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1、Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level Brian P.Flannery and Jan W.Mares Report 24-13 August 2024 Resources for the Future i About the Authors Brian P.Flannery is a visiting fellow at Resources for the Future(RFF).Dr.Flannery joined RFF in 2012

2、where he continues involvement in climate and energy issues that began when he joined Exxons Corporate Research in 1980.He retired from Exxon Mobil Corporation in 2011 as Science,Strategy,and Programs Manager.At Exxon,he conducted and supported climate research,and organized international meetings o

3、n climate-related science,technology,economics,and policy.As an observer for industry and continuing at RFF,he followed and reported on IPCC assessments and negotiations under the UN Framework Convention.At Exxon,Flannery played a leadership role in creating the Joint Program on the Science and Poli

4、cy of Global Change(MIT)and the Global Climate and Energy Project(Stanford).Flannery has served on numerous editorial and advisory boards,among them Stanford University School of Engineering and Annual Reviews of Energy and Environment and participated in assessments by the US DOE(climate modeling a

5、nd scenarios),EPA(climate impacts),and IPCC Working Group III.He served with business associations including the International Chamber of Commerce(Vice-Chair,Environment and Energy Commission),US Council for International Business(Chair,International Energy Working Group),and Major Economies Busines

6、s Forum(Chair,Task Force on Business Engagement).Before Exxon,Flannery pursued a career in astrophysics with degrees from Princeton(1970)and UC Santa Cruz(PhD 1974)and as a post-doctoral associate at the Institute for Advanced Study and assistant and associate professor at Harvard.Flannery is coauth

7、or of the reference book Numerical Recipes:The Art of Scientific Computing.Jan W.Mares is a senior advisor at Resources for the Future,where he has been involved with work on energy and environmental issues since 2009.From 2003 to 2009,he was Deputy Director of the Private Sector Office of the Depar

8、tment of Homeland Security.During the Reagan Administration,Mares was an Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Import Administration for about a year,a Senior Policy Analyst at the White House,and for four years was three different Assistant Secretaries of Energy including for Fossil Energy.Before ent

9、ering federal service,Mares was with Union Carbide Corporation for about 18 years.About nine years of that tenure were in the law department,where he worked on antitrust compliance and purchasing issues,as well as spending seven years on issues involving Union Carbides overseas activities,and he bec

10、ame the International Counsel.The other nine years involved business responsibilities in the chemicals area.They included leading an effort for three years to create a chemicals joint venture with a Middle Eastern government company and being the operations/profit manager for several groups of indus

11、trial chemicals.From early 1980 until joining the Department of Energy in 1981,he was Vice President-General Manager of the Ethylene Oxide Derivatives Division.Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level ii Acknowledgments The authors benefited grea

12、tly from discussions with our colleagues and coauthors on related papers:Jennifer A.Hillman and Matthew C.Porterfield and their students at Georgetown University Law Center;staff from anumber of trade associations for energy-intensive industries;and David Bailey and Catrina Rorke at theClimate Leade

13、rship Council(CLC).We also recognize the significant contribution of editor Adrienne Young tothis report and others in our series of work on border adjustments.Flannery acknowledges financial supportfrom the CLC for research on border adjustments.About RFF Resources for the Future(RFF)is an independ

14、ent,nonprofit research institution in Washington,DC.Its mission is to improve environmental,energy,and natural resource decisions through impartial economic research and policy engagement.RFF is committed to being the most widely trusted source of research insights and policy solutions leading to a

15、healthy environment and a thriving economy.The views expressed here are those of the individual authors and may differ from those of other RFF experts,its officers,or its directors.Sharing Our Work Our work is available for sharing and adaptation under an Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0

16、International(CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)license.You can copy and redistribute our material in any medium or format;you must give appropriate credit,provide a link to the license,and indicate if changes were made,and you may not apply additional restrictions.You may do so in any reasonable manner,but not in an

17、y way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.You may not use the material for commercial purposes.If you remix,transform,or build upon the material,you may not distribute the modified material.For more information,visit https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.Resources for the

18、 Future iii Contents 1.Background1 2.Key Points for Developing Product GGI Values2 3.Range of,and Sources of Data to Develop,GGIs from Production of Unwrought Primary and SecondaryAluminum and Basic Oxygen Furnace Steel and Electric Arc Furnace Steel4 A.Introduction4B.Ranges of GGIs from the Product

19、ion of Aluminum and Steel5C.Contributions(in Percent)to GGI of Aluminum and Steel Products from Various Raw Materials,Electricity,and Thermal Energy16D.Sources of Data Used to Develop GGIs for Aluminum and Steel and Their Raw Materials19Appendix:Border Adjustment Reports and Blogs 26 Resources for t

20、he Future 1 1.BackgroundWe began our work on border adjustments nearly a decade ago,because we did not expect that the approach taken in the American Clean Energy and Security Act to provide protection for domestic producers against imports from countries without greenhouse gas(GHG)control policies

21、would be acceptable to the World Trade Organization(WTO).In 2018,together with Georgetown University Law School professors Jennifer A.Hillman and Mathew C.Porterfield,we developed a WTO-compatible Framework1 for border adjustments in the context of a US domestic carbon tax.As a central concept of th

22、e Framework,we proposed a Greenhouse Gas Index(GGI)to account for the carbon dioxide equivalent emissions(CO2e)required to manufacture covered GHG-intensive products.For a given manufacturing facility or operation,e.g.,to produce steel or petrochemicals,GGI accounts for GHG emissions occurring both

23、from production operations,as well as the emissions required to produce GHG-intensive products purchased from suppliers of electricity,fuels used to generate thermal energy and raw materials.For many years,US facilities that emit more than 25,000 tonnes CO2e annually have determined and reported the

24、ir GHG emissions to EPA.Key innovations in the Framework include the treatment of emissions from products acquired through the manufacturers supply chain(in a fashion similar to value-added taxes)and the design of straightforward procedures to allocate emissions from a facility to the GHG-intensive

25、products it manufactures.Our approach,GGI,is consistent with standards developed by the International Organization for Standardization(ISO).In a consistent,comprehensive fashion,GGI applies to GHG-intensive products in all sectors of the economy,including those that produce aluminum,iron,and steel.T

26、he appendix to this report contains a list with links to our blogs and reports on border adjustments and the GHG intensity of products.Over the past several years,we have interacted with experts from academia,national governments,international organizations,and importantly,with over a dozen sectoral

27、 trade associations.Based on these interactions,discussions,and our own relevant experience,we believe that our approach is feasible for industry and relevant to various applications that involve GHG-intensive products,including,for example,border adjustments,procurement policies,and corporate repor

28、ting.In particular,GGI could apply to products of US and foreign manufacturers in the aluminum,iron,and steel sectors.This report updates,expands upon,and should be considered as a replacement for the testimony and submissions we provided the US International Trade Commission related to its hearing

29、on December 7,2023.It additionally serves as a modification and expansion of the modules for Iron,Steel,and Ferroalloys and for Alumina and Primary and Secondary Unwrought Aluminum in our 2022 report:The Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors.We are currently developing and will

30、publish the estimated range of GGIs for many products in the modules for 39 industrial sectors in our 2022 report because of the US ITC hearing and anticipating further government interest in this subject.The tables below provide estimated,illustrative low and high GGI values for representative basi

31、c products in the aluminum and steel sectors.Results are illustrative because manufacturers in the United States and around the globe utilize an enormous variety of processes,sources of energy,and raw materials in facilities with differing efficiencies to create similar products.1 Flannery,Brian P.,

32、Jennifer A.Hillman,Jan W.Mares,and Matthew C.Porterfield,2020.Framework Proposal for a US Upstream GHG Tax with WTO-Compliant Border Adjustments:2020 Update.Washington,DC:Resources for the Future.www.rff.org/publications/reports/framework-proposal-us-upstream-ghg-tax-wto-compliant-border-adjustments

33、-2020-update/Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 2 2.Key Points for Developing Product GGI Values1.Facilities and operations of US firms producing at least 25,000 tonnes per year of GHG emissionsdetermine and report them annually to EPA.Simi

34、lar reporting programs exist in many,but not all,nations that export to the United States.2.Firms like CRU and international trade associations for steel and aluminum industries exist thatcollect and publish emissions intensity information on average for basic oxygen steel,EAF steel,andprimary alumi

35、num for various countries or groups of countries.3.The procedures to determine GGI are similar to those used in other contexts to determine value-added taxes(VATs)for specific products.Here,they account for the cumulative emissions of GHGsrequired to create GHG-intensive products in a particular fac

36、ility,including both those fromoperations of the manufacturer and from GHG-intensive products purchased from suppliers.Essentially,this is a cradle-to-gate approach for GHG emissions.4.To the extent the US government wants to develop energy intensity data for exporters to the US,forthe purpose of im

37、port tariffs,the relevant US associations could be expected to assist theAdministrator in developing that information.Note that many domestic firms have operations outsidethe US which give them added perspectives concerning imports,and American firms are vulnerableto imports from countries with weak

38、 GHG control measures.Note also that exports to other nationsfrom US firms are vulnerable to such competition.5.All 13 trade associations that we talked to,including steel and aluminum,indicated that our GGIconcept could be implemented by their members.The data to determine GGI are available.Theproc

39、edures to determine GGIs simply involve accounting,albeit involving a great deal of information,much of it not currently publicly reported.6.The steel and aluminum companies,labor unions,associations,suppliers,and communities andregions where they operate will insist that any carbon tax or other GHG

40、-control policies that affectthe competitiveness both of these businesses and their covered products must be imposed on similarimported products and rebated for covered exported US products.7.It is important to focus on emissions associated with products of specific facilities and companies,because,

41、as our research and the following tables demonstrate,GGI values of identical productsproduced in different facilities can vary significantly,not only for facilities of different companies,buteven among facilities of the same company.Using an average value to characterize GHG emissionsassociated with

42、 products of an entire sector or for groups of products will disrupt competition bothwithin a sector and between sectors.For example,products made from plastics,aluminum,or steelmay compete in applications,e.g.,in the automotive sector.For these reasons,it will be important todesign metrics for emis

43、sions and allocation to products that are similar across all covered sectors.8.We note that implementation of procedures to determine GGI would be facilitated if all manufacturersof GHG-intensive products(including electricity)were required to determine and report GGI valuesfor their products to the

44、ir customers and regulators,and that the information should be publiclyavailable.In particular,this would simplify the treatment of GGI for purchases from suppliers.Otherwise,manufacturers would need to rely on their own estimates or third-party determinations ofGGI for such purchases,rather than th

45、ose developed by the suppliers themselves with directinformation.9.Results should be viewed as preliminary and illustrative for many other reasons.Because we do nothave information for specific facilities,estimates are based on various averages for key industrialprocesses and emissions from supplier

46、s.Also,the information derives from a variety of national,sectoral,and private sources using different methods and covering different time periods.Thesources span two decades or more.During that time,many manufacturers have significantlyimproved the efficiency of their operations or may have increas

47、ed emissions to satisfy requirementsResources for the Future 3 for cleaner or safer products.Nonetheless,the estimates do indicate how GGI values would be determined given appropriate information for a specific facility and give a sense of the anticipated range of values.10.Besides using different s

48、uppliers and procedures to manufacture products,facilities also differ;forexample:in size,age,maintenance,operating practices,and efficiencies that affect the GGI values oftheir products.For products like primary aluminum and electric arc furnace steel,the GGI ofelectricity they use has a major impa

49、ct on the GGI of the product and on the range of GGIs of suchproducts from different manufacturers.For products like secondary aluminum and electric arcfurnace steel,the GGI is substantially impacted by the amount of scrap used.(Note that in theFramework we proposed,scrap is assumed to have a GGI of

50、 zero.)11.Many of these same issues will affect the data that will be provided to the US ITC through its 2024survey of individual producers.The essential takeaways are that there is no unique value for thegreenhouse gas intensity of specific products and that values should be determined for products

51、 ofspecific facilities.Among other issues,our full reports(listed in the Appendix)describe approachesthat might be used to define average or default values to be used for products imported from nationscurrently without detailed requirements for GHG reporting by firms and facilities to implement ther

52、egulations,especially during initial,start-up years.12.Our detailed reports provide observations concerning other issues that may be relevant to thedetermination and use of GGI values for products.For example,there are several concernssurrounding the timeliness and availability of data in the United

53、 States and other nations.Currently,US facilities report GHG emissions annually in April following the inventory year.Information andprocedures will need to be updated,likely annually.GGI values are not static;they will change asindustrial processes,raw materials,procedures,technology,products,and m

54、arkets evolve.Borderadjustment procedures should be designed to promote continuous improvement.For example,theyshould include appeals processes for relevant participants to challenge declared GGI values thatappear to be incorrect,incomplete,or fraudulent.13.Lower GGI values contain estimates using t

55、he least GHG-intensive inputs and processes,e.g.,usingnatural gas rather than coal for thermal energy,and using hydropower or nuclear energy rather thancoal to generate electricity.The higher values for GGI are estimates using the most GHG-intensiveinputs,e.g.,using coal to produce electricity,more

56、GHG-intensive raw materials and processes,andlower processing efficiencies.14.Results provided in this report are illustrative,because manufacturers in the United States andaround the globe utilize an enormous variety of processes,sources of energy,and raw materials infacilities with varying energy

57、and materials efficiencies to create similar products.They are alsoIllustrative because the data used Is from different years and areas.Consequently,listed GGI valuesdo not represent the full range of possible outcomes.As a step toward further characterizing theuncertainty in GGI,this report provide

58、s additional calculations of GGI ranges for the above productsthat incorporate some additional sources that affect the potential ranges.This also is a further updateto our previous work.The text in Section D Includes data needed to calculate GGI ranges but doesnot include calculations of all ranges

59、of GGIs in the tables.Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 4 3.Range of,and Sources of Data to Develop,GGIsfrom Production of Unwrought Primary andSecondary Aluminum and Basic Oxygen FurnaceSteel and Electric Arc Furnace SteelA.IntroductionOu

60、r hearing statement and submissions to the US ITC included a list of ranges of GGIs for four aluminum and steel products.A further development and explanation of those ranges is provided here.In the course of preparing this updated report,the GGI ranges for some of the products and determinations de

61、viate slightly from those in the submissions:Below are estimated ranges of GGI for steel and aluminum products.Lower estimates assume the least GHG-intensive inputs and processes,e.g.,using natural gas rather than coal for thermal energy,and hydro rather than coal for electricity.Higher estimates as

62、sume lower efficiencies and more GHG-intensive inputs and processes:Product Low GGI High GGI(tonnes CO2 equivalent per tonne of product)BOF Raw Steel 2.09 3.04 EAF Raw Steel 0.019 0.645 Primary Unwrought Aluminum 2.12 19.64 Secondary Unwrought Aluminum(100%scrap)0.241 0.534 Resources for the Future

63、5 Two sets of tables and data sources follow.Section B contains estimated high and low GGIs to produce some aluminum and steel products.The estimates include emissions both from operations of the manufacturer and those associated with products purchased from suppliers,including contributions from GH

64、G-intensive raw materials,electricity,thermal energy and GHG process emissions.Section C indicates the percentage contribution from major inputs to production across the GGI ranges estimated for aluminum and steel products.Section D provides detailed discussions and sources for the data used in this

65、 analysis.Part of the text comes from the modules for various products in the RFF report The Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors(September 27,20222),with the rest of the background information coming from other sources.Some of the copied text from the modules in the RFF report

66、 has been modified to use ranges of data that were available instead of averages.Data used in this report comes from available studies published over the past 20 years and more.Thus,the estimates are surely not accurate in 2024,after all the years of efforts to improve efficiencies.The averages of t

67、hese ranges of GHG emissions are probably higher than averages that would be determined based on current data,because the data used in these ranges comes from many different years.However,if the product has been heavily regulated over the past 20 years,in ways that required more energy use,e.g.,to r

68、educe emissions or improve safety,the averages of current GHG emissions may be higher than the ones provided here.B.Ranges of GGIs from the Production of Aluminum and SteelThe following tables provide an indication of the possible ranges of GGIs for aluminum and steel and the various raw materials,t

69、hermal energy,and electricity to manufacture them.Where the underlying data was in a range,one extreme was used for the lowest data point while the other extreme for the highest data point.Similarly,where electricity was used,hydro was assumed for the lowest data point case and coal was assumed for

70、the highest data point case.Where data is available for thermal energy,generally natural gas was assumed for the lowest data point,and fuel oil or coal was used for the highest data point.Where a range of efficiency or usage of raw material is available,the lowest of the range or usage was assumed f

71、or the lowest data point and the highest of the range or usage was assumed for the highest data point.2 https:/www.rff.org/publications/working-papers/the-greenhouse-gas-index-for-products-in-39-industrial-sectors/Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Produ

72、ct Level 6 Bauxite Mining Low GGI High GGI Electricity(kWh/tonne bauxite)5 5 Power source Hydro Coal Power(tonnes CO2e/tonne bauxite)0 0.005 Thermal energy(tonnes fuel oil/tonne bauxite)0.0015 0.0015 GGI for fuel oil(tonnes CO2e/tonne fuel oil)3.50 3.82 Thermal energy(tonnes CO2e/tonne bauxite)0.005

73、3 0.0057 GGI(CO2e/tonne bauxite)0.0053 0.0107 Alumina,based on 2 and 3 tonnes of bauxite Low GGI High GGI Bauxite 2 MT 3 MT Bauxite GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina)0.011 0.032 Electricity(MWh/tonne alumina)0.622 0.622 Power source Hydro Coal Power(tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina)0 0.622 Thermal energy Natur

74、al gas Fuel oil Thermal energy(tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina)0.207 0.285 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina)0.218 0.939 Resources for the Future 7 Anode Raw materials(assumes raw material is 100 percent pet coke with 90.5 percent C)Petroleum coke:676 kg raw material/tonne anodeHard coal pitch:148 kg raw mate

75、rial/tonne anodeRecycled anode buts:214 kg raw material/tonne anodeTotal carbon from raw material:1.038 tonnes C/tonne anodeLow GGI High GGI Raw materials(tonnes CO2e/tonne anode)3.44 3.44 Thermal energy(MJ/tonne)3.585 3.585 Energy source Natural gas Coal Thermal energy(tonnes CO2e/tonne anode)0.181

76、 0.317 Electricity(kWh)124.2 124.2 Power source Hydro Coal Electricity(tonnes CO2e/tonne anode)0 0.124 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne anode)3.62 3.88 Anode effect PFCs GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum)0.16 0.16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 8 Ele

77、ctrolysis Low GGI High GGI Electricity(MWh/tonne aluminum)12 16 Power source Hydro Coal GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum)0 16 Inputs to Aluminum GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum)2-3 tonnes bauxite/tonne aluminaLow GGI High GGI Alumina(1.93 tonnes/tonne aluminum)0.40 1.81 Anode(0.43 tonnes/tonne aluminum

78、)1.56 1.67 Anode effect PFCs 0.16 0.16 Electrolysis power 0 16.0 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum)2.12 19.64 GGIs for Secondary Aluminum and its Raw Materials(tonnes CO2e/tonne)Contributions to secondary aluminum based on 100%scrap Low GGI High GGI Power source Hydro Coal Amount of power used(kWh/tonn

79、e Al)110.3 110.3 Electricity(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al)0 0.11 Thermal energy Energy source Natural gas Coal Thermal energy(MBtu/tonne Al)4.54 4.54 Resources for the Future 9 Thermal energy(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al)0.241 0.424 GGI Al(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al based on 100%scrap)0.241 0.534 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

80、 Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 10 Secondary aluminum based on 25%primary,75%scrap Contribution to GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne product)from 25%primary Electricity source Hydro Coal Primary electricity 0 4.00 Alumina from primary 0.10 0.453 Anode from primary 0.385 0.

81、418 Anode effect PFCs from primary 0.04 0.04 Contribution to GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne product)from 75%scrap Electricity 0 0.08 Thermal energy Natural gas Coal 0.181 0.318 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne secondary Al)0.706 5.31 Resources for the Future 11 Range of GGIs Based on GHG Emissions from Production of Ba

82、sic Oxygen Furnace(BOF)Steel Low GGI High GGI Iron ore Extraction Thermal energy source Fuel oil Fuel oil Energy used(Btu/short ton)94,000 94,000 Tonnes CO2e/MBtu 0.0733 0.0733 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne ore)0.0076 0.0076 Pelletizing Energy(GJ/short ton)2.1 2.1 Energy source Natural gas Fuel oil GGI(tonn

83、es CO2e/tonne iron ore)0.116 0.160 Total Iron Ore Mining and pelletizing GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne iron ore)0.124 0.168 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 12 Coke Mining Bituminous Coal as source for Coke Surface Underground Btu/short ton requi

84、red for mining 77,300 420,000(includes beneficiation)Btu/short ton required for beneficiation 94,500 Mining&beneficiation(tonnes CO2e/tonne coal)0.014 0.034 Mining coal for production of coke Coal used/tonne coke 1.5 1.5 Contribution from coal Coal source Surface Underground GGI from production of c

85、oal for coke(tonnes CO2e/tonne coke)0.021 0.051 Thermal energy to produce coke from coal Energy source Natural gas Fuel oil GJ/source tonne 5.5 6.5 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne coke)0.305 0.496 Carbon in coke(tonnes C/tonne Coke)0.90 0.93 Tonnes CO2e/tonne coke 3.30 3.41 Total GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne coke)3.

86、62 3.96 Resources for the Future 13 Oxygen 95%Process Cryogenic Pressure swing absorption Electricity(kWh/tonne O2)175 525 Source Renewable Coal GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne O2)0 0.525 Limestone Use(tonnes limestone/tonne steel)0.25 0.25 GGI(tonnes CO2e emissions/tonne limestone)0.44 0.44 GGI(tonnes CO2e e

87、missions/tonne steel)0.11 0.11 BOF raw steel contributions to GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)Input(tonnes irone ore/tonne raw steel)1.4 1.6 Iron ore(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)0.174 0.267 Input(tonnes coke used/tonne raw steel)0.5 0.65 Coke(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)1.81 2.57 Input(meter3 O2/ton

88、ne raw steel)110 110 Input(tonnes O2/tonne raw steel)based on(0.0014 tonnes O2/meter3 O2)0.154 0.154 O2(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)0.00 0.081 Input(tonnes limestone/tonne raw steel)0.25 0.25 limestone(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)0.11 0.11 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)2.09 3.04 Greenhouse Gas Emi

89、ssions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 14 Range of GGIs Based on GHG Emissions from Production of Electric Arc Furnace Steel Based Totally on Scrap Low Emissions High Emissions Emissions from electrode manufacture Coke for electrode Tonnes CO2e/tonne electrode 3

90、.62 3.82 Usage of electrode(kg/tonne EAF)1.1 1.1 Tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel 0.004 0.004 Electricity for calcining Tonnes CO2e from calcining/tonne EAF steel 0 0.006 Electricity for EAF furnace Source of electricity Renewable Coal Amount of electricity(kWh/tonne EAF steel)350 kWh 600 kWh Tonnes CO2e

91、/tonne EAF steel 0 0.60 Thermal energy Source Natural gas Coal Amount(kWh/tonne EAF steel)35 35 Tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel)0.015 0.035 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel)0.019 0.646 Resources for the Future 15 Range of GGIs Based on GHG Emissions from Production of Electric Arc Furnace Steel Based on

92、75 Percent Scrap and 25 Percent Basic Oxygen Steel Low Emissions High Emissions From 75%scrap Tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel 0.014 0.484 From 25%basic oxygen steel Tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel 0.523 0.76 GGI(tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF steel)0.537 1.24 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Alu

93、minum Industries at the Product Level 16 C.Contributions(in Percent)to GGI of Aluminum and Steel Productsfrom Various Raw Materials,Electricity,and Thermal EnergyThe following results present the percent contribution to the high or low GGI for the named product of each of the major contributors to t

94、he GGI of the principal product.Low GGI High GGI Primary unwrought aluminum(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al)2.12 19.6%contribution of key inputs Alumina 19 9 Anode 74 9 Anode effect PFCs 8 1 Electricity 0 82 101 101 Secondary unwrought aluminum from 100%scrap(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al)0.241 0.535%contribution of ke

95、y inputs Electricity 0 21 Thermal energy 100 79 100 100 Resources for the Future 17 Secondary unwrought aluminum from scrap+25%primary Al(tonnes CO2e/tonne Al)0.706 5.31%contribution of key inputs Power 0 77 Thermal energy 26 6 Alumina in primary 14 8 Anode from primary 55 9 Anode effect PFC 6 1 101

96、 101 Basic Oxygen Furnace Raw Steel(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)2.09 3.03%contribution of key inputs Iron ore 8 9 Coke(incl.coal)87 85 Oxygen 0 3 Limestone 5 4 100 101 Electric arc furnace steel based on 100%scrap(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)0.019 0.645%contribution of key inputs Coke for electrode

97、21 1 Electricity for calcining electrode 0 1 Electricity for EAF furnace 0 93 Thermal energy 79 5 100 100 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 18 Electric arc furnace steel based on 75%scrap+25%BOF steel(tonnes CO2e/tonne raw steel)0.537 1.24

98、%contribution of key inputs From scrap 3 39 From basic oxygen steel 97 61 100 100 Resources for the Future 19 D.Sources of Data Used to Develop GGIs for Aluminum and Steeland Their Raw MaterialsThe following text is primarily copied verbatim from the modules for aluminum,steel,and coal in the RFF re

99、port The Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors(September 27,2022).However,some of the values taken from the modules have been revised to reflect greater variations in ranges of data.In addition,here we augment the previous citation list with additional sources of data.D.1.GHG Em

100、issions from and Contribution to GGIs for Primary UnwroughtAluminumDetermination of the GGI for alumina is made below by using 2019 data from the country group of North America(which includes the United States and Canada)from the International Aluminium Institute.3 The data include the number of ton

101、nes of alumina for which data is reported and the energy used,expressed in terajoule(TJ),from coal,oil,gas,electricity,and other sources used to manufacture the alumina.For North America,1.392 million tonnes of metallurgical alumina are reported with the following sources of energy:one terajoule of

102、fuel oil(which is small enough that it is neglected in this subsequent analysis),5,710 TJ from natural gas,and 3,115 TJ consumed to produce electricity.The contributions to the GGI of alumina are as follows:4 From hydro or coal for electricity:(3,115 TJ/1.392 million tonnes alumina)(277.78 MWh/TJ)(0

103、 or 1.0tonnes CO2e/MWh)=0 or 0.622 tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina;From natural gas or fuel oil for thermal energy:(5,710 TJ/1.392 million tonnes alumina)(0.9478Btu/1,000 joule)(0.0532 or 0.0733 tonnes CO2e/MBtu gas)=0.207 or 0.285 tonnes CO2e/tonnealumina;Thus,the contribution to the GGI for alumina from

104、 electricity and thermal energy derived from hydroand natural gas is(0+0.207)tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina=0.207 tonnes CO2e/tonne,while from coaland fuel oil the contribution is 0.622+0.285=0.907 tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina).Bauxite is the raw material for alumina.It is mined and then processed into alum

105、ina.Between two and three tonnes of bauxite are required per tonne of alumina,as well as 5 kWh electricity and 0.0015 tonnes fuel oil per tonne of bauxite to mine the bauxite.5 3 See:https:/www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/.4 See:https:/international-aluminium.org/statistics/metallurgical-alumina-

106、refining-fuel-consumption/.5 See:Aluminum for future Generations;Efficiency.https:/bauxite.worldaluminium.org/refining/energy-efficiency/)and Aluminum for Future Generations;Refining Process.Mining and Refining Process(world-aluminium.org)The link to the originally cited source for this footnote is

107、now marked as compromised.An equivalent source for this generic information is:https:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 20 The contribution to the GGI of bauxite from mining is as follows:From coal for e

108、lectricity:(5 kWh/tonne of bauxite)(1.00 tonnes CO2e)/(1000 kWh)=0.005 tonnesCO2e/tonne bauxite;From fuel oil=(0.0015 tonnes fuel oil/tonne bauxite)(3.50 or 3.82 tonnes CO2e/tonne fuel oil)=0.00525 or 0.00573 tonnes CO2e/tonne bauxite;Thus,the contribution to GGI from mining bauxite is(0.0 or 0.005+

109、0.00525 or 0.00573)tonnesCO2e/tonne bauxite=0.00525 or 0.0107 tonnes CO2e/tonne of bauxite.The contribution to the GGI of alumina from mining bauxite is as follows:(0.00525 or 0.0107 tonnes CO2e/tonne bauxite)(2 or 3 tonnes bauxite/tonne alumina)=0.0105 or 0.0321 tonnes CO2e/tonne alumina.Obviously,

110、it will be important to obtain accurate data on the materials and processes used to produce alumina.6 For fuel oil in this report,we use GGI=3.18 tonnes CO2e/tonne fuel oil,based on our analysis that cumulative GHG emissions from oil production and refining to manufacture fuel oil are 10 percent to

111、20 percent greater than that from its carbon content alone(See Table 1“Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors:Petroleum Refinery Products”Sept.2022,Flannery,Mares).Table 1 of the introduction to the report Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors(Sept.2022,Flann

112、ery,Mares)provides estimates of reference CO2(not CO2e)emissions from electricity and thermal energy derived from fossil fuels(using data from the US EPA).For thermal energy derived from natural gasand coal,respectively,Table 1 lists GGI as 0.0532 and 0.0935 tonnes CO2/tonne.For electricity derived

113、from natural gas and coal respectively,Table 1 lists GGI as 0.42 and 1.00 tonnes CO2/MWh.Table 2 of the same report(using results from a 2011 report published by the World Nuclear Association),lists estimates of the wide range of GHG emissions from various sources of electricity generation around th

114、e world.For electricity generated from coal,they cite a range 0.756 to 1.310 tonnes CO2e/MWh.For electricity generated from natural gas,they cite a range 0.362-0.891 tonnes CO2e/MWh.These estimates for natural gas and coal do not take into account emissions required to produce,process,and transport

115、these fuels.In particular,for natural gas lost or consumed in production and transport,estimates range in amounts from 0.005 MCF/MCF to 0.03 MCF/MCF or even higher according to various sources.Since pet coke is over 75 percent of the anode raw material,this analysis assumes it is 100 percent of the

116、raw material.CRS 2013 Petroleum Study Table 3 indicates carbon range for pet coke is 89 to 92 percent.This analysis assumes the carbon content of pet coke is 90.5 percent,which is used here with(44 tonnes CO2/12 tonnes carbon)(1.038 tonnes pet coke/tonne anode)(0.905 tonnes carbon/tonne pet coke)or

117、3.44 tonnes CO2/tonne anode.The EIA coal study indicates that bituminous coal has a carbon content of 45 to 86 percent carbon and represents 45 percent of 2021 production while sub-bituminous coal has a carbon content of 35 to 45 percent 6(see footnote 5)Resources for the Future 21 and represents 46

118、 percent of such production.7 This range of carbon content was not used in the GGI analyses for coal above.Electrolysis of primary aluminum requires 12 to 16 MWh/tonne aluminum.8 D.2.GHG Emissions from and Contribution to GGIs for Unwrought SecondaryAluminumUnwrought secondary aluminum is covered by

119、 NAICS Code 331314.Unwrought secondary aluminum has essentially no raw materials other than scrap aluminum and sometimes primary aluminum as well.Thus,the only component of its GGI is from the energy used to smelt the scrap and potentially some primary aluminum.However,since reports of amounts of pr

120、imary aluminum used in secondary aluminum have not been obtained,estimates of GGI for secondary aluminum assume that no primary aluminum was used in making the secondary aluminum.If even a small percent of primary aluminum is used with scrap aluminum to make secondary aluminum,this will have a signi

121、ficant impact on the GGI.For this analysis,we omit the contribution to CO2e(TOT)from purchased argon,chlorine,quicklime,nitrogen,oxygen,and caustic soda involved in making secondary aluminum.Assume all secondary aluminum is made in a remelting furnace1,047 kg of aluminum scrap is needed to produce 1

122、,000 kg of aluminumand that unwrought secondary production is almost all natural-gas fired.9 The total energy consumption to remelt scrap into secondary aluminum is 110.3 kWh of electricity and 4,789 MJ of thermal energy from natural gas per tonne of secondary aluminum.Contributions to CO2e(TOT)are

123、as follows:Electricity:(110.3 kWh/tonne aluminum)(0.42 tonnes CO2e/1,000 kWh)=0.046 tonnes CO2e/tonnealuminum,if natural gas is used for electricity;Thermal energy:(4,789 MJ)(1 MBtu/1,055 MJ)(0.0532 tonnes CO2e/MBtu gas)=0.241 tonnesCO2e/tonne aluminum,if natural gas used for remelting;GGI for unwro

124、ught secondary aluminum,excluding energy consumption and GHG emissions relatedto scrap raw material:(0.046+0.241)tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum=0.287 tonnes CO2e/tonnealuminum,if natural gas is used for electricity and remelting;7“Coal explained”(US Energy information Agency),https:/www.eia.gov/energyex

125、plained/coal/#:text=Bituminous%20coal%20contains%2045%2586,U.S.%20coal%20production%20in%202021 8“Quantifying the Carbon Footprint of the Alouette Primary Aluminum Smelter(2022)https:/ 9 The sources of data for secondary aluminum are the following:Dai,Q.et al.2015.Updated Life-Cycle Analysis of Alum

126、inum Production and Semi-Fabrication for the GREET Model.Argonne National Laboratory.https:/publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2015/10/121291.pdf,and The Environmental Footprint of Semi-Finished Aluminum Products in North America:A Life-Cycle Assessment Report.https:/www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/2

127、022-01/2022_Semi-Fab_LCA_Report.pdf Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 22 GGI for unwrought secondary aluminum,excluding energy consumption and GHG emissions relatedto scrap raw material:(0.11+0.424)tonnes CO2e/tonne aluminum=0.534 tonnes C

128、O2e/tonnealuminum if coal is used for electricity and gas for remelting.Scrap is assumed to have no GHG emissions per tonne and the GHG emissions from use of small amounts of gases,quicklime and caustic soda are not known or considered.Since some secondary aluminum has primary aluminum as an input,t

129、his analysis assumes one case has no primary and the other has 25 percent primary.D.3.GHG Emissions from and Contribution to GGIs for Basic Oxygen SteelWe begin this section with an example that illustrates the major sources of GHG emissions that contribute to the determination of GGI for raw steel

130、from a basic oxygen furnace(BOF).The raw material for BOF steel is usually pig iron from a blast furnace.That,in turn,is further processed to raw steel with coke from converted coal,and limestone that decomposes into CO2 and calcium oxide when heated.We use less recent data from various sources and

131、use information from the 2022 report Steel Climate Impact:An International Benchmarking of Energy and CO2 Intensities that provides more uniform,up-to-date estimates and comparisons of CO2 emissions in 2019 from manufacturing steel in the United States and fifteen other countries using both the basi

132、c oxygen and electric arc furnace.10 The following example illustrates how a manufacturer would compute its GGI for BOF raw steel.It describes contributions to CO2e(TOT)from iron ore mining and processing;pelletizing iron ore;bituminous coal mining;use of coke,oxygen,and limestone;and from use of fo

133、ssil fuel for thermal energy and electricity for the blast furnace and basic oxygen furnace.Contributions to CO2e(TOT)are as follows:Iron ore mining and pelletizing:The 2002 report Energy and Environmental Profile of the US MiningIndustry indicates that 94,400 Btu are required to extract and process

134、 the ore.11 This results in acontribution(94,400 Btu/short ton)(1.1 short tons/tonne)(0.0733 tonnes CO2e/MBtu)=0.0076tonnes CO2e/tonne ore.Iron ore pelletizing:A 2013 report by Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory indicatesthat the energy consumed by pelletizing iron ore is 2.1 GJ/short ton.12 This results

135、in a contribution of(2.1 GJ/short ton iron ore)(1.1 short ton/tonne)(947,800 Btu/GJ)(0.0733 tonnes CO2e/MBtu from fueloil)=0.160 tonnes CO2e/tonne iron ore.Iron ore total:The total contribution from mining andpelletizing iron ore is 0.168 tonnes CO2e/tonne ore.Bituminous Coal Mining:The coke needed

136、is assumed to be produced from bituminous coal minedunderground.A decades-old study for the US Department of Energy indicates that 420,000 Btu/shortton coal are required for an underground coal mine and beneficiation of the coal,while 77,300Btu/short ton are required for surface mining plus 94,500 B

137、tu for beneficiation.13 Assuming the coal isfrom underground and that oil products are the major energy source,the contribution to CO2e(TOT)10 See:Ali Hasanbeigi,Steel Climate Impact:An International Benchmarking of Energy and CO2 Intensities,April 7,2022.https:/www.ourenergypolicy.org/resources/ste

138、el-climate-impactan-international-benchmarking-of-energy-and-co2-intensities/.11 See:ITP Mining:Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Mining Industry:Chapter 4:Iron)December 2002.12 Hasanbeigi,Ali,and Lynn Price.2013.Emerging Energy-Efficiency and Carbon Dioxide Emissions-Reduction Technologies

139、 for the Iron and Steel Industry.https:/china.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/guidebooks/6106e-steel-tech.pdf 13 ITP Mining:Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Mining Industry.December 2002:Chapter 2:Coal Resources for the Future 23=(420,000 Btu/short ton coal)(1.1 short ton/tonne)(0.0733 tonne C

140、O2e/MBtu)=0.034 tonnes CO2e/tonne coal.Coke:Approximately 1.5 tonnes of coal(which we assume is 65 percent carbon)14 produce 1 tonne ofcoke.15 The report cited in footnote 7 indicates that 5.5 to 6.5 GJ thermal energy from natural gas arerequired to produce a ton of coke,which we assume to be 90 or

141、93 percent carbon.16 These result in amaximum contribution to CO2e(TOT)from coke of(1.5 tonnes coal/tonne coke)(0.034 tonnesCO2e/tonne mined coal)+(6.5 GJ/short ton coke)(1.1 short tons/tonne)(947,800 Btu/GJ)(0.0733tonnes CO2e/MBtu from fuel oil)+(0.93 tonnes carbon/tonne coke)(44 tonnes CO2/12 tonn

142、escarbon)=3.96 tonnes CO2e/tonne coke.Oxygen:The module on industrial gases estimates that the GGI for oxygen(O2)is 0.525 tonnesCO2e/tonne O2,based on producing 95 percent O2 using the PSA process with electricity derived fromcoal as fuel.Limestone:Limestone is composed primarily of calcium carbonat

143、e(CaCO3);it disintegrates in theblast furnace to CO2 and calcium oxide that becomes part of slag.We assume that the contributionfrom limestone is 44 tonnes CO2 per 100 tonnes limestone=0.44 tonnes CO2/tonne limestone(seealso the module on cement).A 1986 EPA publication and World Steel Raw Materials

144、publication indicate that the production of 1 tonne of iron requires 1.4 to 1.6 tonnes of ore,0.5 to 0.65 tonnes of coke,and 0.25 tonnes of limestone.17 According to Britannica,110 cubic meters of oxygen are required per tonne of BOF raw steel.18 So,the high GGI for BOF raw steel would be determined

145、 as follows:GGI=CO2e(TOT)per tonne BOF raw steel=(1.6 tonnes ore/tonne raw steel)(0.168 tonnes CO2e/tonne ore)+(0.65 tonnes coke/tonne raw steel)(3.96 tonnes CO2e/tonne coke)+(0.25 tonnes limestone/tonne raw steel)(0.44 tonnes CO2/tonne limestone)+(110 cubic meters O2/tonne BOF raw steel)(0.0014 ton

146、nes O2/cubic meter O2)(0.525 tonnesCO2e/tonne O2)=(0.269+2.58+0.11+0.081)tonnes CO2e/tonne BOF raw steel=3.04 tonnes CO2e/tonne BOF raw steel.14 See:Bowen,B.H.and M.W.Irwin Coal Characteristics.2008,https:/www.purdue.edu/discoverypark/energy/assets/pdfs/cctr/outreach/Basics8-CoalCharacteristics-Oct0

147、8.pdf 15 See:https:/ How Steel is Made,American Iron and Steel Institute.https:/www.steel.org/steel-technology/steel-production/17 See:AP 42,Fifth Edition,Volume I Chapter 12:Metallurgical Industry October 1986.https:/www.epa.gov/air-emissions-factors-and-quantification/ap-42-fifth-edition-volumei-c

148、hapter-12-metallurgical-0 18 See:https:/ Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at the Product Level 24 According to a 2018 report,cryogenic oxygen facilities making oxygen at 95 percent purity use 175 to 225 kWh tonne O2 and the pressure swing absorption process u

149、ses 525 kWh/tonne O2.19 Coke is a porous,hard black rock of concentrated carbon(contains 90 to 93 percent carbon).20 D.4.GHG Emissions from and Contribution to GGIs for Electric Arc Furnace SteelBased Totally on ScrapThe GGI for electric arc furnace(EAF)raw steel is based on the electricity used to

150、manufacture the steel,which can be generated from coal,natural gas,or non-fossil sources.Each such source will result in a different GGI for the steel.The scrap input does not impact the GGI.If feedstocks include HBI,pig iron,or iron,their GGIs will contribute to the GGI for the electric arc furnace

151、 raw steel.As in the previous section,we begin with an example that illustrates the major sources of GHG emissions that contribute to the following information about EAF steel:On a global basis,scrap is about 75 percent of metal inputs,direct reduced iron and hot briquetted iron(DRI and HBI)provide

152、about 15 percent,with the balance 10 percent being pig iron and hot metal.The graphite electrode,which is calcined at the rate of 3,000 to 5,000 kWh/tonne coke,is consumed at the rate of about 1.1 kg/tonne iron,and 391 kWh/tonne steel and 35 kWh/tonne thermal energy provided by natural gas.21 Other

153、reports indicate that the electricity consumed for EAF steel ranges between 360 kWh/tonne and 600 kWh/tonne.22 If the EAF steel is produced solely from scrap,the scrap would not contribute to the CO2e(TOT)(see Section 4.3 of Framework Proposal for a US Upstream GHG Tax with WTO-Compliant Border Adju

154、stments:2020 Update(Report 20-14 October 201923)for a discussion of the treatment of scrap).Contributions to GGI based on 600 kWh/tonne steel electricity use and thermal energy and electricity derived from coal occur as follows:Electrode:(1.1 kg graphite/tonne EAF)(1 tonne graphite/1000 kg graphite)

155、(1 tonne carbon/tonnegraphite)(44 tonnes CO2/12 tonnes carbon)=0.004 tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF raw steel;Electricity:(600 kWh/tonne EAF steel)(1.0 tonnes CO2e/1,000 kWh)=0.600 tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF;Electricity(5,000 kWh/tonne coke)for calcining electrode 0.0007 tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF;Thermal energy:(35 k

156、Wh/tonne EAF steel)(1.0 tonnes CO2e/1000 kWh)=0.035 tonnes CO2e/tonneEAF raw steel;Other non-scrap feedstocks(HBI,pig iron,iron):These are assumed to amount to 25 percent byweight of the EAF raw steel.We assume that the GGI for these feedstocks is the same as that for BOF19 See:Gas Technology Instit

157、ute.2018.Emerging and Existing Oxygen Production Technology Scan and Evaluation.GTI Project Number 22164.Des Plaines,Illinois.20 How Steel is Made,American Iron and Steel Institute.https:/www.steel.org/steel-technology/steel-production/#:text=How%20Steel%20Is%20Made,produced%20one%20ton%20per%20day.

158、21 For calcining the electrode see:“Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking“by Jeremy A.T.Jones,Nupro Corporation,Steelworks,American Iron and Steel Institute,2008 22 See https:/ Electric Arc Furnace Energy Consumption,see also http:/ https:/www.rff.org/publications/reports/framework-proposal-us-upstream-g

159、hg-tax-wto-compliant-border-adjustments-2020-update/Resources for the Future 25 raw steel:based on coal(0.25 tonnes other/tonne EAF)(3.04 tonnes CO2e/tonne other)=0.758 tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF raw steel.GGI for EAF based on 25 percent basic oxygen steel=CO2e(TOT)per tonne EAF raw steel;=(0.75)(0.640)+

160、0.758=0.48+0.758=1.24 tonnes CO2e/tonne EAF raw steel Note that the contribution from non-scrap feedstock is significant.Electrodes are calcined three times to convert needle coke to electrodes.Assume coke raw material has the same GGI as coke for basic oxygen steel(although it is based on pet coke

161、and the other is based on coal)and the same electricity use as EAF steel.This analysis includes electricity for calcining electrodes for EAF steel,whereas Working Paper 22-16 M6 Greenhouse Gas Index for Products does not.Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensities of the Steel and Aluminum Industries at th

162、e Product Level 26 Appendix:Border Adjustment Reports and Blogs RFF Issue Brief:Carbon taxes,trade,and border adjustments,Brian P.Flannery,April 20,2016.http:/www.rff.org/research/publications/carbon-taxes-trade-and-border-tax-adjustments RFF Blog:Solution to a Vexing Climate Policy Problem:WTO-Comp

163、liant Border Adjustments,Brian P.Flannery,March 15,2018.http:/www.rff.org/blog/2018/solution-vexing-climate-policy-problem-wto-compliant-border-adjustments RFF Working Paper:Framework Proposal for a US Upstream Greenhouse Gas Tax with WTO-Compliant Border Adjustments,Brian P.Flannery,Jennifer Hillma

164、n,Jan W.Mares,and Matthew Porterfield,March 15,2018,updated October 2018.http:/www.rff.org/research/publications/framework-proposal-us-upstream-greenhouse-gas-tax-wto-compliant-border RFF Resources Magazine:Solving a Climate Policy Problem with Smart Design:WTO-Compliant Border Adjustments,Brian P.F

165、lannery,Resources Magazine,Issue 198(July 10,2018).https:/www.resourcesmag.org/archives/solving-a-climate-policy-problem-with-smart-design-wto-compliant-border-adjustments/RFF Blog:Determining WTO-Compliant Border Tax Adjustments for 35 Energy-Intense,Trade-Exposed Industries,Brian P.Flannery and Ja

166、n W Mares,Oct 30,2018.http:/www.rff.org/blog/2018/determining-wto-compliant-border-tax-adjustments-35-energy-intense-trade-exposedRFF Working Paper:WTO-Compatible Methodologies to Determine Export Rebates and Import Charges for Products of Energy-Intensive,Trade-Exposed Industries,If There Is an Ups

167、tream Tax on Greenhouse Gases,Jan W.Mares and Brian P.Flannery,Oct 30,2018.https:/www.rff.org/publications/working-papers/wto-compatible-methodologies/Comments to the European Union on Commission Issues Concerning a Possible Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism(CBAM),Brian P.Flannery and Jan W Mares,A

168、pril 1,2020.https:/www.rff.org/publications/testimony-and-public-comments/comments-european-union-commission-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism/RFF Blog:Implementing a Framework for Border Tax Adjustments in US Greenhouse Gas Tax Legislation and Regulations,Brian P.Flannery,Oct 23,2020.https:/www.re

169、sourcesmag.org/common-resources/implementing-framework-border-tax-adjustments-us-greenhouse-gas-tax-legislation-and-regulations/RFF Report:Framework Proposal for a US Upstream GHG Tax with WTO-Compliant Border Adjustments:2020 Update,Brian P.Flannery,Jennifer A.Hillman,Jan W.Mares,Matthew C.Porterfi

170、eld,October 23,2020.(originally published March 2018,revised October 2018).http:/rff.org/publications/reports/framework-proposal-us-upstream-ghg-tax-wto-compliant-border-adjustments-2020-update/.RFF Report:Policy Guidance for US GHG Tax Legislation and Regulation:Border Tax Adjustments for Products

171、of Energy-Intensive,Trade-Exposed and other Industries,Brian P.Flannery,Jennifer A.Hillman,Jan W.Mares,and Matthew C.Porterfield,October 23,2020.https:/www.rff.org/publications/reports/policy-guidance-us-ghg-tax-legislation-and-regulation RFF Blog:Accounting for Emissions in Global Trade with a Gree

172、nhouse Gas Index.Brian P.Flannery,October 21,2021.https:/www.resources.org/common-resources/accounting-for-emissions-in-global-trade-with-a-greenhouse-gas-index/RFF Report:Determining the Greenhouse Gas Index for Covered Products of Specific Manufacturers,Brian P.Flannery and Jan W.Mares,October 21,

173、2021.https:/www.rff.org/publications/working-papers/determining-greenhouse-gas-index-covered-products-specific-manufacturers/Resources for the Future 27 RFF Report:Export Rebates and Import Charges for Border Tax Adjustments under an Upstream US GHG Tax:Estimates and Methods,Brian P.Flannery and Jan

174、 W Mares,October 21,2021.https:/www.rff.org/publications/working-papers/export-rebates-and-import-charges-for-border-tax-adjustments-under-an-upstream-us-ghg-tax-estimates-and-methods/RFF Blog:The Greenhouse Gas Index:A Metric for Greenhouse GasIntensive Products,Brian P.Flannery,September 28,2022.h

175、ttps:/www.resources.org/common-resources/the-greenhouse-gas-index-a-metric-for-greenhouse-gasintensive-products/RFF Report:The Greenhouse Gas Index for Products in 39 Industrial Sectors,Brian P.Flannery and Jan W.Mares,September 27,2022.https:/www.rff.org/publications/working-papers/the-greenhouse-gas-index-for-products-in-39-industrial-sectors/