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1、Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENTGeneva,2024UNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1 2024,United NationsThis work is available through open access,by complying with the Creative Commons licence created for intergove

2、rnmental organizations,at http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.The designations employed and the presentat

3、ion of material on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of any firm or

4、 licensed process does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.Photocopies and reproductions of excerpts are allowed with proper credits.This publication has not been formally edited.United Nations publication issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNCTAD/DTL/ECDE/20

5、24/3eISBN:978-92-1-106449-0iiiTable of contents1.E-commerce is an increasingly important sales channel for businesses.12.Newly available statistics on business e-commerce sales.33.Developing economies have room to grow e-commerce.74.The economic scale of business e-commerce sales varies.95.Only a sm

6、all minority of business e-commerce sales take place internationally.156.Business-to-consumer e-commerce is increasing.237.Transactions through online platforms have sharply increased.318.Conclusions.35References.37Annex A.Sources for e-commerce sales values and associated figures.38Annex B.Sources

7、for international e-commerce.41Annex C.Sources for online retail sales.43Annex D.Sources for online platformtransactions.46ivBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1SummaryThis technical note presents the latest statistics on the va

8、lue of e-commerce sales by businesses.It benefits from a notable increase in availability brought about by the release,by Eurostat,of figures for many EU and partner countries.In 2021,approaching US$25 trillion of e-commerce sales were generated by businesses across 43 developed and developing econo

9、mies accounting for around three quarters of worldwide GDP.This represents a 15 per cent increase over pre-pandemic(2019)levels and sales are estimated to have risen a further 10 per cent-to almost$27 trillion-in 2022.The share of business turnover generated through e-commerce varies widely in the e

10、conomies analysed,from less than one per cent to as much as 30 per cent.In almost all cases,the majority of e-commerce sales by businesses are made to other businesses or organizations.In most,the share of business-to-consumer sales is less than a quarter.While developing economies generate around 4

11、0 per cent of global GDP,their share in business e-commerce sales is considerably lower.The bulk of e-commerce sales across these 43 developed and developing economies,which also account for around three quarters of exports globally,occur between buyers and sellers resident in the same economic terr

12、itory.Experimental estimates indicate that digitally ordered exports(i.e.international e-commerce sales)from these economies were worth around$2.5 trillion in 2021.This equates to around 13 per cent of total exports of goods and services.However,as there is limited data on digitally ordered trade,th

13、is estimate is relatively uncertain.Statistics on online retail sales,a subset of business-to-consumer e-commerce,share the same pattern of rapid growth that was boosted during the pandemic.This growth moderated somewhat in 2023 as pandemic restrictions and disruptions abated.China,the United Kingdo

14、m,and the Republic of Korea stand out for having markedly higher online retail sales than other economies,at around 25 to 30 per cent of all retail sales.The United States follows at around 15 per cent while the bulk of economies fall in a range of roughly 5-10 per cent.Digital intermediary platform

15、s(DIPs)are key players in the e-commerce landscape.The value of transactions through 37 major DIPs increased by over 55 per cent during the pandemic.The Task Group on Measuring E-commerce Value(TG-eCOM),convened by UN Trade and Development,brings together various countries covered in this report,as

16、well as international organizations,to develop internationally agreed guidelines and recommendations that can serve as a basis for capacity building and technical assistance to improve the availability and comparability of statistics on e-commerce.Business e-commerce sales and the role of online pla

17、tformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.111.E-commerce is an increasingly important sales channel for businesses1 As well as sales over the Internet,this includes orders placed over private networks,such as those used to manage supply chains in certain industries.It excludes orders pl

18、aced by phone,fax,or manually typed emails because although these may be made over the Internet,they are not via methods specifically designed for the placing and receiving of orders.Selling over the Internet is increasingly important for doing business.Today,many enterprises are“born digital”,selli

19、ng online only,while others mix increasing online sales with taking orders by other means,notably over the phone or in person.For successful online sellers,key benefits include the ability to reach new customers domestically and abroad,in a way that is relatively low cost and convenient for both buy

20、ers and sellers.Online only businesses can also avoid the costs of operating customer-facing sales premises.E-commerce is defined as“the sale or purchase of goods or services,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing of orders”(OECD,200

21、9).1 Furthermore,“the goods or services are ordered by those methods,but the payment and the ultimate delivery of the goods or services do not have to be conducted online”(OECD,2009).While e-commerce ordering is often accompanied by online payment,this is not a defining feature of it;orders placed o

22、nline but paid for on delivery,on collection,or at any other time,by card,cash,or any other means all count as e-commerce transactions.Any good or service can be ordered via e-commerce,and so e-commerce is not a“sector”in its own right,but cuts across all industries and products.Additionally,“an e-c

23、ommerce transaction can be between enterprises,households,individuals,Governments,and other public or private organizations”(OECD,2009).Nevertheless,both“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023)and the Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO,2023)emphasize the central role

24、 of businesses in the e-commerce landscape.They also highlight the limited availability of statistics as a key barrier to understanding the true extent of the economic role of e-commerce and digitally ordered trade in facilitating the placing and receiving of orders between businesses and their cust

25、omers.E-commerce is defined as“the sale or purchase of goods or services,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing of orders”.Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.132

26、.Newly available statistics on business e-commerce sales 2 Available at https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/isoc_ec_evalsm/default/table?lang=en&category=isoc.isoc_e.isoc_ec 3 Based on https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GDPTotal4 Based on https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/dat

27、acentre/dataviewer/US.GoodsAndServicesBpm6 In response to the above call for action,Eurostat conducted an exercise in which European Union member states and partner countries reporting results from the community survey on ICT usage and e-commerce in enterprises were asked for permission to publish e

28、stimates of the value of e-commerce sales by businesses.These have been transmitted to Eurostat for at least seven years,for the purpose of calculating EU aggregates.As a result,more statistics on the value of business e-commerce sales are now available.2 This includes 19 of 27 EU member states(incl

29、uding a limited number which previously published statistics themselves,as highlighted in UNCTAD(2023),and a further five partner countries(including the United Kingdom up to reporting year 2019).This creates a significant improvement in the availability of e-commerce statistics especially for devel

30、oped economies.These newly available statistics can be combined with estimates covering a further eight EU27 countries,as detailed in Box 1,and presented alongside statistics reported by other developed and developing economies,including the United States and China.The result is a measure of busines

31、s e-commerce sales covering 43 economies which generate around 76 per cent3 of global GDP and 73 per cent4 of exports worldwide.Almost$25 trillion of e-commerce sales were generated by businesses across 43developed and developing economies in 2021(Figure1).This represents a 15percent increase over p

32、re-pandemic(2019)levels.E-commerce sales are estimated to have risen by a further 10percent-to$27 trillion-in 2022.E-commerce sales are estimated to have risen by a further 10 per cent-to$27 trillion-in 20224Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for

33、development|No.1Figure 1 E-commerce sales by businesses,20162022Businesses in 43 developed and developing economies generating around three quarters of global GDPSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,and national statist

34、ical agencies(see Annex A).Note:Other Europe:Bosnia and Herzegovina,Serbia.European Economic Area(EEA)consists of the EU27 states plus Norway and Iceland(Lichtenstein is excluded due to missing data).Within the EEA figure,the monetary value of e-commerce sales by businesses is not available directly

35、 for Belgium,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Italy,Ireland,Latvia,Romania,and Sweden.It has therefore been derived by applying the published shares of e-commerce transactions in total turnover from the survey of ICT usage and e-commerce in enterprises to the turnover of businesses of the relevant size(10+persons em

36、ployed)and in the relevant industries from the Structural Business Statistics.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex 3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).*From 2016-2021,extrapolated fi

37、gures account for between one and six per cent of the overall total.With turnover-based estimates(rather than directly reported values)for eight EEA countries,between 7 and 12 per cent of the overall total is estimated.In 2022,extrapolated figures for nine economies,plus turnover-based estimates for

38、 seven EEA counties and an estimate for e-commerce sales by U.S.manufacturers,account for one third of the overall total.For this reason,the 2022 figure should be regarded as indicative.For more information on the compilation,comparability,and robustness of these figures see Box 1.201620172018201920

39、2020212022*02468101214161820222426United StatesEuropean Economic Area(EEA)ChinaJapanUnited KingdomAustraliaCanadaSingapore(services only)MalaysiaThailandOther EuropeHong Kong,ChinaIndonesiaUS$trillionsPhilippinesBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT

40、for development|No.15Box 1 Compiling business e-commerce salesFigure 1 aggregates statistics on the value of business e-commerce sales,as published by National Statistical Offices or other competent government agencies along with estimates by UN Trade and Development where necessary.This yields the

41、value of e-commerce sales across economies representing around 76 per cent of global GDP and 73 per cent of global trade in goods and services shown in Figure 2.However,there are uncertainties around these figures.Firstly,all statistics have a degree of uncertainty around them,reflecting sampling an

42、d non-sampling errors.5 Additionally,the industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does the inclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns(UNCTAD,2023).Secondly,because monetary values of business e-commerce sales are not available directly for Belgium,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Italy,Ireland,Latvia

43、,Romania and Sweden,UN Trade and Development have estimated these by applying the published national shares of e-commerce sales in business turnover from the business ICT surveys6 to businesses turnover,available from the Structural Business Statistics7 database.The measure of total business turnove

44、r used for this derivation was aligned as far as possible given the available data,with the firm size(10+persons employed)and industries8 covered by business ICT surveys in Europe.These estimates constitute around 20-30 per cent of the EEA total and 5-6 per cent of the overall total.Estimates were m

45、ade in the same way for the other EU and partner economies with the same information available.On average,the business e-commerce sales figures directly reported by these countries are around 3 per cent lower than the derived estimates.However,there is considerable variation in this disparity betwee

46、n countries(including in direction)and the actual business e-commerce sales in the eight countries being estimated this way may well be significantly higher or lower than the estimates derived.This has been accounted for by ordering the observed disparities(calculated by dividing each reported e-com

47、merce sales figure by the corresponding estimated figure)by size.The values at the 20th and 80th percentiles,respectively indicating a 12 per cent overestimate and a 4 per cent underestimate,are then used to compute a range of uncertainty around the estimates for the eight countries mentioned above.

48、Additionally,the value of U.S.manufacturers e-commerce sales in 2022,is not yet available(while it is for services,retail sales,and wholesale sales).Manufacturers comprise around 40 per cent of business e-commerce sales in the U.S.The central estimate therefore relies on applying the 2021 share of e

49、-commerce in manufacturers sales(69.6 per cent)to total“sales,value of shipments,or revenue”as presented in the 2022 manufacturing summary statistics(see Annex A for sources).5 See for instance https:/www.ons.gov.uk/methodology/methodologytopicsandstatisticalconcepts/uncertaintyandhowwemeasureit6 Av

50、ailable at https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/isoc_ec_evals/default/table?lang=en&category=isoc.isoc_e.isoc_ec7 https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sbs_sc_sca_r2_custom_9876920/default and https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SBS_SC_OVW/default8 All activities except Ag

51、riculture,forestry,and fishing;Mining and quarrying;Financial and insurance activities;Public administration,defence,education,human health,and support service activities;Arts,entertainment and recreation;Activities of membership organisations;Repair of personal and household goods(repair of compute

52、rs and communication equipment is included);other personal service activities(e.g.hairdressing,laundry,funerial services).6Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Most importantly,in each period,there are missing observations for be

53、tween five and nine economies.Where possible,these are estimated by linear interpolation between two available periods.In other cases,the available observations are extrapolated forwards or backwards in time based on the growth rates observed across countries.The central estimate shown in Figure 2,w

54、hich matches the overall total in Figure 1,assumes that these missing values follow the median trend across all economies with observations available.The lower and upper bounds of the range of estimates respectively reflect the trends at the 20th and 80th percentiles when the observed growth rates a

55、re ordered from lowest to highest.They also account for uncertainty in the turnover-based estimates for the 8 EEA economies,as set out above.From 2016 to 2021,between one and six per cent of the central estimate is based on extrapolated figures.In 2022,extrapolated estimates for nine countries accou

56、nt for 11 per cent of the total.With the estimates for eight EU countries and for U.S.manufacturers,estimates comprise one third of the central estimate in 2022.The 2022 figure should therefore be regarded as indicative.Figure 2 E-commerce sales by businesses across 43 economies,20162022Businesses i

57、n 43 developed and developing economies generating around three quarters of global GDPSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,and national statistical agencies(see Annex A).Note:Developed economies covered(c80%of total in

58、2021-22):Australia,Austria,Belgium,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Canada,Croatia,Cyprus,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Japan,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,United

59、 Kingdom,United States.Developing economies covered(c20%of overall total in 2021-22):China,Hong Kong China,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore(services only),Thailand.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8

60、and Annex 3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).*From 2016-2021,extrapolated figures account for between one and six per cent of the overall total.With turnover-based estimates(rather than directly reported values)for eight EEA countries,between 7 and 12 per cent of the overall total

61、is estimated.In 2022,extrapolated figures for nine economies,plus turnover-based estimates for seven EEA counties and an estimate for e-commerce sales by U.S.manufacturers,account for one third of the overall total.For this reason,the 2022 figure should be regarded as indicative.For more information

62、 on the compilation,comparability,and robustness of these figures see Box 1.0 5 10 15 20 25 302016201720182019202020212022*US$trillionsRange of estimatesE-commerce salesBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.173.Developing economies

63、 have room to grow e-commerce9 See https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Classifications.html 10 for services only,though these comprise over 70 per cent of GDP(https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.SRV.TOTL.ZS?locations=SG)11 For example,in 2021 these seven developing economies accounted for 55 per cent

64、 of developing economies GDP and their businesses made e-commerce sales of US$4 trillion.The latter figure is“grossed up”by computing$4trn/55%yielding a figure of almost US$8 trillion.However,this is not a robust estimate of the value of e-commerce sales across all developing economies for the reaso

65、ns outlined.12 https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Classifications.html There is limited availability of statistics on e-commerce sales by businesses,especially among developing economies.Of the 43 economies with figures available,36 are classified as developed economies.These represent 90 per cent of d

66、eveloped economies GDP,with the Russian Federation and Republic of Korea being by far the largest of the 18 developed economies for which data are missing.Of the 157 economies classified as developing economies9,seven China,Hong Kong-China,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore10,Thailand,and the Philippines

67、are known to have published statistics on the value of e-commerce sales by businesses.These seven account for just over half of the GDP of all developing economies.Figure 3 compares business e-commerce sales across developed and developing economies.As well as presenting the observed totals,it also

68、presents experimental estimates giving an indication of the potential extent of under representation which may be present in these figures due to un-covered economies.This is derived by“grossing up”the observed e-commerce sales figure according to the share of the economies it represents in the tota

69、l GDP for developed or developing economies,so that the result notionally also represents un-covered economies.11 However,for the outcome to be a robust overall estimate for each economy group,e-commerce sales would need to have a similar ratio to GDP in the missing economies as in those that are co

70、vered.This is a strong assumption and is particularly unlikely to hold for the developing economies.The seven developing economies represented are relatively highly digitalised,all in Asia,and all classified as middle-or high-income developing economies12 so are unlikely to be good representatives o

71、f all 157 developing economies.The grossed-up figures should therefore not be interpreted as a robust measure of the total e-commerce sales by businesses as they are potentially a substantial over-estimate.Although the absolute magnitude of the disparity is uncertain,useful comparisons can still be

72、made.It is clear that e-commerce sales by businesses in developed economies far exceed those of businesses in developing economies.Furthermore,while developing economies generate around 40 per cent of global GDP,their share in business e-commerce sales is considerably lower.At most,developing econom

73、ies might account for around 25 per cent of business e-commerce sales-and they likely comprise much less,potentially only around 15 per cent.This suggests significant remaining growth potential for e-commerce in developing countries.It is clear that e-commerce sales by businesses in developed econom

74、ies far exceed those of businesses in developing economies.8Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 3 E-commerce sales by businesses,developed and developing economies,20162022Businesses across 36 developed economies represen

75、ting around 90 per cent of developed economy GDP and 7 developing economies representing around 50 per cent of developing economy GDPSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A),and UN

76、CTAD Gross Domestic Product Database(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GDPTotal)Note:Missing economies(indicative)estimated based on the share of missing economies in the total GDP of developed or developing economies.This provides an indication of the potential scale of under-re

77、presentation in the available e-commerce value figures and should not be regarded as yielding a robust estimate of total e-commerce sales for all developed or developing economies.Developed economies covered(c80%of total in 2021-22):Australia,Austria,Belgium,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Canada,Cr

78、oatia,Cyprus,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Japan,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,United Kingdom,United States.Developing economies covered(c20%of overall total in

79、2021-22):China,Hong Kong China,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore(services only),Thailand.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex 3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).*From 2016-20

80、21,extrapolated figures account for between one and six per cent of the overall total.With turnover-based estimates(rather than directly reported values)for eight EEA countries,between 7 and 12 per cent of the overall total is estimated.In 2022,extrapolated figures for nine economies,plus turnover-b

81、ased estimates for seven EEA counties and an estimate for e-commerce sales by U.S.manufacturers,account for one third of the overall total.For this reason,the 2022 figure should be regarded as indicative.For more information on the compilation,comparability,and robustness of these figures see Box 1.

82、0 10 20Developed Developing Developed Developing Developed Developing Developed Developing Developed Developing Developed Developing Developed Developing2016201720182019202020212022*US$trillionsMissing economies(indicative)E-commerce salesBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNC

83、TAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.194.The economic scale of business e-commerce sales variesTo gain a perspective on their economic scale,it may be useful to compare the value of business e-commerce sales to GDP.It is critical that this is not misinterpreted as a contribution to GDP.The

84、latter is a measure of value added and is therefore not directly compatible with statistics that sum all business e-commerce sales,including those made to other businesses for use as inputs.In the economies covered,business e-commerce sales range from being equivalent to just one per cent to as much

85、 as 70-80 per cent of GDP(Figure 4).Although the average ratio for developing economies,at 0.29,is only slightly lower than developed economies 0.31,both groups display considerable variation from the highest to the lowest ratio.Splitting Figure 4 by development status,business e-commerce sales are

86、generally lower relative to GDP in developing economies than in developed economies(Figure 5).This suggests that business e-commerce sales are contributing relatively less to the economy in developing economies.A less widely available,but more meaningful gauge of economic scale expresses e-commerce

87、sales as a proportion of businesses total turnover from sales.This also varies widely across countries,from as low as 0.8 to over 30 per cent(Figure6).The few developing economies with these statistics available fall at the lower end of the scale.It is likely that e-commerce also contributes a relat

88、ively lower share of business turnover in other developing economies,many of which lag those shown in terms of digitalization(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,WTO,World Bank,2023).It is critical that this is not misinterpreted as a contribution to GDP10Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD

89、 Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Source:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A),and UNCTAD Gross Domestic Product Database(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/U

90、S.GDPTotal)Note:Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).For Belgium,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Italy,Ireland,Latvia,Romania,and Sweden the monetary value of e-co

91、mmerce sales by businesses is not available directly.It has therefore been derived by applying the published shares of e-commerce transactions in total turnover from the survey of ICT usage and e-commerce in enterprises to the turnover of businesses of the relevant size(10+persons employed)and in th

92、e relevant industries from the Structural Business Statistics.For more information on the compilation,comparability,and robustness of these figures see Box 1.Figure 4 E-commerce sales by businesses as a ratio to GDP,2022 or latest00.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.80JapanCzechiaLuxembourgSingapore(servi

93、ces only)(2021)MalaysiaBelgiumIrelandDenmarkUnited States(2021)SwedenHungarySlovakiaFinlandUnited Kingdom(2019)NetherlandsEstoniaGermanySpainPortugalSloveniaPolandLithuaniaAustriaItaly(2021)ChinaThailand(2021)Australia(2017)Hong Kong,China(2020)CroatiaCyprusRomaniaBosnia and HerzegovinaLatviaCanada(

94、2021)NorwayFranceMaltaBulgariaGreeceSerbiaIceland(2019)IndonesiaPhilippines(2021)Ratio to GDPE-commerce sales relative to GDPDeveloping economiesDeveloped economies averageDeveloping economies averageBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for developm

95、ent|No.111Figure 5 E-commerce sales by businesses as a ratio to GDP,2022 or latest,by development statusSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A)and UNCTAD Gross Domestic Product Da

96、tabase(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GDPTotal).Note:for the countries and years represented,see Figure 4.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex 3 in“Measuring the value of e-com

97、merce”(UNCTAD,2023).0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90Developed economiesDeveloping economiesRatio to GDP mean averageThis illustrates the potential problem of using GDP as a benchmark when considering the economic scale of e-commerce,and especially as a means for“grossing up”the availab

98、le statistics and estimates to make them notionally representative of all economies(including those which are missing).There can be a considerable difference between the share of e-commerce in business turnover and its ratio to GDP(Figure 7),though the extent of this difference will depend on the fe

99、atures of each economy.In particular,two of the developing countries represented see a vast difference between these two metrics.In Singapore,the value of business e-commerce is equivalent to as much as 63 per cent of GDP(all the more impressive as the e-commerce data for Singapore cover services on

100、ly)but makes up only 8per cent of services sector turnover.In Hong Kong,China these figures are 21 and 7 per cent respectively.There can be a considerable difference between the share of e-commerce in business turnover and its ratio to GDP12Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsU

101、NCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 6 E-commerce sales by businesses as a percentage of turnover,2022 or latestSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A).Note:Singapore:share of service sector operating revenue.

102、Hong Kong,China:share of business receipts.Philippines:Share of total revenue.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex 3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).05101520253035CzechiaDenmarkIre

103、landBelgiumSwedenFinlandLuxembourgCanada(2021)HungarySlovakiaNorwayUnited Kingdom(2019)SpainNetherlandsPortugalItaly(2021)GermanySloveniaEstoniaLithuaniaCroatiaAustriaMaltaPolandCyprusBosnia and HerzegovinaRomaniaFranceLatviaMontenegroIceland(2019)SerbiaSingapore(services)(2021)GreeceHong Kong,China

104、(2020)BulgariaPhilippines(2021)%of turnoverBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.113Figure 7 E-commerce sales by businesses as a percentage of turnover(y-axis)and as a ratio to GDP(x-axis),2022 or latest Source:UNCTAD based on Euro

105、stat digital economy and society database,Eurostat Structural Business Statistics database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A)and UNCTAD Gross Domestic Product Database(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GDPTotal)Note:For the countries and years represented see Figure 6.Ind

106、ustries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).For Belgium,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Italy,Ireland,Latvia,Romania,and Sweden the monetary value of e-commerce sales by bus

107、inesses,used to calculate the ratio to GDP,is not available directly.It is therefore derived by applying the published shares of e-commerce transactions in total turnover from the survey of ICT usage and e-commerce in enterprises to the turnover of businesses of the relevant size(10+persons employed

108、)and in the relevant industries from the Structural Business Statistics.BelgiumBulgariaCzechiaDenmarkEstoniaFinlandHong Kong,ChinaHungaryIrelandLuxembourgNorwayPhilippinesPortugalSingapore(services only)SlovakiaSwedenUnited Kingdom01020304050607080 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80Business e-c

109、ommerce sales as ratio to GDPE-commerce as per cent of business turnoverIn Figure 7,it can be observed that business e-commerce sales generally equate to a much higher portion of GDP than of business turnover.This is principally because only the value added by each business,subtracting input costs,c

110、ounts toward GDP.The output produced by non-businesses(i.e.households,government units,and non-profits)also figures in GDP.As shown in Figure 8,only a portion of e-commerce sales are made directly to consumers(households).The majority of e-commerce sales occur from businesses to businesses and other

111、 types of organizations.These relate to items ordered as inputs to the buyers own productive activities.It should therefore generally be expected that the contribution of e-commerce to GDP(i.e.“e-commerce value added”)would be much lower than the ratio of total e-commerce sales to GDP.However,the tr

112、ansition from e-commerce turnover to value added requires considerable additional information(or modelling).14Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 8 E-commerce sales by customer,2022 or latestSource:UNCTAD based on Eurosta

113、t digital economy and society database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A).Note:There is some variation in precisely what transactions are covered in each economy by“business-to-business/government/other organisations”.Canada:respondents report sales to“other businesses or governments”.The re

114、mainder is assumed to be B2C.EU member states and partner countries(including the United Kingdom):business-to-business and government(including EDI-type sales,which are measured separately).HongKong,China:business-to-business,Government and non-business organisations.Japan:“business-to-business”.Mal

115、aysia,Thailand:business-to-business and government.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).020406080100JapanPolandSlovakiaSloveniaHungaryItaly(2018)De

116、nmarkFinlandBelgiumAustriaCzechiaNorwayCroatiaPortugalSwedenFranceGermanyEstoniaIrelandBulgariaSpainNetherlandsUnited KingdomLithuaniaCanada(2021)MaltaLatviaMalaysia(2021)RomaniaCyprusBosnia and HerzegovinaIceland(2019)GreeceSerbiaThailand(2020)Hong Kong,China(2020)%e-commerce salesBusiness-to-busin

117、ess/government/other organisationsBusiness-to-consumer(households)Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1155.Only a small minority of business e-commerce sales take place internationally13 https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-ex

118、plained/index.php?title=E-commerce_statistics#E-sales_record_a_slight_increase_over_recent_years As set out in the Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO,2023),digitally ordered trade is defined as“the international sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer n

119、etworks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”.As such,digitally ordered trade is synonymous with international e-commerce.The same factors underlying the rise of e-commerce are surely also driving digitally ordered trade.However,information on businesses e-

120、commerce sales to customers abroad is not widely available(UNCTAD,2023).A breakdown between domestic and international e-commerce sales was included as an optional variable in EU27 and partner countries for the reporting years 2019 and 2021.However,this breakdown was specified only for“web sales”(i.

121、e.sales via websites or apps),rather than all e-commerce sales.As a result,the split between domestic and international sales does not cover sales via Electronic Data Interchange(EDI)a system of machine-generated and-readable messages often used by businesses with complex supply chains,such as in au

122、tomotive manufacturing.This is important because EDI orders comprise the majority of business e-commerce sales by revenue in all EU and partner countries.13Nevertheless,drawing together the available information,as published on the websites of National Statistical Organizations,Figure9 shows that th

123、e international share varies considerably across countries,reaching almost half in Belgium and Slovenia but is as low as around 10 per cent in Thailand,Bosnia and Herzegovina,and Malaysia.The average share is 23 per cent.It is estimated that roughly 12 to 14 per cent of these 43 economies total expo

124、rts of goods and services are digitally ordered.16Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 9 Domestic and international sales as a share of total e-commerce sales,2022 or latestSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy a

125、nd society database,national statistical agencies(see Annex B).Note:*relates to“web sales”(i.e.sales via web sites or apps)and therefore excludes sales via EDI,which comprise the majority of e-commerce sales in these countries.Industries and firm sizes covered vary across economies,as does inclusion

126、/exclusion of taxes,discounts,and returns;see Figure 8 and Annex3 in“Measuring the value of e-commerce”(UNCTAD,2023).Belgium(2020)*Slovenia(2022)*Denmark(2018)Denmark(2021)*Sweden(2021)*Austria(2021)*Canada(2021)Poland(2021)*United Kingdom(2019)United Kingdom(2021)*Spain(2021)Germany(2021)*Portugal(

127、2021)*France(2021)*Spain(2021)*Thailand(2021)Bosnia and Herzegovina(2020)*Malaysia(2022)%e-commerce sales020406080100InternationalDomesticBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.117The international shares presented in Figure9,along

128、with any available back-series for the period 2016-2022,can be used to derive experimental estimates offering insights on the potential scale of digitally ordered exports.First,the available shares are used to calculate the value of digitally ordered exports from the countries and periods they relat

129、e to.The result is then expressed as a share of each countrys total goods and services exports.14Treating the results as indicative of the range in which the digitally ordered export shares of the other economies covered by the total business e-commerce sales presented in Figure 1(and 2)are likely t

130、o fall,an estimate can be derived for total digitally ordered exports across the 43 economies in this analysis.Box 2 provides further details on the approach and assumptions used.The resulting digitally ordered exports series is presented in Figure 10.It suggests that,across 43 developed and develop

131、ing economies that account for around three quarters of GDP and exports globally,digitally ordered exports may have been worth around$2.5 trillion in 2021.This represents a marked increase from around$2 trillion in 201617.Initial estimates indicate a further increase in 2022,to almost$2.9 trillion.1

132、4 According to the UNCTAD Exports and Imports of Goods and Services Database(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GoodsAndServicesBpm6)It is estimated that roughly 12 to 14 percent of these 43 economies total exports of goods and services are digitally ordered.However,these estimate

133、s are highly uncertain as the international e-commerce share is not known for many countries,including two of the biggest e-commerce markets the United States and China(see Box 2).This section has analysed the available statistics on e-commerce sales by businesses as a whole.The following section lo

134、oks at the latest trends in business-to-consumer e-commerce,and in particular online retail sales for which timely statistics are available in many economies.18Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 10 E-commerce sales and e

135、stimated digitally ordered exports by businesses,2016-2022 Businesses in 43 developed and developing economies generating around three quarters of global GDP and exportsSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat digital economy and society database,national statistical agencies(see Annex A,Annex B),and UNCTAD

136、Goods and Services(BPM6)trade database(https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GoodsAndServicesBpm6).Note:Digitally ordered exports estimated using the information on international e-commerce sales,relative to total e-commerce,that is available for certain counties and periods.Estimati

137、on,based on the observed shares of digitally ordered exports in total exports,is used where such information is unavailable.For more information on the compilation and robustness of the digitally ordered exports estimates,see Box 2.Developed economies covered(c80%of e-commerce total in 2021-22):Aust

138、ralia,Austria,Belgium,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Canada,Croatia,Cyprus,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Japan,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,United Kingdom,Unit

139、ed States.Developing economies covered(c20%of overall total in 2021-22):China,Hong Kong China,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore(services only),Thailand.The countries for which digitally ordered export figures,which underpin the estimation are available are shown in italics.*From 2016-2021,ext

140、rapolated figures account for between one and six per cent of the of the total e-commerce sales.With turnover-based estimates(rather than directly reported values)for eight EEA countries,between 7 and 12 per cent of the overall total is estimated.In 2022,extrapolated figures for nine economies,plus

141、turnover-based estimates for seven EEA counties and an estimate for e-commerce sales by U.S.manufacturers,account for one third of the overall total.For this reason,the 2022 figure should be regarded as indicative.For more information on the compilation and robustness of the e-commerce sales figures

142、 see Box 1.0510152025302016201720182019202020212022*US$trillions,current prices Range of estimatesE-commerce salesAll exports of goods and servicesDigitally ordered exportsBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.119Box 2 Experimental

143、 estimates of digitally ordered exports With only a few exceptions,the value of international e-commerce sales is not available directly.Instead,domestic and international sales are expressed as shares of the total value of e-commerce sales,as in Figure 9.For most of the countries in that figure,int

144、ernational shares are available for multiple periods between 2016 and 2022.All such observations are drawn upon in estimating digitally ordered exports by businesses across the 43 economies covered in this analysis.In countries participating in the European Union community survey on ICT usage and e-

145、commerce in business(with the exceptions of Spain,and the United Kingdom which participated up to 2019),the shares collected relate only to“web sales”(i.e.sales made through websites or apps)and therefore do not cover EDI type sales.The latter comprise the majority of e-commerce sales in these count

146、ries.Nevertheless,in the absence of complete information,it has been assumed that the international shares reported for web sales apply to the countrys total e-commerce sales,including EDI-type sales.There is very limited information with which to assess the robustness of this assumption.Over the pe

147、riod 2016 to 2021,the international share for EDI-type sales by businesses in Spain was 20 per cent,more than for web sales,at 17 per cent.In Denmark,the international share of EDI-type sales was around 40 per cent in 2017 and 2018,while for web sales it was 25 per cent.By contrast,in the United Kin

148、gdom in 2019,22 per cent of web sales were international,compared to only 14 per cent of EDI-type sales.This shows that the disparity can vary in both direction and size.Figure 9 shows these countries latest available web sales and total e-commerce shares for comparison.Overall,in the absence of fur

149、ther information,it appears reasonable to use the available information on international digitally ordered web sales as a proxy for digitally ordered sales.As a first step,digitally ordered exports figures are collated,being derived where not directly available by applying the reported shares to the

150、 national e-commerce sales values underlying Figure 1.Linear interpolation is applied between these observations where relevant.The result is a set of 36 digitally ordered export figures relating to 15 developed and developing economies,and various periods between 2016 and 2022.It is then necessary

151、to identify an estimation strategy for economies and periods for which observations are not available.The most straightforward approach would be to apply the median observed share of international sales in e-commerce,which is 19 per cent,to the balance of e-commerce sales for which the international

152、 sales value is not already known.Doing so yields an annual average for e-commerce sales across the 43 economies covered of$4 trillion per year over 2016-2022,equivalent to 22 per cent of goods and services exports over the period.However,this approach was found to result in digitally ordered export

153、 estimates that would equate to an implausibly high share of exports in some countries(up to 80 per cent).This is especially the case for those with large domestic markets(such as the United States and Japan),where the total value of e-commerce sales is high relative to total exports.For example,in

154、the United States,total business e-commerce sales were worth$10 trillion in 2021(Figure 1),while total exports of goods and services amounted to$2.6 trillion.15 15 Based on UNCTAD Goods and Services(BPM6)trade database:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.GoodsAndServicesBpm620Busin

155、ess e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1In an alternative approach,the observed digitally ordered export values(from the first step)are expressed as a share of each countrys total exports of goods and services in each period(relying on t

156、he assumption that these are mutually compatible despite being from different sources).The export shares calculated for each country are then averaged over the period 2016-2022,so that the estimation is not distorted by certain countries having more observations than others.The median average share(

157、13 per cent)of digitally ordered exports in total exports of goods and services is then taken.It is applied to the sum of exports of goods and services for the economies and periods where a figure for digitally ordered exports is not already available(which amounts to 70 per cent or more of the tota

158、l annual exports by the 43 economies covered in this analysis).The result is then combined with the digitally ordered export figures calculated in the first step to give an estimate for the total digitally ordered exports across all the economies covered in this analysis.The resulting“digitally orde

159、red exports”series is presented in Figure 10.It is very difficult to assess the robustness of these estimates.However,some partial evidence is available for two of the biggest economies concerned.Experimental estimates from the U.S.Bureau of Economic Analysis16 show that for U.S.parent companies(bus

160、inesses located in the U.S.that have an ownership stake in an affiliate abroad),19 per cent of the goods and 25 per cent of the services they exported in 2019 were digitally ordered.As U.S.parents are estimated to have accounted for around half of all goods exports in that year17,and goods comprised

161、 around 65 per cent of total exports18,it would suggest that digitally ordered goods exported by U.S.parents made up around 6 per cent19 of total exports of goods and services from the U.S.in 2019.The share of digitally ordered services exported by U.S.parents in total exports is not known,likewise

162、the values of digitally ordered goods or services exported by other businesses.If the digitally ordered export shares of goods and services estimated for U.S.parents were to be representative of all exports,digitally ordered exports could account for as much as 21 per cent20 of all exports of goods

163、and services from the United States.This is unlikely to be the case,however,as multinational enterprises might be expected to have high rates of digitalization compared to exporting businesses in general.Indeed,many of the most high-profile U.S.businesses implementing digital ordering,such as Amazon

164、,Apple,Microsoft,and Netflix,have foreign affiliates and so would be among the group of U.S.parents.It is therefore plausible that the share of digitally ordered exports in total U.S.exports of goods and services could be in the region of the median share identified above.16 Bureau of Economic Analy

165、sis,“Measuring the Digital Economy in BEAs International Economic Accounts”,presentation at OECD Working Party on International Trade in Goods and Services Statistics,October 11,2023,available at https:/oe.cd/5sS(requires account).17 https:/www2.census.gov/ces/wp/2022/CES-WP-22-39.pdf18 Calculated b

166、ased on the ownership-based framework https:/www.bea.gov/international/supplemental-statistis19 19%of 50%of 65%20(19%of 65%)+(25%of 35%)Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.121China Customs has measured the value of digitally orde

167、red merchandise exports through the implementation of specific customs procedure codes identifying digitally ordered shipments,complemented with other sources such as surveys of online platforms.The results show that digitally ordered merchandise exports from China increased from US$116 billion in 2

168、019 to$230 billion in 2022(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO,2023).This equates to around 6.5 per cent of Chinas merchandise exports21 and,with goods accounting for around 90 per cent of that countrys exports,around 6 per cent of total exports of goods and services22.It therefore appears that the share of dig

169、itally ordered exports for China is somewhat less than the median share indicated above.Importantly,in this approach,the median is not expected to deliver accurate estimates for individual economies but to provide a reasonable indication of the scale of digitally ordered exports for the group of eco

170、nomies as a whole.Given the significant uncertainty around the series estimated,a plausible range of estimates,within which the true figure is likely to fall,is drawn by replacing the median average in the calculation with the shares at the 10th and 90th percentiles when the average observed shares

171、are ordered from smallest to largest(6 per cent and 23 per cent respectively).This suggests that the true value of digitally ordered exports from these countries may have been somewhere between$1.5 and$4 trillion in 2021.It is considered highly likely that the true value of digitally ordered exports

172、 across these 43 economies falls within the indicated range of estimates.21 Based on UNCTAD merchandise trade database https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.TradeMerchTotal22 Based on UNCTAD Goods and Services(BPM6)trade database:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.

173、GoodsAndServicesBpm622Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1236.Business-to-consumer e-commerce is increasingIn almost all

174、 countries with information available,the majority of businesses e-commerce sales by value are made to other businesses(as shown in Figure8).Even so,business-to-consumer(B2C)sales are a central feature of the e-commerce landscape and of great interest to businesses and policymakers.Among individuals

175、,online shopping has increased considerably since 2010 in many economies(Figure 11).The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the trend towards e-commerce as activities shifted from in-person to online in response to national lockdowns,social distancing and other containment measures aimed at curtailing the

176、 spread of the virus.For example,in Malaysia,the share of individuals shopping online doubled from 35 per cent in 2019 to 70 per cent in 2022.In the United Arab Emirates,it more than doubled,from 26 per cent to 67 per cent over the same period,and in Bahrain the share more than tripled,reaching 47 p

177、er cent in 2022.In Thailand,just one per cent of people shopped online in 2010;by 2019 this had reached 27 per cent-and the following year it surged to 44 per cent.In some other countries,although the overall uptake of online shopping remains lower,striking increases have also been observed.In Cte d

178、Ivoire,the share of individuals shopping online increased from 10 per cent in 2019 to 22 per cent just two years later.In Jamaica this went from 9 per cent in 2017 to 14 per cent in 2021.As more people shop online,and with online spending per shopper likely also increasing,it can be anticipated that

179、 online retail sales will be growing rapidly.Consisting of retailers e-commerce sales of goods,online retail sales comprise an important subset of business-to-consumer e-commerce(the latter also includes consumer purchases of services and of goods from non-retail businesses).Online retail sales stat

180、istics are increasingly widely available.Often these are published monthly and can therefore provide insights into the latest trends occurring in this key element of e-commerce.Online retail sales rapidly increased over the decade to 2023(Figure 12).In many economies,the pre-existing strong upward t

181、rend was further boosted after 2019,as a result of disruptions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic.Growth has generally moderated somewhat in the most recent periods though.Some the trends illustrated have been impacted by price inflation;see Box 3.Furthermore,the growth of online retail sales has

182、,in most cases,been substantially greater than for retail sales as a whole(Figure 13).Online retail sales grew three times faster than overall retail sales between 2017 and 2023.On average among the economies shown,online retail sales grew by 21 per cent per year,compared to 7 per cent for total ret

183、ail sales.Online retail sales grew three times faster than overall retail sales between 2017 and 2023.24Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 11 Percentage of Internet users shopping online,2023 or latestSource:UNCTAD based

184、 on(Eurostat,2024),(OECD,2024),(ITU,2024).Note:In general,the statistics reflect online shopping in the three months prior to survey though recall periods of up to 12 months apply for some economies.The age range of individuals covered can also vary.Albania,Bahrain,Belarus,Canada,China,Cte dIvoire,E

185、gypt,Georgia,Indonesia,Iraq,Ireland,Kazakhstan,Korea(Rep.),Malaysia,Montenegro,Paraguay,Peru,Taiwan,Province of China,Uruguay:2022.Bhutan,Brazil,Colombia,Iceland,Israel,Mexico,North Macedonia,United States:2021.El Salvador,Japan,Kosovo,Oman,Qatar,Thailand,United Kingdom,Zimbabwe:2020.Algeria,Kuwait,

186、Saudi Arabia:2018.Australia:2011,2017.Bahrain:2011,2022.Chile:2009,2017.Hong Kong,China:2009,2018,2022.Iran(Islamic Rep.),Jamaica:2017,2021.Macao,China:2018,2021.Mauritius:2018,2020.Montenegro:2012.Morocco:2012,2018,2021.Russian federation:2009,2022.Serbia:2009.Singapore:2017,2022.Ukraine:2018,2021.

187、United Arab Emirates:2012,2022.Uzbekistan:2018,2022.Kosovo:under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.020406080100NetherlandsUnited KingdomSwedenDenmarkChinaNorwayCanadaSwitzerlandGermanyKorea(Rep.)United StatesIrelandAustraliaMalaysiaLuxembourgSingaporeIcelandCzechiaJapanUnited Arab E

188、miratesSlovakiaFranceBelgiumFinlandIsraelAustriaEstoniaKuwaitMaltaHungarySpainSloveniaSaudi ArabiaRussian FederationPolandCyprusEgyptCroatiaBrazilLithuaniaGreeceBahrainHong Kong,China%of Internet users201020192023020406080100LatviaSerbiaPortugalThailandUruguayChileItalyTrkiyeMexicoKosovo*RomaniaOman

189、Macao,ChinaNorth MacedoniaBulgariaBosnia and HerzegovinaMoroccoQatarAlgeriaParaguayUkraineCte dIvoireIran,Islamic Rep.ofKazakhstanMontenegroGeorgiaTaiwan,Province of ChinaIndonesiaColombiaMauritiusJamaicaPeruAlbaniaBhutanKenyaBangladeshIraqState of PalestineAzerbaijanZimbabweEcuadorUzbekistanEl Salv

190、adorBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.125Figure 12 Online retail sales indices,2014-2023Retail sales in current pricesSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade dataset(https:/ec.

191、europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_ts),national statistical agencies(see Annex C).Note:*Refers to retail sales by units with main economic activity“Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internet”only.United Kingdom excluding Northern

192、Ireland.20142015201620172018201920202021202220230102030405060708090100EU27*Norway*AustraliaCanadaChinaHong Kong,ChinaKorea(Rep.)SingaporeUnited KingdomUnited States26Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 13 Annual average g

193、rowth rates of retail sales,2017-2023Online and total retail salesSource:UNCTAD based on Eurostat Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade dataset(https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_ts),national statistical ag

194、encies(see Annex C).Note:*Refers to retail sales by units with main economic activity“Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internet”vs“Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles”.United Kingdom excluding Northern Ireland.020406080100120Kazakhstan(2017-22)Trkiye*Bulgaria*Lithuania*Pola

195、nd*AustraliaSingapore(2018-23)CanadaHong Kong,China(2021-23)United StatesChinaNorway*Romania*Spain*Korea(Rep.)United KingdomNetherlands*Italy*Finland*Czechia*Portugal*EU27*Belgium*Germany*France*Denmark*Sweden*Greece*Austria*Average annual change,%Online retail salesRetail salesBusiness e-commerce s

196、ales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.127As a result,online sales have risen as a share of overall retail sales(Figure 14).Nevertheless,this varies notably between economies.China,the United Kingdom,and the Republic of Korea stand out for having marked

197、ly higher online retail sales than other economies throughout the period shown,reaching around 25 to 30 per cent in the latest years.The United States follows at around 15 per cent while the bulk of economies fall in a range of roughly 5-10 per cent.Overall,online retail sales statistics paint a pic

198、ture of rapid growth that was boosted during the pandemic.Sales growth has been moderated somewhat in 2023 as pandemic restrictions and disruptions have subsided,reducing the imperative to shop online.Additionally,economic factors,such as increased inflation,may have affected consumption patterns fo

199、r example by leading to a greater share of household budgets being spent on retail products most usually purchased in-presence(such as automotive fuel,food and household essentials),moderating the upward trend in online retail sales.However,the trends in retail sales will not necessarily translate d

200、irectly to other elements of e-commerce,most notably business-to-business e-commerce sales.The path of online retail sales should,therefore,not be automatically assumed to presage the trends in overall e-commerce.Online platforms have played a crucial role in facilitating business-to-consumer e-comm

201、erce,including retail sales.The following section examines the scale of transactions through such platforms.Figure 14 Online share in total retail sales,2014-2023Source:UNCTAD based on Eurostat Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade dataset(https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowse

202、r/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_ts),national statistical agencies(see Annex C).Note:*Refers to retail sales by units with main economic activity“Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internet”only.Kazakhstan:“2022 formed taking into account marketplace”.United

203、 Kingdom excluding Northern Ireland.20142015201620172018201920202021202220230515202530AustraliaUnited KingdomKorea(Rep.)Latvia*Hong Kong,ChinaHungary*SpainKazakhstanCanadaUnited StatesSingaporeNorway*IrelandLithuania*FranceCzechia*ChinaPoland1028Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platf

204、ormsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Box 3 Statistics on online retail sales“Retail sales”generally refers to sales by businesses primarily focused on selling physical items to consumers.That said,not all sales by retailers will be to consumers as businesses and other organisations

205、may also buy from retailers.Nevertheless,online retail sales are best understood as a sub-component of business-to-consumer e-commerce.Data on retail sales are usually gathered through monthly surveys of turnover in retail businesses,though information from administrative sources,such as turnover va

206、lues from administration of the Value Added Tax system,may also play a role.The subset of sales occurring online can be measured through the inclusion of specific questions for this purpose.Because surveys are targeted at resident businesses,the online sales figure will include sales by domestic ret

207、ailers to residents abroad and exclude direct purchases by residents from retailers abroad.Practices vary when it comes to the collection and publication of online retail sales information.In some cases,the monetary values of both overall retail sales and online retail sales are available.In others,

208、online sales are expressed a share of total retail sales.In yet others,only indices of the value of total and online retail sales are published.This determines which indicators can be presented for different economies.Where annual figures are not published it is necessary to sum or average the month

209、ly or quarterly statistics.There is also variation in whether the statistics available include or exclude sales of items such as vehicles and automotive fuel.For most of the economies shown,online retail sales figures cover all retailers.However,for some(indicated by a*in the figures presented)only

210、a partial measure is available the sales turnover of units with the main economic activity“Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internet”.Classification in this industry is based on the units main activity;it may therefore include retail sales revenues from secondary activities for which orders

211、may not have been placed online.It would also include sales by businesses operating via mail order,though such sales are likely negligible in most economies.This measure will not cover online retail sales by units whose main activity is something else,such as retailers making most of their sales in-

212、store,but which also make online sales.Nevertheless,these statistics can provide an indication of the trends likely to be occurring in online retail sales overall.Shares of online retail sales in total retail sales estimated based on these measures are likely to be underestimated though.A final poin

213、t to note,which also applies to all other measures in this paper,is that no adjustment has been made for changes in prices over time.Some countries produce indices of deflated(i.e.constant price)retail turnover.In the economies shown(Figure15),price inflation was elevated from 2021 onward and the ri

214、sing value of online retail sales was mainly driven by rising prices rather than quantities of products sold.Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.129Figure 15 Value(current prices)and volume(constant prices)indices of online retai

215、l sales,201820232018=100Source:UNCTAD based on Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade dataset(https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_ts).Note:*Refers to retail sales by units with main economic activity“Retail s

216、ale via mail order houses or via Internet”only.United Kingdom excluding Northern Ireland.100110120130140150160170201820192020202120222023EU27*ValueVolume100120140160180200220201820192020202120222023Norway*30Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for d

217、evelopment|No.1Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1317.Transactions through online platforms have sharply increasedDigital intermediary platforms(DIPs)have emerged as key players in the e-commerce landscape.They act as online ma

218、rketplaces,facilitating e-commerce transactions between multiple buyers and sellers who communicate and transact through the platform.In doing so,DIPs make it straightforward for buyers to access a wide range of products and prices offered by different suppliers,and they offer sellers relatively eas

219、y and cost-effective access to a large pool of potential customers.Some DIPs principally facilitate transactions on a local scale(such as between restaurants and customers in a given city)but many facilitate transactions between buyers and sellers nationwide and internationally.Digital intermediatio

220、n platforms do not themselves own the goods or have responsibility for delivering the services being intermediated(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO,2023).That said,the operators of online marketplaces facilitating sales of consumer goods commonly also make direct online retail sales through the same platform

221、.DIPs often offer ancillary services to facilitate the e-commerce transactions they enable,such as payment processing,warehousing,logistics/delivery,analytics and financial services.Platforms can also facilitate the digital delivery of services by providing online interfaces for“face-to-face”consult

222、ations,online content libraries,or the delivery of documents.Figure 17 presents the value of sales of goods and services taking place through 37 online platforms,as published in their annual statements or other reports.The value of sales through these online platforms increased by 55 per cent during

223、 the pandemic,from around$2.6 trillion in 2019 to$4 trillion in 2021.However,the pace of growth appears to have subsided somewhat in 2022.Not all platforms make these figures available.For those which do,there is variation in how they calculate the values they publish(e.g.in terms of what is include

224、d).This experimental compilation therefore offers only a partial picture of the platform landscape.Box4 gives further information on the compilation of these figures.Nevertheless,it is clear that a small number of these platforms are particularly dominant.Just six platforms report facilitating over$

225、100 billion of e-commerce sales per year.Together they account for 80 per cent of the total sales shown.The value of sales through these online platforms increased by 55 per cent during the pandemic,from around$2.6 trillion in 2019 to$4 trillion in 202132Business e-commerce sales and the role of onl

226、ine platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Figure 16 Transactions through digital intermediation platforms,20192022Gross Merchandise Value of goods/Gross Transaction Value of services reported by DIP operatorsSource:UNCTAD based on published reports by platform operators(see Anne

227、x D).Notes:Values as reported in company annual reports or official filings.Reporting periods vary.*for Alibaba,Pinduoduo,Meituan,and B2B/Americanas figures for 2022 are unavailable.Their 2021 figures are used when calculating the total;the true total for 2022 could be higher or lower.Hepsiburada an

228、d Yandex are unavailable for 2019.Values were sought for over 40 additional platforms;for most figures were unavailable,though a small number were excluded due to having transaction values far below$1 billion.Alibaba ecosystem includes platforms such as A,AliExpress,Daraz,Freshippo,Kaola,Lazada,Taob

229、ao,Tmall,Trendyol.Walmart International includes Flipkart and Myntra.Gross Merchandise Value gives a total monetary value for the goods and services sold through an online platform.For platforms specializing in services the similar measure“Gross Transaction Value”(GTV)may be reported instead.Compani

230、es vary in what they include or exclude from the value they report;for example,some include certain taxes or charges,or tips paid through the platform while others may not.Some platforms include GMV for ancillary products,such as financial services.Some platforms combine both retail and marketplace

231、elements;the retail element may account for the majority of the GMV shown.Alibaba ecosystem(2022 n/a)*APinduoduo(2022 n/a)*ShopifyMeituan(2022 n/a)*Uber(incl.eats)eBayBooking HoldingsExpediaShopeeWalmart USAirBnBRakutenDidiDelivery HeroJust Eat TakeawayVIP.comMercado LibreWalmart internationalZaland

232、oTokopediaGrabEtsyAllegroDeliverooB2W/Americanas(2022 n/a)*ifoodOzonHepsiburadaCnovaGojekeMagSwiggyYandexTakealot groupJumia2 578 3 165 4 020 4 218 01 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 2019202020212022US$billions*Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for develop

233、ment|No.133Box 4 Compiling online platform transactions Gross Merchandise Value(GMV)gives a total monetary value for the goods and/or services sold through an online platform.This is different from the platforms income,which reflects only the fees or commissions earned on the sales it facilitates.Fo

234、r platforms specializing in services the similar measure“Gross Transaction Value”(GTV)may be used.GMV/GTV figures are collected from company annual reports or official regulatory filings(such as those made to the U.S Securities Exchange Commission).Not all platforms make these figures available;over

235、 40 additional platforms were investigated but could not be included for this reason.Furthermore,figures may not be available in every year;in particular,GMV could not be found for three of the major Chinese platform operators in 2022.There are variations in exactly what the figures reported by diff

236、erent platforms cover.For example,some include certain taxes or charges,or tips paid through the platform while others do not.Some platforms include GMV for ancillary products,such as financial services.Some platforms combine both retail and marketplace elements and do not report GMV for these separ

237、ately.In some cases,some in-store sales may be included.This affects the ability to make robust direct comparisons between platforms.Nevertheless,the figures compiled give a good indication of the overall trends arising.For more information see Annex D.34Business e-commerce sales and the role of onl

238、ine platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1358.ConclusionsThis note has presented the latest statistics on the value of e-commerce sales by businesses.It benefits from a si

239、gnificant increase in availability brought about by the release,by Eurostat,of figures for many EU and partner countries.Overall,it confirms that e-commerce sales were growing strongly up to 2019 and were boosted further as a result of the pandemic.Digital intermediary platforms played an important

240、role in facilitating these sales,seeing transactions increase by 55 per cent between 2019 and 2021.However,the latest online retail sales figures suggest that the pace of growth in e-commerce sales may have moderated as the disruption of the pandemic passed.The statistics presented point toward seve

241、ral areas where further measurement effort is needed.Firstly,business e-commerce sales figures are available for only 43 economies that together account for around three quarters of GDP and exports worldwide.In particular,only seven of these are developing economies,and none of them is a least devel

242、oped country.There is a strong need to improve the availability of statistics on e-commerce value across developing countries.As a first step towards that,the Task Group on Measuring E-commerce Value(TG-eCOM),convened by UNCTAD,brings together countries covered in this report,as well as internationa

243、l organizations,to develop internationally agreed guidelines and recommendations that can serve as a basis for capacity building and technical assistance(seeBox5).Additionally,even among the economies with e-commerce value statistics,there is severely limited information on the split of e-commerce s

244、ales between domestic and international customers.The latter comprises digitally ordered exports,a component of digital trade as set out in the IMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade(2023).These organizations are working together to promote the measurement of digital trade throu

245、gh regional training workshops and other forms of technical assistance.36Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Box 5 Task Group on Measuring E-commerce Value(TG-eCOM)UN Trade and Developments 2023 report“Measuring the value of e-c

246、ommerce”found that the vast majority of countries do not publish statistics on the value of e-commerce sales by businesses.Furthermore,the developed and developing economies that do so apply a variety of definitions and measurement approaches.Business ICT surveys and other business surveys were foun

247、d to be the most common sources used to measure the value of business e-commerce sales.Internationally discussed and agreed guidelines are crucial for broadening the measurement of e-commerce value and ensuring the resulting statistics are sufficiently robust and comparable.They will also provide a

248、foundation for addressing the increasing number of country requests that UNCTAD is receiving for technical assistance on measuring the value of e-commerce and digitally ordered trade.As a response,at the third session of the Working Group on Measuring E-commerce and the Digital Economy(WG-ECDE)in 20

249、22,and with approval by its parent Intergovernmental Group of Experts(IGE)in 2023,UNCTADs 195 member states resolved to establish a Task Group on measuring e-commerce value to act as a forum for detailed technical discussions on measuring e-commerce value and work to develop statistical guidelines.T

250、he groups central objective is to develop internationally agreed guidelines on measuring the value of e-commerce transactions involving businesses(both sales and purchases)and thereby to support the development of internationally comparable statistics on e-commerce value(and the related concept of d

251、igitally ordered trade).These guidelines will serve as the basis for technical assistance and capacity building in this area.To that end,the TG-eCOM is focused on:Clarifying the policy needs related to the measurement of e-commerce value.Detailed discussion on the strengths and limitations of existi

252、ng approaches to measuring the value of e-commerce.Considering all relevant aspects including recommended breakdowns(e.g.according to firm characteristics,transaction characteristics,products,etc.)Ensuring that circumstances specific to developing countries,notably the important role played by email

253、,messaging apps and social media platforms in facilitating online ordering,are adequately considered,and accounted for in the measurement guidelines(including in relation to the definition of e-commerce and its operationalisation).Discussion of associated capacity building efforts.The Task Group fir

254、st met in November 2023 and benefits from the participation of around 25 national representatives with hands-on experience of measuring e-commerce,as well as from relevant International Organizations including Eurostat,the OECD,and the WTO.The Task Group reports to the WG-ECDE.Business e-commerce sa

255、les and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.137ReferencesEurostat.(2024).Digital economy and society database.Retrieved from https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/digital-economy-and-society/databaseIMF,OECD,UNCTAD,and WTO.(2023).Handbook on Measuring Digital Trad

256、e.Retrieved from https:/unctad.org/publication/handbook-measuring-digital-tradeIMF,OECD,UNCTAD,WTO,World Bank.(2023).Digital Trade for Development.Retrieved from https:/unctad.org/publication/digital-trade-developmentITU.(2024).data hub.Retrieved from https:/datahub.itu.int/OECD.(2009).OECD definiti

257、on of e-commerce(2009).In OECD Guide to Measuring the Information Society(2011).doi:https:/doi.org/10.1787/9789264113541-enOECD.(2024).ICT Access and Usage by Individuals database.Retrieved from https:/data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?fs0=Topic%2C1%7CInnovation%20and%20technology%23INT%23%7CInformation%20

258、and%20communication%20technology%20%28ICT%29%23INT_ICT%23&pg=0&fc=Topic&bp=true&snb=3&dfds=dsDisseminateFinalDMZ&dfid=DSD_ICT_HH_IND%40DF_IND&dUNCTAD.(2023).Measuring the value of e-commerce.Geneva:United Nations.Retrieved from https:/unctad.org/publication/measuring-value-e-commerce38Business e-com

259、merce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Annex A.Sources for e-commerce sales values and associated figuresEconomySourceLinkAustria,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Lithuania,Luxe

260、mbourg,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,United Kingdom“Monetary value of e-commerce sales by size class of enterprise”https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/isoc_ec_evalsm/default/table?lang=en&category=isoc.isoc_e.isoc_ec Austria,Belgium,Bosnia and Herz

261、egovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Montenegro,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,United KingdomEnterprises total turnover from e-commerce s

262、alesEnterprises turnover from EDI-type salesEnterprises turnover from web sales-B2CEnterprises turnover from web sales-B2B and B2G(published by Eurostat as a percentage of turnover)in“Value of e-commerce sales by size class of enterprise”https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/isoc_ec_evals/de

263、fault/table?lang=en&category=isoc.isoc_e.isoc_ecUp to 2020:Turnover or gross premiums written-million euro in“Annual enterprise statistics by size class for special aggregates of activities(NACE Rev.2)”https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sbs_sc_sca_r2_custom_9876920/default/table?lang=en20

264、21 onward:Net turnover-million euro in“Enterprise statistics by size class and NACE Rev.2 activity(from 2021 onwards)”https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SBS_SC_OVW/default/table?lang=enAustralia“Summary of IT Use and Innovation in Australian Business”https:/www.abs.gov.au/statistics/indus

265、try/technology-and-innovation/summary-it-use-and-innovation-australian-business/latest-release Canada“Digital technology and Internet use,2021”https:/www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220913/dq220913b-eng.htmChina“E-commerce sales by industry”Available from https:/ Transport,postal,and telecom

266、munication services Informatization and e-commerce of enterprises Sales of enterprises through e-commerce by industrial sectorBusiness e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.139EconomySourceLinkHong Kong,China“Report on the Survey on Informa

267、tion Technology Usage and Penetration in the Business Sector”https:/www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/EIndexbySubject.html?scode=590&pcode=B1110005 Indonesia“Statistik E-Commerce”2022 provided by BPS Indonesia based on:https:/www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2022/12/19/d215899e13b89e516caa7a44/statistik-e-commerce

268、-2022.html 2018:https:/www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2019/12/18/fd1e96b05342e479a83917c6/statistik-e-commerce-2019.htmlJapan“Results of FY20XX E-Commerce Market Survey Compiled”2022:https:/www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2023/0831_004.html2021:https:/www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2022/0812_002.html2020:h

269、ttps:/www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2021/0730_002.html2018-19:https:/www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2020/0722_005.htmlMalaysia“Usage of ICT and e-commerce by establishment 2022”“Income of E-Commerce Transactions Surged 30.0 per cent in The First Quarter 2021”.“A total of 47,556 establishments conducted

270、 e-Commerce transactions were recorded in 2015 constituted of 5.2 per cent from overall establishments of 920,624”.https:/www.dosm.gov.my/uploads/release-content/file_20230706112118.png.https:/www.dosm.gov.my/portal-main/release-content/income-of-e-commerce-transactions-surged-30.0-per-cent-in-the-f

271、irst-quarter-2021.https:/www.dosm.gov.my/portal-main/release-content/a-total-of-47556-establishments-conducted-e-commerce-transactions-were-recorded-in-2015-constituted-of-5.2-per-cent-from-overall-establishments-of-920624.Philippines“Annual Survey of PhilippineBusiness and Industry”See“Table 1”in t

272、he following:2020,2021:https:/www.psa.gov.ph/content/2021-annual-survey-philippine-business-and-industry-aspbi-economywide-final-results.2016,2017:https:/www.psa.gov.ph/content/2017-annual-survey-philippine-business-and-industry-aspbi-economy-wide-all-establishmentsSingapore“E-commerce revenue of th

273、e services sector”“Operating revenue of the services sector”https:/tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg/table/TS/M602031.https:/tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg/table/TS/M601481.Thailand“Value of e-Commerce surveyin Thailand”2021 edition,in Thai(covers years 2017-2021):https:/www.etda.or.th/th/Useful-Resource/p

274、ublications/ValueThailand2021.aspx.2019 edition,in English(covers years 2016-2019):https:/www.etda.or.th/th/Useful-Resource/publications/Value-of-e-Commerce-Survey-in-Thailand-2019_EN.aspx.40Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1E

275、xchange rates:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ExchangeRateCrosstab EconomySourceLinkUnited StatesManufacturing:“Annual Survey of Manufactures:E-Commerce Statistics for the U.S.:2018 2021”“Manufacturing:Summary Statistics for the US:2022”(total manufacturing shipments)Services:“

276、Table 9.Estimated Revenue from Electronic Sources for Employer Firms:2015 Through 2022”Retail trade:“Annual Retail Trade Survey Supplemental E-commerce Tables”Wholesale trade:“Table 2.Estimated E-Commerce Sales of U.S.Merchant Wholesalers:1998 through 2022”https:/data.census.gov/table/ASMAREA2017.AM

277、1831ECOMM?q=am1831&n=N0000.00.https:/data.census.gov/table/ECNBASIC2022.EC2231BASIC?q=EC2231BASIC.https:/www.census.gov/data/tables/2022/econ/services/sas-naics.html.https:/www.census.gov/data/tables/2022/econ/arts/supplemental-e-commerce.html.https:/www.census.gov/data/tables/2022/econ/awts/annual-

278、reports.html.Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.141Annex B.Sources for international e-commerceEconomySourceLinkAustriaRevenue from enterprises sales via websites,apps or online marketplaces by geographic location of the custome

279、rs2021(Table A.20):https:/www.statistik.at/fileadmin/pages/285/IKTEinsatzInUnternehmen2022EN.ods2020(Table A.18):https:/www.statistik.at/fileadmin/pages/285/IKTEinsatzInUnternehmen2021EN.ods.BelgiumSales via a website or apps-from customers located in other EU countries/rest of the worldhttps:/statb

280、el.fgov.be/en/themes/enterprises/ict-and-e-commerce-enterprises#figures(2022 table)Bosnia and Herzegovina“Of the total turnover realized through web sales of goods or services for 2020 refers to customers in Bosnia and Herzegovina(89.8%),EU countries(8.3%),other countries(1.9%)”https:/bhas.gov.ba/da

281、ta/Publikacije/Bilteni/2022/IKT_00_2021_TB_1_BS.pdf.CanadaAs Annex ADenmark“Enterprises percentage of turnover due to e-commerce(10+employees)by enterprise size,activity(NACE REV2)and topics”.https:/www.statbank.dk/ITAV13France“Les TIC et le-commerce lectronique dans les entreprises”2021:https:/www.

282、insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7641775?sommaire=76417942020:https:/www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6327317?sommaire=6327324 Germany“Turnover f.sales via website or app,own country”https:/www-genesis.destatis.de/genesis/online?operation=previous&levelindex=3&levelid=1711653269036&levelid=1711653247438&step=2#

283、abreadcrumbMalaysiaAs Annex APoland“Use of information and communication technologies in public administration units,enterprises and households”https:/stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/nauka-i-technika-spoleczenstwo-informacyjne/spoleczenstwo-informacyjne/wykorzystanie-technologii-informacyjno-komunika

284、cyjnych-w-jednostkach-administracji-publicznej-przedsiebiorstwach-i-gospodarstwach-domowych-w-2022-roku,3,21.html.Portugal“Information and knowledge society Business survey”,“Quadro 3 Volume de negocios do comercio eletronico”https:/www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest

285、_boui=594927232&DESTAQUESmodo=2.42Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1EconomySourceLinkSlovenia“Value(million EUR)by type of e-commerce sales in the previous year and size class,Slovenia,annually”https:/pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/

286、pxweb/en/Data/Data/2965419S.px/.Spain“Information and knowledge society Business survey”https:/www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176743&menu=resultados&idp=1254735576692.Sweden“Enterprises with turnover from e-commerce,percent by geographical area,study domain and

287、year”https:/www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/en/ssd/START_NV_NV0116_NV0116E/OmsatEHandel/.ThailandAs Annex AUnited Kingdom2021:“Digital Economy Survey”2019:“E-commerce and ICT activity”2021:https:/www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/itandinternetindustry/datasets/digitaleconomysurvey.2019:htt

288、ps:/www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/itandinternetindustry/datasets/ictactivityofukbusinessese-commerceandictactivity.Exchange rates:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ExchangeRateCrosstab https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/shared-report/c4002f00-d2fe-4ba2-9

289、44a-70b20851df95 Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.143Annex C.Sources for online retail salesEconomySourceLinkAustralia“Experimental series-online retail turnover Australia by type of activity(A117725605F)”and“Retail turnover,b

290、y industry group(A3348582J)”,in“Retail trade Australia”https:/www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/retail-and-wholesale-trade.Canada“Retail e-commerce sales”and“Total retail sales”in“Monthly retail trade sales by province and territory”https:/doi.org/10.25318/2010005601-eng.China“National online retai

291、l sales of physical goods”“Total retail sales of consumer goods”https:/ Chinese).https:/ of goods and services and sales of goods for resale”for the sectors“Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internet(CZ-NACE 47.91)”and“Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles(CZ-NACE 47)”in“Retai

292、l trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles(CZ-NACE 47)”.https:/www.czso.cz/csu/czso/2-malavfucr_b EU27(and all economies marked*in Figure 13)Eurostat table“Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade-annual data”Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles Retail sale v

293、ia mail order houses or via Internethttps:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_tsFrance“Part de la vente distance dans lensemble des ventes%”in“volution du chiffre daffaires des deux formes de ventes du commerce de dtail et part des ve

294、ntes en ligne dans lensemble des ventes”https:/www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6667027?sommaire=6667157&q=ventes+au+d%C3%A9tail+en+ligne.Hong Kong,China“Table 620-67031:Value of Online Retail Sales by Selected Type of Retail Outlet”“Table 620-67001:Total Retail Sales”https:/www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/web_t

295、able.html?id=620-67031#.https:/www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/web_table.html?id=620-67001#.Hungary“Retail sales by type of shop Million HUF”for“Mail order and internet”and“Total retail sales”(excl.vehicles and parts)https:/www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/bel/en/bel0006.html.Ireland“Table 6 Percentage of Total Retai

296、l Sales Turnover generated by Online Sales”https:/www.cso.ie/en/statistics/retailandservices/retailsalesindex/.Kazakhstan“The share of electronic commerce in the total volume of retail trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan”in“E-commerce in the Republic of Kazakhstan(2022)”“Data for 2022 formed taking

297、into account marketplace”https:/stat.gov.kz/en/industries/economy/local-market/publications/48894/?sphrase_id=348922.44Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1EconomySourceLinkKorea(Rep.)“Transaction value of Online shopping mall by

298、 commodity groups/operation type”Sales of goods(incl.vehicles)calculated by subtracting the following services categories from the total:“Travel arrangement and transportation services”,“Culture and leisure services”,“E-coupon services”,“Food services”,“Miscellaneous services”.“Retail sales by produ

299、ct group”For 2017-2019,value of total retail sales derived by applying the trend given by the published index of retail sales to the earliest available monetary retail sales value(January 2020).The resulting estimated annual retail sales figures are used to calculate the online share in total retail

300、 sales.https:/kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1K41012&conn_path=I2&language=en.https:/kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1KE10051&conn_path=I2&language=en.https:/kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1K41002&conn_path=I2&language=en.Latvia“Total turnover of

301、retail trade enterprises by main kind of activity(NACE Rev.2),at current prices(thousand euro)Economic activity(NACE Rev.2)and Time period”:G47 Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles G4791 Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internethttps:/data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/en/OSP_PUB/START_

302、TIR_TI_TIT/TIT030m/Lithuania“Turnover of retail trade,motor vehicles,catering enterprises(VAT excluded)at current prices”:Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internethttps:/osp.stat.gov.lt/en/statistiniu-rodikliu-analize?hash=6a3000cc-7e81-4

303、d21-a916-7ff5cb580013#/.NorwayFigure 12,13,15.Eurostat table“Turnover and volume of sales in wholesale and retail trade-annual data”Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles Retail sale via mail order houses or via InternetFigure 14.“07312:Turnover statistics except wholesale on a fee or

304、 contract basis(NOK million),by industry(SIC2007),termin and contents”:47 Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcycles 47.91 Retail sale via mail order houses or via Internethttps:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_tshttps:/

305、www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/07312/tableViewLayout1/Poland“Share of sales via Internet in retail sales(current prices)”https:/stat.gov.pl/en/topics/prices-trade/trade/retail-sales-index-february-2024,11,102.html.Singapore“Online Retail Sales Proportion(Out Of The Respective Industrys Total Sales)”“R

306、etail Sales Value(Based On 2017=100 Index)Estimated”https:/tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg/table/TS/M601861.https:/tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg/table/TS/M601741.Spain“Retail trade except motor vehicles and motorcycles(47 division CNAE2009):breakdown of turnover by sales system and main activity”https:/

307、www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?tpx=59427 Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.145Exchange rates:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ExchangeRateCrosstab EconomySourceLinkTrkiyeEurostat table“Turnover and volume of s

308、ales in wholesale and retail trade-annual data”Retail trade,except of motor vehicles and motorcyclesRetail sale via mail order houses or via Internethttps:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sts_trtu_a/default/table?lang=en&category=sts.sts_wrt.sts_wrt_tsUnited Kingdom*“Internet sales as a perce

309、ntage of total retail sales(ratio)(%)”“Total Retail Sales in thousands,Great Britain”*Great Britain(i.e.UK excluding Northern Ireland)onlyhttps:/www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/retailindustry/datasets/poundsdatatotalretailsales.https:/www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/retailindustry/ti

310、meseries/j4mc/drsi.United States“Estimated Quarterly U.S.Retail Sales(Not Adjusted):Total and E-commerce”https:/www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce.html 46Business e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1Annex D.Sources for online platformtransa

311、ctionsCompanyValue definitionSourceNotesAirBnBGross booking value(GBV).“GBV represents the dollar value of bookings on our platform in a period and is inclusive of Host earnings,service fees,cleaning fees,and taxes,net of cancellations and alterations that occurred during that period”.Quarterly shar

312、eholder letters available at:https:/ Alibaba EcosystemAlibaba ecosystem GMV.Includes GMV generated from Alibabas China consumer-facing businesses(China commerce,Local consumer services and Digital media and entertainment segments)and International commerce during the twelve months ended March 31.“GM

313、V”are to the value of confirmed orders of products and services on our marketplaces,regardless of how,or whether,the buyer and seller settle the transaction;GMV in reference to our total GMV transacted in the Alibaba Ecosystem includes GMV transacted through our platforms by consumers with accounts

314、on our platforms;our calculation of GMV includes shipping charges paid by buyers to sellers;as a prudential matter aimed at eliminating any influence on our GMV of potentially fraudulent transactions,we exclude from our calculation of GMV transactions in certain product categories over certain amoun

315、ts and transactions by buyers in certain product categories over a certain amount per day.”Annual reports available at:https:/ Figures represent the 12 month period ending March 31 the following year.E.g.the 2021 figure represents April 1 2021-March 31 2022.Allegro“GMV”means gross merchandise value,

316、which represents the total gross value of goods and tickets sold on the following platforms(including value added taxes):Allegro.pl,Allegrolokalnie.pl and eBilet.pl;Mall.cz,Mall.hu,Mall.sk,Mall.hr,M,CZC.cz;allegro.cz.Annual reports,available at:https:/about.allegro.eu/financial-resultsBusiness e-com

317、merce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.147CompanyValue definitionSourceNotesAmazonAmazon does not publish GMV but its Sustainability Report includes the indicator“grams of CO2 equivalent emitted per$of gross merchandise sales”.As the total tonnag

318、e of CO2e emissions is also presented in the report,Gross Merchandise Sales(GMS)can be derived.GMS is the total dollar value of customer orders,including shipping fees,digital media,and other non-retail sales,made through the Amazon platform.This metric represents the total value of products and ser

319、vices sold on Amazons marketplace by both Amazon itself and third-party sellers using the platform.https:/ B2W/Americanas“GROSS MERCHANDISE VOLUME(GMV)Term used in online retail to indicate consolidated sales and services revenue,added to the volume of sales made on B2W Digitals marketplace platform

320、s.”https:/ July 2021,Lojas Americanas SA and B2W Digital SA merged into a single company,called Americanas SA.“By 2021,e-commerce already accounted for 76%of our total GMV,through a hybrid model that combines the best of 1P and marketplace,offering a wide assortment to customers”.Booking HoldingsGro

321、ss bookings.“Our financial results are driven by certain operating metrics that encompass the booking and other business activity generated by our travel and travel related services.Specifically,reservations of room nights,rental car days,and airline tickets capture the volume of units booked throug

322、h our online travel companies(“OTC”)brands by our travel reservation services customers.Gross bookings is an operating and statistical metric that captures the total dollar value,generally inclusive of taxes and fees,of all travel services booked through our OTC brands by our customers,net of cancel

323、lations.Our non-OTC brands(KAYAK and OpenTable)have different business metrics from those of our OTC brands,so search queries through KAYAK and restaurant reservations through OpenTable do not contribute to our gross bookings.”Annual reports,available at:https:/ e-commerce sales and the role of onli

324、ne platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.1CompanyValue definitionSourceNotesCnova/Cdiscount“Gross merchandise volume(GMV)is defined as product sales+other revenues+marketplace business volumes+services GMV+taxes and is calculated based on approved and sent orders.”Annual reports,

325、available at:https:/ GMV,after reaching more than 50%of product GMV for the first time in the 2nd quarter of 2022,continues on its positive trend and now represents 54%of GMV in the 4th quarter(+9pts vs.last year)with a nearly stable GMV(2%)in a receding French e-commerce market.”Deliveroo“Gross tra

326、nsaction value(GTV)is the total value paid by consumers,excluding any discretionary tips.GTV comprises the total food basket(net of any discounts)and consumer fees,and is represented including VAT and other sales-related taxes.It is a widely used measure for understanding the total value spent by co

327、nsumers on our marketplace.”Annual reports,available at:https:/corporate.deliveroo.co.uk/investors/results-reports-presentations/Delivery Hero“Gross Merchandise Value(GMV)is the total value paid by customers(including VAT,delivery fees,service fees less other subsidies).”Annual reports,available at:

328、https:/ total dollar value,including any applicable taxes,tolls and fees,of completed Transactions without any adjustment for consumer incentives or for earnings and incentives paid to drivers for mobility services,merchant or delivery partners for food delivery services,or service partners for othe

329、r initiatives.”Annual reports,available at:https:/ China mobility and international segmentseBay“GMV consists of the total value of all paid transactions between users on our platforms during the applicable period inclusive of shipping fees and taxes.”https:/ represents the value of all successfully

330、 closed transactions between users on a platform.GMV provides a measure of the overall volume of transactions through a platform,both through first-party and third-party transactions.”GMV is given in the KPI datasheet available here:https:/ Fiscal years ending 31 March of the following yearEtsy“Gros

331、s merchandise sales(“GMS”)is the dollar value of items sold in our marketplaces within the applicable period,excluding shipping fees and net of refunds associated with cancelled transactions.”https:/ e-commerce sales and the role of online platformsUNCTAD Technical notes on ICT for development|No.14

332、9CompanyValue definitionSourceNotesExpedia“Gross bookings generally represent the total retail value of transactions booked for agency and merchant transactions,recorded at the time of booking reflecting the total price due for travel by travellers,including taxes,fees and other charges,and are redu

333、ced for cancellations and refunds.Revenue margin is defined as revenue as a percentage of gross bookings.”https:/ Goto e-commerce(Tokopedia)“GTV or Gross Transaction Value,an operating measure representing the sum of(i)the value of on-demand services transactions;(ii)the value of e-commerce transactions for product and services;and(iii)the total payments volume processed through our financial tech