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1、NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARDSCIENCE&ENGINEERING INDICATORS 2024Labor ForceThe STEM Labor Force:Scientists,Engineers,and Skilled Technical WorkersNSB-2024-5May 30,2024This publication is part of the 2024 edition of the Science and Engineering Indicators(Indicators)suite of reports.Indicators is prepared un

2、der the guidance of the National Science Board by the National Science Foundations National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics.The Indicators suite consists of a summary report called The State of U.S.Science and Engineering,more-detailed thematic reports with supporting data,and a data t

3、ool that provides state-level indicators.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-52National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-53Table of Contents 7Executive Summary 8Introduction 9Terminology 9Occupations 9Workforce 10U.S.STEM Workforce:Size,Growth,and Empl

4、oyment 10Size,Growth,and Employment 13Employment Rate and Labor Force Participation of STEM versus Non-STEM 16Representation of Demographic Groups in STEM 16Women in STEM 18Race or Ethnicity in STEM 19Who Is Working Outside of Their Highest Degree Field 22STEM Labor Market Characteristics:Earnings,O

5、ccupations,and Industries 25Earnings of STEM Workers 28STEM Occupations 28Industries That Utilize STEM Workers 29Geographic Distribution of the STEM Workforce 29States Where the U.S.STEM Workers Are:2021 30The STEM Workforce within States 32STEM Pathways:Degree Attainment and Training of Workers in

6、STEM 32Educational Attainment of STEM Workers 37Certifications and Licenses 39Employment Outcomes for Recent Graduates 42Foreign-Born STEM Workers 42Occupations and Geographic Characteristics of Foreign-Born STEM WorkersNational Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-54 44Foreign-Born

7、 STEM Workers with Bachelors Degrees or Higher 45Stay Rates of U.S.-Trained Scientists and Engineers 48Conclusion 49Glossary 49Definitions 50Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 52References 52Literature 55Data Sets 57Notes 59Acknowledgments and Citation 59Acknowledgments 59Citation 60Contact Us 60Repo

8、rt Author 60NCSESList of Sidebars 12Projected Growth of Employment in STEM Occupations 36Science,Engineering,and Health Doctorate Holders in STEM Occupations 22Veterans in STEMList of TablesLBR-1Distribution of select racial and ethnic groups in the workforce,by occupation group:2021 18LBR-2Educatio

9、nal background of employed adults with a bachelors degree or higher,by major occupation:2021 35LBR-3Labor market indicators for S&E and S&E-related degree recipients earning their highest degree between 2015 and 2021,by level and field of highest degree:2021 39LBR-4Temporary visa holders receiving S

10、&E doctorates in 201517 and 201012 who were in the United States in 2021,by S&E degree field and by region,country,or economy of citizenship at time of degree 46LBR-ASelect characteristics of veterans and nonveterans:2021 23National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-55List of Fig

11、uresLBR-1U.S.workforce,by STEM occupation group and education level:2021 10LBR-2Change in the percentage of STEM workers,by educational attainment:2011 and 2021 11LBR-3Employment rate in each workforce,by educational attainment:201119,2021 14LBR-4Employed STEM workers,by sex and occupation group:202

12、1 16LBR-5Workers with highest degree in S&E or S&E-related fields,by sex and occupation:2021 19LBR-6Prevalence of STEM occupations among workers,by select race or ethnicity and field of highest degree:2021 21LBR-7Median personal earnings for full-time,year-round workers in STEM and non-STEM occupati

13、ons,by educational attainment:2021 25LBR-8Median personal earnings for full-time,year-round workers,by sex and STEM occupation group:2021 26LBR-9Prevalence of STEM workers among all workers in the state,by educational attainment:2021 29LBR-10Educational attainment of STEM workers,by occupation group

14、:2021 33LBR-11STEM workers,by educational attainment and STEM occupation group:2021 34LBR-12STEM workers with credentials,by occupation group and type of credential:2020 38LBR-13Prevalence of workers in STEM occupations,by foreign-born and citizenship status:2021 43LBR-14Share of workers with a bach

15、elors degree or higher who were foreign born,by highest degree level and occupation group:2021 44LBR-15Stay rates for U.S.S&E doctoral degree recipients with temporary visas at graduation:200121 46LBR-AExpected growth among STEM occupations:202232 12LBR-BWorkers employed in STEM,by veteran status:20

16、21 24LBR-CSector of employed science,engineering,and health research doctorate recipients living in the United States,by occupation:2021 37National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-56National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-57Executive SummaryKey takeaways:

17、The science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)workforce(36.8 million workers)accounted for 24%of U.S.workers in 2021.Between 2011 and 2021,the percentage of workers in STEM occupations increased from 22%to 24%.STEM workers with a bachelors degree or higher had greater growth than those wit

18、hout a bachelors degree or higher,otherwise known as the skilled technical workforce(STW).Between 2019 and 2021,employment rates for people associated with STEM occupations decreased less(from 88%to 86%)than for people associated with non-STEM occupations(from 83%to 79%).In 2021,18%of women worked i

19、n STEM occupations,which was about three-fifths the rate of men(30%).Men outnumbered women 2.75 to 1.00 in science and engineering(S&E)occupations and 8.50 to 1.00 in middle-skill occupations in 2021.The only STEM occupation group in which women outnumbered men was S&E-related occupations,with about

20、 twice as many women as men.In 2021,the percentage of Black or African American workers in STEM occupations(8%)was lower than their percentage of the total workforce(11%).The percentage of STEM workers that were Hispanic workers was 15%,compared with 18%of all workers.Among workers with a bachelors

21、degree or higher whose highest degree was in an S&E field,60%of female workers and 58%of Black or African American workers held jobs outside of S&E or S&E-related areas.Full-time,year-round workers in STEM occupations in 2021 had median earnings about$19,100 per year more than those in non-STEM occu

22、pations.STEM middle-skill workers in the skilled technical workforce(STW)had median earnings about$10,000 more than non-STEM workers without a bachelors degree or higher.About 46%of all STEM workers had a professional certification,license,or educational certificate in 2020.Work credentials were mos

23、t common among S&E-related workers(67%)and least common among S&E workers(28%).In 2021,a larger portion of foreign-born workers held STEM occupations(26%)than U.S.-born workers(24%).Proportionally,more naturalized citizens worked in S&E-related occupations(11%)than noncitizens(5%)or U.S.-born citize

24、ns(9%).Additionally,larger proportions of noncitizens worked in STEM middle-skill occupations(12%)than naturalized citizens(8%)or U.S.-born workers(9%).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-58IntroductionTo remain competitive in todays global economy,businesses and societies

25、 rely on contributions from the science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)workforce.This report provides an overview of the STEM labor force and details its size,growth,educational pathways,salary,and diversity.As in the previous Science and Engineering Indicators report“The STEM Labor For

26、ce of Today:Scientists,Engineers,and Skilled Technical Workers,”this thematic report uses an expanded definition of STEM,which includes science and engineering(S&E)occupations,S&E-related occupations,and STEM middle-skill occupations,with the latter defined as occupations that require a high level o

27、f knowledge in a technical domain and do not require a bachelors degree for entry.1 There is not a standardized way to define the STEM workforce,and other agencies may identify different occupations for their products on the STEM workforce depending on their analytical goals.Readers should use cauti

28、on when comparing STEM estimates from this thematic report with those from other sources.This thematic report frequently separates people associated with STEM occupations into those with a bachelors degree or higher and those without one of those degrees.As with previous labor reports,this thematic

29、report focuses on the non-institutionalized population ages 1675 years but limits analysis to the civilian population due to limited data on the occupations of active-duty military personnel in some of the data sets used.2 Those enrolled in primary or secondary school are not included.This thematic

30、reports focus is on occupations that people hold or have held.The majority of this report is about the employed population.In the few sections that discuss those who are not employed,only those records with an associated occupation are included.3 The data used for this thematic report were primarily

31、 from the American Community Survey(ACS),4 the National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),5 and the Survey of Doctorate Recipients(SDR).6In the 2021 ACS,among the civilian non-institutionalized population ages 1675 years,77.1%of the population were retained for analysis in the employment rates secti

32、on of the report.About 10,778,018 people were currently enrolled in primary or secondary school(4.4%),and another 42,853,443 were missing occupation data(18.3%of total),had no work experience or had not worked in the last 5 years(0.4%),or previously held military occupations(0.3%).National Science B

33、oard|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-59TerminologyTo establish a common understanding of terms used to describe the STEM labor force in this report,the following definitions will be adopted throughout the report.OccupationsSTEM occupations are a subset of all U.S.occupations that utilize sci

34、ence,engineering,mathematics and/or technology in the primary functions of their job.Workers in STEM occupations can have any educational background.For example,while the majority of STEM middle-skill occupations were comprised of those without a bachelors degree in 2021,about 12.7%(1.8 million)had

35、a bachelors degree or higher(Table SLBR-1).Similarly,22.3%of S&E workers(2.1 million)and 37.5%of S&E-related workers(5.1 million)did not have a bachelors degree.For the purposes of this report,STEM occupations can be broken into three distinct groups:STEM middle-skill occupations were first identifi

36、ed in the previous Indicators 2022 labor report to more fully describe the modern-day STEM economy.They represent occupations not previously identified as S&E or S&E-related that have incorporated technical knowledge into core work.STEM middle-skill occupations are performed by individuals with more

37、 diverse educational backgrounds than described by the traditional definition of S&E occupations(NSB 2021).STEM occupations or STEM groups will be used to collectively refer to the three groups of occupations listed above(i.e.,S&E,S&E-related,and STEM middle-skill occupation groups).A description of

38、 S&E occupations,S&E-related occupations,and STEM middle-skill occupations can be found in the Diversity and STEM:Women,Minorities,and Persons with Disabilities 2023 sidebar The STEM Workforce of the United States.See Table SLBR-1 for a list of occupations found in the 2021 ACS 1-year Public Use Mic

39、rodata Sample(PUMS)and their classification into these STEM groups.WorkforceThe STEM workforce is comprised of workers in S&E,S&E-related,or STEM middle-skill occupations,regardless of their educational attainment or field of degree.The skilled technical workforce(STW or STW workers)is a subset of t

40、he STEM workforce and represents workers without a bachelors degree who are employed in any of the identified STEM occupations(i.e.,S&E,S&E-related,or STEM middle-skill occupations).1.2.3.Science and engineering occupations(i.e.,S&E occupations)Science and engineeringrelated occupations(i.e.,S&E-rel

41、ated occupations)STEM middle-skill occupationsNational Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-510Number in thousands17,5487,3248,4621,76219,2562,0985,07812,07941,67373,891With a bachelors degree or higher 59,221U.S.STEM Workforce:Size,Growth,and EmploymentSize,Growth,and EmploymentInd

42、ividuals in the STEM workforce fuel the nations innovative capacity through their work in technologically advanced activities and make important contributions to improving the nations living standards,economic growth,and global competitiveness.In 2021,24%of the U.S.workforce worked in STEM occupatio

43、ns(36.8 million workers),of which more than half(52%)did not have a bachelors degree and therefore were classified as the STW.About 63%of the STW worked in STEM middle-skill occupations,and 26%worked in S&E-related occupations.Most of the workers with a bachelors degree or higher(90%)worked in S&E o

44、r S&E-related occupations(Figure LBR-1).Figure LBR-1U.S.workforce,by STEM occupation group and education level:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those c

45、urrently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Numbers are rounded to the nearest 1,000.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),2021,1-Year Public-Use File,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsNational Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-511

46、Education levelPercent20112021All degree levelsWithout a bachelors degree(STW)With a bachelors degree or higher010203040Over the last decade,workers in STEM occupations increased in both number and percentage of the total civilian workforce(Figure LBR-2;Table SLBR-2).Between 2011 and 2021,STEM worke

47、rs increased from 22%to 24%(corresponding to 7.1 million workers)of the U.S.civilian workforce.By educational attainment,the STEM workforce with a bachelors degree or higher increased more than the STW.Among workers with a bachelors degree or higher,the percentage of STEM workers increased from 27%t

48、o 30%,corresponding to 5.7 million workers.The percentage of the STW(again,defined as those in STEM occupations without a bachelors degree)increased from 19%to 21%(corresponding to 1.4 million workers).Figure LBR-2Change in the percentage of STEM workers,by educational attainment:2011 and 2021STEM=s

49、cience,technology,engineering,and mathematics;STW=skilled technical workforce.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Coding of occupations into STEM categories reflects changes to Ameri

50、can Community Survey(ACS)occupation codes following the 2018 update to the Standard Occupational Classification(SOC)implemented by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.Data from 2011 use occupations from the 2010 occupation list,while data from 2021 use occupations from the 2018 occupation list.Source(s):

51、Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsIncreased employment in the STEM workforce was not equally distributed among the different categories of STEM occupations.The percentage of all workers in S&E occupat

52、ions grew in the last decade from 4%to 6%.Among workers without a bachelors degree or higher,the percentage in S&E occupations increased by 44%from 1.6%in 2011 to 2.3%in 2021.The percentage of workers with a bachelors degree or higher in S&E occupations increased from 10%to 12%.The percentage of all

53、 workers in S&E-related occupations also increased over the last 10 years(an increase of 13%from 7.8%to 8.9%),though less than the percent increase among S&E occupations,while the percentage of all workers in STEM middle-skill decreased slightly between 2011 and 2021.National Science Board|Science&E

54、ngineering Indicators|NSB-2024-512PercentSTEM group02468101214STEM,all occupationsSTEM,S&E occupationsSTEM,S&E-related occupationsSTEM,STEM middle-skill occupationsNon-STEM occupationsWhile this report presents data on the STEM workforce from previous years,the sidebar Projected Growth of Employment

55、 in STEM Occupations provides an overview of forecasted growth in STEM occupations over the next 10 years using data released by the Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS).SIDEBAR PROJECTED GROWTH OF EMPLOYMENT IN STEM OCCUPATIONSProjected Growth of Employment in STEM OccupationsAccording to Bureau of Labo

56、r Statistics(BLS)projections for 202232(BLS 2022 Employment Projections),employment in science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)occupations*is expected to grow faster than in non-STEM occupations(7%vs.2%)(Figure LBR-A).While STEM middle-skill occupations are projected to have the largest

57、number of STEM workers(Table SLBR-A),the fastest growth is expected among S&E occupations(12%),followed by S&E-related occupations(9%).Figure LBR-AExpected growth among STEM occupations:202232S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Estimates of current

58、 and projected employment for 202232 are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS)National Employment Matrix;estimates in the matrix are developed using data from the Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics(OEWS)program and the Current Population Survey(CPS).Together,these sources cover paid work

59、ers and self-employed workers in all industries,agriculture,and private households.Because data are derived from multiple sources,they can often differ from employment data provided by OEWS,CPS,or other employment surveys alone.BLS does not make projections for S&E occupations as a group,nor does it

60、 do so for some of the S&E and S&E-related occupational categories as defined by the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics(NCSES);numbers in the figure are based on the sum of BLS projections for occupations that NCSES includes in the respective categories.The STEM classifications u

61、sed here differ slightly from those used in the ACS due to additional occupation detail in the projections tabulations.A crosswalk will be provided upon request.Source(s):Bureau of Labor Statistics,special tabulations(2022)of the 202232 Employment Projections.Science and Engineering IndicatorsNation

62、al Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-513There are several ways to identify occupations with the greatest opportunity for employment in the next decade,such as by examining those with the fastest employment growth or those with the greatest expected job openings.The STEM occupatio

63、ns with the fastest expected growth were wind turbine service technicians(expected to grow 45%to 16,000 workers),nurse practitioners(expected to grow 45%to 385,000 workers),and data scientists(expected to grow 35%to 228,000 workers)(BLS 2022a,Table1.3).In comparison,those occupations with the highes

64、t average job openings per year were registered nurses(193,000 openings),general maintenance and repair workers(152,000 openings),and software developers(136,000 openings)(BLS 2022a,Table1.10).The BLS projections also provide typical education requirements for these expected growth areas as well as

65、related work experience or on-the-job training.While the majority of occupations with the greatest growth require at least a bachelors degree,there are several that typically require less than a bachelors degree,including wind turbine service technicians,solar photovoltaic installers,and computer nu

66、merically controlled tool programmers(BLS 2022a,Table1.7,Table5.4).All of these occupations are considered STEM middle-skill occupations.In contrast to projected growth,the STEM occupations with the fastest projected employment declines over the next decade were watch and clock repairers(30%decline

67、to 1,000 workers)and refractory materials repairers,except brickmasons(21%decline to about 500 workers)(BLS 2022a,Table1.5).Job openings often result from a combination of factors,such as occupational growth(or increased demand for a particular job)and the replacement of workers leaving an occupatio

68、n,either for retirement or a different job.About 62%of the registered nurses who leave their jobs,for example,are expected to also leave the labor force,while 32%of software developers who leave their jobs are expected to leave the labor force(BLS 2022a,Table 1.10).BLS publishes projected job openin

69、gs by expected reason for job separation.The STEM occupations with the greatest percentage of workers leaving the labor force include acupuncturists,radiologists,and optometrists,while the STEM occupations with the greatest percentage of workers leaving for other occupations include atmospheric and

70、space scientists,food scientists and technologists,and nuclear technicians(BLS 2022a,Table1.10).The BLS employment projections are developed using historical data and cover the 202232 period.The projections are long-term and intended to capture structural change in the economy,not cyclical fluctuati

71、ons such as the impact of the recession that began in February 2020.Besides the immediate recessionary impact,the pandemic may have caused structural changes to the economy that would not be captured here.For more information on the BLS labor projections,see https:/www.bls.gov/emp/data/occupational-

72、data.htm.*The STEM coding used for the Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics projections differs slightly from the occupations listed in Table SLBR-1 due to additional granularity of occupations available in the projections.Details will be provided upon request.BLS does not produce standard er

73、rors for projections,so statistical significance testing cannot be done for the numbers in this sidebar.All numbers in this sidebar are rounded to the nearest thousand.Employment Rate and Labor Force Participation of STEM versus Non-STEMLabor force statistics for people associated with occupations c

74、an provide insights into a groups compared experiences with the labor market.7 The employment rate of an occupation or a group of occupations is the measure of employed adults among all adults associated with an occupationincluding both those who are not currently working(but have occupation informa

75、tion for their last held job)and those who have a job.8 The category of“those not currently working”is comprised of two groups:individuals who do not have a job and are looking for work(the unemployed),as well as those who are not looking for work(those not in the labor force).The unemployment rate

76、is the percentage of people who are unemployed among only those who are in the labor force(the employed and unemployed).Unemployment rate tables can be found in Table SLBR-3 and Table SLBR-4.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-514YearPercentSTEM occupations,with a bachelor

77、s degree or higherSTEM occupations,without a bachelors degree(STW)Non-STEM occupations,with a bachelors degree or higherNon-STEM occupations,without a bachelors degree201120122013201420152016201720182019202020210255075100In 2021,people associated with a STEM occupation had a higher employment rate(8

78、6%)than those associated with non-STEM occupations(79%)(Table SLBR-5).These rates have been relatively stable over the last 5 years,despite overall employment declines during the 2020 recession.Between 2019 and 2021,people associated with non-STEM occupations experienced a larger decrease in their e

79、mployment rates(from 83%to 79%)than those associated with STEM occupations(from 88%to 86%).This was primarily due to larger proportions of people associated with non-STEM occupations either leaving the labor force or being unable to find work in 2021.Among the types of STEM occupations,people associ

80、ated with S&E occupations had the highest employment rate(89%)in 2021,followed by people associated with S&E-related occupations(87%).While overall employment rates for people associated with STEM occupations had relatively low changes between 2016 and 2021,there was variation by different types of

81、STEM occupations(Table SLBR-6).People associated with all three STEM groups had consistently higher employment rates than those associated with non-STEM occupations during this period.People associated with S&E occupations had the highest employment rates,followed by those associated with S&E-relate

82、d occupations.By educational attainment,people associated with S&E and S&E-related occupations with a bachelors degree or higher had the highest employment rates over the period(Figure LBR-3;Table SLBR-6).In addition,people associated with S&E and S&E-related occupations in the STW,as well as all pe

83、ople associated with STEM middle-skill occupations,had about the same employment rates as people associated with non-STEM occupations with a bachelors degree or higher.This suggests that STW occupations provide greater employment opportunities for people without a bachelors degree than non-STEM occu

84、pations.Figure LBR-3Employment rate in each workforce,by educational attainment:201119,2021STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics;STW=skilled technical workforce.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-515Note(s):Data include the civilian,non-institutionalized pop

85、ulation ages 1675 and exclude those with military occupations,those missing occupation data or who have not worked in the last 5 years,and those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Coding of occupations into STEM categories reflects changes to American Community Survey(ACS)occupation c

86、odes following the 2018 update to the Standard Occupational Classification(SOC)implemented by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.Data from 2011 through 2017 use occupations from the 2010 occupation list,while data from 2018 through 2021 use occupations from the 2018 occupation list.Data for 2020 are not

87、 available due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ACS data collection for the survey year.Additional information is available at https:/www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/data/experimental-data/2020-1-year-pums.html.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use Fil

88、e,201119,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsAnalyzing data between 2019 and 2021(the most recent year available)can suggest how people associated with STEM occupations were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.During this period,people associated with S&E occupations expe

89、rienced the smallest decline in employment rate(0.4 percentage points,from 90%to 89%),primarily due to increases in the percentage unemployed over the same period.People associated with S&E-related occupations had a moderate drop in employment rates(1.4 percentage points),decreasing to 87%.Among peo

90、ple associated with S&E-related occupations,those in the STW had the largest drop in employment(2.0 percentage points,from 86%to 84%),which declined about as much as people associated with non-STEM occupations with a bachelors degree or higher(2.2 percentage points,from 87%to 84%).People associated

91、with STEM middle-skill occupations had the greatest employment decrease among the STEM occupation groups(3.5 percentage points,from 86%to 83%)due to relatively equal portions of people leaving the labor force and being unable to find work.There was no significant difference between the employment de

92、clines of having a bachelors degree or higher or not(Table SLBR-6).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-516STEM groupPercentPercentageTotalMenWomenSTEM occupationsS&E occupationsS&E-related occupations010203040Representation of Demographic Groups in STEMA diverse STEM workf

93、orce is vital to the countrys innovative capacity(Bell et al.2019;Hsieh et al.2019).Broadening the representation of different social and demographic groups in STEM occupations contributes to diversity and helps create a robust workforce that will be able to meet the demands of the future(NSB 2020).

94、To this end,the National Science Boards(NSBs)Vision 2030 emphasized the future need for STEM talent as well as the need to improve diversity among the STEM workforce(NSB 2020).Many factors influence entry and persistence in the STEM workforce,such as educational history(NSF 2020;NSTC 2021),demograph

95、ic representation among educators(NSF 2020;Miriti 2020),and educational and employment environments or atmospheres(Keyes 2019;NSTC 2021;Malcom 2022).This section provides analyses of the STEM workforce demographics and the demographics of workers with their highest degree in an S&E or S&E-related fi

96、eld who were working in non-S&E or S&E-related occupations in 2021 to provide a benchmark in measuring STEM retention among underrepresented demographic groups.Women in STEMWomen have long been underrepresented in STEM occupations,which is one of the driving factors for the emphasis by policy advoca

97、tes and others on engaging more women in STEM occupations(NSB 2014,2020;Joseph 2016;Achieving the Promise of a Diverse STEM Workforce 2019;Malcom 2022).In 2021,while 24%of U.S.workers held a STEM occupation,18%of female workers held a STEM occupationthree-fifths the rate of male workers(30%)(Figure

98、LBR-4).Figure LBR-4Employed STEM workers,by sex and occupation group:2021National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-517STEM groupNumber in thousandsNumberTotalMenWomenSTEM occupationsS&E occupationsS&E-related occupations010,00020,00030,00040,000S&E=science and engineering;STEM=s

99、cience,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Non-STEM occupations are not shown.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Pub

100、lic-Use File,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsThe difference in the participation of men and women in STEM occupations varies by the type of STEM occupation.In 2021,men outnumbered women approximately 2.75 to 1.00 in S&E occupations and 8.5 to 1.0 in STEM middle-skil

101、l occupations(Figure LBR-4).S&E-related occupations were the only STEM occupation group in which women outnumbered men,with about twice as many women working in S&E-related occupations than men.Among STEM workers,more men belonged to the STW than women in 2021(59%compared with 39%).In addition,withi

102、n S&E and STEM middle-skill workers,a higher percentage of men were part of the STW(23%and 89%,respectively)than their female counterparts(19%and 75%,respectively)(Table SLBR-7).In about the last 5 years(2016 to 2021),the percentage of women working in STEM occupations increased about as much as the

103、 percentage of men working in STEM(2 percentage points)(Table SLBR-8).This equates to an additional 1,613,800 women and 2,182,100 men in STEM occupations in 2021 compared with 2016.Between 2011 and 2021,the percentage of women working in STEM increased more than menfrom 15%to 18%(an increase of 3,06

104、0,200 women),compared with the increase in the percentage of men working in STEM from 28%to 30%(an increase of 4,005,200 men).Despite this gain,the proportion of men in STEM occupations remained higher than that of women in 2011,2016,and 2021(Table SLBR-8).Historic trends of women in S&E or S&E-rela

105、ted occupations with a bachelors degree or higher can be found in Table SLBR-9.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-518Race or Ethnicity in STEMOne way to analyze the racial and ethnic representation in the STEM workforce is by comparing the distributions to those in the to

106、tal U.S.workforce.9 Using this comparison,in 2021,STEM workers were disproportionately Asian and White according to the ACS(Table LBR-1).In 2021,Black or African American workers comprised 8%of workers in STEM occupations,which was lower than their percentage of the total workforce(11%).The percenta

107、ge of STEM workers that were Hispanic was 15%,compared with 18%of all workers.In contrast,Asian workers were present in STEM occupations(10%)more than they were present among all occupations(6%).Table LBR-1Distribution of select racial and ethnic groups in the workforce,by occupation group:2021(Perc

108、ent)Occupation groupWhiteHispanicBlack or African AmericanAsianAmerican Indian or Alaska NativeOther race alone or in combinationAll workers59.818.211.06.30.44.3STEM workers62.914.88.29.50.34.3S&E workers60.99.56.818.00.24.6S&E-related workers65.310.69.69.90.34.3STEM middle-skill workers62.022.57.73

109、.40.54.0Non-STEM workers58.819.311.95.20.44.4S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and excludes those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Percentages may not

110、add to 100%because of rounding.Hispanic may be any race.Race categories represent race alone and exclude Hispanic origin.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsRacial and ethnic representation also

111、varied by the type of STEM occupation(Table LBR-1).Asian workers were employed in S&E occupations(18%)at almost three times their employment in the U.S.workforce(6%),while S&E-related occupations employed them slightly more than 1.5 times the rate that they were employed in the total workforce.In co

112、ntrast,Hispanic workers were employed in both S&E occupations(9%)and S&E-related occupations(11%)at about half(52%and 58%,respectively)the rate of their employment in the total workforce(18%).In STEM middle-skill occupations,however,several of these comparisons were inverted.For example,Hispanics we

113、re employed in STEM middle-skill occupations(22%)at 1.2 times their employment in the total workforce.The STW had higher concentrations of Hispanic workers(20%)and Black or African American workers(9%)than STEM workers with a bachelors degree or higher(9%and 7%,respectively)(Table SLBR-10).This tren

114、d was consistent across S&E and S&E-related occupations.In both occupation groups,the STW had higher percentages of Black or African American workers and Hispanic workers than the corresponding workforce with a bachelors degree or higher.Among STEM middle-skill occupations,the STW had a higher conce

115、ntration of Hispanic workers(24%)than the corresponding workers with a bachelors degree or higher(13%),but there was no significant difference in the percentage of Black or African American workers between the two workforces(both at 8%).A more detailed discussion of racial and ethnic groups in STEM

116、can be found in the Diversity and STEM:Women,Minorities,and Persons with Disabilities 2023 report.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-519SexPercentS&E degree fieldS&E occupationsS&E-related occupationsSTEM middle-skill and non-STEM occupationsFemaleMale020406080Who Is Work

117、ing Outside of Their Highest Degree FieldResearchers have been exploring if environmental or social factors potentially inhibit persons from historically underrepresented demographic groups in the STEM workforce from persisting in STEM career paths(Fry,Kennedy,and Funk 2021;NCSES 2023;Ngo 2016;Kahn

118、and Ginther 2017;Funk and Parker 2018a,2018b;Achieving the Promise of a Diverse STEM Workforce 2019;Keyes 2019;Agarwal 2020;Jelks and Crain 2020).This section analyzes the alignment between the field of highest degree and occupation among workers with a bachelors degree or higher.Employment in a non

119、-S&E occupation among workers with an S&E or S&E-related degree measures a loss of trained workers in S&E or S&E-related occupations.Data in this section are from the National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),which only includes respondents with at least a bachelors degree.10The percentage of worke

120、rs in S&E and S&E-related occupations varied between sexes.In 2021,a larger share of women with their highest degree in an S&E field worked in non-S&E occupations than men(Figure LBR-5).Although about the same percentage of men and women with their highest degree in an S&E field worked in S&E-relate

121、d occupations,a higher percentage of female S&E degree holders(60%)worked outside of both S&E and S&E-related occupations,indicating a lower rate of working in S&E and S&E-related occupations than male S&E degree holders(41%).Among S&E-related highest degree holders,a higher percentage of women stay

122、ed in S&E-related fields for work(75%),while a higher percentage of men went into S&E occupations(9%).Figure LBR-5Workers with highest degree in S&E or S&E-related fields,by sex and occupation:2021National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-520SexPercentS&E-related degree fieldS&E

123、 occupationsS&E-related occupationsSTEM middle-skill and non-STEM occupationsFemaleMale020406080S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675.Workers in non-S&E occupations are tho

124、se with a bachelors degree or higher in non-STEM and middle-skill occupations.Percentages may not add to 100%because of rounding.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),2021.Science and Engineering IndicatorsComparisons across race

125、reveal that 25%of Black or African American workers and 31%of Hispanic workers with their highest degree in S&E worked in S&E occupations,compared with 35%of White and 52%of Asian workers with S&E highest degrees(Figure LBR-6).11 About the same proportion of White,Black or African American,Hispanic,

126、and Asian workers with an S&E degree as their highest degree went into S&E-related occupations.12 This indicates that Black or African American workers and Hispanic workers with an S&E highest degree work more frequently in non-S&E or S&E-related occupations.National Science Board|Science&Engineerin

127、g Indicators|NSB-2024-521PercentRace or ethnicity and field of highest degreeS&E occupationsS&E-related occupationsSTEM middle-skill and non-STEM occupations020406080White workers;S&E degree fieldAsian workers;S&E degree fieldHispanic workers;S&E degree fieldWhite workers;S&E-related degree fieldAsi

128、an workers;S&E-related degree fieldHispanic workers;S&E-related degree fieldFigure LBR-6Prevalence of STEM occupations among workers,by select race or ethnicity and field of highest degree:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the em

129、ployed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675.Workers in non-S&E occupations are those with a bachelors degree or higher in non-STEM and STEM middle-skill occupations.Percentages may not add to 100%because of rounding.Hispanic may be any race.Race categories represent race alone and exc

130、lude Hispanic origin.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),2021.Science and Engineering IndicatorsAmong workers with their highest degree in an S&E-related field,about the same proportion of White,Black or African American,Hispani

131、c,and Asian workers held S&E-related occupations.However,the percentage of Black or African American workers and Hispanic workers in S&E occupations was lower than that of Asian workers,and the percentage of Black or African American workers and Hispanic workers in non-S&E or S&E-related occupations

132、 was higher than Asian workers.These patterns suggest that,in addition to lower degree attainment in certain S&E and S&E-related fields(Fry,Kennedy,and Funk 2021;NCSES 2023),the lower presence of female,Black or African American,and Hispanic workers in S&E occupations may be related to fewer trained

133、 workers from these demographics working in their degree fields.Research into potential causes suggests that a variety of factors in work environments may contribute to members of minority groups leaving STEM occupations(Ngo 2016;Kahn and Ginther 2017;Funk and Parker 2018a,2018b;Achieving the Promis

134、e of a Diverse STEM Workforce 2019;Keyes 2019;Agarwal 2020).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-522STEM Labor Market Characteristics:Earnings,Occupations,and IndustriesIndicators of labor market conditions,such as salaries,provide information on economic rewards and the ov

135、erall attractiveness of STEM careers.In addition,details on where STEM jobs are located and what jobs are identified as STEM provide information on the breadth of STEM skills across the economy and what areas utilize STEM talent the most.The sidebar Veterans in STEM highlights the presence of vetera

136、ns in STEM occupations.SIDEBAR VETERANS IN STEMVeterans in STEMIn 2021,military veterans had a lower employment rate(77%)than nonveterans(81%).For those that were employed,a higher proportion of military veterans were employed in science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)occupations(32%)th

137、an nonveterans(24%)(Table LBR-A).This higher percentage of veterans in STEM occupations was related to a higher percentage of them in STEM middle-skill occupations(15%)and S&E occupations(9%)when compared to nonveterans(9%and 6%,respectively)(Figure LBR-B).The majority of veterans(65%)did not have a

138、 bachelors degree or higher.Still,a higher percentage of veterans without a bachelors degree or higher held STEM middle-skill occupations(20%)than nonveterans(13%)(Table LBR-A).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-523Table LBR-ASelect characteristics of veterans and nonvete

139、rans:2021(Number,percent,and years)Select characteristicsNonveteranVeteranEmploymentNumber179,242,2469,170,862Employment rate(%)81.176.5Number of employed145,350,6517,016,924Percent working in STEM occupations23.832.2Educational attainment among the employed(%)With a bachelors degree or higher39.035

140、.4STEM occupations29.533.1S&E occupations12.215.5S&E-related occupations14.412.6STEM middle-skill occupations2.95.0Without a bachelors degree61.064.6STEM occupations20.131.7S&E occupations2.15.3S&E-related occupations5.45.9STEM middle-skill occupations12.620.5Median age of the employed(years)All occ

141、upations4151STEM occupations4050S&E occupations3949S&E-related occupations4150STEM middle-skill occupations4150S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those with military

142、occupations,those missing occupation data,and those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Employment rate is calculated among all eligible persons.Other estimates are calculated only among eligible persons who are currently employed.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),

143、2021,1-Year Public-Use File.Science and Engineering IndicatorsNational Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-524STEM groupPercentVeteranNonveteranSTEM occupationsS&E occupationsS&E-related occupations010203040Figure LBR-BWorkers employed in STEM,by veteran status:2021S&E=science and

144、engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Non-STEM occupations are not shown.Percentages are taken among 145,350,651 nonveterans a

145、nd 7,016,924 veterans.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsThe federal government employed a large percentage of veterans across all three STEM groups.For example,21%of all veterans in S&E occupat

146、ions worked for the federal government,compared with 6%of nonveterans.Among veterans in STEM middle-skill occupations,8%were employed by the federal government,compared with 2%of comparable nonveterans.Among veterans employed in S&E-related occupations,15%worked in the federal government,compared wi

147、th only 3%of nonveterans employed in S&E-related occupations(Table SLBR-B).Among federal STEM workers,both veterans and nonveterans were about equally represented in S&E and S&E-related occupations,while veterans worked in STEM middle-skill occupations at a ratio of about five veterans for every thr

148、ee nonveterans(Table SLBR-C).Among workers in for-profit companies,veterans were employed at higher rates in both S&E(9%)and STEM middle-skill(17%)occupations than nonveterans.The same is true among workers in nonprofit establishments,where veterans were employed more frequently in S&E(7%)and STEM m

149、iddle-skill(7%)occupations than nonveterans.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-525DollarsEducational attainmentSTEM occupationsNon-STEM occupations020,00040,00060,00080,000100,000All education levelsWithout a bachelors degreeWith a bachelors degree or higherEarnings of ST

150、EM WorkersEmployment in a STEM occupation provides workers,on average,a wage premium.In 2021,median earnings for full-time,year-round STEM workers($69,000)were$19,100 more than for non-STEM workers($49,900)(Figure LBR-7).Full-time,year-round workers in both S&E and S&E-related occupations also earne

151、d significantly more than workers in non-STEM occupations.The greatest difference in median earnings($40,700)was between S&E workers and non-STEM workers;median earnings among S&E-related workers was$23,000 more than non-STEM workers(Table SLBR-11).Figure LBR-7Median personal earnings for full-time,

152、year-round workers in STEM and non-STEM occupations,by educational attainment:2021STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the full-time,year-round,employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondar

153、y school.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsA similar median wage premium holds true for comparisons of full-time,year-round workers within each component of the STEM workforce.S&E and S&E-re

154、lated workers in the STW($71,800 and$54,500,respectively)had higher median earnings than non-STEM workers without a bachelors degree($40,000).The median earnings among STEM middle-skill workers in the STW($50,000)were about$10,000 more than non-STEM workers without a bachelors degree.However,STEM mi

155、ddle-skill workers with a bachelors degree or higher($64,900)had lower median earnings than non-STEM workers with a bachelors degree or higher($70,000).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-526DollarsTotalMaleFemale020,00040,00060,00080,000100,000STEM occupations,allS&E occu

156、pationsS&E-related occupationsNon-STEM occupationsWhile full-time,year-round workers in STEM occupations had higher median earnings than those in non-STEM occupations,certain STEM occupations provided higher median earnings than others.Occupations that rank among the top 10 and bottom 10 in median e

157、arnings for full-time,year-round workers highlight the most and least financially beneficial occupations within each occupation group(Table SLBR-12,Table SLBR-13).The range of median earnings for full-time,year-round workers varied greatly,with S&E-related occupations having the greatest span in med

158、ian earnings,ranging from$452,300(surgeons)to$30,000(dietetic technicians and ophthalmic medical technicians).Although many S&E-related occupations belong to the health care fields,3 of the top 10 paid occupations were outside of health care:architectural and engineering managers($147,400),actuaries

159、($126,300),and computer and information systems managers($119,600).Notably,5 of the highest paid S&E-related occupations had higher median earnings than all of the highest paying S&E occupations.STEM middle-skill occupations had the narrowest range in median earnings for full-time,year-round workers

160、,from$84,400(industrial production managers)to$35,800(butchers and other meat,poultry,and fish processing workers).Two of the lowest paid S&E-related occupations(veterinary technologists and technicians and dietetic technicians and ophthalmic medical technicians)made less than the lowest paid STEM m

161、iddle-skill occupations.Overall,the lowest paying S&E occupations had higher median earnings than the lowest paying S&E-related and STEM middle-skill occupations.Earnings Differences,by Select DemographicsIn 2021,mens median earnings($69,800)were more than womens($66,800)among full-time year-round w

162、orkers in STEM occupations.The disparity was lower in STEM occupations than it was in non-STEM occupations,where mens median earnings were about$9,000 more than womens annually among full-time,year-round workers(Figure LBR-8).Figure LBR-8Median personal earnings for full-time,year-round workers,by s

163、ex and STEM occupation group:2021National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-527S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include full-time,year-round,civilian,non-institutionalized workers ages 1675 and exclude those currently en

164、rolled in primary or secondary school.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsEarnings differences of full-time,year-round workers between men and women occurred within occupations as well.The lar

165、gest percentage of STEM workers(9%)were registered nurses,in which mens median earnings were$7,100 higher than womens(Table SLBR-1,Table SLBR-14).Other STEM occupations with large pay disparities between the median earnings of men and women included computer and information systems managers($17,200

166、higher among men),medical and health services managers($15,400 higher among men),general maintenance and repair workers($14,100 higher among men),and software developers($13,800 higher among men).Men earned more than women in four of the top-paying S&E occupations.Economists were among the S&E occup

167、ations with the highest median earnings for full-time,year-round workers($131,800),with median earnings of male economists about$38,300 more per year(about 35%more)than female economists(Table SLBR-12).About six of the selected S&E-related and five of the selected STEM middle-skill occupations also

168、had earnings disparities by sex among the top-paying occupations,though not among those with the highest median earnings in each group.Regardless of race or ethnicity,full-time,year-round workers in STEM occupations had higher median earnings than those in non-STEM occupations.13 However,earnings di

169、sparities existed among full-time,year-round STEM workers between the race and ethnicity groups.Asian STEM workers had the highest median earnings($98,600)of all the racial and ethnic groups(Table SLBR-15).Hispanic and American Indian or Alaska Native STEM workers had the lowest median earnings amon

170、g the racial and ethnic groups($50,000 and$51,600,respectively).Full-time,year-round workers in S&E and S&E-related occupations had higher median earnings than those in non-STEM occupations across race and ethnicity groups.Asian workers had the highest median earnings in both S&E($107,900)and S&E-re

171、lated($95,700)occupations.American Indian or Alaska Native workers had the lowest median earnings in S&E occupations($67,500),and American Indian or Alaska Native($58,800),Black or African American($59,800),and Hispanic workers($62,500)had the lowest median earnings in S&E-related occupations.Among

172、the five occupations that employ the most STEM workers(Table SLBR-1,Table SLBR-16),Black and Hispanic registered nurses($69,400 and$69,500,respectively)had comparable median earnings to their White counterparts($69,900)among full-time,year-round workers,while Asian registered nurses had the highest

173、median earnings($85,900)among the race groups,and American Indian or Alaska Native registered nurses had the lowest median earnings($59,200).In contrast,among software developers,Black and Hispanic full-time,year-round workers($99,100 and$99,600,respectively)had lower median earnings than their Whit

174、e and Asian counterparts($114,900 and$125,000,respectively).While comparisons of median earnings did not take into account all the factors that could impact earnings differences in the above analyses,the data can inform additional research.Additional analyses of earnings by sex,race,or ethnicity can

175、 be found in the Diversity and STEM:Women,Minorities,and Persons with Disabilities 2023 report,which utilized the Current Population Survey for its analyses.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-528STEM OccupationsIn 2021,the most common STEM occupation by employees was regi

176、stered nurses,representing 9%of the total STEM workforce,followed by software developers(5%)and miscellaneous production workers(4%)(Table SLBR-1).Each of these occupations was also the most common among their respective STEM occupation group.Registered nurses were 25%of all S&E-related occupations,

177、software developers were 20%of all S&E occupations,and miscellaneous production workers were 9%of all STEM middle-skill occupations.S&E and S&E-Related Occupations of the Skilled Technical WorkforceJust over a third(37%)of skilled technical workers held S&E and S&E-related occupations(Table SLBR-17)

178、.The most common S&E occupations for skilled technical workers were computer support specialists,all other computer occupations,and software developers.Together,these accounted for about 47%of skilled technical workers in S&E occupations(Table SLBR-18).The most common educational attainment among ST

179、W workers in these occupations was“some college”(Table SLBR-19).The percentage of workers in these occupations that belonged to the STW ranged from 14%of software developers to 52%of computer support specialists.Among S&E-related occupations,the greatest proportion of the STW worked as registered nu

180、rses and licensed practical and vocational nurses.These two occupations accounted for 33%of STW workers in S&E-related occupations(Table SLBR-18).Of these two occupations,licensed practical and vocational nurses had a higher concentration of workers in the STW(Table SLBR-19).Industries That Utilize

181、STEM WorkersWhile STEM workers were distributed across multiple industries in the United States,some industries had higher concentrations of STEM workers than others.STEM industries can be loosely categorized as industries in which the proportion of STEM workers is at least 2.5 times the national ra

182、te.14 Based on this definition and on categorizing STEM occupations individually,75 industries were identified as a STEM industry;together,they accounted for 68%of all STEM workers in the United States in 2021.Across STEM occupation groups,21 industries had a high concentration of S&E workers,11 had

183、 a high concentration of S&E-related workers,and 43 had a high concentration of STEM middle-skill workers(Table SLBR-20).In 2021,the industries with the highest concentration of STEM workers were electronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance,with 75%of its workforce in STEM occupations,a

184、nd offices of other health practitioners,with 72%of its workforce classified as STEM(Table SLBR-20).Computer systems design and related services had the highest percentage of workers in S&E occupations(51%),general medical and surgical hospitals had 61%of workers in S&E-related occupations,and elect

185、ronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance had 61%of workers in STEM middle-skill occupations.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-529Workers with a bachelors degree 75th percentile:12.2%16.9%Geographic Distribution of the STEM WorkforceGeography plays an importan

186、t role not only in the capacity of a U.S.state or area to support innovative activity but also in a workers ability to access jobs that utilize their skills(Moretti 2013;Wright,Ellis,and Townley 2016;Chow 2022).Research also suggests that areas with denser STEM labor markets have a higher likelihood

187、 of people working in the same field as their degree(Wright,Ellis,and Townley 2016).States Where the U.S.STEM Workers Are:2021In 2021,about half of U.S.states had a workforce in which at least a quarter was employed in STEM occupations.Many of these states were in the Midwest;however,several states

188、outside the Midwest also had at least a quarter of their workforce in STEM occupations(Table SLBR-21).Notably,New Hampshire(28%),Washington(27%),Maryland(27%),South Dakota(27%),and Nebraska(27%)were among the states with the highest percentage of workers in STEM occupations.Examining the STW as a pe

189、rcentage of a states total workforce indicates that the District of Columbia had the lowest concentration of workers in a STEM occupation with less than a bachelors degree(STW)(3%);however,the rest of the states had between 10%and 17%of their workers in the STW(Figure LBR-9).Wyoming was among the st

190、ates with the highest percentage of its workers in the STW(17%),followed closely by several states in the Midwest and SouthSouth Dakota(16%),Iowa(16%),Indiana(16%),and Alabama(15%),to name a few.15Figure LBR-9Prevalence of STEM workers among all workers in the state,by educational attainment:2021Nat

191、ional Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-530Workers in the STW 75th percentile:Workers in the STWSTEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics;STW=skilled technical workforce.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude th

192、ose currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Data are limited to those in STEM occupations.Source(s):Census Bureau,American Community Survey(ACS),1-Year Public-Use File,2021,data as of 25 October 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsThe STEM Workforce within StatesWhile state-level data p

193、rovide important information about state-level economies,local economies may be different than the state-level numbers(Table SLBR-22).This is to be expected for states large in both population and land areasuch as Texas,Florida,New York,and Californiagiven that they have multiple cities and large ru

194、ral regions.However,variations exist across states of all sizes.The estimates referenced in this section were rendered at the smallest level of geography available in the ACSthe Public Use Microdata Area(PUMA).16 PUMAs indicate where individuals live rather than work(Census Bureau 2021).PUMAs are ge

195、ographic areas that contain at least 100,000 people,and while some PUMAs are geographically large,such as Northern Arizona,others cover smaller,more densely populated areas,such as in and around Phoenix,Arizona.PUMAs do not cross state lines but do allow for analysis of areas that cross state lines,

196、such as the cluster of PUMAs in northern Virginia,the District of Columbia,and Southern Maryland that represent the larger economy of the District of Columbia region.For ease of discussion,Table SLBR-22 contains both the PUMA label and the Metropolitan Statistical Area(MSA)where all or most of the P

197、UMA falls when a PUMA is in an MSA(IPUMS 2020).Comparisons to national proportions of workers come from Table SLBR-2.The percentage of PUMA residents working in STEM occupations varies widely.Nationally,21.6%of workers worked in a STEM occupation,while about 45%of resident workers were employed in S

198、TEM occupations in three PUMAs in the San JoseSunnyvaleSanta Clara,CA,MSA(i.e.,Silicon Valley).In contrast,three PUMAs in the Bronx borough of New York City and two in Laredo,Texas,had 12%or fewer resident workers employed in STEM occupations.Overall,there were 20 MSAs in 13 states with at least 1 P

199、UMA that had 35%or more of the residents employed in STEM occupations.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-531Types of occupations tended to cluster.Nationally,about 4.2%of workers were in S&E occupations,with some areas having higher and lower densities of S&E workers.For

200、example,the 10 PUMAs with 25%or more of workers in S&E occupations were in 4 MSAs:San JoseSunnyvaleSanta Clara,CA;San FranciscoOakland-Hayward,CA;Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue,WA;and Boston-Cambridge-Newton,MA-NH.Conversely,55 PUMAs in 22 states had about 1%or less of workers employed in an S&E occupation

201、,including 1 PUMA in the Merced,CA,MSA,which is less than 100 miles southeast of the high S&E occupation PUMAs in San JoseSunnyvaleSanta Clara,CA,MSA.S&E-related occupation data highlight different PUMAs.Specifically,22%of workers in the PUMA that covers Rochester,Minnesota(where the Mayo Clinic is

202、located),worked in S&E-related occupations,which include many health care occupations,compared to 8%of the national workforce.Other PUMAs with around 17%or more of their workers in S&E-related occupations were in the Albuquerque,NM;New YorkNewarkJersey City,NY-NJ-PA;Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington,PA

203、-NJ-DE-MD;Lafayette,LA;DurhamChapel Hill,NC;and HoustonThe WoodlandsSugar Land,TX,MSAs.The PUMAs with about 3%or fewer workers in S&E-related occupations overall tended to also have low percentages of workers in S&E occupations.Specifically,of PUMAs with 3%or fewer residents working in S&E-related o

204、ccupations,only 1(Atlanta,DeKalb County South)had about 4%of workers in S&E occupations.Of the 9 PUMAs with 20%or more of residents working in STEM middle-skill occupations,5 were in Texas,with 3 of those 5 in the HoustonThe Woodlands Sugar Land,TX,MSA.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indi

205、cators|NSB-2024-532STEM Pathways:Degree Attainment and Training of Workers in STEMFor over a decade,there has been an effort to expand both the size and diversity of the STEM workforce(NASEM 2017;NSTC 2018,2021;NSB 2019).Given that many STEM occupations require specialized training and or education,

206、one aspect of this effort to grow the STEM workforce has been a focus on the education of future STEM workers(NSB 2020;NSF 2020;NSTC 2021).Although educational interests and graduation rates among S&E and S&E-related degree fields are important discussions,this thematic report focuses on the educati

207、onal attainment of workers in STEM occupations.For a detailed discussion of educational pathways,see the Indicators 2024 report“Higher Education in Science and Engineering”and the Indicators 2024 report“Elementary and Secondary STEM Education.”Educational Attainment of STEM WorkersWorkers in STEM oc

208、cupations have diverse educational backgrounds.In 2021,the largest proportion of STEM workers had not earned a bachelors degree.Specifically,24%of STEM workers had not attended any college,17%had attended some college but not earned a degree,12%held an associates degree,28%a bachelors degree,and 20%

209、an advanced degree(masters or higher degree)(Table SLBR-23).Across the different STEM occupation groups,the level of educational attainment varies greatly.Larger proportions of workers in S&E occupations had a bachelors degree(47%)than in S&E-related occupations(32%)(Figure LBR-10).Among workers in

210、STEM middle-skill occupations,the majority of workers had not attended college(52%).In addition,among STEM middle-skill workers,a larger proportion had some college and no degree(24%)than held an associates degree(11%).This diversity in education within and across the STEM occupation categories high

211、lights the multiple pathways for workers to find jobs that fit their skills and interestsmany workers may not need a college degree or an advanced degree to work in STEM.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-533OccupationPercent31.25.28.251.733.520.710.513.124.422.09.36.616.

212、211.28.524.146.531.910.423.014.831.230.62.413.1No collegeSome college,no degreeAssociates degreeBachelors degreeMasters degree or higherAll occupationsS&E occupations020406080100Figure LBR-10Educational attainment of STEM workers,by occupation group:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,techn

213、ology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Source(s):Ruggles S,Flood S,Goeken R,Schouweiler M,Sobek M,2022,IPUMS USA:Version 12.0,2021 American Community S

214、urvey(ACS),https:/doi.org/10.18128/D010.V12.0,accessed 23 December 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsThe distribution of STEM workers across the types of STEM occupations varies by the level of educational attainment of the STEM workers.Overall,26%of STEM workers were in S&E occupations,37%were

215、 in S&E-related occupations,and 38%were in STEM middle-skill occupations(Figure LBR-11).Looking at this by educational attainment,among STEM workers with a high school diploma or less,82%were employed in STEM middle-skill occupations,which was a larger proportion than those who attended college but

216、did not earn a degree(55%)or who held an associates degree(35%)(Figure LBR-11;Table SLBR-23).Half of associates degree holders and 48%of those with a bachelors degree or higher worked in S&E-related occupations.In contrast,29%of those with some college and 13%of those with a high school diploma or l

217、ess worked in S&E-related occupations.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-534Education levelPercent25.65.616.114.241.736.812.728.950.448.237.681.755.135.410.0S&E occupationsS&E-related occupationsSTEM middle-skill occupationsAssociates degree0255075100Figure LBR-11STEM wor

218、kers,by educational attainment and STEM occupation group:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Sourc

219、e(s):Ruggles S,Flood S,Goeken R,Schouweiler M,Sobek M,2022,IPUMS USA:Version 12.0,2021 American Community Survey(ACS),https:/doi.org/10.18128/D010.V12.0,accessed 23 December 2022.Science and Engineering IndicatorsAmong those with a bachelors degree or higher,a majority of workers in S&E occupations

220、had their highest degree in an S&E field,while a majority of workers in S&E-related occupations had their highest degree in an S&E-related field,according to the NSCG(Table LBR-2).Over 75%of S&E workers with a bachelors degree or higher earned their highest degree in an S&E field,and an additional 5

221、%earned their highest degree in an S&E-related field.Of workers in S&E occupations,5%held an S&E or S&E-related degree that was not their highest degree,with only 13%of workers in S&E occupations without any degree in an S&E or S&E-related field.Across S&E occupations,the percentage of workers with

222、their highest degree in an S&E field varied from 92%of workers(physical science occupations)to about 70%(computer science and social science occupations).The sidebar Science,Engineering,and Health Doctorate Holders in STEM Occupations provides information specifically about doctorate holders in STEM

223、.For more information on college graduates in the S&E or S&E-related labor force,see NCSES(2022a).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-535Table LBR-2Educational background of employed adults with a bachelors degree or higher,by major occupation:2021(Percent)OccupationTotal(

224、number)Highest degree in S&E fieldHighest degree in S&E-related fieldA degree in S&E or S&E-related field but not highestNo degrees in S&E or S&E-related fieldsAll occupations51,525,30031.914.87.345.9S&E occupations7,878,30077.05.34.712.9Computer and mathematical scientists4,026,80070.94.54.819.8Bio

225、logical,agricultural,and environmental life scientists793,50082.512.02.62.9Physical scientists407,60091.73.22.82.3Social scientists709,00070.46.97.814.8Engineers1,941,40086.84.24.84.2S&E-related occupations9,489,80025.957.34.112.7STEM middle-skill and non-STEM occupations34,157,10023.25.28.862.8S&E=

226、science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675.Workers in non-S&E occupations include those with a bachelors degree or higher employed non-STEM and STEM middle-skill occupations.Numbers

227、 are rounded to the nearest 100.Numbers may not sum due to rounding.Percentages may not sum to 100%because of rounding.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),Public-Use File,2021.Science and Engineering IndicatorsNational Science B

228、oard|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-536SIDEBAR SCIENCE,ENGINEERING,AND HEALTH DOCTORATE HOLDERS IN STEM OCCUPATIONSScience,Engineering,and Health Doctorate Holders in STEM OccupationsDoctorate holders in science,engineering,and health(SEH)fields represent the individuals in the labor market

229、 with the most training specific to their respective fieldsparticularly,research skills.The 2021 Survey of Doctorate Recipients estimated that there were 872,100 U.S.-trained SEH research doctorates living and working in the United States(NCSES SDR 2021:Table 42),of which 725,000 were working in S&E

230、 or S&E-related occupations(Table SLBR-D).The fields in which SEH doctorate recipients work vary by occupation type(Figure LBR-C;Table SLBR-D).Within this population,17%(or 146,600)worked in non-S&E occupations.Overall,42%of S&E doctorate recipients worked in educational institutions,and 49%worked i

231、n business or industry,with variations by occupation.Over half of SEH doctorate recipients with occupations in biological,agricultural,or environmental life sciences(50%),physical sciences(53%),and social sciences(55%)occupations worked in educational institutions.For SEH doctorate recipients with o

232、ccupations in computer and mathematical sciences and engineering fields,over half worked in for-profit businesses(55%and 56%,respectively).Within this population,those in social science occupations had the highest proportion of self-employed workers(13%),whereas those in S&E-related occupations had

233、the highest proportion(11%)of doctorate recipients working in nonprofit organizations.For more information on doctorate recipients working in higher education research and development,please see the Indicators 2024 report“Academic Research and Development.”National Science Board|Science&Engineering

234、Indicators|NSB-2024-537OccupationPercent42.334.450.253.254.630.242.330.99.04.911.412.29.69.08.67.148.860.838.434.635.860.849.162.1College or universityGovernmentBusiness or industryAll occupationsPhysical scientistsSocial scientistsEngineersS&E-related occupationsNon-S&E occupations020406080100Figur

235、e LBR-CSector of employed science,engineering,and health research doctorate recipients living in the United States,by occupation:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include employed doctorate holders ages 1675 living in the United States i

236、n 2021.Non-S&E occupations includes doctorate holders working in both non-STEM and STEM middle-skill occupations.Percentages may not add to 100%due to rounding.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,Survey of Doctorate Recipients(SDR),Public-Use File,2021.Science and Engine

237、ering IndicatorsCertifications and LicensesOne pathway into STEM occupations is by obtaining educational or professional certificates or by obtaining certifications or licenses to perform certain occupations.These work credentials can signal proficiency in occupation fields and serve as a demonstrat

238、ion of the skills needed to perform a certain job(BLS 2019).Holding work credentials is also associated with higher earnings in the labor market,especially among workers without a bachelors degree or higher(Kominski and Ewert 2014).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-538ST

239、EM groupPercentAny credentialProfessional certification or licenseEducational certificateSTEM occupationsS&E occupationsS&E-related occupations020406080There are three main types of work credentials:educational certificates,professional certifications,and licenses.Educational certificates are typica

240、lly awarded by an educational institution,such as a community college,and indicate the completion of a program of study.Professional certifications indicate that the worker possesses certain skills,abilities,or specializations and are awarded by independent organizations that are often associated wi

241、th a particular industry or profession(Finamore and Foley 2017;Kominski and Ewert 2014;BLS n.d.).Licenses are issued by a government agency and convey a legal authority to perform an occupation(BLS 2019).Workers with and without a bachelors degree can have work credentials,and some occupations requi

242、re at least a bachelors degree in addition to a credential in order to qualify for the work(BLS n.d.).For example,in 2022,98%of nurse practitioners require at least a masters degree and 93%require a license(BLS Occupational Requirements Survey 2022).Data from the 2021 Survey of Income and Program Pa

243、rticipation(SIPP)was used to analyze the distribution of credentials among STEM workers.17 The 2021 SIPP allows analysis of all three types of credentials available to workers in STEM occupationslicenses,educational certificates,and professional certifications.The SIPP is a retrospective survey,and

244、the 2021 data use 2020 as the reference year for monthly data collection.Estimates below are presented from month 12 of the reference year among respondents ages 1675 years that had at least a high school diploma or GED.In 2020,about 46%of all STEM workers held a professional certification,license,o

245、r educational certificate(Figure LBR-12;Table SLBR-24).The proportion with work credentials varied by type of STEM worker,ranging from 67%among S&E-related workers to 28%among S&E workers.Work credentials were most common among S&E workers(43%)and STEM middle-skill workers(52%)with an associates deg

246、ree,whereas a high prevalence of credentials was present among S&E-related workers with both an associates degree(81%)and an advanced degree(79%).Figure LBR-12STEM workers with credentials,by occupation group and type of credential:2020S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,

247、and mathematics.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-539Note(s):Data include the civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 with at least a high school diploma or GED employed in the 12th month of 2020 and exclude those with only military occupations,those missing

248、occupation data or who have not worked in the last 5 years,and those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Non-STEM occupations are not shown.Source(s):Census Bureau,Survey of Income and Program Participation(SIPP),Public-Use File,2021.Science and Engineering IndicatorsIn S&E occupations

249、,workers with professional credentials outnumbered those with educational certificates.Similarly,workers in S&E-related occupations had a higher prevalence of professional credentials compared with educational certificates overall and at all levels of educational attainment.In both S&E and STEM midd

250、le-skill occupations,educational certificates were most prevalent among workers with an associates degree,while the same was true among S&E-related workers with some college or an associates degree.18 Professional credentials were most common among S&E-related workers with an associates degree(74%)o

251、r an advanced degree(78%).Neither S&E nor STEM middle-skill occupations had a high prevalence of professional credentials across the different levels of educational attainment.Employment Outcomes for Recent GraduatesKey participants of the STEM workforce pathway are individuals entering the workforc

252、e with S&E and S&E-related postsecondary degrees,particularly those with bachelors degrees and higher.According to NSCG data,there were about 7,474,000 individuals who earned their highest degree in an S&E or S&E-related field between January 2015 and February 2021(Table LBR-3).19 The data on these

253、recent graduates provide insights on recent S&E and S&E-related graduates in the labor market.Table LBR-3Labor market indicators for S&E and S&E-related degree recipients earning their highest degree between 2015 and 2021,by level and field of highest degree:2021(Number,percent,and 2021 dollars)Indi

254、cator and highest degree levelAll S&E and S&E-related fieldsS&E fieldsS&E-related fieldsAll S&E fieldsBiological,agricultural,and environmental life sciencesComputer and mathematical sciencesPhysical sciencesSocial sciencesEngineeringNumber of new graduatesAll degree levels7,474,0004,911,500968,1009

255、85,900252,9001,694,2001,010,4002,562,500Bachelors4,555,7003,307,200722,800628,200151,4001,178,300626,5001,248,500Masters2,078,2001,248,600146,900319,30052,600423,900305,900829,600Doctorate470,600342,80098,40038,40048,90079,10077,900127,800Professional369,40012,900nanana12,900na356,600Employment rate

256、(%)All degree levels87.085.978.589.188.584.491.889.2Bachelors85.184.374.988.784.483.891.587.3Masters88.487.685.988.893.683.492.189.7Doctorate93.795.093.696.696.096.793.590.2Professional94.793.8nanana93.8na94.8Out-of-field rate(%)All degree levels14.418.624.57.115.029.78.46.6Bachelors20.024.432.27.32

257、2.337.411.59.0Masters7.48.77.77.55.914.13.95.6Doctorate4.13.3s1.44.65.91.86.3Professional1.1snananasna1.1National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-540Table LBR-3Labor market indicators for S&E and S&E-related degree recipients earning their highest degree between 2015 and 2021,b

258、y level and field of highest degree:2021(Number,percent,and 2021 dollars)Indicator and highest degree levelAll S&E and S&E-related fieldsS&E fieldsS&E-related fieldsAll S&E fieldsBiological,agricultural,and environmental life sciencesComputer and mathematical sciencesPhysical sciencesSocial sciences

259、EngineeringInvoluntarily out-of-field rate(%)All degree levels5.87.711.73.79.210.53.62.3Bachelors8.09.815.03.314.812.85.03.5Masters3.24.24.64.82.05.91.61.7Doctorate1.61.9ss1.83.5ssProfessionalssnananasnasMedian annual earnings for employed individuals($)All degree levels60,00054,00040,00075,00043,00

260、042,00075,00065,000Bachelors50,00048,00035,00068,00037,00038,00072,00058,000Masters70,00065,00048,00085,00042,00050,00086,00074,000Doctorate78,00077,00061,000110,00072,00075,000101,00080,000Professional70,000snananasna70,000na=not applicable;s=suppressed for reasons of confidentiality and/or reliabi

261、lity.S&E=science and engineering.Note(s):Data include the civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675.Data include highest degrees earned between January 2015 and February 2021.The out-of-field rate and involuntarily out-of-field rate are for employed individuals only.The involuntarily out-o

262、f-field rate is the proportion of all employed individuals who report that their job is not related to their field of highest degree because a job in their highest degree field was not available.Median annual earnings are rounded to the nearest$1,000.Numbers and percentages may not sum due to roundi

263、ng.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),Public-Use File,2021.Science and Engineering IndicatorsIn February 2021,87%of recent S&E or S&E-related degree recipients were employed with employment rates increasing as educational attai

264、nment increased.20 About 85%of recent S&E or S&E-related bachelors degree recipients were employed,compared to 94%of recent doctorate recipients.Recent bachelors degree recipients in engineering fields were the only group with an employment rate(92%)higher than the combined employment rate of recent

265、 bachelors degree recipients across all S&E and S&E-related fields combined.Meanwhile,recent bachelors degree recipients in biological,agricultural,and environmental life sciences fields had the lowest employment rate(75%)of recent S&E bachelors degree recipients,although employment rates may be dep

266、ressed by enrollment in graduate education(Henderson et al.2022;BLS 2023).When researchers discuss the STEM pipeline,attrition from STEM is one aspect,which includes the individuals who work out of their field of degree(Speer 2023).Based on self-reported data on the relationship between a respondent

267、s job and their highest degree,24%of recent S&E bachelors degree recipients worked out of field.21 Larger percentages of recent bachelors degree graduates with majors in social sciences(37%),biological,agricultural,and environmental life sciences(32%),and physical sciences majors(22%)worked out of f

268、ield than those who majored in computer and mathematical sciences(7%),S&E-related fields(9%)and engineering fields(11%)in 2021.Graduates with S&E-related degrees had lower rates of working out of field than S&E fields for all fields and degree levels combined.National Science Board|Science&Engineeri

269、ng Indicators|NSB-2024-541Across all S&E and S&E-related degree fields combined,those who recently earned masters and doctoral degrees in STEM fields worked involuntarily out of field at lower rates than bachelors degree holders.Over 12%of workers with bachelors degrees in biological,agricultural,an

270、d environmental life sciences and in social sciences were involuntarily working out of field.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-542Foreign-Born STEM WorkersS&E fields and the general U.S.economy have long included and benefited from the contributions of foreign-born worke

271、rs(Abramitzky and Boustan 2017;Kerr and Kerr 2017;Khanna and Lee 2020;Rovito,Kaushik,and Aggarwal 2021).Additionally,NSBs Vision 2030 report recognizes the importance of the U.S.international STEM talent in maintaining its lead in research and bolstering the workforce of the future(NSB 2020).This se

272、ction provides an analysis of foreign-born STEM workers,including their demographic composition.It examines the proportion of foreign-born workers in STEM occupations(by degree level)and estimates rates of intentions to stay as well as actual stay rates among U.S.-trained doctoral recipients.Foreign

273、-born STEM workers are defined as those STEM workers born outside of the United States who were not citizens by birth.22 In 2021,17%of all civilian workers(26,546,400 people)and 19%of STEM workers were foreign born(7,023,900 people),23 according to the ACS(Table SLBR-25).24 Over a quarter(26%)of for

274、eign-born workers employed in the United States worked in STEM occupations.There are three subsets for the foreign-born population:noncitizens who live in the United States on visas(temporary visa holders),those with permanent resident status(or Green Cards),and foreign-born workers who have become

275、U.S.citizens(naturalized citizens).Occupations and Geographic Characteristics of Foreign-Born STEM WorkersForeign-born STEM workers occupational characteristics vary by citizenship status and are distinct from U.S.-born STEM workers.Of foreign-born workers,a larger percentage were employed in STEM o

276、ccupations(26%)than the percentage of U.S.-born workers(24%)(Table SLBR-25).Similarly,both naturalized and noncitizen foreign-born workers worked in STEM occupations at slightly higher rates(28%and 25%,respectively)than U.S.-born workers(24%)did.Proportionally,more naturalized citizen workers(11%)wo

277、rked in S&E-related occupations than noncitizen workers(5%)or U.S.-born citizen workers(9%).Additionally,larger proportions of noncitizens worked in STEM middle-skill occupations(12%)than naturalized citizens(8%)or U.S.-born workers(9%)(Figure LBR-13).National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indic

278、ators|NSB-2024-543Foreign-born and citizenship statusPercent6.25.78.68.58.78.99.08.211.44.69.19.09.77.811.8S&E occupationsS&E-related occupationsSTEM middle-skill occupationsAll STEM workersU.S.-born citizensNaturalized citizensNoncitizens0102030Figure LBR-13Prevalence of workers in STEM occupations

279、,by foreign-born and citizenship status:2021S&E=science and engineering;STEM=science,technology,engineering,and mathematics.Note(s):Data include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675 and exclude those currently enrolled in primary or secondary school.Foreign-born individua

280、ls were born outside of the United States and were not citizens by birth.Non-STEM occupations are not shown.Source(s):Ruggles S,Flood S,Goeken R,Schouweiler M,Sobek M,2022,IPUMS USA:Version 12.0,2021 American Community Survey(ACS),https:/doi.org/10.18128/D010.V12.0,accessed 23 December 2022.Science

281、and Engineering IndicatorsThere are 24 countries or economies of origin that each contributed 1%or more of the foreign-born STEM workforce(Table SLBR-26).25 Together,these 24 countries or economies accounted for about 75%of all foreign-born STEM workers.Of all foreign-born STEM workers,18%were born

282、in Mexico,followed by 14%born in India,7%in China,and 6%in the Philippines.Within the different portions of the STEM occupations,country or economy of origin varies for foreign-born workers.For example,the largest proportion of foreign-born STEM middle-skill workers were born in Mexico(40%).Of forei

283、gn-born S&E workers,29%were born in India,and 13%were born in China.Among S&E-related foreign-born workers,13%were born in the Philippines,and another 12%were born in India.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-544PercentOccupation groupBachelors degreeMasters degreeDoctoral

284、 degree010203040506070S&E occupationsBiological,agricultural,and other life scientistsComputer and mathematical scientistsPhysical and related scientistsSocial and related scientistsEngineersS&E-related occupationsForeign-Born STEM Workers with Bachelors Degrees or HigherThe proportion of foreign-bo

285、rn STEM workers overall and with a bachelors degree or higher was similar in 2021 and 2019(NSB Indicators 2022:Figure LBR-31;Table SLBR-25).In 2021,there were over 7 million(7,023,900)foreign-born STEM workers(or 19%of all STEM workers);almost 4 million(3,931,400)held a bachelors degree,of whom 3,62

286、1,200 worked in S&E or S&E-related occupations according to the ACS(Table SLBR-25).The NSCG,which applies a survey coverage and occupation classification that are different from the ACS,estimates that there are about 3,937,700 foreign-born S&E or S&E-related workers with a bachelors degree or higher

287、,or 23%of STEM workers(Table SLBR-27).The rest of this section is based on the NSCG estimates.Overall,about 60%of foreign-born S&E or S&E-related workers are U.S.citizens(Table SLBR-27).Of the other 40%,some 22%were temporary visa holders,and 18%were permanent residents.Overall,for S&E and S&E-relat

288、ed occupation fields,more workers were foreign-born citizens than temporary visa holders,although there is variation in proportions of foreign-born workers citizenship status across S&E fields.For example,computer and mathematical scientists was the largest S&E or S&E-related occupation field for te

289、mporary visa holders,employing 32%of workers with temporary visas.Among permanent residents,20%worked in S&E-related occupations,although 3%of workers in S&E-related occupations were permanent residents.The prevalence of foreign-born individuals also varied by degree level.Larger proportions of doct

290、oral degree holders in S&E occupations were foreign born(43%)than either masters degree holders(37%)or bachelors degree holders(19%)(Figure LBR-14).This was also true for all S&E occupation groups.Further,among S&E occupation groups,more than 50%of doctorate holders that worked as computer and mathe

291、matical scientists(58%)and engineers(56%)were foreign born.Figure LBR-14Share of workers with a bachelors degree or higher who were foreign born,by highest degree level and occupation group:2021S&E=science and engineering.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-545Note(s):Data

292、 include the employed,civilian,non-institutionalized population ages 1675.STEM middle-skill occupations are not included.Non-S&E occupations are not shown.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,National Survey of College Graduates(NSCG),Public-Use File,2021.Science and Engi

293、neering IndicatorsStay Rates of U.S.-Trained Scientists and EngineersStay rates of U.S.-trained scientists and engineers provide insights into whether foreign-born individuals remain in the United States after earning their degrees.NSBs Vision 2030 report suggests that attracting and retaining globa

294、l talent are necessary for the United States to remain competitive in S&E fields and that stay rates are critical indicators for understanding how well the United States is retaining global talent(NSB 2020).Stay rates help policymakers understand the degree to which U.S.-trained S&E doctorates contr

295、ibute to the U.S.economy.Countries such as the United Kingdom,China,and Canada have implemented programs to attract international STEM talent,which could impact stay rates in the United States(Rovito,Kaushik,and Aggarwal 2021).For the remainder of this section,the focus is on individuals on temporar

296、y visas at the time they earned their research doctorates in science,engineering,and health(SEH)fields.26The intent-to-stay rate among research doctorate recipients remained relatively stable over the last decade,although the number of research doctorate recipients intending to stay increased due to

297、 an increase in temporary visa-holding new doctorates(Table SLBR-28;NCSES SED 2021:Table 1-6,Table 1-7,Table 1-8).Thus,the number of new SEH doctorates planning to stay in the United States was about 9,900 higher in the 4-year period of 201821 compared with 201013 due to the overall increase of abou

298、t 12,200 temporary visa-holding doctorate recipients in SEH fields(Table SLBR-28;NCSES SED 2021:Table 1-8,Table 1-9).At the same time,the proportion of temporary visa-holding SEH research doctorate recipients with definite commitments to stay increased between the 201013 period(47%)and the 201821 pe

299、riod(53%).27While intentions to stay provide insight at the time of degree completion,the 5-and 10-year stay rates for SEH research doctorate recipients from earlier graduation cohorts show the longer-term retention of doctorate-holding scientists and engineers.Across all countries of citizenship an

300、d SEH degree fields,the 5-year stay rate was 71%in 2021,and the 10-year stay rate was 65%(Figure LBR-15).While the 5-year stay rate in 2021 was similar to that of 2017(the last time stay rates could be calculated from the SDR),the 10-year stay rate declined from 72%in 2017 to 65%in 2021.National Sci

301、ence Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-546YearPercent5-year stay rate10-year stay rate20012003200520072009201120132015201720192021020406080Figure LBR-15Stay rates for U.S.S&E doctoral degree recipients with temporary visas at graduation:200121S&E=science and engineering.Note(s):Data are

302、available for odd-numbered years only.Data are not available for 2019.Stay rate estimates prior to 2011 may not be comparable to subsequent years due to differences in source data.Source(s):Finn M,Stay Rates of Foreign Doctoral Recipients from U.S.Universities,2011,Oak Ridge Institute for Science an

303、d Education(200111);National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,Survey of Doctorate Recipients(SDR),201321.Science and Engineering IndicatorsStay rates varied by both field of doctoral degree and country,economy,or region of citizenship(Table LBR-4).The 5-and 10-year stay rates of doctora

304、te recipients with temporary visas were similar(just over 70%)in both the biological,agricultural,health,and environmental life sciences and in engineering.Yet for doctorates in computer and mathematical sciences,the 5-and 10-year stay rates were quite differentthe 5-year stay rate was 79%,whereas t

305、he 10-year stay rate was 63%.Table LBR-4Temporary visa holders receiving S&E doctorates in 201517 and 201012 who were in the United States in 2021,by S&E degree field and by region,country,or economy of citizenship at time of degree(Number and percent)Degree field and region,country,or economy of ci

306、tizenshipForeign doctorate recipients,201517(number)5-year stay rate(%)Foreign doctorate recipients,201012(number)10-year stay rate(%)Total42,9507138,65065National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-547Table LBR-4Temporary visa holders receiving S&E doctorates in 201517 and 201012

307、 who were in the United States in 2021,by S&E degree field and by region,country,or economy of citizenship at time of degree(Number and percent)Degree field and region,country,or economy of citizenshipForeign doctorate recipients,201517(number)5-year stay rate(%)Foreign doctorate recipients,201012(n

308、umber)10-year stay rate(%)Doctoral fieldsBiological,agricultural,health,and environmental life sciences10,150718,75071Computer and mathematical sciences6,100795,70063Physical sciences6,450725,55060Social sciences5,400535,30041Engineering14,8507313,35072CitizenshipChina(including Hong Kong)14,2508811

309、,20081India6,650795,90077South Korea2,750574,15043West Asia6,500653,75066Europe3,600553,85067North and South America3,600564,10050All other countries5,400505,65044S&E=science and engineering.Note(s):Weighted frequencies are rounded to the nearest 50.Stay rates are rounded to the nearest integer.Due

310、to changes in the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics Taxonomy of Disciplines,field of degree numbers and proportions may not be comparable to prior years.Source(s):National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics,Survey of Doctorate Recipients(SDR),2021.Science and Engineer

311、ing IndicatorsWhile there were fewer temporary visa holders who received doctorates in the social sciences,these doctorate holders had the lowest 5-year(53%)and 10-year stay rates(41%),with under 50%remaining in the United States 10 years after earning a doctorate.Turning to the country,economy,or r

312、egion of citizenship of doctorate recipients,those with Chinese citizenship had higher 5-and 10-year stay rates(88%and 81%,respectively)than the overall population of temporary visa-holding doctorate recipients,as did those with Indian citizenship(79%and 77%,respectively).National Science Board|Scie

313、nce&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-548ConclusionSTEM workers are integral to the development and support of innovation and technological advancement.They also transform these advancements into tangible and useful goods and services through their skills and knowledge.The use of STEM skills is widesp

314、read in the United States,with STEM workers making up nearly a quarter of the total workforce and more than half holding less than a bachelors degree.STEM workers tend to have favorable labor market outcomes relative to non-STEM workers,including higher salaries.People associated with STEM occupatio

315、ns also have higher employment rates.Many suggest that a nations workforce diversity is associated with increased innovative capacity.Women and some racial and ethnic minorities are underrepresented in STEM overall,with lower proportions of female and Black or African American workers with S&E degre

316、es working in S&E occupations;however,representation levels vary by occupation group.Further,median earnings differences between the sexes persist in STEM occupations,with men earning more than women.Foreign-born workers account for a considerable share of STEM workers in the United States.In additi

317、on,noncitizens comprise a large proportion of U.S.-trained STEM doctorate holders,with the majority remaining in the United States after finishing their degrees,especially those from India and China,indicating that their contributions to the U.S.economy continue well after their training in U.S.inst

318、itutions ends.The STEM labor force is comprehensive and diverse,made up of workers at all education levels in a wide variety of occupations.Many factorsglobal competition,demographic trends,aggregate economic activities,STEM training pathways,and developing labor demands,among otherswill affect the

319、availability of workers equipped with STEM knowledge and skills as well as the kinds of jobs that the U.S.economy generates in the future.As a result,comprehensive and timely analysis of current labor force and demographic trends will play a critical role in providing the policy-relevant information

320、 needed to understand the dynamic STEM landscape in the United States.National Science Board|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-549GlossaryDefinitionsEmployment rate:A measure of the extent to which people available to work are being used.It is calculated as the ratio of the employed to the pop

321、ulation of interest.For more information,see https:/data.oecd.org/emp/employment-rate.htm.Foreign-born workers:Those whose nativity is outside of the United States,regardless of citizenship.Foreign-born workers may be U.S.citizens or permanent residents.Full-time,year-round workers:Workers who were

322、employed at least 50 weeks in the preceding year(year round)and worked at least 35 hours per week during that year(full time).Labor force:A subset of the population that includes only those who are employed and those who are not working but actively seeking work(unemployed).Metropolitan Statistical

323、Area(MSA):A core-based statistical area designated by the Office of Management and Budget.It represents a core area containing at least one urban area with a population of 50,000 or more,together with adjacent communities that have a high degree of economic and social integration with the core area.

324、For more information,visit https:/www.census.gov/programs-surveys/metro-micro/about.html.STEM middle-skill occupations:A range of occupations that require a high level of science technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)expertise to perform their core duties,although these occupations do not requ

325、ire a bachelors degree for entry.STEM middle-skill occupations are primarily in health care;construction;installation,maintenance,and repair;and production.See Table SLBR-1 for a full list.Noncitizens:A subset of foreign-born workers who are temporarily in the United States on visas or are permanent

326、 residents.This includes temporary visa holders on H-1B,J-1,and L-1 visas and Green Card holders.Non-STEM occupations:Primarily includes occupations in management(excluding science and engineering S&E and S&E-related managers,industrial production managers,and farmers,ranchers,and agricultural manag

327、ers),sales(excluding sales engineers),transportation and material moving(excluding transportation inspectors and pumping station operators),office and administrative support,and education and training.See Table SLBR-1 for a full list of non-STEM occupations.Non-STEM workforce or non-STEM workers:A s

328、ubset of the U.S.workforce in non-STEM occupations(see non-STEM occupations).Postdoctoral researcher(postdoc):A temporary position awarded in academia,industry,government,or a nonprofit organization,primarily for gaining additional education and training in research after completion of a doctorate.P

329、ublic Use Microdata Area(PUMA):The smallest level of geography available in the American Community Survey.PUMAs are geographic areas that contain at least 100,000 people and do not cross state lines.S&E degree fields:Degree fields at the bachelors level or higher in the following categories:(1)compu

330、ter and mathematical sciences;(2)biological,agricultural,and environmental life sciences;(3)physical and related sciences;(4)social sciences;and(5)engineering.At the doctoral degree level,the medical and health sciences are included under S&E(i.e.,science,engineering,and health)because these data co

331、rrespond to the doctorate holders research or scholarship degree level,which are research-focused degrees.For detailed degree fields within these major categories,see the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics(NCSES)Taxonomy of Disciplines(NCSES SDR 2019:Table A-1).National Science B

332、oard|Science&Engineering Indicators|NSB-2024-550S&E occupations:Occupations in the following five major categories:(1)computer and mathematical scientists;(2)biological,agricultural,and environmental life scientists;(3)physical scientists;(4)social scientists;and(5)engineers.For more details and exa

333、mples of the minor and fine S&E occupations,see the NCSES Taxonomy of Occupations(NCSES NSCG WMPD 2017:Technical Table A-1).S&E-related degree fields:Degree fields at the bachelors level or higher in the following categories:(1)health,science,and mathematics teacher education;(2)technology and technical fields;and(3)other S&E-related fields.For detailed degree fields within these categories,see th