajikistanArmeniaPapua New GuineaTimor-LesteIndiaPakistanNepalPhilippinesMyanmarMaldivesColombiaHaitiGuatemala051015202530BurundiUgandaRwandaMalawiZambiaZimbabweMadagascarMaliCameroonChadB

329、eninEthiopiaLiberiaNigeriaMauritaniaSierra LeoneGambiaAngolaSouth AfricaSenegalPapua New GuineaMaldivesIndiaNepalPakistanPhilippinesTimor-LesteMyanmarHaitiColombiaGuatemalaJordanTajikistanArmeniaSexualPercentUnited Rep.of TanzaniaPhysical violenceAfricaAfricaAsia&the PacificAsia&the PacificAmericasA

330、mericasNear East&North AfricaNear East&North AfricaEurope&Central AsiaEurope&Central AsiaSexual violence NOTE:Among women of reproductive age(15-49 years in most surveys).Estimates retrieved from country reports,except Senegal,which were calculated.SOURCE:ICF.20142021.Demographic and Health Surveys(

331、various).Funded by the United States Agency for International Development.Rockville,MD,USA,ICF.Relevance of gender-based violence for agrifood systemsGlobally,violence against women is estimated to cost USD 1.5 trillion annually,equivalent to 2 percent of global GDP.vii,viii Global crises and the re

332、cent COVID-19 pandemic have further increased violence against women and girls,with significant implications on their livelihoods and food security.GBV inhibits rural development and the achievement of food security and nutrition through several channels.It leads to large costs at individual,family,

333、community and societal levels and to governments and the private sector.While GBV is historically rooted in unequal power relationships between men SPOTLIGHT 1.3 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE18CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTIONEffective laws,policies and institutions,and womens representation in leadership and decision-making are also crucial in the fight against GBV.xii,xiii Because men and boys serve as gatekeepers