《OECD：職業教育與培訓中的教師和領導者調研報告（英文版）（192頁）.pdf》由會員分享，可在線閱讀，更多相關《OECD：職業教育與培訓中的教師和領導者調研報告（英文版）（192頁）.pdf（192頁珍藏版）》請在三個皮匠報告上搜索。

1、OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingTeachers and Leaders in Vocational Education and TrainingOECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingTeachers and Leaders in Vocational Education and TrainingThis work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The

2、 opinions expressed andarguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries.This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty overany territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and

3、 boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities.The use ofsuch data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights,East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in

4、the West Bank under the terms of international law.Please cite this publication as:OECD(2021),Teachers and Leaders in Vocational Education and Training,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/59d4fbb1-en.ISBN 978-92-64-37041-8(print)ISBN 978-92-

5、64-54545-8(pdf)OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingISSN 2077-7728(print)ISSN 2077-7736(online)Photo credits:Cover Studio Foltzer/S;elenabsl/S.Corrigenda to publications may be found on line at:www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm.OECD 2021The use of this work,whether digital or

6、print,is governed by the Terms and Conditions to be found at http:/www.oecd.org/termsandconditions.3 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Foreword Global megatrends,such as automation,digitalisation,the green transition and population ageing,are bringing about structur

7、al changes in labour markets around the world.These changes have an impact on skills demand and supply.Vocational education and training(VET)can play a key role in responding to changing skill needs by equipping young people and adults with the right skills.As in all parts of the education system,te

8、achers and institution leaders are at the heart of high-quality VET.Their importance was highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic,when the commitment and creativity of teachers and education institution leaders safeguarded the continuity of teaching and learning.Teachers in VET need to have a unique

9、 combination of pedagogical and industry-specific skills and knowledge that allow them to effectively teach vocational theory and practice to students.Moreover,as students in VET are often more diverse than in general education programmes,VET teachers play a key role in motivating students and overc

10、oming barriers to learning.Leaders of VET institutions manage complex organisations that often involve close ties with local stakeholders and require smart investment in tools and technologies for teaching a diverse set of VET programmes.In light of structural changes in the labour market and associ

11、ated changing skill needs,VET teachers need opportunities to keep their skill and knowledge up to date with workplace practices.They also need to keep abreast of new technologies for teaching and learning and innovative pedagogical approaches.The COVID-19 pandemic has underlined the benefits of the

12、use of digital technologies in education,but also brought some key challenges to light especially in VET,where practical learning is the norm.Institution leaders play a key role in attracting and retaining VET teachers with the right skills and providing opportunities for professional development.In

13、 this respect,the ability of leaders to develop close ties with the world of work is becoming of even greater importance in a changing labour market.In spite of their important role,data and information on effective policies and practices for attracting,training and retaining VET teachers and leader

14、s are limited.This report aims to fill the knowledge gap,by assessing the key challenges and opportunities for VET teachers and leaders as skills needs change,and by providing international good practice examples and policy pointers to ensure that teachers and leaders can deliver high quality VET.Th

15、e report is part of the OECD Centre for Skills broader work on VET,which supports countries in building attractive,inclusive and responsive VET systems.This report was drafted by Shinyoung Jeon,Pauline Musset and Rodrigo Torres from the OECD Centre for Skills,under the supervision of Marieke Vandewe

16、yer(manager of the VET team)and Andrew Bell(Acting Head of the OECD Centre for Skills).The report has benefited from helpful comments provided by Mark Pearson(Deputy-Director for Employment,Labour and Social Affairs),colleagues in the Centre for Skills,the Directorate for Employment,Labour and Socia

17、l Affairs,and the Directorate for Education and Skills.Administrative and editorial assistance was provided by Charity Kome,Jennifer Cannon and Rasa Silyte-Niavas from the OECD Centre for Skills and by Sally Hinchcliffe.Aurelien Kaske and Koshi Murakoshi provided research support.The views expressed

18、 in this report should not be taken to reflect the official position of OECD member countries.4 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Acknowledgements The OECD would like to thank the Department for Education in England(United Kingdom)and the Department of Education in

19、the United States for co-sponsoring this cross-country project and the publication of this report.In particular,Alex Perry,Ben Rockliffe,Helen Wood,Luke Clarke and Rosie Chalam-Judge from the Department for Education in England and Gregory Henschel from the United States Department of Education have

20、 supported and guided the work throughout this study,including shaping questionnaire,organising stakeholder interviews,relevant events and review processes.In addition to these two countries,Denmark,Germany and Japan provided valuable input and support to the work through organising stakeholder inte

21、rviews in their respective country and providing additional inputs.Special thanks go to Torben Schuster from the Danish Ministry of Education,Oliver Diehl(BMBF)and Birgitta Ryberg(KMK)in Germany,and Tetsuya Kashihara(MEXT)in Japan.For the list of interviewed institutions,see Annex 1.A(Chapter 1).The

22、 OECD is also grateful for the support received from the European Commissions Joint Research Centre for the extraction of the SELFIE data.We also greatly appreciate the time given by hundreds of other colleagues who contributed to this report by generously sharing their experience and insights on th

23、e topic throughout the project period.Particular thanks is also owed to national experts of VET and skills,who commented on the draft reports and provided background information through an OECD questionnaire.5 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Table of contents Fore

24、word 3 Acknowledgements 4 Acronyms and abbreviations 9 Executive summary 11 1 Assessment and recommendations 13 The importance of teachers and leaders in VET 14 Definitions and methodology 16 The changing landscape of teaching and leadership in VET 18 Key recommendations for effective VET teacher an

25、d leader policies 24 References 30 Annex 1.A.List of interviewed institutions 33 Notes 34 2 Ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in vocational education and training 35 The state of VET teacher shortages 36 The attractiveness of the VET teaching profession 41 Employing industry prof

26、essionals as VET teachers 58 Conclusion and policy recommendations 70 References 72 Technical information 78 Notes 82 3 Effectively preparing and developing teachers in vocational education and training 85 Skills and training needs for VET teachers 86 Initial teacher education and training for VET t

27、eachers 91 Professional development opportunities to keep VET teachers skills up to date 98 Conclusion and policy recommendations 113 References 114 Notes 118 4 Promoting innovative pedagogical approaches in vocational education and training 119 The increasing need for digital and soft skills 120 De

28、veloping the skills needed to use new technology in VET 137 6 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Adequate teaching methods for soft skills development 147 Raising awareness about the importance of innovation,ICT and soft-emotional skills in VET education 156 Conclusi

29、on and policy recommendations 156 References 158 Notes 164 5 Strengthening leadership in vocational education and training 165 The roles and tasks of VET leaders 166 The preparation and development of leaders 171 The attractiveness of leadership 178 Conclusion and policy recommendations 182 Referenc

30、es 184 Notes 189 FIGURES Figure 1.1.Teachers account for an important share of VET expenditure 15 Figure 1.2.One in five young VET graduates are employed in jobs with a high risk of automation 19 Figure 1.3.VET teachers are ageing 21 Figure 1.4.VET teachers often have more non-teaching work experien

31、ce than general education teachers 22 Figure 2.1.Student-teacher ratios are among the determinants of teacher demand 38 Figure 2.2.Germany,Korea and Sweden have quantifiable indicators of VET teacher shortages 40 Figure 2.3.VET leaders are concerned about VET teacher shortages 40 Figure 2.4.Some VET

32、 teachers leave their jobs to go into general education or industry in England(UK)42 Figure 2.5.VET teachers in several countries are more likely than other workers to be looking for another job 43 Figure 2.6.VET teachers are more likely to have a temporary contract than general education teachers 4

33、4 Figure 2.7.A large share of VET teachers with a temporary contract could not find a permanent job 45 Figure 2.8.About 40%of VET teachers on average are satisfied with their salary 46 Figure 2.9.VET teachers earn less than general education teachers 47 Figure 2.10.VET teachers wages may differ depe

34、nding on the school level,funding model and other factors 47 Figure 2.11.Not many VET teachers feel that teaching is valued in society 48 Figure 2.12.Less than half of VET teachers received an induction on average 53 Figure 2.13.VET teachers receive a variety of forms of induction to different degre

35、es 54 Figure 2.14.VET teachers are more likely to have or be a mentor than general education teachers 55 Figure 2.15.Proxy measures suggest that it is fairly common for industry professionals to work as VET teachers 60 Figure 2.16.Flexible work schedules are an important reason to become a VET teach

36、er 65 Figure 2.17.VET teachers are more likely to work part time than general education teachers 66 Figure 2.18.Working part time is compatible with other responsibilities 67 Figure 3.1.The educational attainment of VET teachers varies greatly across countries 87 Figure 3.2.VET teachers studied more

37、 diverse fields for their highest qualification 88 Figure 3.3.VET teachers level of teaching qualification vary across institutions in England 89 Figure 3.4.More VET students are lower achievers in reading than general education students 90 Figure 3.5.ITET for VET teachers appears to be weaker at de

38、veloping pedagogical skills than ITET for general education 94 Figure 3.6.VET teachers whose ITET covered key elements of teaching practice felt more prepared 95 Figure 3.7.VET teachers are more likely to visit business premises as part of their professional development,than general education teache

39、rs 99 Figure 3.8.VET teachers tend to spend more time on professional development than general education teachers 100 Figure 3.9.VET teachers are active in professional development 101 Figure 3.10.VET teachers face barriers to professional development 104 Figure 3.11.Not many VET teachers are suppor

40、ted in or rewarded for participating in professional development 109 Figure 3.12.In England,VET providers fund formal professional development for their staff 110 7 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Figure 3.13.VET teachers have a wide variety of professional develo

41、pment needs 111 Figure 3.14.Impactful professional development is personalised and allows for practice and co-operation 112 Figure 4.1.OECD countries face widening skills imbalances 121 Figure 4.2.Digital skills are in high demand in the labour market 125 Figure 4.3.Young VET graduates have weaker d

42、igital problem-solving skills than those with a general upper secondary education 126 Figure 4.4.Problem-solving,team-working and communication skills are among the most important skills in the workplace 128 Figure 4.5.VET teachers are more likely to let their students use ICT than general education

43、 teachers 131 Figure 4.6.Not all VET teachers in OECD countries use digital technologies in their teaching 132 Figure 4.7.Many Dutch VET institutions use innovative digital tools and technologies 134 Figure 4.8.Not all VET teachers are well prepared for the use of digital technology 138 Figure 4.9.S

44、ignificant shares of VET teachers need training in ICT skills for teaching 138 Figure 4.10.VET teachers have relatively weak problem-solving skills using ICTs 139 Figure 4.11.A large proportion of VET teachers do not feel confident using digital technologies in their teaching 140 Figure 4.12.VET tea

45、chers use learner-centred techniques more than general education teachers 149 Figure 4.13.Vocational subjects all work with the same three media,but to different degree 153 Figure 5.1.Leaders have a broad range of responsibilities 170 Figure 5.2.Many VET leaders have received teacher training 172 Fi

46、gure 5.3.Not all leaders have received formal training related to their position 173 Figure 5.4.Many VET leaders do not participate in professional development opportunities 175 Figure 5.5.Many leaders report insufficient institutional support to engage in professional development 175 Figure 5.6.Lea

47、ders typically earn more than teachers in upper secondary education 179 TABLES Table 2.1.The recruitment and professional status of VET teachers vary across countries 62 Table 4.1.Teaching and learning methods for vocational subjects according to the Three Media Framework 154 Table 4.2.Learning outc

48、ome examples for different occupations according to the Three Media Framework 154 Annex Table 1.A.1.List of institutions interviewed by the OECD VET team 33 Annex Table 2.A.1.Minimum qualification requirements for VET teachers by regulation 78 Annex Table 2.A.2.Link between VET teachers(job)characte

49、ristics and their probability of working part-time,having a temporary contract,looking for another job and having a second job 80 Annex Table 2.A.3.Difference between VET and general education teachers in the probability of working part-time,having a temporary contract,looking for another job and ha

50、ving a second job 81 Annex Table 2.A.4.Difference between VET teachers,general education teachers,and tertiary educated workers in the probability of working part-time,having a temporary contract,looking for another job and having a second job 81 8 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TR

51、AINING OECD 2021 Follow OECD Publications on:http:/ 9 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Acronyms and abbreviations ACL Adult and community learning ACDEVEG Australian Council of Deans of Education Vocational Education Group AI Artificial intelligence ALL Adult Liter

52、acy and Lifeskills Survey AR Augmented reality CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training CSS College Staff Survey CTE Career and technical education ECTS European Credit Transfer System EdTech Education technology EU-LFS European Union Labour Force Survey FE Further educatio

53、n GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education GNE-VET Group of National Experts on VET ICT Information and communications technology ISCED International Standard Classification of Education ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations ITET Initial teacher education and training ITP

54、Independent training provider KMK Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Lnder NRCCTE National Research Center for Career and Technical Education PBL Project-based learning PD Professional development PGCE Post-Graduate Certificate in Education PIAAC OECD Surve

55、y of Adult Skills PISA Programme for International Student Assessment PTS Passport to Success R&D Research and development RTO Registered Training Organisation SELFIE Self-reflection on Effective Learning by Fostering the Use of Innovative Educational Technologies SES Structure of Earnings Survey SF

56、C Sixth form college 10 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 SIR Staff Individualised Record SME Small and medium-sized enterprise SREB Southern Regional Education Board STEM Science,technology,engineering and mathematics T2L Teaching to Lead TAFE Technical and further

57、 education TALIS Teaching and Learning International Survey TTF Taking Teaching Further VET Vocational education and training VR Virtual reality WBL Work-based learning 11 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Executive summary Key findings Teachers and leaders are cent

58、ral to vocational education and training(VET).Often referred to as a“dual profession”,VET teachers require both pedagogical and industry knowledge to prepare young people and adults for the labour market.Institutional leaders in VET play many important roles,from developing and supporting teachers t

59、o engaging multiple stakeholders and improving the quality of VET through the allocation of resources and provision of instructional guidance.The landscape of teaching and learning in VET is changing,as are the skills the labour market needs,reinforcing the need for VET teachers to keep abreast of n

60、ew pedagogical approaches and classroom technology and keep up to date with the realities of the workplace.For example,increasing demand for basic,digital and soft skills in the labour market means VET teachers need to equip themselves with these skills and teach them to their students.These diverse

61、 and changing requirements create several challenges for the sector.VET teacher shortages are significant in many OECD countries.Half of further education college principals in England(United Kingdom),half of states in the United States,and a third of VET principals in Denmark,Portugal and Turkey re

62、ported shortages.VET teacher supply is estimated 80%of the demand in Germany,70%in Korea and 44%in Sweden.While training is crucial to prepare and develop VET teachers,many countries struggle to cover the full mix of skills they need.Moreover,VET teachers often face barriers to accessing training du

63、e to lack of support or incentives,and conflicts with their work schedule.Similarly,the complex set of responsibilities VET leaders face are not always matched with sufficient access to relevant training opportunities and targeted support.Key recommendations 1.Ensure an adequate supply of well-prepa

64、red VET teachers Increasing the attractiveness of VET teaching could encourage more people to join the profession.Financial incentives and support targeted at initial teacher education and training(ITET)and professional development(PD)can help attract and retain VET teachers.Likewise,targeted financ

65、ial incentives and support can encourage industry professionals into VET teaching in shortage areas.VET teachers who receive targeted support during their careers are more likely to stay in the profession.For example,the attrition rates among new VET teachers can be reduced through mentoring and str

66、uctured induction programmes.For experienced teachers,attractive career pathways and targeted support can encourage them to stay in the profession while allowing them to move into senior or management-level positions or into other subject areas.Employing industry professionals can ease VET teacher s

67、hortages.As they generally lack the required teaching qualifications and pedagogical skills,providing flexible pathways for qualification,training and recruitment can ease their entry into teaching.For example,countries may relax qualification requirements,if needed,for industry professionals or for

68、 graduates from higher education specialising in the relevant 12 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 subjects,and provide alternative routes to obtaining teaching qualifications.Part-time work can also facilitate flexible teaching in VET,but should not come at the exp

69、ense of VET teachers working conditions and teaching skills.Collaboration between VET institutions and industry should be strengthened to facilitate the engagement of industry professionals in VET teaching.2.Effectively prepare and develop VET teachers Initial teacher education and training programm

70、es should develop future VET teachers pedagogical skills alongside their basic,digital and soft skills,and the vocational skills and knowledge needed by the labour market.There are many initiatives aiming to develop strong pedagogical and vocational skills in VET teachers.Education and training inst

71、itutions have to keep their curricula up to date,collaborate with VET institutions to offer practical teacher training,and develop research and innovation into pedagogical approaches.Offering work-based learning opportunities in industry as part of ITET can be particularly helpful for those with no

72、industry background.Changing teaching and learning environments,as well as the changing needs of the labour market mean VET teachers need to continue to develop their skills after leaving ITET.Several countries give them the means and support to participate in PD.To make such participation more effe

73、ctive,VET teachers training needs need to be assessed so that relevant,customised and engaging PD can be provided.Participation can be increased by fostering collaboration between VET stakeholders,including VET institutions,teacher and school networks,local companies,and universities and other assoc

74、iations.3.Promote innovative pedagogical approaches in VET Innovative pedagogical approaches can improve the quality of VET teaching and foster the development of transversal skills,including soft and digital skills.VET can benefit from the flexibility,cost-effectiveness,safety and other advantages

75、of new technology,such as online learning,virtual/augmented reality,robotics and simulators.Encouraging the adoption of such approaches can begin by fostering VET teachers capacity to take advantage of new and existing technology.Countries need to help VET teachers to regularly update their pedagogi

76、cal knowledge and digital skills and adjust their teaching methods by providing training and networking opportunities.To encourage the effective use of innovative pedagogical approaches,countries should also provide strategic guidance and institutional support to VET teachers.This could include guid

77、ance on how to choose effective teaching methods,combined with improving their access to digital devices,high-tech equipment and technical support.Countries can also promote innovation in VET by establishing partnerships between the VET sector and industry to improve the procurement of materials and

78、 equipment tailored to teaching and learning needs.More broadly,they need to raise awareness of the importance of innovation,information and communications technology(ICT)and soft skills in VET to encourage collaboration among relevant stakeholders to make VET more innovative.4.Strengthen VET leader

79、ship VET institutions need well-prepared leaders.They have to understand the VET sector and the labour market while also having the organisational and pedagogical leadership skills needed to improve teaching and learning.To ensure that VET leaders can effectively carry out their complex and varied r

80、oles,countries should ensure they are all equipped with the right skills by clarifying their roles and tasks and providing access to initial training and professional development,as part of a coherent skills development strategy.Leaders should also be supported in their role,especially at the start

81、of their careers.It is also important to make VET leadership roles more attractive,by developing middle management roles and leadership teams to assist leaders with their responsibilities,giving suitable external candidates access to the profession,and supporting VET leaders through peer learning.13

82、 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 1 Assessment and recommendations This chapter provides an overview of the report and a summary of the key findings and recommendations.It highlights the importance of teachers and leaders in vocational education and training(VET),e

83、xplains the definitions and methodology used and outlines the changing landscape of teaching and leadership in VET.14 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 The importance of teachers and leaders in VET Teachers1 and leaders are central to vocational education and traini

84、ng(VET),a unique form of education that focuses on practical skills and hands-on experience.Often referred to as a“dual profession”(Greatbatch and Tate,20181;OECD,20152;Andersson and Kpsn,20153),VET teachers generally have to have both pedagogical and occupational knowledge and experience.VET teache

85、rs prepare young people for work by teaching not only occupational skills but also transversal skills,such as basic and soft skills.They support the school-to-work transition of students with diverse backgrounds,including those who are struggling with academic studies,and adults in need of new,updat

86、ed or improved skills.Institutional leaders in VET play a crucial role in ensuring that this diverse group of students have access to high-quality teaching and learning that develops the skills they need.The effectiveness of VET institutional leaders has a significant impact on students achievement

87、and teachers working conditions(Ruiz-Valenzuela,Terrier and Van Effenterre,20174).VET leaders need to be strategic and management focused and have a good understanding of the VET landscape and the factors that could affect it.They also need to encourage more innovative approaches to pedagogy,organis

88、ational and institutional matters,while keeping abreast of new and emerging technology that could improve the effectiveness of VET delivery.The importance of VET teachers and leaders came even further to the fore during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing school closures implemented in many countr

89、ies(OECD,20205).VET institutions train,assess and award qualifications for many of the professions that formed the backbone of economic and social life during the lockdown,from the health sector to the retail sector(OECD,20206).At the same time,VET institutions offer individuals who lost their jobs

90、the opportunity to improve their skills or develop new ones to prepare for employment in different occupations or sectors.To ensure continuity of teaching during closures,many VET teachers and leaders had to be creative.For example,they found new or alternative ways of teaching and learning,often us

91、ing digital technologies.They also filled students learning gaps caused by the closure of learning venues and interrupted work-based learning by providing opportunities for practical learning at schools during summer vacations or even during the lockdown where countries allowed it in specific cases(

92、OECD,20205).Teachers and leaders are core resources for the effective provision of VET.On average across the 18 OECD countries,teacher compensation accounts for 52%of the total expenditure of public and private upper secondary VET institutions,and 40%of the total for post-secondary VET institutions(

93、Figure 1.1).The differences between countries are substantial,with upper-secondary VET institutions in Greece spending 89%of their resources on teacher compensation but those in Chile spending only 18%.In the majority of countries with available data,the share of expenditure devoted to teacher compe

94、nsation in VET is the same or lower than in general education(52%in VET versus 58%in general education at the upper secondary level on average across countries).The Slovak Republic is the main exception;the share for VET is 10 percentage points higher than for general education at the upper secondar

95、y level.Despite their importance,there is limited knowledge and evidence about teachers and institutional leaders in VET.To fill this knowledge gap,this study aims to produce new insights into the strategies and policies that can best help develop and maintain a well-prepared teaching and leadership

96、 workforce in VET.The remainder of this chapter provides an overview of this report and a summary of its key findings and recommendations.Chapter 2 discusses key challenges and policy responses to ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in VET.Chapter 3 explores effective ways to prepa

97、re and develop these teachers.Chapter 4 discusses innovative pedagogical approaches in VET.Finally,Chapter 5 examines important aspects of strengthening strategic leadership in VET.Box 1.1 provides details about the methodology used in this study.15 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND T

98、RAINING OECD 2021 Figure 1.1.Teachers account for an important share of VET expenditure Share of expenditure for compensation of teachers(with active teaching responsibilities),all public and private VET institutions,2017 or latest year Note:In the case of the United Kingdom,VET institutions are all

99、 government dependent private institutions.Data for England(UK)refer to all staff costs in further education colleges(2016-17).Japan(2018)refers to total school education expenditure,excluding expenses for public universities,junior colleges and subsidies to private schools.Source:OECD(20206),Educat

100、ion at a Glance 2020:OECD Indicators,https:/doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en;England:Association of Colleges(20187),AoC 2018 Report on College Finances,www.aoc.co.uk/system/files/AoC%202018%20report%20on%20college%20finances%20%2014%20September%2018.pdf;Japan:MEXT(20208),Report of Local Education Expense

101、 Survey for the First Year of Reiwa(FY2018),https:/www.mext.go.jp/content/20201120-mxt_chousa01-100014633_c.pdf.Box 1.1.About this study:Teachers and Leaders in VET Objectives This report aims to help countries develop,maintain and improve their teaching and leadership workforce in VET.While the cha

102、llenges for teacher recruitment,retention,training and pedagogy as well as school leadership are widely documented and analysed(OECD,20189;OECD,200510;OECD,201911),the specific challenges around teachers and leaders in VET have been under-researched.This study addresses this gap and provides advice

103、to governments and other stakeholders regarding teaching and leadership in VET.Scope This report focuses on teachers and institutional leaders in VET at International Standard Classification of Education(ISCED)Levels 3-5(upper secondary,post-secondary non-tertiary and short-cycle tertiary)paying par

104、ticular attention to upper secondary education.Vocational trainers(or apprentice tutors or company trainers)who supervise and teach work-based learning in companies are outside the scope of this study.The study does not include special needs teachers,educational psychologists or counsellors.0%10%20%

105、30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Upper secondary VETUpper secondary general educationPost-secondary VETPost-secondary general educationAll education16 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Methodology The report draws on comparative data and the experiences of several OECD coun

106、tries to distil its policy messages.The information for this report was gathered through:Data analysis and literature reviews:Key data sources include Education at a Glance(EAG)2020(OECD,20206),including the results from an ad hoc survey of teachers in upper-secondary VET programmes;the Teaching and

107、 Learning International Survey 2018(TALIS);the European Union Labour Force Survey 2017-19(EU-LFS);and relevant national statistics.Study visits and stakeholder interviews:The OECD review team gathered inputs from a visit to the United States at the end of February 2020 and remote interviews with sta

108、keholders in Denmark,England(United Kingdom),1 Germany and Japan to discuss key policy questions and identify the main challenges and opportunities for teachers and leaders in VET.Supplementary interviews were conducted with experts in Australia and Belgium(French Community).Inputs and review by the

109、 Group of National Experts on VET(GNE-VET):The OECD team gathered inputs from the members of the GNE-VET through a policy questionnaire.GNE-VET members and members of the Skills Strategy Advisory Group have also reviewed a discussion paper on the topic that included preliminary analysis and policy r

110、ecommendations.1.A visit to England was planned in March 2020 but was replaced by remote interviews as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.Definitions and methodology Definition of VET teachers This study uses two definitions of VET teachers(see Box 1.2 for details),one based on the subject taught and

111、 the other on the type of programme in which the teacher is active.The first defines VET teachers as teachers of vocational subjects,regardless of programme orientation.These VET teachers teach vocational subjects in vocational and/or general programmes.Their counterparts teach general subjects,also

112、 in vocational and/or general programmes.The second defines VET teachers as teachers in VET programmes,regardless of the subjects they teach.These VET teachers teach any type of subject including general subjects in VET programmes,while general education teachers in this definition teach any type of

113、 subject in general programmes.Categories and definitions of VET teachers vary across countries,datasets and taxonomies,and each have their own limitations.Some existing datasets or taxonomies,including commonly used international occupational classifications,do not distinguish between the types of

114、programmes or institutions in which teachers are employed.This means that even where VET teachers are distinguished from general subject teachers,they could still be teaching in general programmes,making the first definition more useful.On the other hand,not all countries distinguish teachers in VET

115、 programmes by teaching subject.The 2020 Education at a Glance publication shows that in 21 OECD countries teachers of general subjects can teach in both general and vocational programmes without changes to their terms and conditions(OECD,20206).The definition used in different parts of this report

116、will therefore depend on the data source used.Definition of institutional leaders in VET Institutional leaders in VET refer to individuals who are appointed or employed in a recognised leadership position to oversee VET programmes and institutions and have responsibility for the goals set by an orga

117、nisation that offers VET programmes.VET leaders can have different responsibilities in different countries and types of institutions.They could be school leaders in a single-or multi-field vocational school,17 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 or heading a public or

118、 private VET institution providing adult learning programmes.They might also be responsible for VET programmes within comprehensive education institutions(that may also provide general education programmes).For example,leaders of VET institutions oversee upper secondary VET schools in Denmark and Ge

119、rmany;further education colleges,independent training providers and adult community centres in England(United Kingdom);vocational high schools,colleges of technology and specialised training colleges in Japan;and career and tech education programmes in high schools and community colleges in the Unit

120、ed States.Box 1.2.Taxonomy of VET teachers in international and national data 1.Teachers of vocational subjects regardless of programme orientation In international surveys such as the EU Labour Force Surveys and the OECD Survey of Adult Skills,a product of the Programme for the International Assess

121、ment of Adult Competencies(PIAAC),VET teachers are defined following the International Standard Classification of Occupations(ISCO):Vocational education teachers(232 in ISCO-08)teach or instruct vocational or occupational subjects in adult and further education institutions and to senior students in

122、 secondary schools and colleges.They prepare students for employment in specific occupations or occupational areas for which university or higher education is not normally required,whether they work in a general secondary school or in a vocational or technical school or college.This includes vocatio

123、nal teachers not only in VET programmes but also in general programmes,but excludes general subject teachers in VET programmes.The same classification defines general education teachers as:Secondary education teachers(233 in ISCO-08)teach one or more subjects at secondary education level(whether the

124、ir schools or programmes are vocationally oriented or not),excluding subjects intended to prepare students for employment in specific occupational areas.Thus,this includes general subject teachers both in VET and general education programmes.Many other occupational classifications use a similar appr

125、oach.In the United States,for example,the US Standard Occupational Classification categorises VET teachers in secondary education as Career/Technical Education Teachers,Secondary School(25-2032).Their general education counterparts are Secondary School Teachers,Except Special and Career/Technical Ed

126、ucation(25-2031).This report defines VET teachers by the subject they teach when referring to the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey(TALIS),a large international survey of teachers and school leaders on their working conditions and the learning environments at their schools.TALIS survey

127、s teachers and leaders in lower secondary schools in all participating countries,with some countries also participating at the primary and upper secondary levels(only six OECD countries/regions have available data at the upper secondary level).TALIS 2018 is organised into five policy areas:effective

128、 teaching,developing teachers,school leadership,and attracting and retaining teachers.When referring to TALIS data in this report,the following definitions are used:VET teachers refer to all upper secondary teachers who reported in TALIS that they teach practical and vocational skills in the survey

129、year,regardless of the type of programme or school.General education teachers refer to all upper secondary teachers teaching subjects other than practical and vocational skills,regardless of the programme or school.18 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 2.Teachers in

130、VET programmes or VET institutions regardless of the subjects that they teach The UNESCO-OECD-Eurostat data define VET teachers as classroom teachers and academic staff in upper secondary and post-secondary VET programmes.Their counterparts are teachers in general education programmes.Within this de

131、finition,the teaching workforce in VET programmes or institutions can be further divided into three different types.Teachers of vocational theory,who teach theoretical subjects,such as sales techniques and electronics,in VET programmes.Teachers of vocational practice,who teach practical applications

132、,such as mechatronics practice in school workshops,in VET programmes.Teachers of general subjects,who are responsible for teaching academic subjects,such as mathematics and sciences,in VET programmes.Certain occupational classifications use this institution-or programme-based approach to distinguish

133、 between general education and VET teachers.This is the case for the UK Standard Operational Classification,where VET teachers are categorised as Further Education Teaching Professionals(2312),and general education teachers as Secondary Education Teaching Professionals(2314).The former supervise and

134、 teach trade,technical,commercial,adult education,secondary and post-secondary courses to students beyond minimum school leaving age.These further education(FE)teaching professionals are the focus of the College Staff Survey(which covered 199 FE colleges and 9 603 teachers and leaders in 2018,althou

135、gh the response rate from both teachers and leaders was 14%)and the Education Training Professionals Survey(which covered 582 non-college FE providers plus 1 303 teachers and leaders online in 2019)in England.The changing landscape of teaching and leadership in VET Rapidly changing labour markets ca

136、ll for changes in VET teaching and leadership Digitalisation,automation,the transition to a low-carbon economy and the COVID-19 pandemic are having a major impact on the skills needed in the labour market,and therefore also on the skills that need to be formed through VET.The occupational compositio

137、n of employment has changed in OECD countries in recent decades,with employment in middle-skill occupations growing more slowly than low-and high-skill occupations(OECD,202012).Digitalisation creates many jobs and changes existing ones,including jobs that require VET qualifications.Automation can tr

138、ansform a wide range of work tasks,including in sectors where VET traditionally plays a key role(OECD,201913;Nedelkoska and Quintini,201814).Further changes are expected in the coming years.For example,in many European countries,traditional VET occupations such as construction worker or plant operat

139、or are expected to become relatively less important in the coming decade,while occupations requiring a higher level of skills in fields that are often outside the scope of traditional VET programmes but could potentially be delivered within VET systems are growing(Cedefop,202015).In the United State

140、s,employment in higher-level VET occupations is also expected to grow,with wind turbine service technicians being the occupation with the strongest projected increase in employment(61%)(US Department of Labour,202016).These changes in skill needs will necessitate changes to VET curricula,and therefo

141、re also to VET teacher training and professional development.They could also imply changes to VET teacher recruitment strategies if more industry experience is desired.Stronger leadership will be fundamental to making these changes happen.According to the Survey of Adult Skills(PIAAC),many occupatio

142、ns at high risk of automation i.e.those jobs where a large share of the tasks involved could potentially be automated had high shares of VET graduates among their young workers.This is the case in occupations such as metal and machinery trades 19 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAI

143、NING OECD 2021 and electrical and electronics trades(Vandeweyer and Verhagen,202017).Across OECD countries,on average 28%of young people(16-34 years-olds)with below upper secondary education were employed in jobs at high risk of automation(Figure 1.2).By contrast,among those with an upper-secondary

144、or post-secondary non-tertiary education,22%of general education graduates and 21%of VET graduates on average2 were employed in jobs at a high risk of automation.Only 9%of young tertiary education graduates were employed in jobs at a high risk of automation.Differences between countries are substant

145、ial,however,with more than one in three young VET graduates in Greece,Lithuania,the Slovak Republic and Slovenia being employed in highly automatable jobs,compared with less than 10%in Denmark and Norway.The differences between VET and tertiary education graduates were smallest in Denmark,Korea,Mexi

146、co and the United States,and largest in Belgium(Flanders),Lithuania and the Slovak Republic.Figure 1.2.One in five young VET graduates are employed in jobs with a high risk of automation Percentage of employed graduates(aged 16 to 34)employed in jobs at high risk of automation Note:High risk of auto

147、mation is defined as having a probability of automation of at least 0.7.The United Kingdom refers to England and Northern Ireland only.The sample includes employed individuals aged 16 to 34 who are not enrolled in formal education.General education and VET include those who graduated from upper seco

148、ndary or post-secondary non-tertiary education.The OECD average is an unweighted average of the countries shown.Data include the survey years 2011-12,2014-15 and 2017.Source:OECD(202012),OECD Employment Outlook 2020:Worker Security and the COVID-19 Crisis,https:/doi.org/10.1787/1686c758-en.As VET pr

149、ogrammes need to evolve in order to adapt to changing skill needs,VET teachers must not only update their knowledge and practice,but also exploit new approaches to teaching,such as the use of virtual/augmented reality(VR/AR).This process has been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic,which has partia

150、lly shifted VET towards remote learning to ensure the continuity of training.However,not all VET teachers are ready for this change,and there are large differences across countries in their preparedness.For instance,TALIS 2018 data show that before the pandemic the share of upper secondary VET teach

151、ers across the six OECD countries/regions with available data(Alberta Canada,Denmark,Portugal,Slovenia,Sweden and Turkey)who did not feel prepared to support their students through the use of digital technology ranged from 9%in Portugal to 40%in Sweden(see Chapter 4,Figure 4.9).More evidence is need

152、ed to understand how well VET teachers managed the shift to remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic.Evidence from England,collected through surveys on the shift to online learning in 2020 carried out by the Association of Colleges,shows that 98%of 109 colleges reported that their teaching staff

153、 were(very or moderately)confident in delivering remote learning using a digital platform in July 2020(AoC,202018).Similarly in November 2020,98%of 97 colleges described their teachers confidence and skills with online/blended teaching as moderate(64%)or strong(34%)(AoC,202019).VET teachers in Denma

154、rk and Germany also reported that they were able to smoothly shift to distance teaching as they were already prepared before the pandemic.20 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Teacher shortages may hamper effective provision of VET Teacher shortages in VET are a comm

155、on challenge in several OECD countries,as are skills shortages in some VET occupations.This double-shortage makes it particularly difficult to recruit and retain VET teachers not just those teaching vocational subjects but also general subjects in VET programmes.For example,mathematics and science t

156、eachers are crucial for many VET subjects,but they are in severe shortages in several countries.These shortages may hamper the sustainable provision of VET,which exacerbate skill shortages.In many countries,the VET teaching workforce is ageing.On average across the 26 OECD countries with available d

157、ata,44%of teachers in upper-secondary VET programmes were over 50 years old in 2018,compared to 41%in 2013(Figure 1.3).This is higher than the share for general education teachers(39%in 2018),and the increase between 2013 and 2018 was also greater:a 3.5 percentage point increase for VET teachers com

158、pared to a 2.7 percentage points increase for general education teachers on average across 24 countries.3 Data from European countries also show that 46%of VET teachers are aged 50 or older on average,compared to 29%of all tertiary-educated workers and 32%of workers overall.The increase between 2011

159、-13 and 2017-19 was also faster among VET teachers(5 percentage points)than for all workers and tertiary-educated workers(2-3 percentage points).The impact of VET teacher shortages could be significant.Even a minor shortage of teachers in VET can have a long-term impact,as through their impact on st

160、udents,VET teachers have an impact on industry and the economy.VET teacher shortages can damage the stable provision of specific occupational courses and the sustainable supply of qualified workers for associated occupations.VET teacher shortages may also increase the costs of VET provision.For inst

161、ance,in England(ACL Consulting,202020),higher costs during times of VET teacher shortages may be driven by increased use of lower-or less-qualified teaching staff and temporary or agency staff which is not always cheaper than hiring suitably qualified teachers and can lead to increased workloads and

162、 stress for existing staff.Shortages can reduce the time available for professional development for existing staff while increasing the need for training for less-qualified teaching staff.A reliance on temporary or agency staff is associated with low retention and high turnover rates which can damag

163、e pedagogical continuity.In the longer term,teacher shortages may lead to the decrease in the availability of VET courses or a narrowing of provision and choices for learners(ACL Consulting,202020).It is often argued that the automation of tasks can alleviate shortages in certain occupations or sect

164、ors,but it is unlikely that the demand for teaching professionals in general will be readily affected by automation and the increased use of technology in the education sector.Teaching across all education sectors is estimated to be at the lowest risk of automation of all occupations(Vandeweyer and

165、Verhagen,202017),as the tasks done by teaching professionals cannot be easily replaced by technology.Teacher-led instruction remains important in the context of increased levels of technology use in VET and the rise of online courses.Online and distance VET courses are still teacher-mediated learnin

166、g opportunities:teachers need to design and support the courses and teach and assess students.In fact,the widespread adoption of technology in the labour market may increase the need for teachers in order to equip students with the skills needed in increasingly automated economies and societies,and

167、develop the skills they need to contribute to the further development of digitalisation(Vincent-Lancrin and van der Vlies,202021).Attracting industry professionals to the VET teaching workforce is one strategy to avoid or overcome VET teacher shortages.Several countries set relatively relaxed qualif

168、ication requirements for teaching VET with the aim of recognising the different levels of expertise and experience needed to teach in the sector.Other countries hire under-qualified VET teachers and encourage them to complete the training they need to obtain the required teaching qualification while

169、 working(see Chapter 2).Even in countries with relatively strict regulations for teacher qualifications,such as Germany,it is possible to hire industry professionals without teaching qualifications under certain circumstances.Despite the benefits of recruiting industry 21 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOC

170、ATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 professionals into VET,those who do not have the required teaching qualifications often lack pedagogical knowledge and ability and feel unprepared for teaching.Figure 1.3.VET teachers are ageing Share of individuals aged 50 and older Note:In Panel A in this f

171、igure,teachers teach at upper secondary education level and the distinction between VET and general depends on programme orientation,not on the subject they teach.For Italy,2016 data were used instead 2013,for Denmark 2014 instead of 2013,for Sweden 2016 instead of 2018,for Norway 2015 instead of 20

172、13 and for Turkey 2014 instead of 2013.For Japan,2013 and 2016 data were used;for high schools,the data do not distinguish programme orientation,whereas specialised training colleges and colleges of technology are considered as VET.The OECD average does not include Japan.In Panel B in this figure,vo

173、cational teachers teach or instruct vocational or occupational subjects in adult and further education institutions and to senior students in secondary schools and colleges(see Box 1.2).Source:Panel A:OECD,(202022),OECD.Stat,https:/stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?r=103992#;Japan:MEXT(201823),Summary of su

174、rvey results,www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/other/_icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/03/28/1395303_03.pdf.Panel B:Eurostat(202024),European Union Labour Force Survey(EU-LFS)2017-19,https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/labour-force-survey.010203040506070%A.Share of individuals aged over 50(2013 and 201

175、8,OECD data)VET teachers(2018)General education teachers(2018)VET teachers(2013)01020304050607080%B.Share of individuals aged over 50(2017-19,EU-LFS)VET teachersGeneral education teachersTertiary-educated workersAll workers22 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Many V

176、ET teachers gain industry experience before joining the profession,irrespective of whether this is a requirement or not.This is reflected in TALIS data,which show that VET teachers tend to have more non-teaching work experience that is not related to education and teaching than general education tea

177、chers(Figure 1.4).This suggests that VET teachers are more likely to enter the profession as a second career,having previously worked in industry or outside the education sector.Figure 1.4.VET teachers often have more non-teaching work experience than general education teachers Average years of expe

178、rience by type of teacher and type of work experience Note:VET teachers refer to upper secondary teachers who reported in TALIS that they teach practical and vocational skills.Teacher experience refers to their years as a teacher in total.Other work experience refers to years working in other non-ed

179、ucation roles.The average total work experience of teachers is slightly higher(on average 1.6 years in general education teachers and 2.1 years in VET teachers)than the sum of these two categories of work experience.All years were reported regardless of whether they worked full-time or part-time.Sou

180、rce:OECD(201925),TALIS 2018 database,www.oecd.org/education/talis/talis-2018-data.htm.Close connections between VET,industry and research remain crucial Even more than in other forms of education,VET needs to be connected to the labour market and adjust as it changes.For this reason,various forms of

181、 interaction and exchange between VET schools and industry are encouraged,including work-based learning for both students and teachers.This is more difficult to provide for teachers than for students:work-based learning for teachers requires not only a good relationship between VET schools and indus

182、try,but also support that allows teachers time off from teaching and provides financial and other incentives.Ultimately,VET teachers industry experience will pay back by supporting more effective learning and a smoother transition into employment for their students.Another potential benefit from clo

183、se connections between VET schools and industry is if it encourages experienced professionals from industry to become VET teachers.This can not only help reduce VET teacher shortages,as discussed above,but also increase the share of teachers whose skills and knowledge are up to date with industry pr

184、actices.Moreover,their industry connections could help to strengthen the ties between their VET institution and the world of work.Close connections between the VET sector and research institutions e.g.universities that provide initial and professional teacher education and training,or VET research a

185、nd innovation centres also contributes to high-quality VET provision.Through close co-operation with universities and research centres that are 051015202530VETGeneraleducationVETGeneraleducationVETGeneraleducationVETGeneraleducationVETGeneraleducationVETGeneraleducationSwedenPortugalDenmarkSloveniaC

186、anada(Alberta)TurkeyYearsTeacher experienceOther work experience 23 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 innovating in technology and pedagogy,VET teachers and leaders can become the vehicle for driving innovation in both the VET sector and industry,and equipping the f

187、uture workforce with new in-demand skills for the labour market.The skills VET teachers need are becoming more complex Training programmes for teachers in VET programmes should reflect the fact that employees in todays workplaces need not just occupation-specific and technical skills but also strong

188、er basic,digital and soft skills(UNESCO-UNEVOC,202026).Soft skills such as critical thinking,collaboration and communication are becoming more crucial for effective work in the collaborative environments enabled by new technologies.Basic skills,including literacy,numeracy and digital skills,are also

189、 essential to cope with changing labour markets and the increasing risks of automation.VET teachers need to facilitate the development of these skills among their students but not all of them know how to effectively teach such skills in a VET setting.In England,for example,the 2018 Training Needs Su

190、rvey showed that 62%of FE institutions reported that their VET teachers require further training and development on teaching basic skills(English and maths)and incorporating these skills into VET programmes(Education and Training Foundation,201827).With the increasing online delivery of VET,teachers

191、 also need to have stronger digital skills.Among OECD countries with available data in TALIS 2018,the type of professional development VET teachers reported need most was ICT skills training(46%on average across six OECD countries/regions).Initial teacher education and training(ITET)and professional

192、 development(PD)programmes for VET teachers need to adjust to changing curricula and teaching environments.Training programmes also need to meet the different needs of different groups of teachers.For example,teachers with industry backgrounds would need more pedagogical training,while those without

193、 industry backgrounds would need more opportunities to gain occupation-specific skills and experience.Leadership is more important than ever in VET institutions Institutional leaders in VET have a crucial set of roles to play,from developing and supporting teachers to engaging employers and other st

194、akeholders,and improving the quality of VET provided,which may be through technological and pedagogical innovation.Leaders face increasing challenges in recruiting well-prepared teachers and putting incentives in place to retain them.VET leaders are also responsible for supporting teachers in their

195、teaching responsibilities and managing pedagogical innovations.Evidence in England suggests that the effectiveness of VET institutional leaders(further education and sixth form college principals)is correlated with learners achievement4 and teachers employment conditions5(Ruiz-Valenzuela,Terrier and

196、 Van Effenterre,20174).Similarly in Korea,instructional leadership in VET institutions has a statistically significant effect on the teaching competence of specialist VET school teachers(Kim and Phang,201828).6 While leaders in VET require multiple competences to carry out their diverse responsibili

197、ties,many of them are not well prepared before taking up their role,and might not receive the support they need throughout their career in terms of mentoring and professional development.VET leaders often have a teaching background but leaders need to be more than teaching and learning specialists;t

198、hey also need a broad range of entrepreneurial and commercial skills.Specialised preparatory training for VET leaders is not always available.In the United States,for example,evidence shows that the training offer for VET leaders is declining(Zirkle and Jeffery,201729),and that existing programmes f

199、all short in a few key areas,such as budgeting and finance(Inside Higher Ed,201330).While the status of leaders in education and training in secondary and postsecondary education and training settings is high in many OECD countries,and salaries are often higher than for teachers,challenging working

200、conditions especially in the first years of a leadership role contribute to low retention rates.Common challenges for novice VET leaders include heavy workloads and complex task management,conflicts with teachers and students,and curriculum and instruction issues(Oleszewski,Shoho and Barnett,201231)

201、.24 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Key recommendations for effective VET teacher and leader policies 1.Ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in VET(Chapter 2)VET teacher shortages are a significant policy concern in several OECD countries.For exam

202、ple,In Denmark,Portugal and Turkey,one third of VET school principals reported shortages of qualified teachers,according to 2018 TALIS data.In England,according to the 2018 College Staff Survey,53%of further education college principals had found teacher recruitment difficult over the last three yea

203、rs.In the United States,more than half of states reported that they had teacher shortages in one or more VET subjects,according to 2018-19 Teacher Shortage Areas data.Germany estimates that the number of VET teachers would be around 80%of the demand in the coming decade.In Sweden,the supply of new V

204、ET teachers is estimated less than half of the demand in the coming decade.In Korea,new VET teachers replaced only 70%of retirees in the past five years.Even in some countries where VET teacher shortages are not pronounced,such as Finland,Japan,the Netherlands and Norway,shortages are anticipated in

205、 specific fields and localities.VET teacher shortages are related to the limited attractiveness of the profession as a career.For example,teachers salaries representing the largest single cost in VET have a direct impact on the attractiveness of the teaching profession.However,in a number of countri

206、es,the profession does not offer competitive salaries compared to industry and/or other educational institutions.In addition,many VET teachers feel that their profession is not valued in society.High workloads,poor management of VET institutions and lack of career development opportunities also have

207、 an effect on job satisfaction,which in turn has an effect on VET teacher retention.Countries can ensure a better supply of VET teachers by increasing the attractiveness of VET teaching careers and actively employing industry professionals as VET teachers.1.1.Increasing the attractiveness of VET tea

208、ching careers:Well-targeted incentives and support are proven to be effective to attract and retain VET teachers:for example,targeted bonus and wage incentives for teacher recruitment and retention in VET at shortage subjects or sectors;and financial support for initial teacher education and trainin

209、g and professional development.Belgium(Flanders),England,Korea,Norway and the United States use targeted incentives and support to attract industry professionals or highly qualified teachers to VET teaching.Offering career development support to improve the retention of VET teachers can also help in

210、crease the attractiveness of VET teaching careers.VET teachers with targeted career support are more likely to stay in the profession.Attrition among new VET teachers can be reduced by providing them with less challenging working environments when they start and with reduced teaching and administrat

211、ive workload to have mentoring and structured induction programmes.Mandating induction programmes for new VET teachers can be helpful,and mentors can provide key support during the early years of teaching although,as experiences from Austria and Turkey have shown,having enough well-trained mentors f

212、or the induction phase is crucial.Norway provides new VET teachers with guidelines and courses,and Germany offers them the option to receive didactic and methodological advice even after their quite extensive preparatory service period.For more experienced teachers,attractive career pathways with ta

213、rgeted career support encourages them to stay in the profession while allowing them to move into a senior or management-level position or into another subject areas.In order to attract more industry professionals as VET teachers,countries should aim at:1.2.Providing flexible pathways into VET teachi

214、ng:This can be achieved by relaxing entry qualification requirements,if needed,for industry professionals and graduates from higher education specialising in the relevant subject,and providing flexible pathways to obtaining teaching qualifications.Relaxed entry qualification requirements are used as

215、 a tool to smooth the 25 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 path from industry into VET teaching in Japan,Korea and the United States.However,care must be taken to ensure that relaxed entry rules do not come at the cost of lower quality.Several countries attract indu

216、stry professionals to enter the teaching profession without the required teaching qualification,but they are either required(in Denmark)or encouraged(in England)to obtain the qualification afterwards.Korea is planning to relax entry qualification requirements for professionals to teach in VET in fie

217、lds which currently lack relevant teaching qualifications or training for VET teachers,in order to meet rapidly changing labour market demand.Support to help these professionals obtain necessary qualifications is crucial,by providing flexible,modular ITET without going through a full ITET programme

218、while ensuring that such training focuses on skill gaps.1.3.Attracting more industry professionals to teach in VET while working in industry:This can be achieved by facilitating flexible work arrangements and increasing collaboration between VET providers and industry.Flexible work arrangements such

219、 as part-time teaching and co-teaching with fully qualified teachers can help industry professionals to combine working in industry,training as a teacher and teaching in VET.Part-time VET teachers with industry backgrounds can bring a number of benefits,such as overcoming teacher shortages,reducing

220、costs,increasing flexibility in VET provision and bringing in up-to-date knowledge from industry.To fully take advantage of these benefits,the teaching quality and working conditions of these part-time teachers need be ensured.Such flexible work arrangements for industry professionals teaching in VE

221、T could be further promoted and facilitated through collaboration between VET institutions and industry.For example,to recognise the mutual benefits for industry and the VET sector and ease VET teacher shortages,a business-education partnership in the United States created a teaching certificate for

222、 industry professionals.Policies that permit in-company trainers to more easily become VET teachers and vice versa can also help attract industry professionals into the teaching profession and encourage the exchange of personnel between industry and the VET sector,as has happened in Germany and Port

223、ugal.2.Effectively preparing and developing VET teachers(Chapter 3)VET teachers need dual competences.On the one hand,they need to have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subjects they teach and continuously update their expertise in response to changes in technology and working practices.Th

224、ey are often also required to have relevant work experience.On the other hand,they need to have pedagogical knowledge,but often have limited pedagogical preparation.A changing environment for teaching and learning also requires VET teachers to have a wide range of transversal skills including basic,

225、digital,problem-solving and soft skills.To effectively prepare and develop VET teachers in the face of changing learning and teaching environments requires well-designed initial teacher education and training and professional development opportunities.However,according to 2018 TALIS data,ITET for VE

226、T teachers appears to be weaker in developing the required pedagogical skills than training for general education teachers,although the effectiveness of well-designed ITET is evident(see Chapter 3:Figure 3.5 and 3.6).A significant proportion of VET teachers do not have the opportunity to develop the

227、 full mix of skills they need through ITET programmes.Countries will therefore benefit from effective and flexible ITET programmes for VET teachers.2.1.Effective and flexible initial teacher education and training programmes for VET teachers are designed for:Developing and strengthening VET teachers

228、 pedagogical skills along with their basic,digital and soft skills:Several initiatives exist to impart strong pedagogical skills to VET teachers.Many ITET institutions keep their curricula up to date,collaborate with VET institutions to offer 26 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAIN

229、ING OECD 2021 practical teacher training,and develop research and innovation in pedagogical approaches.Examples include university VET schools in Bavaria(Germany)and more broadly VET teacher training institutes established at Lnder level in Germany,and the Teaching to Lead programme in the United St

230、ates(see also Chapter 4).Providing work-based learning opportunities in VET institutions and in industry:Work-based learning in the context of ITET for VET teachers takes place in a VET institution to give trainees direct experience of teaching students in a classroom or a school workshop.In many co

231、untries,including Austria,Belgium,England and Germany,ITET concludes with a teacher practicum or an internship in a VET institution.Work-based learning can also be organised as an internship,externship or secondment to a company to equip future teachers with industry-relevant skills.In order to ensu

232、re that future VET teachers can develop their industry knowledge,building partnerships between ITET providers and employers is crucial.Promoting flexible training and providing necessary support:In countries where entry qualification requirements are flexible or teachers can obtain the required qual

233、ification while teaching,flexible provision is crucial to overcoming barriers to participation in training.This could include online ITET,weekend and evening classes,or part-time training.In order to encourage VET teachers who combine work and ITET to obtain a VET teaching degree,Sweden provides gra

234、nts and reduces their working hours.In England,where ITET is fee-based and voluntary,new funding schemes have been introduced for those obtaining formal FE teaching qualifications,including the Taking Teaching Further programme.In Wales(United Kingdom),teacher training incentive grants are available

235、 for eligible students.Although many VET teachers participate in professional development(PD)relatively widely,others face barriers due to a lack of support or incentives,or conflicting work schedules.Even among VET teachers who were able to participate in PD,many report significant barriers to acce

236、ssing training opportunities.2.2.Increasing participation in relevant professional development opportunities:In order to do so,countries need to consider:Engaging and co-ordinating with stakeholders to ensure that VET teachers receive the training they need:Making sure that VET teachers receive the

237、necessary training whether it is on pedagogical,industry or technological aspects requires the collaboration and co-ordination with multiple stakeholders at different levels.VET institutions,teachers and school networks,local companies,universities and other relevant associations all play different,

238、but crucial,roles in facilitating access to,encouraging and providing PD for VET teachers.For example,industry placements for VET teachers allow them to update their industry skills and knowledge in line with the most recent workplace practices.Denmark,England,the Slovak Republic,Spain and the Unite

239、d States provide good examples of such placements.Giving teachers the means to participate in professional development:In many countries,participation in PD is voluntary or dependent on senior management decisions,but some countries give teachers the support and resources they need to participate in

240、 PD or make it mandatory by law.In Finland,Germany(Bavaria),Italy and Slovenia,VET teachers are obliged to undertake training,while Denmark,Finland and Sweden have other mechanisms to ensure VET teachers access to PD such as collective agreements between unions and employers or professional developm

241、ent plans.Across the six OECD countries/regions with TALIS data available,the most common measures supporting VET teachers PD activities are time off from work and access to materials needed to participate in the activities.Financial support and incentives are also common tools to support access to

242、PD in some countries,for example in Denmark and England.27 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Identifying VET teachers training needs to offer relevant,customised and engaging professional development opportunities:VET teachers are more engaged in PD when it is relev

243、ant to their teaching practice,curriculum and subject;customised to their needs;and up to date.In England,training needs analysis is used to identify skill gaps and PD needs for VET institutions and individual teachers.3.Promoting innovative pedagogical approaches to VET(Chapter 4)The increasing dem

244、and for digital and soft skills in the labour market means VET teachers need to foster the development of these skills in their students.Digital skills are indispensable to modern jobs,as automation and digitalisation are taking place in all economic sectors.Similarly,soft skills such as problem sol

245、ving,team work,verbal communication and leadership are among the most valuable skills for workers,as these are not easily automatable and are strong complements to cognitive and technical skills.In an ever-changing labour market,digital skills and soft skills provide students with the flexibility to

246、 adapt to new jobs.VET teachers should gain deeper knowledge about how to develop these skills among their students,especially within practical settings,and integrate innovative teaching approaches into their daily practice.New technologies such as virtual/augmented reality,robotics and simulators h

247、ave the potential to foster innovation in VET teaching and learning.These technologies are flexible,cost-effective and safe ways to promote learning.They help students develop technical skills,but also soft and digital skills.In order to benefit from these technologies and develop the skills that VE

248、T students need,countries could consider:3.1.Fostering the capacity of VET teachers to use innovative pedagogical approaches:VET teachers need to have the right skills to make the most of innovative pedagogical approaches and new technologies.The COVID-19 pandemic exposed how many VET teachers strug

249、gled to teach online,confirming the finding from the 2018 TALIS data that around one quarter of upper secondary VET teachers did not feel prepared for the use of digital technologies in teaching.In order to assist VET teachers to update their knowledge on new pedagogies and technologies and their di

250、gital skills,teachers need access to PD opportunities.For example,EntrApprendre in the French Community of Belgium created work-based opportunities for VET teachers to learn about new technologies in the workplace.VET teachers also need support and guidance to choose effective teaching methods and b

251、enefit from PD activities that assist them in fostering students soft skills.Initiatives such as PBLWorks and Passport to Success in the United States,or the Enhance Digital Teaching Platform in the United Kingdom,show that both face-to-face and online learning modules can effectively support the PD

252、 of VET teachers who are looking to innovate their teaching practice.3.2.Providing VET teachers with strategic guidance and institutional support for the integration of new technologies in VET:In order to increase the use of technology in VET,access to digital devices,high-tech equipment and technic

253、al support need to be improved.Countries such as Denmark and Spain have established government-funded centres to strengthen the quality of teaching in VET provision.They also provide high-quality PD to VET teachers on the latest technologies in industry.Initiatives such as the Knowledge Centres for

254、IT in Teaching and for Automation and Robot Technology in Denmark,and the Centre for Innovation in VET in Aragon,Spain,show that these centres are beneficial to both VET institutions and employers.A survey of teaching staff in Dutch VET schools found that the most important enabling factors for the

255、successful adoption of digital technologies in teaching and learning are having a vision and goals that integrate digital technology adoption.Examples such as Digi-Check in Switzerland or SELFIE in EU countries,show how an initial assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of VET institutions in the

256、ir use of technology can be a good starting point to produce a shared strategy among relevant stakeholders to support digital transformation in VET institutions.28 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 3.3.Establishing partnerships between the VET sector,industry and re

257、search institutions:Countries can also promote innovative pedagogical approaches by establishing partnerships between the VET sector and industry,to improve their access to materials and equipment tailored to meeting teaching and student learning needs,which can further stimulate innovative teaching

258、.For instance,a close collaboration between VET institutions and industry could provide VET teachers with the latest technology in industry to update their teaching practice.Governments could also establish innovation funds to support education technology(EdTech)companies producing digital resources

259、 for teaching,such as VR applications and simulators,to encourage the development and adoption of digital technologies in VET teaching for different industries.The development of these digital resources to enhance teaching could benefit from the knowledge of technology experts from research institut

260、ions.3.4.Raising awareness about the importance of innovation,ICT and soft skills in teaching in VET:Establishing an agenda for policy change works best when there is a shared belief across stakeholders in VET especially among teachers about the importance of fostering the development of soft and di

261、gital skills and the adoption of technology in VET.In order for reform to take place,it needs a co-ordinated effort among policy makers,VET teachers,industry,researchers and education technology providers to expand the use of technology and promote innovative pedagogical approaches.4.Strengthening l

262、eadership in VET(Chapter 5)Institutional leaders in VET play a crucial set of roles,from recruiting and developing teachers to ensuring the quality of teaching and learning.They are also responsible for managing resources and engaging employers and other stakeholders.But VET leaders have not always

263、gone through relevant training before taking up their role,nor do they always have access to PD opportunities.They also may find their first years in the profession highly challenging,and might become frustrated or disengaged and ultimately leave it altogether.For example,in England,one-third of fur

264、ther education(FE)college leaders said in 2018 College Staff Survey that they were likely to leave FE in the next 12 months.Building and maintaining a pool of effective leaders in VET would be a major benefit to VET institutions and wider society.VET leaders should understand both the VET sector and

265、 the modern labour market while also having pedagogical and instructional leadership skills.To ensure that VET leaders effectively carry out their multi-dimensional roles,countries can consider:4.1.Clarifying the roles of VET leaders:An improved and up-to-date definition of leadership responsibiliti

266、es would act as a key point of reference for those considering a VET leadership role,and those organising the selection and training of VET leaders.For example,Austria and Belgium(French Community)clarified the competences and responsibilities of VET leaders through their education reforms by clearl

267、y defining the tasks,roles and professional standards of relevant stakeholders including VET leaders.Training programmes for VET leaders have then been developed according to these standards.4.2.Ensuring VET leaders have access to flexible training opportunities as part of a coherent skills developm

268、ent strategy:To ensure that VET leaders have the right skills to carry out their diverse responsibilities,they need access to specialised training before taking up their role,and to receive support throughout their career through mentoring and PD.Training programmes need to be easily accessible(e.g.

269、through online learning)and aligned with the expected requirements for VET leaders.England provides FE college leaders with a training programme that supports them to understand their role,plan and think about leadership from diverse perspectives.The country also offers an online training programme

270、in digital technology for leaders and teachers in the FE sector,which helps them to be aware of innovative pedagogical approaches and new technological 29 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 developments in different industries.Denmark provides optional courses for ma

271、nagement staff in VET schools,specifically designed to strengthen their work in management and digital skills.4.3.Improving the attractiveness of the VET leadership role:VET leaders face many challenges in complex working environments,especially if they are not well-prepared for their roles and rece

272、ive limited support.Countries should ensure that VET leaders working conditions are attractive.This can be done by creating middle management roles to support the work of VET leaders while at the same time offering career progression opportunities for VET teachers to move into leadership.For example

273、,Norway introduced the“teacher specialist”role in VET,for teachers with in-depth knowledge about a discipline or subject area who contribute to the collective PD of VET institutions.Pathways for people interested in taking on VET leadership roles from outside the teaching profession can also be crea

274、ted.Finally,particular efforts should be directed towards supporting VET leaders early in their careers,for example through an induction period for newly appointed leaders.Mentoring and peer-learning opportunities can also support VET leaders in carrying out their responsibilities.In England,the Nat

275、ional Leaders of Further Education programme recruited a team of high-performing leaders to provide specialist support such as mentoring and skills development to struggling VET institutions.Summary of policy recommendations 1.Teacher supply(Chapter 2)1.1.Increasing the attractiveness of teaching ca

276、reers in VET by providing targeted incentives and offering career development support.1.2.Providing flexible pathways into VET teaching by relaxing entry qualification requirements,if needed,for industry professionals and at the same time providing flexible means to obtaining necessary teaching qual

277、ifications.1.3.Attracting more industry professionals to teach in VET by facilitating flexible work arrangements in VET teaching and increasing collaboration between VET providers and industry.1.4.Improving the monitoring of VET workforce dynamics to allow for the early identification of possible se

278、vere teacher shortages.2.Teacher training(Chapter 3)2.1.Designing effective and flexible initial teacher education and training programmes for VET teachers to develop industry knowledge and pedagogical skills along with basic,digital and soft skills.2.2.Increasing participation in relevant professio

279、nal development opportunities,by engaging and coordinating with stakeholders,giving teachers the means to participate in professional development,and identifying their training needs.3.Innovative pedagogy(Chapter 4)3.1.Fostering VET teachers capacity to use innovative pedagogy,by providing training

280、opportunities to regularly update their pedagogical knowledge,the use of new technology,and their digital skills to implement them in the classroom.3.2.Providing VET teachers with strategic guidance and institutional support for the integration of new technology into VET,by establishing a shared vis

281、ion and common goals to integrate digital technology to VET provision.30 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 3.3.Establishing partnerships between the VET sector,industry and research institutions to get access to the necessary materials and equipment and foster the p

282、roduction of digital resources for VET teaching.3.4.Raising awareness of the importance of innovation,ICT and soft skills in teaching in VET,to achieve a co-ordinated effort from VET stakeholders to expand the use of technology and innovative pedagogy in VET.4.Strengthened leadership(Chapter 5)4.1.C

283、larifying the roles of VET leaders,by creating a definition of their leadership responsibilities to constitute a point of reference for those who are considering leading a VET institution,and for those organising the selection and training of VET leaders.4.2.Ensuring that VET leaders have access to

284、initial training and professional development opportunities by providing training programmes that are easily accessible and aligned with the expected requirements for VET leaders,as part of a coherent skills development strategy.4.3.Improving the attractiveness of the VET leadership role,including t

285、hrough the creation of middle management roles;and the provision of induction,mentorship and peer-learning opportunities for VET leaders.References ACL Consulting(2020),Costs and cost drivers in the Further Education sector,https:/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at

286、tachment_data/file/863983/Costs_and_cost_drivers_in_the_further_education_sector.pdf.20 Andersson,P.and S.Kpsn(2015),“Continuing professional development of vocational teachers:participation in a Swedish national initiative”,Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training,Vol.7/1,http:/dx.do

287、i.org/10.1186/s40461-015-0019-3.3 AoC(2020),AoC Autumn 2020 survey:Colleges,students and Covid-19,https:/www.aoc.co.uk/sites/default/files/AoC%20Survey%20-%20Colleges%20Students%20and%20Covid-19%20%28November%202020%29.pdf.19 AoC(2020),Colleges and Covid-19 Summer 2020,https:/www.aoc.co.uk/sites/def

288、ault/files/AoC%20summer%20survey%20July%202020%20FINAL_.pdf.18 Association of Colleges(2018),AoC 2018 report on college finances,https:/www.aoc.co.uk/system/files/AoC%202018%20report%20on%20college%20finances%20%2014%20September%2018.pdf.7 Cedefop(2020),Future of VET occupations,https:/skillspanoram

289、a.cedefop.europa.eu/en/dashboard/future-vet-occupations.15 Education and Training Foundation(2020),Workforce data and SIR Data Insights,https:/www.et-foundation.co.uk/research/workforce-data/.32 31 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Education and Training Foundation(

290、2018),Training Needs in the Further Education Sector,https:/www.et-foundation.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/1331_Training-Needs-Analysis-Final-.pdf.27 Eurostat(2020),European Union Labour Force Survey(EU-LFS)2017-19,https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/labour-force-survey.24 Greatbatch,D.an

291、d S.Tate(2018),Teaching,leadership and governance in Further Education,https:/www.gov.uk/government/publications/teaching-leadership-and-governance-in-further-education.1 Inside Higher Ed(2013),Who Will Lead Community Colleges into the Future?,https:/ Kim,I.and M.Phang(2018),“The Hierarchical Linear

292、 Relationship of the Individual and Organizational Characteristics Variables of the Teaching Competency of Specialized Vocational High School Teachers in Korea ”,Vol.45/3,pp.141-164,http:/dx.doi.org/10.22804/jke.2018.45.3.006.28 MEXT(2020),Report of Local Education Expense Survey for the First Year

293、of Reiwa(FY2018),https:/www.mext.go.jp/content/20201120-mxt_chousa01-100014633_c.pdf.8 MEXT(2018),Summary of survey results 調査結果概要,http:/www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/other/_icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/03/28/1395303_03.pdf.23 Nedelkoska,L.and G.Quintini(2018),“Automation,skills use and training”,OECD

294、 Social,Employment and Migration Working Papers,No.202,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/2e2f4eea-en.14 OECD(2020),Education at a Glance 2020:OECD Indicators,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en.6 OECD(2020),OECD Employment Outlook 2020:Worker Security and the CO

295、VID-19 Crisis,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/1686c758-en.12 OECD(2020),OECD.Stat,https:/stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?r=103992#.22 OECD(2020),“VET in a time of crisis:Building foundations for resilient vocational education and training systems”,Policy Brief,OECD,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.

296、1787/efff194c-en.5 OECD(2019),OECD Skills Outlook 2019:Thriving in a Digital World,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/df80bc12-en.13 OECD(2019),TALIS 2018 Results(Volume I):Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners,TALIS,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en

297、.11 OECD(2019),TALIS Survey 2018 database,http:/www.oecd.org/education/talis/talis-2018-data.htm.25 OECD(2018),Effective Teacher Policies:Insights from PISA,PISA,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264301603-en.9 32 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021

298、OECD(2015),OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training:Key Messages and Country Summaries,OECD,Paris,http:/www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/OECD_VET_Key_Messages_and_Country_Summaries_2015.pdf.2 OECD(2005),Teachers Matter:Attracting,Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,Educat

299、ion and Training Policy,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264018044-en.10 Oleszewski,A.,A.Shoho and B.Barnett(2012),“The development of assistant principals:a literature review”,Journal of Educational Administration,Vol.50/3,pp.264-286,http:/dx.doi.org/10.1108/09578231211223301.31

300、Ruiz-Valenzuela,J.,C.Terrier and C.Van Effenterre(2017),Effectiveness of CEOs in the Public Sector:Evidence from Further Education Institutions,CVER,https:/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/922019/SOL_2020_Report_Final.pdf.4 UNESCO-UNEVOC(2020),F

301、uture of TVET teaching,UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training,https:/unevoc.unesco.org/pub/trendsmapping_futureoftvetteaching.pdf.26 US Department of Labour(2020),Fastest growing occupations:20 occupations with the highest percent change of employment

302、between 2019-29,https:/www.bls.gov/ooh/fastest-growing.htm.16 Vandeweyer,M.and A.Verhagen(2020),“The changing labour market for graduates from medium-level vocational education and training”,OECD Social,Employment and Migration Working Papers,No.244,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/50

303、3bcecb-en.17 Vincent-Lancrin,S.and R.van der Vlies(2020),“Trustworthy artificial intelligence(AI)in education:Promises and challenges”,OECD Education Working Papers,No.218,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/a6c90fa9-en.21 Zirkle,C.and J.Jeffery(2017),“Career and Technical Education Admi

304、nistration:Requirements,Certification/Licensure,and Preparation”,Career and Technical Education Research,v42 n1 p21-33 May 2017,https:/eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1142616.29 33 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Annex 1.A.List of interviewed institutions Annex Table 1.A.1.List

305、 of institutions interviewed by the OECD VET team Denmark(remotely)-Danish confederation of VET and upper secondary schools(Danske Erhvervsskoler og Gymnasier)-EUC Syd-Vocational Educational Centre South-Knowledge Centre for Automation and Robot Technology South-Knowledge Centre for Welfare and Assi

306、stive Technology-Statistics Denmark-Technical Education Copenhagen England(remotely)-Association of Colleges-Department for Education -Education Training Foundation-Farnborough College of Technology -HOLEX-Mantra Learning-The University of Bolton Germany(remotely)-Bavarian State Ministry for Educati

307、on and Culture-Baden-Wurttemberg Ministry for Culture,Youth and Sport-Landesinstitut fr Lehrerbildung und Schulentwicklung-Staatlichen Landesseminars fr das Lehramt an beruflichen Schulen im Saarland Japan(remotely)-Board of Education,Tokyo Metropolitan Government-Institution for Accreditation and Q

308、uality Assurance of Professional Higher Education(QAPHE)-Japan Society of Specialized Vocational Training Education,(University of Tsukuba)-Ministry of Education,Culture,Sports,Science and Technology(MEXT)-National Association of Vocational Schools of Japan-National Institute for School Teachers and

309、 Staff Development(NITS)-National Institute of Technology-Oita Prefectural Board of Education-Rokugo Koka High School The United States(study visit)-American Association of Community Colleges -American Federation of Teachers-Atlantic Technical College and Technical High School.Fort Lauderdale,FL.-Ca

310、reer and Technical Education Technical Assistance Center of New York-DC State Board of Education -DC State Superintendent of education-Idaho State University-Maryland State Department of Education-North Dakota State University-North Virginia Community College-Ohio State University-Penn State Univers

311、ity-Purdue University-University of Central Florida-University of Central Missouri-University of Minnesota-US Department of Education 34 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Notes 1 A VET teacher may also be called a trainer,assessor,tutor,lecturer,educator or instruct

312、or.2 The difference in the probability of having a job that faces a high probability of automation between young adults with an upper secondary VET degree and those with an upper secondary general degree is not statistically significant on average across OECD countries.3 Changes in the average or me

313、dian age of FE teachers can hide changes in the proportion of older FE teachers.In England,for example,the 2018-19 Staff Individualised Record(SIR;see Chapter 2 for more details)indicates that the median age is similar to 5 years ago,but that the proportion of staff aged over 60 increased(Education

314、and Training Foundation,202032).4 The study used a panel of principals in further education institutions in England over the period 2003-15,and combined it with data on education performance coming from Individualised Learner Records,the National Pupil Database and the Higher Education Statistics Ag

315、ency.It also exploited the information contained in the Staff Individualised Records.It focused only on the outcomes of publicly funded learners,i.e.young learners who did their General Certificate of Secondary Education(GCSE)exams between 2002 and 2014.Switching from a principal who is at the botto

316、m 25th percentile in terms of performance(recruitment and wage policies set by the principals)to a principal who is in the top 75th percentile increased students probability to achieve UK Level 2 by 16 percentage points(pp),to achieve Level 3 by 14 pp,and to enrol in a Level 4 or above by 4 pp.5 The

317、 share of teachers with a permanent contract,the share of female teachers,the share of teachers with Qualified Teacher Status(QTS)and teachers average salary.The results show that switching from a principal who is at the bottom 25th percentile in terms of performance to a principal who is at the top

318、 25th percentile would increase the share of teachers under a permanent contract by 13 pp,the share of female teachers by 6 pp,the share of certified teachers by 14 pp,and the average gross annual salary of teachers by GBP 3 511.6 The population for this study was 26 138 teachers in 473 specialised

319、vocational high schools.Using a random sampling method considering the organisational level(more than 30)and individual level(more than 5 members in the group),the study sampled 450 teachers in 50 specialised vocational high schools.Instructional leadership was measured based on the questions used i

320、n TALIS(Teaching and Learning International Survey).Teaching competence was measured based on 28 standardised questions about teaching skills in pedagogical planning,preparation,deployment,guidance,management and capacity in vocational training in collaboration with industry,etc.35 TEACHERS AND LEAD

321、ERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 This chapter explores key challenges and policy responses to ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in vocational education and training(VET).Based on the assessment of the extent of VET teacher shortages in countries where data are a

322、vailable,the chapter examines the causes of such shortages and their potential impact on the effective delivery of VET.It then identifies measures and incentives to effectively attract,recruit and retain teachers in VET.2 Ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in vocational education

323、and training 36 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OECD 2021 Key messages for ensuring an adequate supply of well-prepared teachers in VET VET teacher shortages are significant in many OECD countries,caused by factors related to the limited attractiveness of the VET teaching p

324、rofession,including employment conditions,salaries,and a lack of financial incentives and career support.The supply of VET teachers could be improved by making the profession more attractive.Targeted incentives and support to encourage participation in initial teacher education and training(ITET)and

325、 professional development(PD)could help attract and retain VET teachers.Focusing incentives on industry professionals in shortage areas could help attract those with relevant experience.VET teachers who receive targeted career support are also more likely to stay in the profession.For example,attrit

326、ion rates among new VET teachers can be reduced by assigning them to less challenging working environments for their first placements and reduced teaching or administrative workloads so they have sufficient time for receiving mentoring and structured induction programmes.Offering experienced teacher

327、s attractive career pathways and targeted career support can encourage them to stay in the profession and to move into senior or management-level positions or into other subject areas.Employing a greater number of professionals from industry can ease VET teacher shortages.As they often the lack nece

328、ssary teaching qualifications and pedagogical skills,flexible recruitment and qualification pathways can help them become VET teachers.Countries might relax entry qualification requirements,if needed,for industry professionals and graduates from higher education specialising in relevant subjects,but

329、 should provide flexible alternatives to gaining any required teaching qualifications.Part-time work arrangements can also facilitate flexible VET teaching,but this should be combined with ensuring that part-time teachers working conditions and teaching skills are not compromised.Policy pointers 1.1

330、.Increasing the attractiveness of teaching careers in VET.1.2.Providing flexible pathways into VET teaching.1.3.Enabling industry professionals to teach in VET.1.4.Improving the monitoring system of VET workforce dynamics.The state of VET teacher shortages Teachers in vocational education and traini

331、ng(VET)are unique in terms of how they are recruited and trained they are required to have not only subject and pedagogical knowledge but,in many cases,work experience in their industry.Moreover,VET teachers skills can be in high demand in occupations other than teaching,making it harder to recruit

332、and retain VET teachers in the related subjects.This is not only the case for teachers of vocational subjects,but also for those teaching general education subjects in VET programmes.Teacher populations are also ageing in many countries,and particularly VET teachers.Countries facing these issues nee

333、d to develop strategies to bring enough new talent into the VET teaching workforce to meet forecast demand.This section examines how teacher shortages are identified and presents evidence on the extent of VET teacher shortages in countries where data are available.The sections that follow discuss the causes of these shortages,and how countries can tackle these challenges.37 TEACHERS AND LEADERS IN