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1、METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPSOECD TECHNICAL PAPERSeptember 2024 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The opinions expressed and

2、arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries.This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the

3、 name of any territory,city or area.This document was drafted by Annelies Deuss.It has benefited from helpful inputs by Olivia Du Bois and Maki Katsube.Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence.By using this w

4、ork,you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Attribution you must cite the work.Translations you must cite the original work,identify changes to the original and add the following text:In the event of any discrepancy between the original work a

5、nd the translation,only the text of original work should be considered valid.Adaptations you must cite the original work and add the following text:This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD.The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as represe

6、nting the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.Third-party material the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work.If using such material,you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.You must not use the OECD lo

7、go,visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration(PCA)Arbitration Rules 2012.The seat of arbitration shall be Pari

8、s(France).The number of arbitrators shall be one Table of Contents 1.Introduction 3 2.Overview of the database 3 3.Commodity coverage 6 4.Type of data collected and data recording rules 7 5.How to access and use the data 11 References 17 Annex A.AMIS agricultural commodities:HS4 and HS6 codes for ve

9、rsions HS2007 and HS2012/HS2017/HS2022 18 Figues Figure 1.Share of AMIS members in global exports of maize,rice,soybeans,and wheat in 2020-22 3 Figure 2.Visual representation of when single and mixed commodity classes occur 7 Figure 3.Illustration to identify the actual implementation period of a po

10、licy that is overwritten by a new policy 15 Tables Table 1.Definitions of export restrictive measures 4 Table 2.Single and mixed commodity classes currently used 6 Table 3.Selected fields in the database and their descriptions 8 Table 4.Units used for each policy measure 10 Table 5.Illustration of h

11、ow an elimination of a policy is recorded in the database 10 Table 6.Illustration of a change to an open-ended policy 14 Table 7.Illustration of a change to a policy with a start date and end date 15 Table 8.Illustration of how an elimination of a policy is recorded in the database 15 Table 9.Illust

12、ration of how export bans with export quotas are recorded in the database 16 Boxes Box 1.Treatment of export restrictions under WTO rules 4 Box 2.The Agricultural Market Information System 5 Box 3.The AMIS Policy Database 11 3 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS O

13、ECD 2024 1.Introduction The OECD has developed a database containing information on export restrictions on staple crops from 2007 onwards.This database provides detailed information for country-specific analysis and presents the information in an aggregate way so as to allow comparisons across count

14、ries,measures,and commodities.The structure of the database allows for tracking the evolution of these export restrictions over time.This document explains in detail how this database has been developed and updated.It also explains how the data have been collected and clarifies how the database can

15、be accessed and used.Should the database be expanded in the future to include more policies,countries or commodities,this document will be revised accordingly.2.Overview of the database The OECD database on export restrictions on staple crops gathers information on six export restrictive measures:ex

16、port prohibitions,export quotas,export taxes,licensing requirements,minimum export prices,and restrictions on customs clearance point for exports(Table 1 provides definitions for these policy measures).Most of these export restrictions are prohibited under World Trade Organisation(WTO)rules with exc

17、eptions that allow their use in certain circumstances(Box 1),except for export taxes,which are allowed under WTO rules.The OECD database does include export taxes since they also restrict exports.The OECD developed this database for the G20 Agricultural Market Information System(AMIS)initiative(Box

18、2).It therefore covers the 28 AMIS members and four AMIS staple crops(wheat,maize,rice,and soybeans).AMIS members are responsible for the majority of global exports of these staple crops:in 2020-22 they represented 94%of world maize exports,77%of world rice exports,95%of world soybean exports and 98

19、%of world wheat exports(Figure 1).Figure 1.Share of AMIS members in global exports of maize,rice,soybeans,and wheat in 2020-22 Source:AMIS(20241).Data is gathered from official legal documents,government websites,and other reliable sources.Only policies that have been implemented or officially annou

20、nced in a legal document have been incorporated.Information on export restrictions has been collected since 2007 and is updated annually.The updating process begins with a verification as to whether past policies remain valid,have been terminated,or replaced by new policies.This process guarantees t

21、hat the evolution of export restrictions can be traced over time.4 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 The database provides both standardised and highly detailed information that enables users to compare policies across commodities and countries,as well

22、 as track the evolution of specific policies over time.This comprehensive overview facilitates a deeper understanding of the landscape of export restrictions.Table 1.Definitions of export restrictive measures Policy measure Definition Export prohibition No exports are permitted.Exceptions may be gra

23、nted through export licenses or quotas.Other terms equivalent to export prohibition are export ban or export embargo.Export quota A prescribed maximum volume of permitted exports.Export tax A tax collected on goods or commodities at the time they leave a customs territory.This tax can be set either

24、on a per unit basis or an ad valorem(value)basis.Other terms equivalent to export tax are export tariff,export duty,export levy or export charge.Licensing requirement Non-automatic export licensing:exporters must obtain prior approval,in form of a license,to export a good or commodity.This practice

25、requires submission of an application or other documentation as a condition for being authorised to export.Export licenses are often used in conjunction with export quotas.Aside from economic reasons,licensing can be applied for non-economic reasons:national security,protection of health,safety,the

26、environment,morality,religion,intellectual property,or compliance with international obligations.Licensing schemes can operate on the basis of product lists of various types,usually lists of banned products or of restricted products that require licenses;be applied to restrict exports by destination

27、(e.g.specific countries);or have other conditions attached,such as a requirement that exportation may only be for a specified purpose.Other terms equivalent to non-automatic licensing:export permit.Minimum export price A minimum allowable price for a good being exported.This practice is often used i

28、n conjunction with export taxes because they can facilitate customs procedures by preventing under-invoicing and can be used as a base to calculate export taxes.In some cases,minimum export prices are not binding but are used as reference prices.Other terms equivalent to minimum export price:adminis

29、tered pricing.Restriction on customs clearance point for exports The government specifies ports/entry points through which export of a good or commodity is to be channeled.Box 1.Treatment of export restrictions under WTO rules Unlike import duties or tariffs,export duties,taxes,or other charges are

30、not prohibited under WTO rules and are not bound nor disciplined,and,therefore,can be adjusted unilaterally.Conversely,Article XI of GATT 1994 explicitly prohibits quantitative export restrictions through quotas,import or export licenses,or other measures.“No prohibitions or restrictions other than

31、duties,taxes or other charges,whether made effective through quotas,import or export licences,or other measures,shall be instituted or maintained by any contracting party on the importation of any product of the territory of any other contracting party or on the exportation or sale for export of any

32、 product destined for the territory of any other contracting party.”Article XI does make exceptions to this rule in paragraph 2(a):“export prohibitions or restrictions temporarily applied to prevent or relieve critical shortages of foodstuffs or other products essential to the exporting contracting

33、party”and in paragraph 2(b)“import and export prohibitions or restrictions necessary to the application of standards or regulations for the classification,grading or marketing of commodities in international trade”.Article XX further allows exemptions for pursuing commodity 5 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD

34、 DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 agreements that conform to accepted conditions of such agreements and exemptions for raw material used in domestic processing.Given that no agreement has been made regarding how long temporary is,and on what is critical or essential in deter

35、mining whether an export ban or restriction is allowable,countries routinely apply export restrictions under these exemptions.Article 12 of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture stipulates that all members instituting an export prohibition or restriction should notify this to the WTO as far in advance as

36、 is practical;the notification should indicate the product covered,duration,nature of,and the justification for the measure.In 2022,trade ministers agreed to exempt food from export restrictions when procured for humanitarian purposes by the World Food Programme(WFP).Box 2.The Agricultural Market In

37、formation System AMIS is an inter-agency platform that aims to avoid or mitigate food price crises by enhancing the transparency of food markets and policy responses.To achieve this,AMIS provides timely information on the global supplies of staple crops(wheat,maize,rice and soybeans)and improves pol

38、icy coordination in international food markets.Launched in 2011 by the G20 Ministers of Agriculture following the food price hikes of 2007-08 and 2010,AMIS is composed of 28 members:the G20 members(Argentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,China,the European Union,France,Germany,India,Indonesia,Italy,Japan,

39、Korea,Mexico,Russia,Saudi Arabia,South Africa,Republic of Trkiye,the United Kingdom,and the United States)plus Spain and seven additional major exporting and importing countries of AMIS crops(Egypt,Kazakhstan,Nigeria,the Philippines,Thailand,Ukraine,and Viet Nam).Together,AMIS participants represent

40、 around 80-90%of global production,consumption and trade volumes of the targeted crops.The AMIS Secretariat consists of ten international organisations:the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO),Group on Earth Observations Global Agricultural Monitoring(GEOGLAM),International Food Policy Research In

41、stitute(IFPRI),International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD),International Grains Council(IGC),OECD,United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD),the World Bank Group,World Food Programme(WFP),and the WTO.Each brings their comparative advantage and expertise to this initiative.T

42、he OECD and WTO lead the work on policy monitoring,reporting,and analysis.Note:For more information,see www.amis-outlook.org.6 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 3.Commodity coverage The commodities included in the database are raw and semi-processed pr

43、oducts that contain wheat,maize,rice,soybeans,or a combination of these products.Commodities are coded following the Harmonised System(HS)codes(Table A A.1 lists the HS4 and HS6 codes included and shows the correspondence between the different HS versions).The Commodity List records these HS codes a

44、s well as the description of the commodities,the HS version,and the country names.It also assigns a commodity class to each HS code.Export quotas may apply to groups of commodities,and hence the value of the quota applies to the group of commodities and not to a single commodity.This group of commod

45、ities is called“shared group”in the database.The Shared Group List specifies the composition of each shared group,including the HS code and HS version of the commodities that make up the shared group.Policy measures can be targeted at specific varieties.To compare policy information for broad commod

46、ity classes,each record(or line of information)in the database gets assigned a specific commodity class.The commodity classes consist of either one of the AMIS commodities(single commodity class)or a combination of AMIS commodities(mixed commodity class).Table 2 lists the commodity classes that are

47、currently used in the database.Table 2.Single and mixed commodity classes currently used Single commodity classes Wheat Rice Maize Soybeans Mixed commodity classes Maize+Soybeans Maize+Wheat Mixed commodity classes occur when a policy measure applies to a group of commodities or shared group,as is t

48、he case for export quotas.These shared groups can consist of commodities that all belong to the same commodity class(e.g.the shared group is composed of four different varieties of maize)or of commodities that belong to different commodity classes(e.g.the shared group is composed of two varieties of

49、 wheat and three varieties of maize).In the former case,the policy measure will be assigned to a single commodity class,while in the latter case,the policy measure will be assigned to a mixed commodity class(Figure 2).7 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 202

50、4 Figure 2.Visual representation of when single and mixed commodity classes occur 4.Type of data collected and data recording rules This database was developed to be incorporated into the AMIS Policy Database and hence contains the same structure and variables as the AMIS Policy Database(Box 3).All

51、variables are described in detail in the AMIS Policy Database methodology document(OECD,20232).Table 3 describes the most important fields used in the OECD database on export restrictions and indicates their type of entry.There are four options for the type of entry:Closed list:A fixed set of harmon

52、ised options is possible,which is unlikely to change between updates of the database(e.g.the 28 AMIS members)Open list:A fixed set of harmonised options is possible,but this set can be expanded between updates of the database(e.g.a new unit might be used).Date:DD/MM/YYYY Free text:Free text entry wh

53、ich is not harmonised(e.g.notes,hyperlinks,legislation)When recording information in the database,certain rules were applied.These rules are described in the sections below.To compare policy information across commodities and countries and to trace the evolution of a specific policy on a specific co

54、mmodity in a selected country over time,certain variables in the database are represented by a code.The Codelist includes these codes and their descriptions.8 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 Table 3.Selected fields in the database and their descripti

55、ons Field name Type of entry Description Country_Name Closed list Name of country.PolicyMeasure_Name Closed list Name of policy measure.HS_Code Open list HS code of the commodity affected by the policy measure.The most detailed HS Code is recorded.HS_version Closed list Version of the HS nomenclatur

56、e.Since the HS4 and HS6 codes for the commodities in the database did not change between HS versions 2012,2017 and 2022,only two HS versions are entered:2007 and 2012.Description Open list Description of the commodity.For HS4 and HS6 codes the World Customs Organization(WCO)harmonised descriptions a

57、re used.For higher HS codes the description in the source document is used.Short_description Open list Short description of the commodity.CommodityClass_Name Open list Name of the commodity class.See Table 1.Shared_Group_Code Open list If an export quota applies to a group of commodities,this group

58、of commodities is identified by the“”T Shared Group List.Start_Date Date Date when the policy measure entered into force,was extended or was modified.If not available,the date of publication is used.End_Date Date Ending date of the policy measure.See Section 0 Imposed_End_Date Closed list“”,empty ot

59、herwise.See Section 0 Date_Of_Publication Date Date when the measure was officially published.If not available,the start date is used.Condition Open list Explains which strict conditions apply to the policy measure.For example:When an export quota is applied to exports to a specific country,then the

60、 condition is Exports to County X.This field can also be used when the specifications of the commodity are not contained in the HS code,e.g.organic wheat or 15%broken rice.If no conditions apply,this field “”Value Free text Numerical value of the policy measure.See Section 0.Units Open list Specifie

61、s the unit(e.g.%,USD,million tonnes).See Section 0.Value_Text Free text Descriptive value of the policy measure.See Section 0.Link Free text Hyperlink(s)to the title of notice,official government website,legal document,report or international organisation that contains the information.When more than

62、 one hyperlink is provided,the first link usually refers to the legal document if available,while the second one can refer to the government website or to a relevant report.Link_pdf Free text Hyperlinks sometimes become inactive.To avoid losing the information that is displayed on the websites,each

63、hyperlink is saved as a pdf.Source Free text Name of the agency hosting the information.Title_Of_Notice Free text Title of the notice or document providing information about the measure.Legal_Basis_Name Free text Title of the law,regulation,or decree authorising or mandating the measure.Exemptions F

64、ree text Specifies which countries,firms or commodities are exempted from a particular policy measure.This field is empty when no exemptions are granted.Notes Free text Contains relevant information that could not be recorded in any of the other fields.Measure_Descr Free text Contains additional inf

65、ormation on the policy measure as specified in the legal document.Product_Original_HS Open list HS code as specified in the source document.This field is not always filled in and can be a repetition of the field HS_Code.This field needs to be completed if the source document only mentions a HS2 or H

66、S4 code(Section 0).Product_Original_Name Free text Original product name as specified in the source document.This field is not always filled in and can be a repetition of the field Description.This field needs to be completed if the source document only mentions a commodity name(Section 0).Commodity

67、_ID Open list A commodity ID has been created for each unique combination of the following five fields:Country_Name HS_Code HS_Version Description Shared_Group_Code The Commodity List provides the complete description of all commodities and their codes.9 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RE

68、STRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 4.1 Collecting and recording commodity information For policy measures that apply to one commodity,the source document in most cases refers to one or several HS codes,which can be HS2,HS4,HS6,HS8,or above.Annex A lists the HS4 and HS6 codes for HS version 2007 an

69、d HS versions 2012,2017,and 2022 of the agricultural commodities that are considered in the database.When the HS code is longer than six digits,only those HS codes for which the first six digits coincide with the HS6 codes in Annex A are taken into consideration.The following rules are followed to r

70、ecord the HS code:The general rule is that the most detailed HS code is always recorded in the database.That is,if the source document mentions an HS8 code 10061000,this code will be recorded and not the higher level HS6 code 100610.If the source document specifies an HS4(or HS2)code,then as many da

71、ta lines as HS6 codes exist under the given HS4(or HS2)are recorded in the database.For example,if the source document specifies HS4 code 1001,then one data line for each HS6 code is created.Hence lines are created for the following four HS6 codes that belong to HS4 code 1001:100111,100119,100191 an

72、d 100199(in the HS version HS2012),and the policy information is repeated in each line.If the source document does not specify the HS code but only the commodity,then the appropriate HS6 codes are entered.Consider,for example,a measure that applies explicitly to rice.In this case,four data lines are

73、 created,one for each of the following HS6 codes:100610,100620,100630,and 100640,and the policy information is repeated in each line.The reasoning behind the latter two rules is that they allow for comparisons across countries at the most detailed and harmonised commodity level,which is the HS6 leve

74、l.In these latter two cases,the original HS code and original commodity are also recorded in the database in the fields Product_Original_HS and Product_Original_Name,respectively.For export quotas that are applied to a group of commodities,the composition of the shared group is recorded in the Share

75、d Group List.Each shared group is identified by a code and a name.The Shared Group Code is the concatenation of the ISO-3 code of the country,the letter R,followed by a three-digit code.The shared group is also assigned a name,Shared Group Name,which is the description of the shared group.In certain

76、 cases,the shared group will be composed of commodities that are not AMIS commodities.The rule applied is that as long as the shared group is composed of at least one AMIS commodity,it will be considered in the database.CPL_ID Open list The CPL ID stands for the Commodity-Policy-Location ID and is c

77、reated to track a specific policy on a specific commodity in a specific location over time.The CPL ID is created for every unique combination of eight fields,which each relate either to a location specification,a commodity specification,or a policy specification.These eight fields are:Country_Name(l

78、ocation)CommodityDomain_Name(commodity)Commodity_ID(commodity)PolicyDomain_Name(policy)PolicyType_Name(policy)PolicyMeasure_Name(policy)Condition(policy)IndividualPolicy_Name(policy)Policy_ID Open list Each record in the database gets associated a unique ID 10 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXP

79、ORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 4.2 Recoding values and units The value of a measure can be numerical(e.g.3%)or descriptive(e.g.0.0917 USD/kg plus 6%).A numerical value and a descriptive value are shown in two different fields,namely Value and Value_Text.These two fields are mutually excl

80、usive.A numerical value is always accompanied by the unit of the value,which is listed in the field Units.When the value is descriptive,i.e.it is entered in the field Value_Text,then the field Units will be left empty since the units are already indicated in the field Value_Text.Certain units have b

81、een harmonised(e.g.gallons have been converted to litres and cents have been converted to dollars).Currencies are converted to the official three-letter ISO 4217 codes.Table 4 lists the different units that are used per policy measure.When the policy measure is an export prohibition,licensing requir

82、ement or a restriction on customs clearance point for exports then the fields Value,Units and Value_Text are all left empty.When a source document explicitly states that a policy measure has been eliminated,then an extra data line is created in the database.In this case,the word elim is entered in t

83、he field Value_Text.Table 4.Units used for each policy measure Policy measure Units Export prohibition The fields Value,Value_Text and Unit are blank Export quota Volume(e.g.tonnes)or volume per period(e.g.tonnes/month)as reported by the official source.If no end date is specified in the source docu

84、ment,then the quota finishes once it is filled Export tax Percentage(ad valorem tax)or price per quantity(e.g.USD/tonne)Licensing requirement The fields Value,Value_Text and Unit are blank Minimum export price Price per quantity Restriction on customs clearance point for exports The fields Value,Val

85、ue_Text and Unit are blank 4.3 Recording the end date The end date can be empty if no end date is specified in the source document.The end date can also be added later on in case a new policy measure replaces an older policy measure.In this case,the end date of the older policy measure is automatica

86、lly set to one day before the start date of the new policy measure and the field Imposed_End_Date is filled with“yes”.Similarly,if a policy originally did not have an end date but is eliminated at some point in time,then the end date of the policy is set to one day before the elimination date and a

87、new data line is created in the database that records the elimination of the policy.The field Imposed_End_Date is filled with“yes”for the policy,and the field Value_Text for the data line that records the elimination is filled with elim.In the latter case,consider a policy which started on 01-01-200

88、9 and for which no end date was specified in the source document.Suppose that a new legislation is published later with the express purpose to eliminate this specific policy on 15-06-2010.In this case,the information in the database will be filled in as shown in Table 5.Table 5.Illustration of how a

89、n elimination of a policy is recorded in the database CPL_ID Start_Date End_Date Units Value Value_Text Imposed End_date 67 01-01-2009 14-06-2010%5 yes 67 15-06-2010 elim 11 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 Box 3.The AMIS Policy Database The AMIS Poli

90、cy Database gathers information on trade and domestic policies that are likely to impact the prices,trade and production of the four AMIS crops in the 28 AMIS countries.The AMIS Policy Database was developed by the OECD and is populated with data from two sources:the OECD and the WTO.The integration

91、 of the different datasets into the AMIS Policy Database required harmonisation in structure,nomenclature,description,units,and policy and commodity classifications.The complete AMIS Policy Database can be downloaded from the online application https:/www.oecd.org/agriculture/amis-policy-database/.T

92、he online application is not only a repository of the database,but also an analytical tool that provides both a concise and an in-depth overview of the database.The AMIS Policy Database is updated once a year.5.How to access and use the data The OECD database on export restrictions on staple crops c

93、an be accessed in two versions:the detailed version and the aggregated version.Both versions can be downloaded from the AMIS Policy Database website.The detailed version is the complete version of the database.It contains information on all the fields described in Section 4.The detailed version of t

94、he database is particularly useful to understand the timing of policies,their value(e.g.value of the tax or quota volume),the HS codes that were targeted,the conditions of the policy,and the countries that were exempted.It also shows whether a policy was eliminated or replaced by a more recent polic

95、y.The detailed version can be the basis of in-depth policy briefs that examine for example the evolution of export restrictions in a specific country.To avoid incorrect use of the information in the detailed version,the next section provides practical recommendations on how to use and not use the in

96、formation on export restrictions1.The aggregated version of the database collapses the information from the detailed version to facilitate visual comparisons across time,countries,policies and commodities.The aggregated version is obtained 1 These recommendations are also published in a guide on the

97、 AMIS Policy Database website.12 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 by counting,for each country,the measures with the same“commodity class name,”“policy measure name,”“publication date,”“start date,”and“end date”as one.The aggregated version is useful

98、for broader overviews of the trends between countries and commodities and is the basis of the figures on the website2 and in the overview paper(OECD,20243).5.1 Practical recommendations on how to(not)use the detailed version of the database This section provides practical recommendations on how to u

99、se the information in the detailed version of the database.The complex nature of export restrictions implies that it is not always straightforward to record and classify this type of information.This section therefore highlights some issues that should be taken into consideration when using the data

100、 in the detailed version for analytical purposes and graphical representations.The main purpose is to avoid the incorrect use of the information as this could lead to incorrect interpretations and conclusions.Recommendation 1:Do not simply count policy measures Each line in the database contains inf

101、ormation on a specific policy in a specific country on a specific commodity.Even though it is tempting to count the number of policies in a certain country for a selected commodity(e.g.wheat),it is strongly advised not to do this as it would invariably lead to incorrect interpretations.There are sev

102、eral reasons why the number of policy measures should not be counted in this simple way.Counting the number of policy measures ignores whether the policy applied to a very specific commodity or a broader category.Policy measures can be applied to a broad category(e.g.HS4 level)or to a specific categ

103、ory(e.g.HS8 level).Consider for example country A which has three export taxes on three detailed categories of wheat(HS8 level)and country B which has only one export tax on a broad category of wheat(HS4 level).By simply counting the number of measures,one might conclude that since country A has thr

104、ee export taxes and country B has only one export tax,country A is more export restrictive than country B for wheat.However,this conclusion is incorrect as it ignores that by imposing one export tax on a broad category country B might prohibit exports much more than country A with three export taxes

105、.Counting the number of policy measures might give too much importance to minor policy changes.Countries can make small changes to their policies and most of these changes are documented in the database.The actual impact of these small changes on trade flows might be minimal in some cases.Consider f

106、or example country A and country B which both implement a minimum export price on a specific variety of maize starting on 1-1-2010.During the next couple of months,country A might publish several notifications that provide extra explanations or provisions for this export price,while country B does n

107、ot publish any additional notifications.In the end,the minimum export price remained at the same level in both countries.By simply counting the policy measures,one might conclude that country A has implemented more policies than country B.However,this conclusion can be incorrect if the actual minimu

108、m export price did not change in either country and the extra provisions in country A were explanatory in nature.2 See https:/www.oecd.org/agriculture/amis-policy-database/policiesataglance/.13 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 Commodity descriptions a

109、nd HS codes can change under different HS versions.For example,under HS2007,HS code 100110 covered durum wheat.However,under HS2012,this category was split between HS code 100111(durum wheat seed)and HS code 100119(durum wheat other).As a result,a policy on durum wheat under the HS2007 nomenclature

110、would only occupy one line,but would occupy two lines under the HS2012 nomenclature.When counting the number of policy measures,one would conclude that the country moved from one to two measures on durum wheat.However,this is incorrect as the policy measure always covered the same commodity.(Table A

111、 A.1 lists the HS4 and HS6 codes included and shows the correspondence between the different HS versions).Simply counting the number of policy measures might incorrectly include the repealed policies.When policies are repealed,this information is recorded in the database.Even though the policy is no

112、 longer in force,the original policy is not eliminated from the database as it might have influenced production,prices or trade patterns.Consider for example an export tax on rice in country A that was published on 1-1-2010 and that entered in force from 1-1-2010 until 1-1-2015.Suppose that country

113、A removes this tax in a notification that was published on 1-1-2013.The database will record both policies.However,when counting the number of policies on rice,one might conclude that starting from 1-1-2013,two export taxes were implemented in country A,while in reality no export tax was in force fr

114、om 1-1-2013 onwards.More information on how to deal with repealed policies is given in Recommendation 3.Simply counting the number of policy measures might incorrectly include the eliminated policies.Countries can implement a policy without specifying an end date.If a country decides to explicitly e

115、liminate a policy that had no original end date,then this information is recorded in a separate line in the database.In particular,an extra line is created that documents the notification that explicitly eliminates the policy and the Value_Text field is filled with elim.When counting the number of p

116、olicy measures and ignoring the entry in this field,more policies would be counted than are actually implemented.More information on how to deal with eliminated policies is given in Recommendation 4.Simply counting the number of policy measures might lead to double counting.Trade policies can be tar

117、geted at a broad category(equivalent to HS2 or HS4 codes).For export restrictions,the database records as many lines as HS6 codes exist under the given HS4(or HS2)3 code.For example,if an export tax applies to rice(HS4 code 1006),then four lines are created,one for each of the HS6 codes under rice(n

118、amely 110610,100620,100630,and 100640).In this case,the original product name(i.e.rice)and the original HS code(i.e.1006)are recorded in the fields Product_Original_Name and Product_Original_HS in the database.When counting the number of policy measures and ignoring the entries in these fields,more

119、policies would be counted than are actually implemented.Recommendation 2:Count policy measures following specific rules Users of the database may wish to identify the number of specific export restrictions implemented on a specific commodity by a certain country in a selected time period,to compare

120、the number of export restrictions in one country with another country,or to compare the number of these policies between the 3 Refer to section 4 for more information on how commodity information is collected and recorded in the database.14 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON

121、STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 AMIS commodities.As explained in Recommendation 1,it is strongly advised not to simply count policies.Instead,policy measures can be counted only after the data have been transformed to avoid the different issues identified in Recommendation 1.The rules or steps listed below e

122、xplain how the data should be transformed in order to count policies.These steps have been applied to create the aggregated version of the database.Step1:Ignore the lines that report on the elimination of a policy These lines are easily identified because they contain the entry“elim”in the field Val

123、ue_Text.More information about this field is provided in Recommendation 4.Step 2:Check and adjust the actual implementation dates of a policy Countries can decide to introduce a new policy that overwrites a current policy.For example,a country can introduce a policy on 1-1-2010 with a start date of

124、1-1-2010 and an end date of 1-1-2015,but then introduce a new policy on 1-1-2013 that supersedes the current policy.Recommendation 3 explains how to identify the period of implementation of a policy in such cases.Step 3:Collapse the lines for the same commodity group,policy measure,start date,end da

125、te and date of publication To avoid the other issues listed in Recommendation 1,it is advised to collapse for each country the lines that have the same commodity group,policy measure,start date,end date and date of publication.For example,if a country introduces an export tax on three HS10 codes of

126、rice and one HS6 code of maize in one specific legislation(which will show the start date,end date and date of publication of the legislation),then it is recommended to consider this as the country introducing one export tax on rice and one export tax on maize.Recommendation 3:Identify the period of

127、 implementation of a policy Policies can be categorised in two types:policies that are implemented with only a start date(open-ended policies)and policies that have a clear start date and end date.When a change is made to a policy,this is recorded differently for open-ended policies than for policie

128、s with a start and end date.In the former case,the periods of implementation will always be successive while in the latter case,it is possible that the periods of implementation overlap.When there is a change to an open-ended policy(e.g.the value changes or the specifications change),then an end dat

129、e is created for the original policy which corresponds to the start date of the new policy minus one day.To indicate that the end date was created based on a new policy,the field Imposed_End_Date is filled with yes.The new policy is recorded in a new line.Consider for example an open-ended policy wi

130、th a start date of 1-1-2009 and value 5%.Suppose that the value of this policy becomes 8%starting from 15-6-2010.Table 6 illustrates how this change to an open-ended policy is recorded in the database.Table 6.Illustration of a change to an open-ended policy CPL_ID Start_Date End_Date Units Value Imp

131、osed_End_Date 67 01-01-2009 14-06-2010%5 Yes 67 15-06-2010%8 15 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 On the other hand,when there is a change to a policy that has a start date and end date,a new line is created in the database but the end date of the orig

132、inal policy remains unchanged.This implies that if the start date of the new policy occurs before the end date of the original policy,there will be overlapping periods of implementation.When analysing policies it is hence important to consider the field Date_of_Publication as it will indicate until

133、which date the original policy was in effect.This is also valid for policies that are repealed(see example in Recommendation 1).Table 7 provides an example of how a change to a policy with a start date and end date is recorded in the database.Table 6 illustrates how to identify the actual implementa

134、tion periods and values of the policies.In this example,the value of the policy was 4%from 01-01-2010 until 31-12-2012 and 7%from 01-01-2013 onwards.Table 7.Illustration of a change to a policy with a start date and end date CPL_ID Start_Date End_Date Units Value Date of publication Imposed_End_Date

135、 68 01-01-2010 01-01-2015%4 01-01-2010 68 01-01-2013%7 01-01-2013 Figure 3.Illustration to identify the actual implementation period of a policy that is overwritten by a new policy Recommendation 4:Identify policies that have been eliminated When a notification explicitly eliminates an open-ended po

136、licy,a new line of information is created for which the field Value_Text is filled with elim.The original policys end date is set to one day before the date of elimination and the field Imposed_End_Date is filled with yes.Table 8 provides an example of a policy that has been eliminated.When analysin

137、g the data or representing the data in graphs,it is important not to include these lines as they do not report the creation of a new policy.Table 8.Illustration of how an elimination of a policy is recorded in the database CPL_ID Start_Date End_Date Units Value Value_text Imposed_End_Date 72 01-01-2

138、009 03-03-2011%5 yes 72 04-03-2011 elim 012345678Policy published 2010Policy published 2013012345678Actual implementation values16 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 Recommendation 5:Be careful when interpreting licensing requirements When analysing inf

139、ormation on licensing requirements,a few issues need to be kept in mind:The database only collects information on non-automatic export and import licensing,where exporters(importers)must obtain prior approval,in form of a license,to export(import)a good or commodity.This practice requires submission

140、 of an application or other documentation as a condition for being registered and authorised to export(import).Most licensing requirements are open-ended,i.e.they have a start date but no explicit end date.Since countries will rarely explicitly eliminate a licensing requirement and since it is diffi

141、cult to identify whether a new licensing requirement replaces an older one,the information on licensing requirements seems to accumulate over time.That is,as time progresses,the number of licensing requirements increases as the older licensing requirements are rarely ended.This issue should be kept

142、in mind when comparing licensing requirements with other trade restrictive measures,for which it is easier to find end dates.The licensing requirements recorded in the database are very diverse in nature:some licensing requirements just specify packing instructions while others are more cumbersome a

143、s they require registration and bureaucratic procedures.The database only starts recording licensing requirements from 2007 onwards.Hence,any licensing requirements that were in place prior to 2007 are not reported in the database.Export licensing requirements can accompany other export restrictive

144、measures such as export quotas.Recommendation 6:Compare export bans and export quotas It is possible that a country imposes an export ban but allows some exports to a few selected countries.This extra information is collected in the database.The line in the database that records the export ban will

145、indicate in the field Notes that there are export quotas associated with the export ban.For each of these countries,the database will also create a line with the export quota.The field Condition will indicate to which country the quota applies.Consider for example country A that imposes an export ba

146、n on rice,but that allows 15 000 tonnes of rice to be exported to country B and 20 000 tonnes of rice to be exported to country C(Table 9).Table 9.Illustration of how export bans with export quotas are recorded in the database Country_Name PolicyMeasure_Name Condition Start_Date Units Value Notes Co

147、untry A Export prohibition 01-01-2008 Export ban is not applicable to Country B and Country C Country A Export quota Exports to country B 01-01-2008 Tonnes 15 000 Country A Export quota Exports to country C 01-01-2008 Tonnes 20 000 Recommendation 7:Use the field HS_Code to distinguish the raw materi

148、als from semi-processed commodities The database collects policy information on agricultural commodities in their raw and semi-processed form.In the case of trade policies,the field HS_Code allows users to distinguish the raw materials from the semi-processed commodities.Users can identify the lines

149、 that apply to wheat,maize,rice and soybeans in their raw form by selecting HS codes that start with 1001,1005,1006,and 1201,respectively.17 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 References AMIS(2024),AMIS Market Database,https:/app.amis-outlook.org/#/mark

150、et-database/supply-and-demand-overview(accessed on April 2024).1 OECD(2024),“Export restrictions on staple crops since 2007:An overview based on the OECD database on export restrictions on staple crops”,OECD Food,Agriculture and Fisheries Papers,No.210,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/cc

151、fa8a95-en.3 OECD(2023),AMIS Policy Database:Note on Methodology,https:/www.oecd.org/agriculture/amis-policy-database/documents/AMIS-Policy-Database-Note-on-Methodology.pdf.2 World Customs Organisation(2024),Nomenclature and Classification of Goods,https:/www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature.aspx(ac

152、cessed on April 2024).4 18 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 Annex A.AMIS agricultural commodities:HS4 and HS6 codes for versions HS2007 and HS2012/HS2017/HS2022 HS2012/HS2017/HS2022 Description HS2007 Description 1001 Wheat and meslin.1001 Wheat and m

153、eslin.100111-Durum wheat:-Seed 100110-Durum wheat 100119-Durum wheat:-Other 100191-Other:-Seed 100190-Other 100199-Other:-Other 1005 Maize(corn).1005 Maize(corn).100510-Seed 100510-Seed 100590-Other 100590-Other 1006 Rice.1006 Rice.100610-Rice in the husk(paddy or rough)100610-Rice in the husk(paddy

154、 or rough)100620-Husked(brown)rice 100620-Husked(brown)rice 100630-Semi-milled or wholly milled rice,whether or not polished or glazed 100630-Semi-milled or wholly milled rice,whether or not polished or glazed 100640-Broken rice 100640-Broken rice 1101 Wheat or meslin flour.1101 Wheat or meslin flou

155、r.110100 Wheat or meslin flour.110100 Wheat or meslin flour.1102 Cereal flours other than of wheat or meslin.1102 Cereal flours other than of wheat or meslin.110220-Maize(corn)flour 110220-Maize(corn)flour 110290-Other 110290-Other 1103 Cereal groats,meal and pellets.1103 Cereal groats,meal and pell

156、ets.110311-Groats and meal:-Of wheat 110311-Groats and meal:-Of wheat 110313-Groats and meal:-Of maize(corn)110313-Groats and meal:-Of maize(corn)110319-Groats and meal:-Of other cereals 110319-Groats and meal:-Of other cereals 1104 Cereal grains otherwise worked(for example,hulled,rolled,flaked,pea

157、rled,sliced or kibbled),except rice of heading 10.06;germ of cereals,whole,rolled,flaked or ground.1104 Cereal grains otherwise worked(for example,hulled,rolled,flaked,pearled,sliced or kibbled),except rice of heading 10.06;germ of cereals,whole,rolled,flaked or ground.110419-Rolled or flaked grains

158、:-Of other cereals.110419-Rolled or flaked grains:-Of other cereals.110423-Other worked grains(for example,hulled,pearled,sliced or kibbled):-Of maize(corn)110423-Other worked grains(for example,hulled,pearled,sliced or kibbled):-Of maize(corn)110429-Other worked grains(for example,hulled,pearled,sl

159、iced or kibbled):-Of other cereals.110429-Other worked grains(for example,hulled,pearled,sliced or kibbled):-Of other cereals.110430-Germ of cereals,whole,rolled,flaked or ground.110430-Germ of cereals,whole,rolled,flaked or ground.1108 Starches;inulin.1108 Starches;inulin.110811-Starches:-Wheat sta

160、rch 110811-Starches:-Wheat starch 110812-Starches:-Maize(corn)starch 110812-Starches:-Maize(corn)starch 1109 Wheat gluten,whether or not dried.1109 Wheat gluten,whether or not dried.110900 Wheat gluten,whether or not dried.110900 Wheat gluten,whether or not dried.19 METHODOLOGY OF THE OECD DATABASE

161、ON EXPORT RESTRICTIONS ON STAPLE CROPS OECD 2024 HS2012/HS2017/HS2022 Description HS2007 Description 1201 Soya beans,whether or not broken.1201 Soya beans,whether or not broken.120110-Seed 120100 Soya beans,whether or not broken.120190-Other 1208 Flours and meals of oil seeds or oleaginous fruits,ot

162、her than those of mustard.1208 Flours and meals of oil seeds or oleaginous fruits,other than those of mustard.120810-Of soya beans 120810-Of soya beans 1507 Soya-bean oil and its fractions,whether or not refined,but not chemically modified.1507 Soya-bean oil and its fractions,whether or not refined,

163、but not chemically modified.150710-Crude oil,whether or not degummed 150710-Crude oil,whether or not degummed 150790-Other 150790-Other 1515 Other fixed vegetable fats and oils(including jojoba oil)and their fractions,whether or not refined,but not chemically modified.1515 Other fixed vegetable fats

164、 and oils(including jojoba oil)and their fractions,whether or not refined,but not chemically modified.151521-Maize(corn)oil and its fractions:-Crude oil 151521-Maize(corn)oil and its fractions:-Crude oil 151529-Maize(corn)oil and its fractions:-Other 151529-Maize(corn)oil and its fractions:-Other 19

165、04 Prepared foods obtained by the swelling or roasting of cereals or cereal products;cereals(other than maize(corn)in grain form or in the form of flakes or other worked grains(except flour,groats and meal),pre-cooked,or otherwise prepared,not elsewhere specified or included.1904 Prepared foods obta

166、ined by the swelling or roasting of cereals or cereal products;cereals(other than maize(corn)in grain form or in the form of flakes or other worked grains(except flour,groats and meal),pre-cooked,or otherwise prepared,not elsewhere specified or included.190410-Prepared foods obtained by the swelling

167、 or roasting of cereals or cereal products 190410-Prepared foods obtained by the swelling or roasting of cereals or cereal products 190420-Prepared foods obtained from unroasted cereal flakes or from mixtures of unroasted cereal flakes and roasted cereal flakes or swelled cereals 190420-Prepared foo

168、ds obtained from unroasted cereal flakes or from mixtures of unroasted cereal flakes and roasted cereal flakes or swelled cereals 190430-Bulgur wheat.190430-Bulgur wheat.190490-Other.190490-Other.2302 Bran,sharps and other residues,whether or not in the form of pellets,derived from the sifting,milli

169、ng or other working of cereals or of leguminous plants.2302 Bran,sharps and other residues,whether or not in the form of pellets,derived from the sifting,milling or other working of cereals or of leguminous plants.230210-Of maize(corn)230210-Of maize(corn)230230-Of wheat 230230-Of wheat 2304 Oil-cak

170、e and other solid residues,whether or not ground or in the form of pellets,resulting from the extraction of soyabean oil.2304 Oil-cake and other solid residues,whether or not ground or in the form of pellets,resulting from the extraction of soyabean oil.230400 Oil-cake and other solid residues,wheth

171、er or not ground or in the form of pellets,resulting from the extraction of soyabean oil.230400 Oil-cake and other solid residues,whether or not ground or in the form of pellets,resulting from the extraction of soyabean oil.Note:The HS4 and HS6 codes used in the AMIS Policy Database are the same between HS2012,HS2017 and HS2022.Source:World Customs Organisation(20244).1 Restricted Use-usage restreint