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1、Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan W H I T E P A P E RO C T O B E R 2 0 2 4Images:Getty ImagesDisclaimer This document is published by the World Economic Forum as a contribution to a project,insight area or interaction.The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are a resul

2、t of a collaborative process facilitated and endorsed by the World Economic Forum but whose results do not necessarily represent the views of the World Economic Forum,nor the entirety of its Members,Partners or other stakeholders.2024 World Economic Forum.All rights reserved.No part of this publicat

3、ion may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,including photocopying and recording,or by any information storage and retrieval system.ContentsExecutive summary 3Introduction 41 Benefits of black carbon mitigation 52 Common barriers and implementation gaps 93 Regional responses to

4、black carbon 12China 13India 14Nigeria 15Brazil 16The United States 174 Potential next steps for BC-emitting countries 18Residential cooking 19Residential heating 19New on-road diesel vehicles 20New off-road diesel engines 20Legacy(in-use)diesel vehicles and engines 20Brick kilns 21Coke ovens 21Natu

5、ral gas flaring 21Agricultural burning 22Forestry burning 225 Potential next steps for the global community 23Give each climate pollutant its due 24Identify,demonstrate and share best BC mitigation practices 24Foster South-South regional cooperation on common source types 24Make grid connectivity a

6、core objective of rural development 24Prioritize financing for BC mitigation in vulnerable communities 25Contributors 26Endnotes 28Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 2Executive summaryThe impact of ultra-warming black carbon(BC)on seasonal Arctic ice melt,Himalayan glacier run-off and the ti

7、ming and intensity of the Indian monsoon has been known for decades.The deadly health effects of ultra-fine BC,both on its own and as a component of fine particulate matter under 25 microns in diameter(PM2.5),are also well established.There is extensive,well-documented evidence highlighting the sign

8、ificant climate,health and social benefits of reducing BC emissions.So why has the global policy response been so muted and incomplete?To answer that question,this white paper examined five national case studies(Brazil,China,India,Nigeria and the United States)to discern the primary obstacles to BC

9、mitigation in those settings.Next,the team summarized the common barriers to implementation.Based on this review,the following became evident:The problem starts at the top.The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC),the foremost international framework working to combat climate

10、 change,continues to undervalue the importance of short-lived climate forcers,so there is little incentive to pursue BC abatement in nationally determined contributions(or countries climate action plans).The Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC),which is a voluntary partnership between governments a

11、nd non-governmental organizations with a focus on reducing short-lived climate pollutants,cannot single-handedly close this gap.Air quality drivers are helpful but not sufficient.Conventional air quality programmes capture some BC emissions(e.g.from polluting diesel vehicles)but not all.To maximize

12、climate returns,BC needs to be a direct target of government interventions.The technical guidelines for addressing BC emissions are still in their infancy.There are no universally recognized guidelines for building an emissions inventory,monitoring ambient BC concentrations,measuring direct BC exhau

13、st,modelling the behaviour of BC in the atmosphere or confirming compliance with regulatory schemes.The role of BC mitigation in economic development is undervalued.Controlling BC emissions moves individual households,private contractors(e.g.truck drivers)and small businesses up the energy ladder to

14、 cleaner,more efficient fuels while concurrently reducing exposure to hazardous emissions.But that pay-off is not typically part of the policy conversation.More creativity around subsidy schemes is needed.Most BC emissions sources are in the hands of relatively poor individuals or small commercial o

15、perations.These parties are unable to upgrade to cleaner technology and/or fuels without government assistance of some kind.Climate finance is key to deploying affordable technologies that modernize energy use in low-income regions.While most BC mitigation technologies,such as clean cookstoves,moder

16、n brick kilns and clean lighting solutions,are widely available,their cost remains a barrier for poorer communities.Prioritizing climate finance in these areas is essential for a global just transition.Health ministries and public health professionals are vital partners,particularly but not only reg

17、arding indoor sources of BC.Health officials and medical professionals are more aware of the acute risks to children,women and the elderly from indoor solid fuel combustion.They also lend legitimacy to government interventions and,in some cases,may be more likely to act than environmental ministries

18、.Regional collaboration is essential to disseminate best practices,share the lessons learned,replicate successful interventions,and achieve BC mitigation at scale.Peer-to-peer exchanges are especially useful in building trust and the willingness to act.To prompt forward momentum,this paper describes

19、 some incremental steps to reducing BC emissions from each major source category.This section is intended to help countries evaluate where they stand on each trajectory so they can plan and take the next logical step(s).This paper also identifies the ultimate endgame for each source type to stimulat

20、e deeper thought around the potential for leapfrogging.The paper ends with recommendations to the global climate community,since no single country or region can overcome all the implementation barriers.It needs global buy-in that BC mitigation matters,with a corresponding investment in legal framewo

21、rks,technical tools and financial mechanisms to make that possible.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan October 2024Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 3IntroductionDecades of research have established the impact of black carbon(BC)on local,regional and global climate and public health.

22、Yet,global progress in reducing BC emissions has been slow.Air quality measures for fine particulate matter(PM2.5)worldwide have reduced BC emissions,but the reductions are far short of what is needed given the multiple benefits of BC mitigation.Many climate scientists have called for enhanced and t

23、argeted BC measures to address the climate crisis in the near term.Yet,something is impeding progress.What is standing in the way,and what can be done about that?The key to unlocking BC mitigation is to understand what motivates governments to act,the economics of BC control and the practical barrie

24、rs to be overcome.A substantial proportion of anthropogenic BC emissions stem from household and business activities in lower-income,less-organized and under-capitalized sectors smaller,less efficient brick kilns,for example,or the household use of solid fuels for cooking and heating.This can make B

25、C mitigation quite challenging,in the sense that it requires changing many small decisions rather than focusing on fewer,larger,industrial point sources.However,it also makes it very attractive as a development action an aspirational angle binds people to the cause because BC mitigation typically re

26、sults in a higher standard of living and/or greater profitability for commercial enterprises.To achieve greater BC mitigation,there must be sufficient political will to act,plus the institutional,economic and regulatory capacity to follow through.Ultimately,it comes down to unlocking enough capital

27、to make the switch from solid fuels and low-temperature combustion engines to better technology.In many cases,leapfrogging is possible by side-stepping disadvantageous“lock in”carbon-based technologies.In some cases,such as brick kilns,there is an opportunity to rethink the entire enterprise(i.e.wha

28、t buildings could be made of other than baked clay).But first things first.What lessons can be drawn from the starting positions of Brazil,China,India,Nigeria and the US?How cognizant are they about BC as a climate and public health threat?How much relative capacity do they have?Where have they acte

29、d?On what basis?What have they not done?And what does that suggest about the logical next steps or their applicability to other parts of the world?The following sections will examine and answer these questions.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 4Benefits of black carbon mitigation1Black Carb

30、on Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 5The implementation of BC controls should be highly compelling given the significant benefits they offer.There is substantial evidence that mitigating BC reduces near-term climate change impacts while simultaneously improving air quality.1 Black carbon and other shor

31、t-lived climate pollutants also contribute to one-third of current global warming,adding to visible,worldwide warming and widening exposure to extreme heat.2BC controls should practically sell themselves given the enormous return.A regional study in the Himalayan glaciers found that fully implementi

32、ng existing policies on BC emissions in South Asia could cut BC deposition by 23%,while implementing economically and technically feasible measures could reduce up to 50%of BC deposits.3 A study on international shipping shows that if the European Union(EU)requires ships calling at EU ports and oper

33、ating in Arctic waters to switch from heavy fuel oil(HFO)to distillate oil or less-brominated carbon fuels,it would reduce their BC emissions by 50-80%.4 Regarding health benefits,a 2020 study found that targeting BC emissions could prevent an estimated 4-12 million premature deaths between 2015 and

34、 2030,the majority in Asia.5 This section lists key mitigation measures for BC emissions(Table 1)and the multiple benefits of those measures based on recent studies(Table 2).Key mitigation actions for black carbon TABLE 1:Source Key mitigation actionsResidential Use cleaner fuels for cooking and hea

35、ting in developing countries.Stop wood combustion for heating in industrialized countries.Replace kerosene lamps with solar or electric alternatives.Transport Implement stringent emission standards for new diesel engines and fuels.Phase out older,high-emitting diesel vehicles.Use cleaner shipping fu

36、els,particularly in Arctic regions.Industry Upgrade brick kiln technologies.Upgrade coke ovens.Eliminate open flaring except where necessary for safety.Open burning Ban open burning of agriculture and forest waste.Source:United Nations Environment Programme/World Meteorological Organization(2011);6

37、Sims,R.,V.Gorsevski and S.Anenberg(2015).7Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 6Mitigation solutions with multiple benefits TABLE 2:SourceActionsHealth benefitsClimate benefitsSocial benefitsResidentialUse cleaner fuels for cooking and heating.770,000 deaths could be avoided by eliminating sol

38、id biofuel combustion for residential heating and cooking.8Highly efficient stoves can reduce fuel use by 30-60%,cutting both carbon dioxide(CO2)and BC emissions.9Gender equality and womens empowerment.Replace kerosene lamps with cleaner lighting.Cleaner lighting prevents an individuals exposure to

39、kerosene fumes equivalent to smoking 20 cigarettes per day.10Eliminating annual BC emissions from kerosene lamps is equivalent to 5 gigatons of carbon reduction over the next 20 years.11Better quality of life and reduced risk of poisoning and burns.Reduce wood burning in saunas,fireplaces and stoves

40、.In Finland,reduction of small-scale wood combustion can prevent about 200 premature deaths each year.12Maximum feasible controls for wood-burning boilers could cut emissions 63%by 2030.13Less air pollution and better forest protection for all.TransportImplement stringent emission standards for new

41、diesel engines and fuels.Global adoption of world-class standards could reduce PM-related premature deaths annually by 75%in 2030.14Doing so would also reduce short-lived climate pollutants,including BC,by the equivalent of 710 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(MMT CO2e)annually.15B

42、etter ecosystem health.Bring in new diesel vehicles,engines and diesel fuel.A modelled scenario for replacing 300 diesel buses in the Philippines identified economic benefits of$9.5 million in avoided premature deaths.16The same analysis calculated climate benefits worth$4-12 million depending on th

43、e assumed discount rate and social price of carbon.Less soiling of buildings and the environment.Use cleaner marine fuels.Cleaner marine fuel would reduce premature mortality due to ship emissions by 34%,which is equal to a 2.6%global reduction in PM2.5-related cardiovascular and lung cancer deaths.

44、17If the European Union required its ships in the Arctic to use cleaner distillate fuels,it would reduce their BC emissions in Arctic waters by 50-80%.18Better quality of life and natural ecosystem for the Arctic communities.IndustryUpgrade brick kiln technologies.In Nepal,converting fixed chimneys

45、to zig-zag kilns(ZZK)could cut PM2.5 by 20%per kilogram(kg)of fuel used,equal to a 40%reduction for PM2.5 per kg of fired brick.19In Pakistan,converting to ZZK technology can reduce particulate matter by 40%.20Zig-zag kilns would cut BC emissions in Nepal and Pakistan by 30%21 and 60%,22 respectivel

46、y,while also reducing overall full consumption.Improved tourism value in rural areas previously plagued with black smoke.Upgrade coke ovens.Chinas ban on beehive coke ovens reduced the estimated frequency of lung cancer cases.23 In China,its PM2.5 control measures cut baseline emissions of the cokin

47、g industry in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei by 68%from 2015 to 2019.24Improved tourism value in rural areas previously plagued with black smoke.Eliminate gas flaring except where necessary for safety.Eliminating flaring in the US would yield health benefits by avoiding up to 360 premature deaths annually,de

48、pending on which emission factors are used.25 Eliminating non-emergency flaring by 2030 would cut overall flaring by 95%and avoid 365 million tons of CO2e emissions.26Greater fuel security for all,less demand for new gas projects could support the energy transition.Open burningBan open burning of ag

49、ricultural and forest waste.Banning agricultural burning in India could prevent 44,000 to 98,000 premature deaths per year.27Improved air quality,slowdown of the rate of snow and glacier melt.28Improved home safety,food security,public health and climate change mitigation.Black Carbon Reduction:A Ra

50、pid Action Plan 7What is black carbon and why does it matter?BOX 1.CharacteristicsBlack carbon(BC,commonly known as soot)is an ultrafine particle produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels,wood and biomass.It is the strongest light-absorbing component of particulate matter under 2.5 micro

51、ns in diameter(PM2.5)and among the smallest components at 15-50 nanometres in diameter.Climate impactBC has a warming effect 1,500 times greater than that of CO2.The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC AR6)estimates the effective“radiative forcing”29 of BC a

52、t the top of the atmosphere to be between-0.28 and 0.41 watts per meter squared(W/m2)it has thereby contributed to a temperature rise of 0.1C from 1750 to 2019.30 Regional climate effectsBC impacts regional weather and rainfall patterns.It can alter precipitation by absorbing solar radiation and hea

53、ting the surrounding air.Studies have found that regional BC emissions can lead to less precipitation in West Africa,31 and decrease low-intensity rainfall in the pre-monsoon season in northeast India.32Health risksBC poses significant health risks,contributing to respiratory and cardiovascular dise

54、ases.Globally,an estimated 3.2 million lives are lost prematurely due to illnesses attributed to household air pollution arising from the incomplete burning of solid fuels and kerosene during cooking.33 In rural India,household BC pollution is associated with high cancer risk and reduced lifespan.34

55、 In China,a total of 74,500 and 538,400 all-cause premature mortality cases are linked with short-and long-term BC exposure.35Impact on snow and iceBC deposition reduces the reflectivity(albedo)of snow and ice,thereby accelerating melting.The Arctic is warming four times faster than the global avera

56、ge,36 with BC deposition identified as a major driver.37 Glaciers in the Hindu Kush region of the Himalayas are melting at an unprecedented rate,due to the impact of BC on summer precipitation over the southern Tibetan plateau.38Food securityBC deposits on plants reduce their photosynthetic ability,

57、decreasing crop yields.A study reveals that in India,the combined effects of climate change and the direct impacts of tropospheric ozone and BC led to a decrease of up to 36%in wheat yields by 2010 compared to expected levels.39 One analysis shows that air pollution and heat stress have significantl

58、y reduced maize and soybean yields in the US from 1980 to 2019,with soybean yields being more sensitive to aerosol pollution,such as BC and sulphates.40Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 8Common barriers and implementation gaps2Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 9Given the multiple a

59、nd multifaceted benefits of BC reduction,why are the necessary steps not being taken?The key reasons are:Diplomacy gapBC is not typically included in climate action plans because it is not one of the six GHGs designated by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC).41 Only a h

60、andful of countries address BC in their Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)(Figure 1),with widely varying content.42 Currently,two multilateral agreements address BC.The first is the Gothenburg Protocol under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution(CLRTAP)of the United Nations

61、 Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE).The other is the Fairbanks Declaration,developed and adopted by the Arctic Council,which sets a collective target for reducing BC emissions by 25%to 33%below 2013 levels by 2025.43 Unfortunately,both multilateral agreements are geographically limited in scope a

62、nd,by default,exclude the countries that emit the lions share of BC(Figures 2 and 3).Climate and air quality frameworks to address black carbonFIGURE 1.FIGURE 2.Source:CAF,2024.44 Parties to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollutio

63、nSource:UNECE,1970.45 Climate changeThe integration of black carbon into NDCs 17 countries have integrated black carbon into their NDCs.13 countries have set separate targets or mitigation potentials.Air pollutionEurope Gothenburg Protocol under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Polluti

64、on The Arctic Fairbanks Declaration The World Meteorological Organizations heavy fuel oil banBlack Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 10Arctic Council member states and observer countriesFIGURE 3.Regulatory gap A robust policy and regulatory framework is needed to support BC mitigation.This includ

65、es emission control regulations,enforcement mechanisms,standards and measurements,as well as enabling policies such as technical assistance,capacity building and financing.Financing gap BC mitigation actions face significant challenges in securing adequate financing.For instance,upfront and operatio

66、nal costs are major barriers to the adoption of clean cookstoves in Sub-Saharan Africa.47 Similarly,the lack of access to financing also hampers brick operators from upgrading brick kiln technologies in South Asia.Local financial institutions have limited experience in lending to these brick entrepr

67、eneurs,who often operate on leased land and lack the necessary collateral to access commercial loans.48 Technological gapA lack of cost-effective,locally appropriate technologies is a barrier to implementation.While cleaner diesel fuel and particulate filters are widely used in the on-road transport

68、 sector,their uptake in off-road categories is more complex and time consuming.In maritime shipping,there are challenges regarding fuel switching and engine adaptation,49 though cleaner distillate fuel is now used routinely in special emission-control areas.Similarly,in aviation,alternative fuels to

69、 reduce BC and other emissions have produced mixed results regarding their feasibility for large-scale use.50 Technical barriers also arise when new technologies fail to accommodate local conditions.For instance,when Chinese technologies for brick kiln operation were applied directly in Bangladesh w

70、ithout regionally specific customizations,the efficiency of brick production declined notably.51Knowledge and awareness gapAccurate,clear,timely and widely available information is needed to support many BC mitigation measures.For example,if consumers do not fully appreciate the health benefits of s

71、ootless cooking,they may be less amenable to purchasing new stoves.For wildfire management officials,inadequate monitoring data and lack of early warning signals makes fast responses difficult.USAUnited KingdomGermanyGreenlandIcelandNorwayJapanFinlandSwedenRussiaPolandSouth KoreaIndiaChinaFranceSpai

72、nItalyCanadaMember statesObserver countiresSource:WWF,2024.46 Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 11Regional responses to black carbon 3Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 12The effectiveness of BC mitigation measures and the obstacles to their implementation vary across regions.Import

73、ant factors include the relative size of BC emission sources,the prevailing policy environment,local knowledge,government capacity,social context and of course,technical and economic feasibility.For this paper,five of the top 10 anthropogenic BC emitting countries have been assessed to gauge their r

74、elative response to available BC information.52 These emitters are Brazil,China,India,Nigeria and the US.The objective was to understand where BC appears in their respective national dialogues and/or policy frameworks,and to understand if the top priority BC controls measures are being implemented i

75、n each region.If these measures are not being implemented,this paper examines why.How BC affects glaciers in the Hindu Kush Himalayas,regional water supply and food securityBOX 2.The Hindu Kush Himalayas(HKH),often referred as the“water tower of Asia”,are undergoing accelerated glacier melting due t

76、o climate change and heavy BC deposition.55 An assessment from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD)shows the HKH glaciers disappeared 65%faster in the 2010s than in the previous decade,and are expected to lose 30%-50%of their volume by 2100 if global warming extends t

77、o 2C and 55%-80%of their volume by 2100 if global warming reaches higher levels.56 The retreat of these glaciers threatens water supplies and food security downstream.An estimated 129 million farmers in the Indus,Ganges and Brahmaputra basins currently depend on glacier melt to irrigate their crops,

78、57 and 1.9 billion people in Asia rely on the Himalayas for freshwater.58 The regions surrounding the Himalayas are also home to highly populous cities and economic activities,such as the Indo-Gangetic and Yangtze river plains.59 The availability of water is expected to peak in the mid-century and t

79、hen decrease through the end of the century.Source:ICIMOD,2023.60River basinsThe HKH boundaryRiver networksChinaChina has been closely tracking global developments in BC science for the last 15-20 years and has invested heavily in its own research.Leading Chinese universities are doing cutting-edge

80、work on national BC emissions,their air-quality and climate impacts,the abatement potential of various interventions,the behaviour of aerosols in the atmosphere and many other related topics.That said,the primary driver in China is air quality management;specifically,reducing PM2.5 emissions to prot

81、ect public health.In pursuit of cleaner air,China has converted millions of solid-fuel heating systems to natural gas,banned fireworks,banned agricultural burning and switched residential and commercial cookstoves to cleaner fuels(briquettes and propane,respectively).53 China is also steadily de-sul

82、phurizing its on-road,off-road and marine diesel fuels,and has recently imposed filter-based standards for on-road diesel trucks.54 The biggest remaining gap is extending all these emission control measures nationwide,since many apply to the capital region of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei only.Amu DaryaHelm

83、andIndusTarimGangesIrrawaddySalweenMayanmarBhutanPakistanNepalChinaIndiaBangladeshAfghanistanMekongYellow RiverYangtzeTibetan PlateauBrahmaputraBlack Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 13IndiaBarriers to brick kiln modernization in South Asia BOX 3.Brick kilns are major contributors to air polluti

84、on in South Asia.The brick kiln industry is also a key contributor to anthropogenic BC deposition in the Himalayan glaciers.65 The 2023 World Air Quality Report ranked Bangladesh as the most polluted country in the world,with Pakistan and India following closely.66 Enhancing the energy efficiency of

85、 brick kilns is essential for managing BC in this region.While clean technologies such as zig-zag kilns(ZZK)and vertical shaft brick kilns(VSBK)are encouraged in brick manufacture,they encounter challenges for scaling up.For instance,in Bangladesh,around 30%of brick kilns use the fixed chimney kiln(

86、FCK)technology,characterized by low construction costs but high levels of air pollution.67 The primary challenges are the financial burden and the knowledge gap for switching kiln technologies.A survey conducted among kiln owners in Punjab in Pakistan revealed that the main barriers to adopting clea

87、ner ZZK technology included the high retrofitting costs,expensive skilled labour and maintenance challenges.68 Similarly,in India,brick kiln operators have limited access to financial resources for retrofitting,the financial knowledge for making loan applications,and the skilled labour required for

88、large-scale utilization of the technology.69 In addition,the lack of effective monitoring and enforcement of brick kiln regulations impedes the adoption of cleaner technologies.Widespread violations of the national regulations on brick manufacturing persist in Bangladesh,for instance,where 60%of bri

89、ck kilns operated illegally without environmental clearance in 2023.70 Like China,India has tracked international research on BC for decades,the country itself being the focus of multiple studies about aerosol pollution in the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush region.Indias progress in controlling BC emi

90、ssions has been indirect,spurred by public health concerns over residential cookstoves and kerosene lamps,and by air quality-related lawsuits and public protests in the case of high-emitting diesel vehicles and seasonal agricultural burning.61 To address the former,India initiated the Pradhan Mantri

91、 Ujjwala Yojana(PMUY)to encourage the use of cleaner household cooking fuels and discontinued kerosene subsidies for household lighting and cooking.62 India has also committed to the global Zero Emission Vehicles(ZEV)declaration,63 aiming for a complete transition to zero vehicular emissions by 2030

92、-2040.64 To address the latter,the central government has been working with several local and international organizations to identify feasible alternatives to agricultural waste burning.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 14NigeriaNigeria joined the Climate and Clean Air Coalition in 2012 and

93、,shortly thereafter,began examining ways to reduce emissions from all short-lived climate pollutants(SLCPs),including BC.Nigerias top priorities were cookstoves,agriculture,transport,brick kilns,and oil and gas.In 2019,Nigeria adopted a National Plan to Reduce SLCPs,which could reduce BC emissions b

94、y 83%if fully funded and implemented.71 Three core elements of the plan were to eliminate gas flaring by 2020,cut waste burning in half by 2030 and convert 25%of diesel buses to natural gas by 2030.Nigeria also pledged to eliminate kerosene lamps and to upgrade cookstoves to cleaner,more efficient t

95、echnology.However,action on the ground has been slow.Flaring intensity has remained constant.Kerosene lamps have been phased out in a few public schools but remain widespread in villages.High-emitting cookstoves and three-stone fires are still prevalent.The primary barrier across the board is financ

96、ing.In 2019-20,public and private climate finance flows in Nigeria were only 11%of the amount required to meet its carbon commitments.72 Poor environmental infrastructure is also a major problem in Nigeria.73 In its search for innovative solutions,the Nigerian government in 2023 endorsed a carbon cr

97、edit project that seeks to distribute 80 million cleaner burning stoves,free of charge,by 2035.74 Implementation barriers to clean cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa BOX 4.Solid-fuel cookstoves are a major source of human-caused BC emissions.While access to clean cooking is improving in Asia and Latin Am

98、erica,it is still very poor in Sub-Saharan Africa.According to the International Energy Agency(IEA),29 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have clean cooking access rates below 20%;and half of the nearly 1 billion people lacking access are in five countries(the Democratic Republic of Congo,Ethiopia,Nige

99、ria,Tanzania and Uganda).75 The primary obstacle to clean cooking is the high upfront cost.Half the households in sub-Saharan Africa cannot afford clean cookstoves without additional support.76 The lack of clean fuel infrastructure,such as distribution networks for liquified petroleum gas(LPG)canist

100、ers and/or electricity connections exacerbates this challenge.77 Lack of funding for programme design and infrastructure further compounds the issue.Finally,there is a significant institutional challenge,because residential cooking doesnt“belong”to any ministry.78 Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Acti

101、on Plan 15BrazilBrazil only recently joined the international BC dialogue,becoming a member of the CCAC in 2023.However,it has undertaken various initiatives for air quality control that can reduce BC emissions and is developing a national plan for short-lived climate pollutants,including BC.However

102、,challenges persist.In the residential sector,Brazils gas-aid programme subsidizes LPG for low-income households,but high cooking-gas costs remain a barrier.In transport,Brazil promotes biodiesel and has launched a voluntary truck renewal programme to phase out old diesel vehicles,but infrastructure

103、 and affordability issues hinder broader adoption.79 Additionally,the governments response to forest fires has been more reactive than preventive its integrated fire management strategy has seen limited implementation,and training in fire-free land management techniques has remained insufficient.80T

104、hese efforts reflect Brazils commitment but also highlight the need for enhanced regulatory frameworks,infrastructure development and educational programmes.Meanwhile,open burning has been a significant issue in Brazil since the beginning of climate negotiations,as the Amazon rainforest,a crucial gl

105、obal carbon sink,continues to experience frequent fire outbreaks.81 Black carbon and wildfireBOX 5.FIGURE 5:Wildfire is key source of BC.As climate change increases the frequency,intensity and spread of wildfires,avoiding and mitigating wildfires will play a key role in managing BC emissions.The 10

106、highest-emitting countries contribute to 69%of wildfire-related BC,and half are in Sub-Saharan Africa(Figure 5).Other key emitters include Indonesia,Brazil,Russia,Australia and Canada,which have large boreal forests and rainforest zones.As climate change is expected to increase the frequency and spr

107、ead of wildfires,avoiding and mitigating wildfires will play a key role in managing BC emissions.Global wildfire-related BC emissions by country Source:Xu et al.,2021.82Rest of the worldTop 10 emittersBrazil,8%Russia,6%Indonesia,9%Angola,8%Canada,6%Zambia,5%Central Afircan Republic,5%Mozambique,5%Co

108、nga DR,12%Australia,6%31%69%Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 16The United StatesThe US is a founding member of the CCAC and places a high value on abating short-lived climate pollutants as a climate mitigation strategy.That said,BC is not a high-profile issue at top political levels,nor is

109、 it the primary driver of domestic regulatory interventions.Instead,air quality management is the main motivation and BC reductions are a co-benefit.Low-sulphur diesel fuel and particulate filters are the primary emission control methods used in the US,across all sizes and applications of diesel eng

110、ines.83 The state of California leads its 50 states in BC control,due to its aggressive regulation of new and existing diesel engines and substantial subsidy programmes.84 California also banned agricultural burning several years ago,except where necessary to prevent disease.Prescribed burning and w

111、ildfires are common in the western US and are becoming more severe,raising questions about land use(forest encroachment)and power line maintenance.Finally,several states control wood stove and fireplace emissions during the winter via a combination of voluntary programmes,rebates,tax exemptions and

112、regulations(with limits on total fireplaces per ski lodge,labelling,fireplace inserts,etc.).85Black carbon and the ArcticBOX 6.The Arctic is warming three times faster than the global average,leading to rapid changes in sea ice,land ice and snow cover.86 Approximately 20%of Arctic and global snow/ic

113、e loss was due to the black carbon-albedo effect.87 Arctic-bordering states are responsible for a third of BCs warming impact on the Arctic.88 Gas flaring is the largest in-Arctic emission source,comprising more than 60%of BC emissions.Wood stoves and diesel vehicles make up most of the remaining em

114、issions.The fastest growing emissions are from shipping,which accounts for 5%of Arctic BC emissions now but is expected to double by 2030 and quadruple by 2050.89Many local and international groups are working to reduce BC emissions in the Arctic.The Arctic Council adopted the Fairbanks Declaration

115、in 2017,setting a target for reducing BC emissions.90 In addition,the International Maritime Organization(IMO)announced a ban on the use and transportation of heavy fuel oils in 2021.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 17Potential next steps for BC-emitting countries4Black Carbon Reduction:A

116、Rapid Action Plan 18Countries are at very different starting points for BC mitigation.Some have made tremendous strides;others are just beginning.Some sources are very well-controlled,others are not controlled at all.For each BC emission source,there is a natural progression of interventions,from lo

117、w-cost to more capital intensive and from incremental to transformative.The following BC mitigation“ladders”and actions can serve as a self-assessment guide for countries interested in abating BC and for the bilateral donors,development banks and other parties who wish to support them.BC mitigation

118、ladders and actionsResidential cookingA natural progression up the cooking-related energy ladder takes place as incomes rise.Households expand and diversify their cooking methods,adding more appliances and ultimately switching to the cleanest fuel available.However,many people remain in poverty,unab

119、le to make even incremental progress on their own.Clean cookstove distribution programmes have had decidedly mixed results.A more powerful remedy is to subsidize gas canisters,as India did under its Ujjwala programme,though affordability is still an issue.91 Over the longer term,infrastructure inves

120、tments are needed for widespread electrification.Pulling that off requires clear policy objectives,profit incentives for public and private utility companies,and a step-by-step buildout plan to achieve full connectivity.Fuel From raw coal to briquettes,from raw wood to uniform pellets,from solid fue

121、l to gas,from gas to grid electricity to clean grid with 100%renewable power.Cookstove From three-stone fires to biomass stoves,from enclosed chamber to fan-equipped stoves,from solid fuels to gas stoves,from gas to electric stoves,from combustion to conduction burners drawing from a clean,renewable

122、 grid.Residential heatingThere are both poverty and luxury dimensions to solid-fuel heating.Some people need it to survive.For others,it is a source of pleasure,a crackling fire to lend ambiance to the family living room.Regulations work reasonably well for the latter,such as banning open fireplaces

123、 in new construction(such as allowing gas inserts and fake logs only).However,when low incomes prevent access to adequate heating,government intervention is crucial to ensure everyone can meet this fundamental need.For district heating systems,BC mitigation may be as simple as installing conventiona

124、l air pollution controls.For stand-alone houses and other dwelling units,the next logical step is to upgrade fireplaces to enclosed stoves and to use more uniform fuels(e.g.pellets).Work is also underway to develop retrofit particulate filters for exhaust flues at an affordable price.The ultimate so

125、lution is the same as for cookstoves:connectivity to gas pipelines and/or the electrical grid.Fuel From wood,trash or coal to more uniform pellets,from solid fuel to gas,from gas to renewable electricity.Heating deviceFrom an open fireplace to an enclosed stove,from uncontrolled to filter-equipped,f

126、rom solid fuel to piped-in gas(or district heating with emission controls),from radiant electric heaters to ultra-efficient heat pumps.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 19New on-road diesel vehiclesThere are not many incremental steps to reducing BC from diesel engines,though every reductio

127、n in the sulphur content of diesel fuel helps.Rather,there is a step change to filter-equipped diesel vehicles,which requires a guaranteed supply of ultra-low sulphur fuel everywhere those vehicles travel(to prevent poisoning of the catalysed filter).Fuel qualityFrom regular to reduced sulphur conte

128、nt,to ultra-low sulphur(10 parts per million)or,for centrally fuelled fleets,switching from diesel to natural gas,renewable hydrogen or battery power.Engine controlsFrom particle controls to filter-based exhaust standards,to zero-emitting cars and trucks.New off-road diesel enginesThe energy ladder

129、for off-road diesels is basically the same as for on-road,but more expensive given the larger size of most off-road engines and smaller fleets to spread those costs across.“Offroad”includes back-up diesel generators,road paving equipment,construction equipment,cranes,locomotives,ferries,harbour boat

130、s and marine vessels.For these sources,its very important to get a head start on electrification,or the equivalent,because their lifetimes are so long.It is also important to combine regulations with non-regulatory approaches,such as procurement standards and contract incentives to create stronger m

131、arket pull for the greenest technologies.Legacy(in-use)diesel vehicles and enginesIn-use diesel vehicles and engines eventually wear out,but not fast enough to meet climate and air quality objectives.Hence,some countries accelerate those retirements via scrappage programmes,or,alternatively,retrofit

132、 in-use vehicles and engines to a higher standard.Both approaches require aggressive rules and generous subsidies to help owners/operators upgrade to cleaner technology.Preventing the transfer of dirty older diesel vehicles to developing countries is also crucial,since outdated vehicles contribute d

133、isproportionately to air pollution in these regions.92 Likewise,lower-quality diesel fuels are exported to lower-income countries,exacerbating pollution93 and hindering global efforts to reduce BC emissions.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 20Brick kilnsIn traditional kilns,anything that bu

134、rns will be used:tyres,motor oil,plastic,garbage,dung,agricultural waste,plus multiple forms of wood and coal.The first order of business is to improve and standardize the fuel,while simultaneously reconfiguring the firing chamber to achieve more complete(and hence less polluting)combustion.Those st

135、eps alone can cut BC emissions by half,according to measurement studies conducted in the state of Bihar in India.94 Next is a major step change to mechanization,which implies vertical integration of cottage industries into more formal enterprises,relying on cleaner fuels.The final step is to replace

136、 energy-intensive bricks with entirely different,non-combustion-based building materials.Fuel From low-grade miscellaneous fuels to uniform fuel(e.g.pulverized coal),then to natural gas or electricity.Transition to non-combustion-based building materials Kiln type From traditional beehive or vertica

137、l shaft to zig-zag configuration,then to fully mechanized with well-controlled exhaust stream.Coke ovensCoke is a hard,grey,porous solid fuel,made by heating coal in the absence of oxygen.It is essential to steel production it provides the tremendous heat needed to melt iron ore and pulls oxygen out

138、 of the ore,leaving pure iron behind.The BC emissions from“coking”95 depend on the oven type,the management of various processes(e.g.“quenching”)96 and the presence of air pollution controls on the exhaust stack,where applicable.BC emissions from coking can be substantially reduced by upgrading oven

139、 types,following good practices and applying post-treatment technologies.97 The ultimate solution to reducing BC from coke ovens is to maximize steel recycling and produce less virgin steel,thereby reducing the need for coke in the first instance.Coke oven type From primitive ovens(“beehive”,“kiln”,

140、“pile”or“indigenous”)to slot oven(also called“machine”or“recovery”ovens),to“heat-recovery”ovens,while simultaneously maximizing steel recycling and minimizing virgin steel production.Natural-gas flaringWhen natural gas comes to the surface during oil drilling and there is no obvious,economically att

141、ractive place to put it,it is simply burnt off(i.e.“flared”).Flaring is also used in emergency situations,to keep large quantities of vented gases from exploding.In remote oil-drilling locations,flaring is routine.It also occurs in populated areas where there is insufficient investment in gas recove

142、ry technology.The flaring problem cannot be solved by pledges and flaring bans alone.98 It requires thoughtful development of micro-processing plants to purify and then compress or liquefy the gas,distribution networks including local pipelines and/or export facilities,and economical end-uses such a

143、s small-scale gas-fired powerplants or fleet fuelling centres.These interventions make the most sense in gas-rich oil fields and in places where the soot from gas flaring is particularly harmful,such as in or near the Arctic.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 21Agricultural burningLike flari

144、ng,agricultural burning is a convenient but highly polluting solution.It is the fastest,cheapest way to clear away stubble,kill weeds and eliminate massive piles of agricultural debris.It also helps warm the ground in northern climates,enabling earlier spring sowing.To stop agricultural burning,ther

145、e has to be someplace else for the waste materials to go and more mechanization of the planting process(e.g.the use of“happy seeders”).99 Those interventions,in turn,require alternative waste management schemes,well-organized farmer cooperatives to share expensive machines and an array of supporting

146、 institutions and financiers.Thus far,the best results have been at the urban-rural interface,where persistent smoke episodes have led to a huge public outcry,generating enough political will to act.Because it is such a heavy lift,the proponents of BC mitigation have focused on agricultural burning

147、that is proximate to vulnerable snow and ice such as in Siberia and the Himalayan region.Forestry burningForest management has always been difficult given the sheer scale of the worlds forested areas.The combined threat of urban encroachment,agricultural expansion,pest infestations and hotter,drier

148、temperatures has made the task nearly impossible.Going forward,it is essential to acknowledge the need to co-exist with fire,while taking proactive steps to protect people,structures and valuable natural resources when the inevitable happens.That brings up tough,unpopular policy choices,such as limi

149、ting housing developments in fire-prone regions.Or the use of prescribed burning(plus pre-thinning of the forest undergrowth,which,however,environmentalists fear can encourage logging)to reduce the risk of catastrophes.BC mitigation is not central to these policy debates but should benefit from evol

150、ving forest protection schemes.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 22Potential next steps for the global community5Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 23Give each climate pollutant its dueAs discussed above,the international climate change framework does not recognize black carbon.That

151、 omission has resulted in a lack of technical guidelines,reporting norms and a framework for crediting BC reductions.While the CCAC has tried to close the gap,its guidance alone cannot fill the vacuum.The IPCC recently approved an outline for the 2027 Methodology Report on Inventories for Short-live

152、d Climate Forcers(SLCFs),100 which is a good start,but more action is needed.The world has changed since the 100-year CO2-equivalent(CO2e)metric was established in 1996 for reporting purposes.The 100-year GWP metric was itself a political compromise,intended to enable emissions trading across a rang

153、e of GHGs with fundamentally different properties.Many scientists have pointed out that it would be more logical and effective to compare apples to apples.101Identify,demonstrate and share best BC mitigation practicesThe CCAC plays an important role in monitoring,funding and publicizing advancements

154、 in technologies to abate short-lived climate pollutants.However,its influence is limited in a crowded environment.Yet,while an internet-based platform can serve as a valuable starting point and resource library,it cannot build the same degree of trust and enthusiasm as is generated by on-the-ground

155、 projects.Experience suggests that“kicking the tyres”to see what works and what doesnt is also extremely important.This would need enough demonstration projects in different places for stakeholders to see whats available and to talk to real-world practitioners.Foster South-South regional cooperation

156、 on common source types For countries facing similar challenges in BC mitigation,regional collaborative efforts can be effective in addressing these issues by pooling resources,expertise and technologies.Such collaborative actions could include sharing best practices,conducting joint scientific and

157、technical research and working together to secure funding and technical assistance.For instance,China is making great strides on coke oven modernization.India successfully converted an entire states brick kiln industry to ZZK technology.Those are just two recent examples of the kinds of experience a

158、nd knowledge that could be shared with other developing countries that are interested in making the same transitions.Make grid connectivity a core objective of rural development The end goal of many BC interventions is to replace combustion with widespread electrification,powered by a clean,renewabl

159、e grid.However,for rural communities to benefit from these technologies as much as urban areas,it is essential to ensure sufficient charging capability.Otherwise,these communities will risk being left behind.Some countries have started aligning their power initiatives with rural development goals.In

160、dia,for example,launched the Saubhagya Scheme102 and PM-Surya Ghar,103 which aims to provide electricity connections in rural areas and promote access to clean and green energy.China has also implemented programmes such as Wind Control Action for Thousands of Villages104 to accelerate renewable ener

161、gy development in rural areas.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 24Prioritize financing to BC mitigation in vulnerable communitiesBC emissions are concentrated in lower-income regions,where households and small businesses rely on inefficient technologies such as traditional cookstoves and ou

162、tdated diesel engines.Although BC mitigation technologies like clean cookstoves,modern brick kilns and clean lighting are widely available,their high cost is a barrier for these communities.By directing climate finance towards these areas,these communities can adopt sustainable practices to reduce B

163、C emissions.Such investment would not only address immediate health and environmental risks but also contribute to broader development goals by enhancing energy efficiency and fostering economic resilience in some of the worlds most vulnerable regions.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 25Con

164、tributorsAuthorsExternal reviewersInstitute for Global Decarbonization Progress(iGDP)Meian ChenSenior Program Director;Senior AnalystHu MinExecutive Director;FounderClimateWorks FoundationCatherine WitherspoonSenior Advisor,Super PollutantsClean Air FundTom GryllsHead,Super PollutantsNina JeffsSenio

165、r Analyst,Super PollutantsSampriti MukherjeeSenior Analyst,Super PollutantsArindam RoyClimate Science AdvisorMichael JohnsonTechnical Director,Berkeley Air Monitoring GroupRanping SongProgram Manager,Sequoia Climate Foundation R.SubramanianSector Head of Air Quality,CSTEPContributions from Global Fu

166、ture Council on Clean Air 2023-24Maria Glynda Bathan-BaterinaDeputy Executive Director,Clean Air AsiaGregga BaxterGeneral Manager,Gulf International BankJane BurstonChief Executive Officer,Clean Air FundBruno Carrasco GarciaDirector-General,Climate Change and Sustainable Development Department,Asian

167、 Development Bank Sangu DelleChairman;Chief Executive Officer,CarepointPeter Justice DeryDirector,Environment,Ministry of Environment,Science,Technology and Innovation,Ghana Marcela EscobariAssistant Administrator for the Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean,USAID Arunabha GhoshChief Executive

168、 Officer,Council on Energy,Environment and Water(CEEW)Amit MehraManaging Director(2018-2024);Sustainability Lead,AccentureAngel HsuAssociate Professor,University of North Carolina Iyad KheirbekDirector,Air Quality Program,C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Magdalena MochowskaDirector Coordinator,Gr

169、een Warsaw,City of WarsawTolu OniClinical Professor,Global Public Health and Sustainable Urban Development,University of CambridgeJuan Jose PocaterraCo-Founder;Chief Executive Officer,ViKua Sophie PunteMember of Board;Co Founder,Smart FreightJessica SeddonSenior Fellow,Jackson School for Internation

170、al Affairs,Yale University Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 26Shirley RodriguesBoard Member,C40 Cities;Climate Leadership GroupKevin UramaChief Economist;Vice-President,Economic Governance and Knowledge Management,African Development BankYoung SunwooProfessor,Department of Civil and Enviro

171、nment,Konkuk University Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 27Endnotes1 Harmsen,M.J.,van Dorst,P.,van Vuuren,D.P.,van den Berg,M.,Van Dingenen,R.,&Klimont,Z.(2020).Co-benefits of black carbon mitigation for climate and air quality.Climatic Change,163,15191538;Dreyfus,G.B.,Xu,Y.,Shindell,D.T.,

172、Zaelke,D.,&Ramanathan,V.(2022).Mitigating climate disruption in time:A self-consistent approach for avoiding both near-term and long-term global warming.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,119(22),1-8.2 United Nations.(2024).United Nations Secretary-Generals Call to Action on Extreme Hea

173、t.https:/www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/unsg_call_to_action_on_extreme_heat_for_release.pdf.3 Mani,M.(Ed.).(2021).Glaciers of the Himalayas:Climate change,black carbon,and regional resilience.World Bank Publications.4 Liudmila Osipova and Bryan Comer.(2022).Be truly“fit for 55”by adding black car

174、bon emissions from ships.https:/theicct.org/fit-for-55-black-carbon-from-ships-aug22/.5 Harmsen,M.J.,van Dorst,P.,van Vuuren,D.P.,van den Berg,M.,Van Dingenen,R.,&Klimont,Z.(2020).Co-benefits of black carbon mitigation for climate and air quality.Climatic Change,163,15191538.6 UNEP/WMO(2011).Integra

175、ted Assessment of Black Carbon and Tropospheric Ozone:Summary for Decision Makers.United Nations Environment Programme/World Meteorological Organization.7 Sims,R.,Gorsevski,V.,&Anenberg,S.(2015).Black carbon mitigation and the role of the Global Environment Facility:A STAP advisory document.Global E

176、nvironment Facility.8 Clean Cooking Alliance.(2022).10 Key Co-benefits of Clean Cooking for Climate,Nature,and Communities.https:/cleancooking.org/news/10-key-co-benefits-of-clean-cooking-for-climate-nature-and-communities/.9 Ibid.10 James Melik.(2012,September 27).Solutions sought to end use of ker

177、osene lamp.BBC News.https:/ Jacobson,A.,Bond,T.C.,Lam,N.L.,&Hultman,N.(2013).Black carbon and kerosene lighting:An opportunity for rapid action on climate change and clean energy for development.The Brookings Institution,Washington,DC.Global Economy and Development.12 Finnish Meteorological Institut

178、e.(2020).Small-scale wood combustion worsens air quality in Nordic cities:https:/en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/tiedote/1290744313.13 Savolahti,M.,Karvosenoja,N.,Tissari,J.,Kupiainen,K.,Sippula,O.,&Jokiniemi,J.(2016).Black carbon and fine particle emissions in Finnish residential wood combustion:Emission p

179、rojections,reduction measures and the impact of combustion practices.Atmospheric environment,140,495-505.14 UNEP.(2013).Tightening vehicle and fuels standards to benefit global health and climate:https:/www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/tightening-vehicle-and-fuels-standards-benefit-global

180、-health-and.15 Ibid.16 Minjares,R.,Wagner,D.V.,&Akbar,S.(2014).Reducing black carbon emissions from diesel vehicles:Impacts,control strategies,and cost-benefit analysis.Washington,D.C.:World Bank Group.17 Sofiev,M.,Winebrake,J.J.,Johansson,L.,Carr,E.W.,Prank,M.,Soares,J.,Vira,J.,Kouznetsov,R.,Jalkan

181、en,J.-P.,&Corbett,J.J.(2018).Cleaner fuels for ships provide public health benefits with climate tradeoffs.Nature Communications,9(1),406.18 Liudmila Osipova and Bryan Comer.(2022).Be truly“fit for 55”by adding black carbon emissions from ships.https:/theicct.org/fit-for-55-black-carbon-from-ships-a

182、ug22/.19 Nicolaou,L.,Sylvies,F.,Veloso,I.,Lord,K.,Chandyo,R.K.,Sharma,A.K.,Shrestha,L.P.,Parker,D.L.,Thygerson,S.M.,&DeCarlo,P.F.(2023).Brick kiln pollution and its impact on health:A systematic review and meta-analysis.medRxiv,2023.11.16.23298642.20 CCAC.(2021).Improved Kiln Technology Delivers Env

183、ironmental Benefits and Drives Generational Change in Pakistans Brick Sector.https:/www.ccacoalition.org/news/improved-kiln-technology-delivers-environmental-benefits-and-drives-generational-change-pakistans-brick-sector.21 Nicolaou,L.,Sylvies,F.,Veloso,I.,Lord,K.,Chandyo,R.K.,Sharma,A.K.,Shrestha,L

184、.P.,Parker,D.L.,Thygerson,S.M.,&DeCarlo,P.F.(2023).Brick kiln pollution and its impact on health:A systematic review and meta-analysis.medRxiv,2023.11.16.23298642.22 CCAC.(2021).Improved Kiln Technology Delivers Environmental Benefits and Drives Generational Change in Pakistans Brick Sector.https:/w

185、ww.ccacoalition.org/news/improved-kiln-technology-delivers-environmental-benefits-and-drives-generational-change-pakistans-brick-sector.23 Xu,Y.,Shen,H.,Yun,X.,Gao,F.,Chen,Y.,Li,B.,Liu,J.,Ma,J.,Wang,X.,&Liu,X.(2018).Health effects of banning beehive coke ovens and implementation of the ban in China.

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187、and health risks in a highly industrialized region of China.Science of The Total Environment,908,168360.25 Chen,C.,McCabe,D.C.,Fleischman,L.E.,&Cohan,D.S.(2022).Black carbon emissions and associated health impacts of gas flaring in the United States.Atmosphere,13(3),385.26 International Energy Agenc

188、y(IEA).https:/www.iea.org/energy-system/fossil-fuels/gas-flaring.27 Mark Dwortzan.(2022,November 30).A targeted approach to reducing the health impacts of crop residue burning in India.MIT News.https:/news.mit.edu/2022/targeted-approach-reducing-health-impacts-crop-residue-burning-india-1130.28 UNEC

189、E.(2023).Guidance document on reduction of emissions from agricultural residue burning.29 Radiative forcing is calculated in watts per square meter,which measures how much energy has come in from the sun,compared to how much has left,over a period of time.See details here:https:/climate.mit.edu/expl

190、ainers/radiative-forcing.30 Szopa,S.,et al.(2021).Climate change 2021:The physical science basis.In V.Masson-Delmotte et al.(Eds.),Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC.31 Huang,J.,Adams,A.,Wang,C.,&Zhang,C.(2009).Black carbon and West African monsoon precipitati

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192、/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health.34 Arif,M.,&Parveen,S.(2021).Carcinogenic effects of indoor black carbon and particulate matters(PM2.5 and PM10)in rural households of India.Environmental Science and Pollution Research,28(2),20822096.35 Cui,C.,Liu,Y.,Chen,L.,Liang,S.,Shan,M.,Zhao,J.,Liu,Y.

193、,Yu,S.,Sun,Y.,&Mao,J.(2022).Assessing public health and economic loss associated with black carbon exposure using monitoring and MERRA-2 data.Environmental Pollution,313,120190.36 Rantanen,M.,Karpechko,A.Y.,Lipponen,A.,Nordling,K.,Hyvrinen,O.,Ruosteenoja,K.,Vihma,T.,&Laaksonen,A.(2022).The Arctic ha

194、s warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979.Communications Earth&Environment,3(1),168.37 Ohata,S.,Koike,M.,Yoshida,A.,Moteki,N.,Adachi,K.,Oshima,N.,Matsui,H.,Eppers,O.,Bozem,H.,&Zanatta,M.(2021).Arctic black carbon during PAMARCMiP 2018 and previous aircraft experiments in spring.Atm

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196、nt climate and air pollution impacts on Indian agriculture.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,111(46),1631916324.40 Liu,X.,&Desai,A.R.(2021).Significant reductions in crop yields from air pollution and heat stress in the United States.Earths Future,9(8),e2021EF002000.41 Malley,C.S.,Lefv

197、re,E.N.,Kuylenstierna,J.C.,Haeussling,S.,Howard,I.C.,&Borgford-Parnell,N.(2023).Integration of Short-Lived Climate Pollutant and air pollutant mitigation in nationally determined contributions.Climate Policy,23(10),12161228.42 Ibid.43 Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC).(2017).Arctic Countries com

198、mit to reduce black carbon emissions by as much as a third.https:/www.ccacoalition.org/news/arctic-countries-commit-reduce-black-carbon-emissions-much-third.44 Clean Air Fund(CAF).(2024).Benefits of integrating black carbon into enhanced NDCs.CAF.https:/www.cleanairfund.org/resource/black-carbon-ndc

199、s/.45 UNECE.(1970).Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.UNECE.Retrieved from https:/ World Wildlife Fund(WWF).(2024).Arctic Governance.WWF.Retrieved from:https:/www.arcticwwf.org/our-priorities/governance/.47 IEA.(2023).A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All.International Energy A

200、gency.48 Andrew Eil,Jie Li,Prajwal Baral,and Eri Saikawa.(2020).Dirty Stacks,High Stakes:An Overview of Brick Sector in South Asia.World Bank Publications.49 Brewer,T.L.(2019).Black carbon emissions and regulatory policies in transportation.Energy Policy,129,10471055.50 Ibid.51 Andrew Eil,Jie Li,Pra

201、jwal Baral,and Eri Saikawa.(2020).Dirty Stacks,High Stakes:An Overview of Brick Sector in South Asia.World Bank Publications.Black Carbon Reduction:A Rapid Action Plan 2952 There are many ways of grouping black carbon“affinity groups”for the purposes of identifying commonalities and differences.Thes

202、e include but are not limited to:Top 10 anthropogenic emitters of black carbon:China,India,Nigeria,Indonesia,Brazil,the US,Pakistan,Vietnam,Russia and South Africa.Countries significantly affected by black carbon,e.g.the Arctic states of Canada,Denmark,Finland,Iceland,Norway,Sweden,Russia and the US

203、;or the Himalayan states of India,Pakistan,Nepal,China,Afghanistan,Bhutan and Myanmar.Significant open burning:the Democratic Republic of Congo,Indonesia,Angola,Brazil,Russia,Australia,Canada,Zambia,Central African Republic and Mozambique.53 Li,J.(2020).An Investigation report on the policy environm

204、ent of“clean cooking”in China.https:/mecs.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/MECS-report-China-policy-review.pdf.54 ICCT.(2023).Chinas Clean Diesel Action Plan:Phase II.https:/theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Clean-diesel-action-plan-II_final.pdf.55 Mani,M.(Ed.).(2021).Glaciers of the Himalayas

205、:Climate change,black carbon,and regional resilience.World Bank Publications.56 ICIMOD.(2023).Water,ice,society,and ecosystems in the Hindu Kush Himalaya:An outlook.(P.Wester,S.Chaudhary,N.Chettri,M.Jackson,A.Maharjan,S.Nepal,&J.F.Steiner Eds.).ICIMOD.57 Ibid.58 Molden,D.J.,Shrestha,A.B.,Immerzeel,W

206、.W.,Maharjan,A.,Rasul,G.,Wester,P.,Wagle,N.,Pradhananga,S.,&Nepal,S.(2022).The great glacier and snow-dependent rivers of Asia and climate change:Heading for troubled waters.Water Security under Climate Change,223250.59 Ibid.60 ICIMOD.(2023).Water,ice,society,and ecosystems in the Hindu Kush Himalay

207、a:An outlook.(P.Wester,S.Chaudhary,N.Chettri,M.Jackson,A.Maharjan,S.Nepal,&J.F.Steiner Eds.).ICIMOD.https:/doi.org/10.53055/ICIMOD.1028.61 NDTV.(2019,November 06).Hundreds Gather at India Gate to Protest Against Delhi Air Pollution.https:/ Garg,V.,Sharma,S.,Clarke,K.,&Bridle,R.(2017).Kerosene Subsid

208、ies in India:The status quo,challenges and the emerging path to reform.IISD.63 The Zero Emission Vehicle(ZEV)Declaration:https:/acceleratingtozero.org/the-declaration/.64 Anumita Roychowdhury.(2023,September 9).World EV Day 2023:To fast-track change,India needs Zero Emission Vehicle mandate.https:/w

209、ww.downtoearth.org.in/energy/world-ev-day-2023-to-fast-track-change-india-needs-zero-emission-vehicle-mandate-91650#:text=India%20has%20also%20signed%20on,represents%2017%20largest%20vehicle%20markets.65 Alvarado,M.J.,Winijkul,E.,Adams-Selin,R.,Hunt,E.,Brodowski,C.,Lonsdale,C.R.,Shindell,D.T.,Faluve

210、gi,G.,Kleiman,G.,&Mosier,T.M.(2018).Sources of black carbon deposition to the Himalayan glaciers in current and future climates.Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres,123(14),74827505.66 Al Jazeera.(2024,April 2).Why does South Asia have the worlds worst air pollution?https:/ Alam,S.(2019).A re

211、view of the existing policy instrument for transforming the brick kiln sector of Bangladesh.International Journal of Development and Sustainability,8(9),665677.68 Abbas,A.,Sajid,M.B.,Shahzad,N.,Din,E.U.,Mahmood,M.,&Salahuddin,U.(2022).Barriers and drivers for adoption of energy efficient and environ

212、ment friendly brick kiln technologies in Punjab,Pakistan.Energy Reports,8,1556315573.69 The Indian Express.(2024,April 6).Opportunities and challenges in converting brick kilns to ZZK technology.https:/ Dhakar Tribune.(2024,January 31).Minister:Around 60%of brick kilns operating illegally.https:/ Ni

213、gerias National Action Plan to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants:https:/climatechange.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/nigeria-s-national-action-plan-nap-to-reduce-short-lived-climate-pollutants-slcps-.pdf.72 Climate Policy Initiative.(2022).Landscape of Climate Finance in Nigeria.73 Nwachukwu

214、Okechukwu.(2024).NESREA and the Challenges of Environmental Regulation in Nigeria.British Journal of Mass Communication and Media Research 4(1),1-11.74 Dare Olawin.(2024,May 16).GreenPlinth Africa,partners to distribute 80million free cookstoves.Punch Newspaper.https:/ IEA.(2023).A Vision for Clean

215、Cooking Access for All.International Energy Agency.76 Ibid.77 Khavari,B.,Ramirez,C.,Jeuland,M.,&Fuso Nerini,F.(2023).A geospatial approach to understanding clean cooking challenges in sub-Saharan Africa.Nature Sustainability,6(4),447457.78 Perros,T.,Tomei,J.,&Parikh,P.(2024).Stakeholder perspectives

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