《世界銀行（WBG）：2024新興城市公共交通導向型發展規劃報告（英文版）（169頁）.pdf》由會員分享，可在線閱讀，更多相關《世界銀行（WBG）：2024新興城市公共交通導向型發展規劃報告（英文版）（169頁）.pdf（169頁珍藏版）》請在三個皮匠報告上搜索。

1、Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesMobility and Transport Connectivity SeriesPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure Authorized 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Stre

2、et NW,Washington DC 20433 Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:www.worldbank.org Internet:https:/www.worldbank.org/transportThis work is a product of the staff of The World Bank.The findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Direc

3、tors of The World Bank or the governments they represent.The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denominations,and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the leg

4、al status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.Rights and PermissionsThe material in this work is subject to copyright.Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge,this work may be reproduced,in whole or in part,for noncommercial purposes as long a

5、s full attribution to this work is given.AttributionPlease cite the work as follows:Ardila-Gomez,Arturo;Namkung,Ok Stella;Dominguez-Gonzalez,Karla;He,He;and Bona,Nada.2024.“Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities.”World Bank.Translations If you create a translation of this work,

6、please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This translation was not created by the World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation.The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation.AdaptationsIf you create an adaptation of

7、this work,please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank.Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank.All querie

8、s on rights and licenses,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to World Bank Publications,The World Bank Group,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;fax:202-522-2625;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesiiiTable of ContentsList of Fig

9、ures.viList of Tables.viiiList of Boxes.viiiAcknowledgments.ixForeword.xAcronyms.xiiExecutive Summary xiiiIntroduction:Land Use and Transport in Developing Cities.xivProblem Statement.xviLand Use and Transport Planning through the Lenses of TOD and Urban Economics.xviA Sandbox Model:Simulating the I

10、mpact of Land Use Regulations on Transit Ridership.xviiTOD for Emerging Cities and Cities that Want Transit.xviiiRecommendations for Improving TOD Practice.xxivA Virtuous Cycle Toward a Transit-Oriented City.xxv1 Introduction11.1 Background:Land Use and Transport in Developing Cities.31.2 Problem St

11、atement.72 Theoretical Framework:Urban and Transport Economics and the 3-Value Approach 92.1 The Standard Urban Economics Model.102.2 Transport Economics and Cost-Benefit Analysis.122.3 The 3-Value Framework.152.4 Conclusion.193 Transport and Urban Growth:Urban Road Network and Development 203.1 The

12、 Link Between Roads and Development.213.2 The Urban Road Network in Formal and Informal Areas.233.3 Urban Development in 3-D:Distant,Dispersed,Disconnected.273.4 Conclusion.284 Zoning and Land Use Regulations 294.1 Defining Zoning and LUR.304.2 Japans Market-friendly Zoning and Planning.364.3 US-ins

13、pired Form-Based Codes.424.4 Conclusion.43Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Citiesiv5 The Sandbox Model:Effects of Modifying LUR 445.1 Developing a Sandbox Model.455.2 Conclusion.496 How Land Use Regulations Impact Transit Use 506.1 Baseline Scenario:Car Oriented.516.2 Change in

14、Plot Coverage Ratio.526.3 Change in Floor Area Ratio(FAR).536.4 Change in Setback(Build-to-line).546.5 Change in On-the-Street Parking Mandates.556.6 Change in Off-the-Street Parking Requirements.566.7 Modeling Long and Wide Blocks:Super Blocks.576.8 Conclusion.577 How Multiple LUR Changes in Parall

15、el Impact Transit Use 597.1 Transit-Friendly Scenario.607.2 Modeling an Informal Settlement.617.3 Barcelonas SuperilleSuper-Island.617.4 Plans for High FAR.657.5 An Example of FAR,Plot Coverage,Setback,and Parking Requirements.667.6 Consequences of Limiting the Supply of Floor Space.687.7 Conclusion

16、.698 Modeling Growth Scenarios in Search of a Compact City 728.1 Four Scenarios.738.2 The Modeling Approaches.748.3 The Results:Toward a Compact City.748.4 Implications for Informal Areas.798.5 Conclusion.819 Gender and Land Use Regulations:Eyes on the Street or See and Be Seen 829.1 The Importance

17、of Considering Gender.839.2 Gender Differences in Mobility.839.3 Thinking About a Gender Perspective in Land Use Regulation.859.4 The Need to Talk More About Womens Accessibility and Not Just Mobility.869.5 Conclusion.89Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Citiesv10 Parking Policy,L

18、and Use Regulations,and Pricing 9010.1 The Objectives of a Parking Policy.9110.2 Pricing for Parking to Promote Economic Activity.9110.3 Parking Requirement:Minimum,Maximum,Or Let Market Forces Decide?.9210.4 Interaction Between Parking and Land Use.9310.5 Conclusion.9611 Planning for Future Transit

19、-Oriented Development 9711.1 TOD for Emerging Cities and Cities that Want Transit.9811.2 Recommendations for Improving TOD Practice.10311.3 A Virtuous Cycle Toward a Transit-Oriented City.106Appendix:Detailed Description of Land Use Regulations 108Floor Area Ratio(FAR).109Plot Coverage Ratio.111Mini

20、mum lot size.113Parking Mandates.115Mixed-Use Zoning.117Build-to-Line.119Street Furniture Zone.122Pedestrian Road.125Bibliography 127Image Credit 141Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesviList of FiguresFigure ES1.Relative Carbon Efficiency of Urban Passenger Transport Modes.x

21、iiFigure ES2.The Population Density in Cities by Country Income Class and Region,2015.xiiiFigure ES3.Public Transport would be more Feasible if there were Transit-friendly LURs in All Blocks.xixFigure ES4.Multimodal Street Example that Improves Space Allocation and Throughput.xxiFigure 1.1 Relative

22、Carbon Efficiency of Urban Passenger Transport Modes.2Figure 1.2 Modal Split of Passenger Transport in Selected Cities in Developed and Developing Countries.3Figure 1.3 Modal Split in Select Cities in Developing Countries.4Figure 1.4 The Population Density in Cities by Country Income Class and Regio

23、n,2015.5Figure 2.1 Urban Rent Profiles as Function of Travel Costs(k).11Figure 2.2 Urban Rent Profiles as a Function of City Radius,b.Transport Cost Constant.11Figure 2.3 The Economic Impact of a Transport Project that Expanded the Supply of Mobility.13Figure 2.4 The Economic Impact of a Transport P

24、roject on the Real Estate Market.13Figure 2.5 The Economic Impact of a Transport Project on a Supply-constrained Real Estate Market.14Figure 2.6 High-density Urban Development in Manhattan and Tokyo.16Figure 2.7 Road Plans of New York City,Chicago,Barcelona,and Washington D.C.18Figure 3.1 Urban Grow

25、th in Dongguan,China,1988-2006.22Figure 3.2 Dongguans First Metro Line.22Figure 3.3 Road Patterns in Cali,Colombia,at the Boundary Between Formality and Informality.25Figure 3.4 Images of Urban Development at the Boundary Between Formally and Informally Developed Areas in Cali,Colombia.26Figure 3.5

26、Images of the Informal Developed Area in Cali and the Telphrique.26Figure 3.6 Examples of Arterials Roads in Queens in New York City and Wuhan,China.27Figure 3.7 Examples of Urban Development in 3-D.28Figure 4.1 Picture of the Shanghai World Financial Center.31Figure 4.2 Minimum Plot Size and Setbac

27、ks in a Car-oriented Area in Washington DC.32Figure 4.3 Cars Parked on the Sidewalks in Cali,Colombia(left)and Cairo,Egypt(right).33Figure 4.4 Housing-only,High-density Development in Bogota,Colombia.34Figure 4.5 Mixed Land Use Along a Pedestrian-only Street in Istanbul,Trkiye.34Figure 4.6 Picture o

28、f Arlington,VA.41Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesviiFigure 4.7 Wide Sidewalks and Narrow Setbacks in Arlington County by a Metro Station.41Figure 4.8 Examples of Urban Development that Follow FBC.43Figure 5.1 10 by 10 Block Neighborhood Layout With Two Avenues,Local Stree

29、ts,Public Space,and Two Accesses to Public Transport.46Figure 5.2 Probability of Walking to a Bus Stop as a Function of the Distance to the Bus Stop.48Figure 6.1 Images for the Car-Oriented Scenario.52Figure 6.2 Plot Coverage Ratio and Public Transport Ridership.52Figure 6.3 FAR and Public Transport

30、 Ridership.53Figure 6.4 Setback Width and Public Transport Users.54Figure 6.5 The Number of On-street Parking Lanes and Public Transport Users.55Figure 6.6 Parking Minimums and Public Transport Users.56Figure 7.1 Change in Public Transport Ridership Between Pro-public Transport and Car-oriented LUR.

31、60Figure 7.2 Map of Bus Routes and Entrances to Metro Lines in Barcelona(Section).62Figure 7.3 Model Forecast for the Barcelona Superille(Super-island Concept).63Figure 7.4 Evolution of Curitibas Integrated Transit Networktrunk and Feeder.64Figure 7.5 Three Different Configurations Result in the Sam

32、e Density but Different Walkability.67Figure 7.6 Public Transport is More Feasible if there are Transit-friendly LUR in All Blocks.70Figure 7.7 Image of Barcelona.71Figure 8.1 Km of Mass Transit and City Area for the Four Scenarios.77Figure 8.2 High-income Neighborhoods,Houses Located 600 M or More

33、Away from the Arterial Road.80Figure 8.3 Road Patterns in Nakuru(Left)and Bogota(Right)Informal Areas.80Figure 10.1 Sample of Cities in the USA that Have Eliminated Parking Minimums.93Figure 10.2 Good Parkingsidewalk Interaction.94Figure 10.3 Poor Parkingsidewalk Interaction.95Figure 10.4 The Wall E

34、ffect Destroys Walkability.95Figure 10.5 Shops and Restaurants in Front of Parking Buildings.96Figure 11.1 Multimodal Street Example that Improves Space Allocation and Throughput.101Figure 11.2 Multimodal Street in Reality in Bogota,Colombia.102Figure 11.3 Multimodal Street in Reality in Paris,Franc

35、e.102Figure 11.4 Metro Entrances in Downtown Washington DC.107Figure A.1 Different Urban Landscape by FARs and Height Regulations.109Figure A.2 Different Urban Landscapes by Plot Coverage Ratios.111Figure A.3 Mixed Use in Ulaanbaatar City Center.117Figure A.4 Front Building Setback(Washington DC,USA

36、).119Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesviiiFigure A.5 Example of a Pedestrian-only Street.121Figure A.6 Bike-sharing Docking Stations on Street Furniture Zone(Washington DC,USA).122Figure A.7 Bike Racks on Street Furniture Zone(Paris,France).122Figure A.8 Pedestrian Street

37、in La Defense,Paris.125List of TablesTable ES1.How LUR Maximize the Node,Place,and Market Values and their Benefits.xviiiTable 3.1 World Average Changes Between Pre-1990 Against 1990-2015 Values for Critical Attributes Measured by the Atlas of Urban Expansion.23Table 3.2 Regional Averages Pre-1990 a

38、nd 1990-2015 Values for Critical Attributes Measured by the Atlas of Urban Expansion.24Table 4.1 Zoning in Japan.37Table 4.2 FAR and Plot Coverage Ratio by Zone in Japan.38Table 5.1 Percentage of Residents in Each Block Willing to Walk to the Public Transport Station.49Table 6.1 Baseline Scenario:Ca

39、r-Oriented.51Table 6.2 Percentage of Residents in Each Block Willing to Walk to the Public Transport Station of the 250 x250 m Superblocks.57Table 7.1 Probabilities of Walking to the Bus Stop or Mass Transit Entrance.62Table 7.2 High FAR Scenarios.65Table 8.1 Results for the Four Scenarios.76Table 8

40、.2 Probability of Walking to a Public Transport Stop on the Block(1,1).79Table 11.1 How LUR Maximize the Node,Place,and Market Values and their Benefits.99Table A.1 Trip Category for the Most Recent Ride Service Trip Taken Instead of Public Transport.123List of BoxesBox 1.1 Key Terms Defined.6Box 2.

41、1 Markets Need Information to Work:Roads,Parks,and Public Goods.17Box 4.1 The Arlington TOD Case Study.40Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesixAcknowledgmentsThis book was written by Arturo Ardila-Gomez(Lead Transport Economist),Ok Stella Namkung(Consultant),Karla Dominguez-G

42、onzalez(Senior Gender Specialist),He He(Economist),and Nada Bona(Consultant),with contributions to the concept stage from Nouhayla Boubekri(Consultant),Daniel Ernesto Moser(GIZ),Arturs Danilovs(Consultant),and Joanna Moody(Transport Specialist).Salma Kably(Consultant)helped with the figures in chapt

43、er 8.The authors thank the peer reviewers for their guidance:Gerald Paul Ollivier(Lead Transport Specialist),Joanna McLean Masic(Lead Urban Specialist,SURDR),Chen Yang(Senior Transport Specialist,ILCT1),Shigeyuki Sakaki(Senior Transport Specialist,IEAT1),Somik V.Lall(Economic Adviser);Harris Selod(S

44、enior Economist,DECSI);and Shomik Raj Mehndiratta(Practice Manager,IECT1).The authors thank Nicolas Peltier(Director,ITRGK)and Binyam Reja(Practice Manager,ITRGK)for their guidance in preparing the book.Jonathan Davidar(Senior Knowledge Management and Learning Officer,ITRGK)guided the design,infogra

45、phics,editing,and production of this publication.Thanks to RRD GO Creative for editing and design.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxIn the rapidly evolving landscape of emerging cities,the concept of Transit-Oriented Development(TOD)is a beacon of sustainable urban growth.

46、As cities expand and populations surge,the need for efficient,accessible,and environmentally friendly transportation systems becomes paramount.TOD offers a visionary approach,integrating residential,commercial,and recreational spaces within walkable distances of public transit.This not only reduces

47、reliance on private vehicles,thereby decreasing traffic congestion and pollution but also fosters vibrant,inclusive communities.By prioritizing mixed-use developments and pedestrian-friendly environments,TOD enhances the quality of urban life,making cities more livable and resilient.For emerging cit

48、ies,embracing TOD is not just a strategy but a necessity.It represents a commitment to smart growth,where economic development and environmental stewardship go hand in hand.By leveraging the benefits of TOD,these cities can attract investments,create jobs,and improve public health outcomes.Moreover,

49、TOD can help bridge social divides by providing equitable access to opportunities and amenities for all residents,regardless of their socioeconomic status.As we look to the future,the adoption of TOD principles will be crucial in shaping growing cities that are not only sustainable but also dynamic

50、and inclusive,paving the way for a brighter urban future that is walkable and transit-oriented.Nicolas Peltier-Thiberge Global Director,Transport The World BankPlanning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxiUrbanization is accelerating at an unprecedented pace,making sustainable and e

51、fficient urban planning critical.“Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities”offers a comprehensive guide to transforming rapidly growing urban areas into vibrant,transit-oriented communities.The book emphasizes the importance of integrating land use regulations with transport plan

52、ning.By aligning these two elements,cities can promote higher densities,mixed land uses,and pedestrian-friendly environments,which are essential for effective public transport systems.An innovative sandbox model is introduced to simulate the impact of various land use regulations on transit ridershi

53、p.This model provides valuable insights into how changes in regulations,such as floor area ratios and parking requirements,can significantly influence public transport use and walkability.Highlighting the importance of designing for gender differences in mobility and accessibility,the book advocates

54、 for land use regulations that enhance safety and accessibility for all,particularly women,by promoting“eyes on the street”and ensuring well-designed public spaces.Practical recommendations on improving Transit-Oriented Development(TOD)practices include adopting market-friendly zoning,allowing mixed

55、 land uses,allowing higher densities,promoting Multi-Modal Streets with wide sidewalks and proper traffic management,and ensuring adequate public space to support a walkable and transit-oriented urban environment.This book is an essential resource for urban planners,policymakers,and anyone intereste

56、d in creating sustainable,livable cities.By following the principles and recommendations outlined in this work,emerging cities can embark on a path toward a more connected,efficient,and inclusive urban future.Binyam Reja Global Practice Manager for Transport,The World BankPlanning for Transit-Orient

57、ed Development in Emerging CitiesxiiAcronyms3V3-Value FrameworkASA Advisory Services and AnalyticsBRT Bus-Rapid Transit CBDCentral Business District CCTVClosed-Circuit TelevisionFARFloor Area RatioFBCForm-Based CodesGHGGreenhouse GasGPSGlobal Positioning SystemGTFSGeneral Transit Feed SpecificationH

58、ITSHierarchically Integrated Transit System ITDPInstitute for Transport and Development Policy ITFInternational Transport Forum LURLand-Use RegulationsMMSMultimodal StreetsNACTONational Association of City Transportation OfficialsNEDUM-2D ModelNon-Equilibrium Dynamic Urban Model NIMBYNot-In-My-Backy

59、ard NGONon-governmental OrganisationOECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOICAInternational Organization of Motor Vehicle ManufacturersPTPublic TransportSDGSustainable Development GoalSDSNSustainable Development Solutions NetworkSFHSingle-Family-HomeTODTransit-Oriented Developmen

60、tTDMTransportation Demand ManagementUNDESAUnited Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsWHOWorld Health OrganizationWRIWorld Resources Institute ESExecutive SummaryPlanning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxivIntroduction:Land Use and Transport in Developing CitiesCities

61、account for more than 50 percent of the worlds population and 80 percent of its economic output(International Energy Agency,2021).The concentration of people in cities is expected to continue through 2050,adding an additional 2.3 billion urban dwellers.At that point,an estimated 70 percent of the wo

62、rlds population will reside in cities.Considering this rapid urbanization,a common pitfall is to focus only on the challenges faced by the worlds megacities,which neglects the many growing small and mid-sized cities.Notably,about 75 percent of the worlds urban population live in settlements of less

63、than 500,000 people(Cities Alliance,2019).Cities and urban transport are increasingly critical frontiers for climate action More than 70 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions come from cities,making their mitigation efforts an important contributor to decarbonization.Urban transport is a signif

64、icant contributor to climate-warming greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions in cities,with most urban transport emissions coming from cars.Private vehicles and low-occupancy ride-hailing services are carbon-inefficient per passenger-kilometer served(Figure ES1).Additionally,car-centric transport systems are a

65、 significant contributor to sprawling,low-density settlement configurations that displace natural carbon sinks.Managing motorization and encouraging the use of more carbon-efficient modes such as walking,biking,and public transport is fundamental to a low-carbon development trajectory while supporti

66、ng sustainable development goals for livable cities,social inclusion,clean air,and road safety.Figure ES1 Relative Carbon Efficiency of Urban Passenger Transport ModesCO Emissions from Energy Consumption during Vehicle Use(g CO/passenger-km)Walking andBikingBus,bus rapidtransitUrban Rail(metro,tram)

67、2-and 3-WheelerPrivate Car(gasoline,diesel,or hybrid)Taxi(gasoline,diesel,orhybrid)010015020025030035040045050050Source:Adapted from Figure 8.6(Sims,et al.,2014).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxvMany cities in the developing world already have many elements of low-carbon

68、 passenger mobility These include large modal shares of travel by public and active modes,low ownership and use of private cars,and high densities.Compared to cities in developed economies,more people walk,bike,or take public transportformal or informaland only a minority travel by car or motorcycle

69、.Generally,motorization rates are still low or moderate.Indeed,developing countries currently have motorization rates that are four to eight times lower than developed countries(International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers,OICA,2015).Another advantage of cities in developing countries i

70、s their density Demand for space tends to increase with income levels,resulting in an inverse relationship between density and income,as shown in Figure ES2(OECD,2020).Many informal settlements can be extremely crowded,with densities surpassing 60,000 inhabitants per km2(Kit,Ludeke,&Reckien,2013).A

71、lower density already supports public transport,walking,and biking.Figure ES2 The Population Density in Cities by Country Income Class and Region,2015000 Population per km2LowerMiddleLowIncomeUpperMiddleHighIncomeSSA ME&NA SALA&C EA&P E&CANAOECD12.0010.008.006.004.002.000NA:North America,ME&NA:The M

72、iddle East and North Africa,LA&C:Latin America and the Caribbean,E&CA:Europe and Central Asia,EA&P:East Asia and Pacific,SA:South Asia,SSA:Sub-Saharan Africa.Source:(OECD,2020).Despite land use patterns and apparent travel behavior that are supportive of transit-oriented development,few cities in de

73、veloping countries have been unequivocally successful in building on these advantages Rather,many emerging cities are on a trajectory toward extreme urban crowding without deriving the benefits of urban accessibility.Transportation and land use plans are often formulated independently.This lack of c

74、oherence contributes to inefficient cities with housing situated far away from employment centers(Suzuki,Cervero,&Iuchi,2013).Urban expansion often happens in a scattered pattern with gaps between the built-up areaand public housing projects are frequently located in these remote areas.This increase

75、s the demand for motorized modes and generates congestion.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxviProblem StatementWhat transport and land-use policies allow emerging cities without existing mass transit to develop into transit-oriented cities supported by low-carbon modes?To

76、address this question,the book uses the lenses of urban economics and Transit-Oriented Development(TOD)literature.It applies theory,derives shared learnings,and examines empirical evidence from both perspectivesultimately bridging the gap between the two.Additionally,the focus on developing solution

77、s for emerging cities is critical.These cities account for 75 percent of the worlds urban population and are also the most volatile,going through the most rapid change.They are often characterized by increasing population,expanding economic activities,and undergoing social,economic,and physical tran

78、sformations.Formal or informal transit systems might serve them,but in many cases,they aspire to and struggle with the implementation of mass transit.Land Use and Transport Planning through the Lenses of TOD and Urban EconomicsThe two dominant strands of thinking to address these problems are the TO

79、D literature,which promotes land use planning around transit infrastructure,and the urban economics literature,which advocates a market-based approach The TOD literature recommends planning to generate a“compact,mixed-use,pedestrian-friendly development organized around a transit station”(Suzuki,Cer

80、vero,&Iuchi,2013).“TOD is a planning and design strategy that focuses on creating urban development patterns which facilitate the use of public transit,walking and cycling,as primary modes of transport and which supports vibrant,diverse,and livable communities.This is achieved by concentrating urban

81、 densities,communities,and activities within 510-minutes walking distance from mass rapid transit stations(high-capacity bus or rail),developing quality urban space,and providing convenient and efficient access to a diverse mix of land uses”(Ollivier G.,Ghate,Bankim,&Mehta,2021).The TOD literature,h

82、owever,could pay more attention to market mechanisms and price signals.The urban economics literature finds that markets determine city density and uses This literature builds from the trade-off between travel costs and rent costs to derive the spatial layout of cities For example,the standard monoc

83、entric city model presents an extremely useful understanding of the interactions between mobility and land development.Integrated land use-transport planning marries the learnings of both literatures Market forces shape cities,and urban planning and land-use regulations(LUR)have important roles to p

84、lay in guiding and facilitating those forces.Public transport needs demand,and so does mass transit.Higher densities lead to demand for public transport.This is the first part of the theoretical framework used in this book.The basic function of urban and transport planning is to allocate space for t

85、he citys road network,parks,public schools,and hospitals Market forces cannot allocate spaces for these items because they are public goods(Bertaud,2018).However,urban markets need information on the location of the public goods to function properly.Investors want to locate buildings by roads to ben

86、efit from the mobility they provide,which helps access opportunities in the city.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxviiThe 3-Value Framework(3V)(Ollivier et al 2021)complemented the theoretical framework by indicating the elements of node,placemaking,and market potential va

87、lues Node value refers to potential ridership.Place value refers to the quality of the surrounding space and induces walkability.Finally,market potential value is explained by the potential to develop real estate with mixed land uses.Transport infrastructure attracts urban development because people

88、 want to live close to the mobility they provide,since it allows access to opportunities For the urban market to work,agents need to know the location of the future road network.Without this information,developers imagine the roads,resulting in haphazard road patterns.Urban development is increasing

89、ly informal.Cities are investing less in arterialsat least 16 m widewhich are critical for public transport.The share of 4m wide roads is increasing.These roads are unsuitable for regular buses.Mini-vans barely fit but in one direction.Reversing these trends will require improvements in municipal pu

90、blic finance so municipalities can afford better road networks.In addition,LUR can play a positive role.Used properly,zoning and LUR can improve urban design and the quality of life in cities In addition to being demand responsive,zoning and land use regulations can support public transport by mixin

91、g land uses,allowing higher densities,and promoting walking.An important example of this joined-up approach comes from Japan,where mixed land use and reasonable floor area ratios allowed by zoning are best practices for TOD.The TOD literature recommends relaxing land use regulations to allow higher

92、density and mixed land uses around transit stations.Zoning in Japan allows these features in all zones.Housing costs are lower,allowing densification around transit stations and creating affordable housing for people who need public transport.This zoning also allows market forces to generate suitabl

93、e densities before a transit line is built.Land use regulations and urban planning are also important levers to make cities gender inclusive and not gender-blind Womens travel patterns are different from those of men,and they have safety considerations that are not considered by standard practice.To

94、 improve womens accessibility to employment opportunities and services,planners should consider the needs and concerns of women while designing urban spaces and transport systems.To that end,gender-responsive regulations and environmental design to improve zoning,walkability,and safety perception ar

95、e all important tools.Although the importance of enhancing womens travel experiences and enjoyment of the public space is clear,the evidence to quantify these tends to be limited.Hence,more data needs to be produced on the impact of land use regulations on womens mobility and accessibility.Zoning an

96、d LUR should be more frequently brought to the discussion on womens usage of public space,including transport systems and access to economic opportunities and services.A Sandbox Model:Simulating the Impact of Land Use Regulations on Transit RidershipThe book develops a sandbox model to simulate the

97、impacts of land use regulations on transit ridership Public transport,to a much larger extent than private modes,depends on the surrounding built environment.Not only is density necessary to provide the scale that enables mass transit but accessing transit is a last-mile problemtypically solved by w

98、alking.Both these components,Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Citiesxviiidensity and walkability,can be heavily influenced by land use regulations.To test the impact of different land use regulations on transit ridership,the authors built a sandbox simulation model.The model rep

99、resents a stylized city block centered around a bus stop or mass transit station entrance.It shows the number of people who are willing to walk to access the transit system and how this number changes depending on the land use regulations in place in the city block.The model shows that public transp

100、ort ridership increases with increasing plot coverage ratio and FAR and decreases with more setbacks and parking requirements Increasing the FAR is critical,validating the emphasis the TOD literature places on this regulation.The model also showed an inverse relationship with the setback requirement

101、.Large setback requirements generate a car-oriented pattern because they lower density and increase the distance people must walk to access the sidewalk and then walk to the transit stop.The model shows how on-the-street parking requirements occupy land that could be used for housing.Reducing these

102、requirements will increase the housing supply.Off-the-street parking requirements reduce space for people due to the need to allocate space for cars.The nascent trend to reduce and even eliminate parking requirements is reasonable and will improve housing affordability.However,reducing and eliminati

103、ng parking requirements should happen in the context of a sound parking policy that includes better pricing and incentivizes the private sector to invest in formal parking(Ardila-Gomez,Bianchi Alves,&Moody,2021).The sandbox model predicts that increasing or liberalizing the FAR has the largest benef

104、it,followed by increasing the plot coverage ratio.Parking policy also matters because it takes scarce road and housing space.Proximity to arterial roads wide enough to allow public transport vehicles is critical,as shown by Barcelonas example.The desired pattern is shown in Figure ES3,which resemble

105、s Barcelonas superille plan.This pattern requires transit-friendly urban regulations throughout.Leveling the playing field between public transport and private cars is important to incentivize public transport use and disincentivize car use.The main objective of a modern parking policy is to promote

106、 economic activity,followed by leveling the playing field to generate an adequate parking supply.Chapter 10 also discusses the interaction between the parking entrance or garage and the sidewalk.Parking garages can have good design and respect the eyes on the street principle.TOD for Emerging Cities

107、 and Cities that Want TransitWhat transport and land-use policies allow a city without transit to grow into a transit-oriented city supported by public transport and walking?This books entry point was a 500,000-person emerging city.Emerging cities house 75 percent of the urban population.Their popul

108、ation will grow into the millions,particularly in Africa and Asia,where the urban population is expected to increase by over two billion people by 2050.Developing country cities are already dense,so the recommendations must preserve and enhance this advantage.Emerging cities have public transport bu

109、t no mass transit yet.This entry point required the analysis to be agnostic regarding public transport modes.The assumption is that public transport will respond to increased demand.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxixThe book analyzed and modeled land use regulations cons

110、idering the theoretical framework.On the economic side,markets ultimately determine city form.However,Land Use Regulations(LUR)play a role because they can promote urban development that supports public transportor that locks in car dependency.LUR can limit the supply of floor space,leading to spraw

111、l.LUR that allows supply to meet demand results in an adequate supply of built floor space,making it affordable by increasing density.Dense cities are suitable for public transport.The analysis in this book is also from the point of view of a pedestrian,following TOD literature that correctly states

112、 that riders walk to the bus stop and metro station.This literature also says people should access most destinations by walkinganalogous to the 15-minute cityhence the need for mixed land use,good sidewalks,frequent road intersections,and low setbacks.The model measures willingness to walk as a func

113、tion of distance.Twenty percent of the people are willing to walk up to 300m,and another 30 percent will walk up to 500m.After this threshold,the willingness to walk plummets.The 3V(Ollivier et al.2021)complemented the theoretical framework by indicating the elements of node,placemaking,and market p

114、otential values and,et al.2021)complemented the theoretical framework by indicating the elements of node,placemaking,and market potential values,showing how land use regulations(LUR)can enhance each.For instance,increasing FAR and plot coverage boosts node value by raising density.Emerging cities th

115、at wish to grow transit-oriented,supported by public transport and walking,should craft a Transit-Oriented Development(TOD)strategy that maximizes the three valuesnode,placemaking,and market.This strategy will integrate transport and land use aspects(Table ES1).LUR that require wide sidewalks,short

116、setbacks,and mixed land use improve placemaking value and create transit-supportive spaces.Form-based codes provide additional guidance by focusing on the interaction between faades,sidewalks,and streets.LURs that enable developers to meet the demand for floor space maximize the market potential val

117、ue.The TOD strategy should include the future road network and information on the location of parks,public schools,hospitals,and community centers.The information on the future location of public goods is critical because markets need this information to work.Developers want to build by a road,not o

118、n the site of a future road.The latter scenario means authorities will have to demolish the building.The planned road network should plan a grid with secondary roads every 100m and arterial avenues every 500m to maximize walkability and the willingness to use public transport.Arterials are critical

119、because they allow buses to operate and can be upgraded to mass transit if demand increases(Figure ES3).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxxTable ES1 How LUR Maximize the Node,Place,and Market Values and their Benefits3 Values and their definitionLUR that maximizes the valu

120、esBenefitsNode value:passenger traffic volume,intermodality High FAR High Plot Coverage Ratio Wide sidewalks Low setback Parking policy No minimum plot or unit size No maximum height Higher density Higher demand for public transport Mass transit eventually Walkable and vibrant urban development Shad

121、e from trees Enhanced economic activityPlace or placemaking value:schools,plazas/open spaces representing the urban fabric around the station.Allow mixed land uses Plan that shows public goods layout:-road network with arterial and secondary roads with frequent intersections.-Parks,schools,hospitals

122、,libraries Wide sidewalks Low setback Parking policy Markets have the information to function efficiently Street level floor with restaurants and shops,especially on arterials Walkable and vibrant urban development Day-care centers close to housing areas Enhanced economic activity Polycentric cityMa

123、rket potential value:demand for residential and employment.Mixed land uses High FAR High Plot Coverage Ratio Wide sidewalks Low setback Parking policy No minimum plot or unit size No maximum height Demand supply for floor space match Developers target market segments More formal and affordable urban

124、 development Less or no area developed informally Higher density that justifies public transport,eventually mass transit Enhanced economic activitySource:Authors.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxxiFigure ES3 Public Transport would be more Feasible if there were Transit-fr

125、iendly LURs in All BlocksEntrance to mass transit stationMain Street N-S,two-way trafficMain Street E-W,two-way trafficPublic spaceSource:Authors.Moreover,the road network plan should consider modern approaches to extract higher capacity from an urban roadthe multimodal approach shown in Figure ES4(

126、Global Designing Cities Initiative,2016).Thinking about the different users of an urban road results in higher throughput.Moving people is what matters,not moving cars.Multimodal streets(MMS)also contemplate universal access and include gender considerations.Therefore,a road grid that uses MMS is th

127、e seed that should result in a virtuous cycle.An MMS improves the travel experience for all users,including public transport vehicles.The MMS should have ample sidewalks with even and non-slip surfaces,trees for shade,benches for pedestrians to rest,and inclusive signage to favor women,men,children,

128、the elderly,and disabled people.The lower travel costs will attract people who want to live closer to the improved urban road.The TOD plan will contemplate LUR that accommodates this increased demand for built space around this multimodal arterialto maximize the market value in the 3V Framework.The

129、proposed approach will allow developers to identify demand by segment and provide floor space accordingly.Analysis shows that the LUR that allows more built space should extend beyond the vicinity of the arterials because people are willing to walk,particularly if the density of MMS is highabout eve

130、ry 500 m.A compact city is more likely if the TOD plan has transit-friendly LUR throughout so that arterialsmulti-modal corridorssupport public transport.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxxiiAs demand increases,the city can upgrade the MMS to technology with higher capacit

131、y,such as a bus rapid transit,light rail,or metro,on corridors that justify the upgrade.Curitiba and Bogota are examples of cities that started with arterials with good sidewalks that attracted people and increased density.These cities upgraded the arterials to busways and then to bus rapid transit.

132、Compact cities occupy lower areas and require shorter mass transit networks.Figure ES4 also shows improved parking management.A parking policy is needed to level the playing field between private car use and public transport.Private car use is subsidized.A critical subsidy is free parking.It is free

133、 to the user,not to society because cars use road capacity or park on sidewalks.A parking policy generates economic activity,promotes public transport use,and generates a supply of parking.The updated Zoning and LUR should let market forces decide how much parking to supply.Planning for Transit-Orie

134、nted Development in Emerging CitiesxxiiiFigure ES4 Multimodal Street Example that Improves Space Allocation and ThroughputCar-Oriented StreetThe capacity of car-oriented streets and multimodal streets.These two diagrams Illustrate the potential capacity of the same street space when designed in two

135、different ways.In the first example,the majority of the space is allocated to personal motor vehicles,either moving or parked.Sidewalks accommodate utility poles,street light poles and street furniture narrowing the clear path to less than 3m,which reduces its capacity.In the multimodal street,the c

136、apacity of the street is increased by a more balanced allocation of space between the modes.This redistribution of space allows for a variety of non-mobility activities such as seating and resting areas,bus stops,as well as trees,planting and other green Infrastructure strategies.The Illustrations s

137、how the capacity for a 3m wide lane(or equivalent width)by different mode at peak conditions with normal operations.Hourly Capacity of a Car-Oriented StreetHourly Capacity of a Multimodal Street4,500/h x2 9,000 people/h1,100/h x3 3,300 people/h0 x2 0 people/h8,000/h x2 16,000 people/h7,000/h x1 7,00

138、0 people/h6,000/h x1 6,000 people/h1,000/h x1 1,100 people/h0 x1 0 people/hTotal capacity:12,300 people/hTotal capacity:30,100 people/h29Multimodal StreetSource:(Global Designing Cities Initiative,2016).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxxivRecommendations for Improving TOD

139、 PracticeThe book has five concrete recommendations for planners to improve TOD practice:1 First,carry out accessibility analyses The parent analytical work for this book,Low-Carbon Mobility and Efficient Urban Form(P178294),developed a software tool for this purpose.Although relatively simple,the a

140、ccessibility indicators can be adapted to create a variety of useful analyses to show the impact of transport investments and efficient urban form.For example,the impact of a new mass transit line can be shown as a difference in accessibility between two scenarios,one with transit available and one

141、without.Alternatively,in a context where private motorized vehicles are primarily available to men,women in households have considerably poorer accessibility.This gap in access to opportunities can be shown as the difference in accessibility with the car mode toggled on and off.2 Second,measure the

142、number of beneficiaries from transport projects The parent analytical work also developed the software tool to measure this indicator.The“Project Beneficiaries”indicator captures the number of people who live near new transport infrastructure projects and are likely to benefit directly from their us

143、e.It was developed as an indicator for the World Bank Corporate Scorecard that aligns with the existing rural accessibility index and is universally applicableeven in data-poor environments.3 Third,track housing affordability through the ratio between median income and median housing price The citys

144、 property tax system includes a cadastre that registers properties characteristics,including the price or value.Planners can extract the median housing price from the cadastre.Ideally,they should track several income groups in different locations.Household surveys can indicate the median income.This

145、 indicator will show the need to change LUR to allow developers to build more housing to make it affordable again.4 Incorporate economic analyses as part of their integrated plans Understanding the market forces,which urban plans must facilitate and guide,is fundamental to developing efficient urban

146、 planning.Land use-transport interaction models,such as quantitative spatial equilibrium models,are useful tools for this purpose.Transportation infrastructure is the backbone of cities,facilitating production,trade,learning,and much more.Hence,it is crucial to quantify the wider impacts when evalua

147、ting transport projects.The parent analytical work also developed the software tool to measure this indicator.5 City-wide TOD to get to the Compact City:The model showed that a compact city is possible if plans adopt city-wide LUR that promote transit,such as high FAR,plot coverage,and low setback.A

148、dopting these LUR only around a mass transit corridor or station leads to a larger urbanized area and zones that become car-oriented.The TOD literature,therefore,should recommend relaxing LUR beyond the mass transit corridor and its stations.Market forces will concentrate urban development around th

149、e transit line because of the time savings the line generates.Yet some developers will see opportunities for densifying areas outside the 500 or 1000 m around the corridor.The result is that another mass transit corridor can be implemented in the future on a nearby corridor because it has enough dem

150、and.No area in the city should have low-density LUR because it results in a car-oriented urban development.A transit-oriented future is more likely if the entire city adopts transit-supportive LUR because,over time,densification will happen,justifying public transport and,eventually,mass transit.Pla

151、nning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging CitiesxxvA Virtuous Cycle Toward a Transit-Oriented CityEmerging citiesand cities that want to generate transit corridorscan generate a virtuous cycle toward a transit-oriented city that results in a walkable,livable,vibrant,transit-oriented,inclusi

152、ve,compact,and low-carbon city.This strategy will inform the market about where roads,parks,schools,hospitals,and all public goods will be located and integrate transport and land use considerations.The road network should have arterials every 500 m and secondary roadssome of which can be pedestrian

153、ized.The TOD strategy should adopt LURs that maximize the node,place,and market value(Table 11.1).These LURs enable a high floor area ratio(3.0 to 4.0),high plot coverage ratio(0.6 to 0.85),low setbacks(0.5m),especially facing arterial streets and a parking policy that promotes enhanced economic act

154、ivity.LUR that limit the supply of floor space lead to economic and welfare losses,for example,by pricing out the lower income groups and by occupying more space than a compact city.The right LUR can lock in a transit-oriented future.Adopting these regulations only around arterials or transit corrid

155、ors will lead to sprawl because they lock in the areas with restrictive LUR into a car-dependent future when a transit-oriented one is possible.Mixed land uses should be allowed in all areas,like the Japanese zoning system,except for heavy industry.Market forces will materialize the mixed land uses

156、on the arterials first because they will have public transport and more pedestrians.A polycentric city could emerge.The arterial and secondary roads should follow Multi-Modal Street(MMS)design principles(Figure 11.1)to maximize the travel experience for all users,from pedestrians to public transport

157、 users to cars and trucks.MMS benefit all users because they should have ample sidewalks with even and non-slip surfaces,trees for shade,benches for pedestrians to rest,and inclusive signage to favor women,men,children,older people,and disabled people.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Eme

158、rging CitiesxxviDue to mixed land use,sidewalks,and low setbacks,people can walk to many destinations and use public transport services within walking distance when they wish to access other opportunities.Public transport providers can increase their services.Mass transit can materialize on high-dem

159、and corridors that pass the cost-benefit analysis,plus environmental and social criteria.By allowing mixed land uses,the 15-minute city is possible for many aspects of life,such as education for children,shopping,leisure,and recreation.However,public transport is needed for the labor market to work.

160、Some people will find jobs within the 15-walking area;most will need public transport to access the jobs they want.The resulting urban development locks in a transit-oriented pattern(Figure 11.4).Finally,the sidewalks along the road network will future-proof the expansion area for emerging cities.Th

161、is research used an average walking speed of 3.7 km per hour.As people age,they walk slower.The sidewalks,coupled with mixed land uses,will allow older people to walk to most services they need.People who walk and who use public transporthave lower weight and better health than car users.Emerging ci

162、ties can grow healthily by adopting LUR that maximize the node,place,and market values that allow people to walk to many destinations and use public transport to access opportunities beyond their neighborhoodsthe virtuous cycle.By 2050,70 percent of the worlds population will live in cities.Imagine

163、a future where these urban centers are designed for accessible living.They prioritize pedestrians,public transit,and policies that promote efficient land use and modes of transport.The resulting multimodal streets encourage urban living where job opportunities,education,recreation,and lifestyle need

164、s are all within a 15-minute radius.The 15-Minute CityEfficient Corridor and Intersection Design enables safe and optimal flows for all usersArterial Roads every 500 meters promote urban development and mobilityMultimodal Streets for pedestrians,buses,bicycles,cars,trucksHigh Floor Area Ratiopromote

165、s densificationMixed Land Useto combine residential,commercial,cultural,institutional spaces Lower Setbackspromote walkability and improve pedestrian safetyParking Policiespromote economic activityWider Sidewalksfrom 1.5 meters to 10 meters enable two wheelchairs in parallelHigh Plot Coverage Ratiop

166、romotes density and unlocks affordabilityPolicy Key:Enable land use regulations(LUR)to unlock the virtuous cycle for emerging cities to maximize opportunities for citizens through transit,walking,and biking.Drive transit-oriented development in emerging cities through efficient land use and transpor

167、t policiesPHARMACY0271NURTURE NURSERYWORKSPACEMETROSTATION1IntroductionUnderstand the fundamental elements that can be combined to create the 15-minute city.This includes a deep dive into the specifics of land use and transport regulations,and how they impact urban expansion in developing cities.Thi

168、s chapter also defines the problem statement that this book intends to address:What are the transport and land-use policies that allow emerging cities without existing mass transit to develop into transit-oriented cities supported by low-carbon modes?Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emer

169、ging Cities2Cities account for more than 50 percent of the worlds population and 80 percent of its economic output(International Energy Agency,2021).The concentration of people in cities is expected to continue through 2050,at which point an estimated 70 percent of the worlds population will reside

170、in cities.Between 2020 and 2050,2.3 billion people will be added to urban areas,and 90 percent of this increase will take place in Asia and Africa(UNDESA,2018).Considering this rapid urbanization,a common pitfall is to focus only on the challenges faced by the worlds megacities.This focus neglects t

171、he many growing small and mid-sized cities.Notably,about 75 percent of the worlds urban population live in settlements of less than 500,000 people(Cities Alliance,2019).Cities and urban transport are also increasingly critical frontiers for climate action.More than 70 percent of global carbon dioxid

172、e emissions come from cities,making their mitigation efforts an important contributor to decarbonization.Urban transport is a significant contributor to climate-warming greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions in cities,with most urban transport emissions coming from cars.Cars and low-occupancy taxis(including

173、ride-hailing and other newer service models)are carbon-inefficient per passenger-km served(Figure 1.1).Car-centered transport systems are also a significant driver of sprawling,low-density settlement configurations that displace natural carbon sinks.Managing motorization and encouraging the use of m

174、ore carbon-efficient modes such as walking,biking,and public transport is fundamental to a low-carbon development trajectory while supporting sustainable development goals for livable cities,social inclusion,clean air,and road safety.Figure 11 Relative Carbon Efficiency of Urban Passenger Transport

175、ModesCO Emissions from Energy Consumption during Vehicle Use(g CO/passenger-km)Walking andBikingBus,bus rapidtransitUrban Rail(metro,tram)2-and 3-WheelerPrivate Car(gasoline,diesel,or hybrid)Taxi(gasoline,diesel,orhybrid)010015020025030035040045050050Source:Adapted from Figure 8.6(Sims,et al.,2014).

176、Note:Ranges provide an indication of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion(and electricity in the case of urban rail).They exclude emissions arising from vehicle manufacture,infrastructure,and other sources of emissions included in lifecycle analyses.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emergin

177、g Cities311 Background:Land Use and Transport in Developing CitiesMany cities in the developing world already have many elements of low-carbon passenger mobility.These include large modal shares of travel by public and active modes,low ownership and use of private cars,and high densities.Compared to

178、 cities in developed economies,more people walk,bike,or take public transportformal or informaland only a minority travel by car or motorcycle(Figures 1.2 and 1.3).Generally,motorization rates are still low or moderate.Indeed,developing countries currently have motorization rates that are four to ei

179、ght times lower than developed countries(International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers,OICA,2015).Figure 12 Modal Split of Passenger Transport in Selected Cities in Developed and Developing CountriesDubaiVancouverMelbourneNew YorkHelsinkiBeijingMumbaiBuenos AiresNairobiPercentage Share o

180、f Transport Use0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Private CarPublic TransportWalkingBicycleOtherSource:Statista https:/ for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities4Figure 13 Modal Split in Select Cities in Developing CountriesMaputo,Mozambique(2020)Quito,Ecuador(2022)Belo Horizonte,Brazil(2012

181、)Rio de Janeiro,Brazil(2012)Sao Paulo,Brazil(2017)Amman,Jordan(2008-10)Car46%4%7%1%6%30%1%14%21%2%25%33%13%26%28%27%1%6%37%4%1%35%2%21%4%31%23%15%1%51%6%3%20%1%9%33%10%2&3 WheelersMinibus/VanBusMetro/Train/TramBicycleFootOtherSource:(Bianchi Alves,Bou Mjahed,&Moody,2023).Another advantage of cities

182、in developing countries is their density.Demand for space tends to increase with income levels,resulting in an inverse relationship between density and income,as shown in Figure 1.4(OECD,2020).Many informal settlements can be extremely crowded,with densities surpassing 60,000 inhabitants per km2(Kit

183、,Ludeke,&Reckien,2013).A lower density already supports public transport,walking,and biking.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities5Figure 14 The Population Density in Cities by Country Income Class and Region,2015000 Population per km2LowerMiddleLowIncomeUpperMiddleHighIncomeSS

184、A ME&NA SALA&C EA&P E&CANAOECD12.0010.008.006.004.002.000Source:(OECD,2020).NA:North America,ME&NA:The Middle East and North Africa,LA&C:Latin America and the Caribbean,E&CA:Europe and Central Asia,EA&P:East Asia and Pacific,SA:South Asia,SSA:Sub-Saharan Africa.Capitalizing on these advantages requi

185、res investment in infrastructure and sensible space management.Otherwise,many emerging cities are on a trajectory toward extreme urban crowding without deriving the benefits of urban accessibility.Despite land use patterns and apparent travel behavior that are supportive of transit-oriented developm

186、ent,only some cities in developing countries have yet to be unequivocally successful in building on these advantages.Consequently,maintaining this low-carbon footprint requires improving public transport,sidewalks,and bike lanes,as well as preserving and managing urban density while improving urban

187、design,including the quality of the streetscape and the built-up space.See Box 1.1 for key definitions used in this book.Improving mobility allows the population to access jobs,education,and health opportunities in less time.Efficient and reliable public transport is therefore critical to making cit

188、ies work.Mobility brings together supply and demand for labor,making the urban labor market work efficiently to the benefit of employees and employers(Bertaud,2018).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities6Box 11 Key Terms DefinedBuilt environment:“The human-made environment that

189、 provides the setting for human activity,including homes,buildings,zoning,streets,sidewalks,open spaces,transportation options,and more.It is defined as the human-made space in which people live,work,and recreate on a day-to-day basis.”Source:https:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_environmentBuilt-up ar

190、ea:The houses and buildings used for housing,commercial,and industrial activities.Floor space is a similar term.See(Lall S.,Lebrand,Sturm,&Venables,2021)Streetscape:“Urban roadway design and conditions as they impact street users and nearby residents.Streetscaping recognizes that streets are places

191、where people engage in various activities,including but not limited to motor vehicle travel.Streetscaping(programs to improve streetscape conditions)can include changes to the road cross-section,traffic management,sidewalk conditions,landscaping(particularly tree cover),street furniture(utility pole

192、s,benches,garbage cans,etc.),building fronts,and materials specifications.It also involves improving signage”.Source:TDM Encyclopedia https:/www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm122.htm However,transportation and land use plans are often formulated independently.The lack of coherence contributes to inefficient citie

193、s(Suzuki,Cervero,&Iuchi,2013).Housing areas lie far away from employment centers,resulting in radial travel patterns.Because of the high congestion level that disproportionately affects public transport,travel times for the majority can be long.In some cities,urban expansion happens in a scattered p

194、attern with big gaps between the built-up area and the new developments.Public housing projects are frequently located in these remote areas.Other areas adjoin the main urbanized area,but areas with jobs are distant.The two dominant strands of thinking to address these problems are the urban economi

195、cs literature,which advocates a market-based approach,and the Transit-Oriented Development(TOD)literature,which promotes land use planning around transit infrastructure.The urban economics literature finds that markets determine city density and uses.This literature builds on the monocentric model,w

196、hich predicts the observed urban form well because downtown has a higher density.Density and building height drop as the distance from downtown increases because people trade commuting time for land.The land is more expensive downtown and cheaper in residential areas(Bertaud&Malpezzi,2003),(Glaeser,

197、2011),(Bertaud,2018),(DiPasquale&Wheaton,1996),(Blair,1995).This literature also shows that transport improvements can generate urban development around themthe idea is explained in the next chapter.This literature recognizes that land use regulations(LUR)can price out lower income groups but does n

198、ot explicitly recognize the role LUR has in promoting urban development that supports public transportor that locks in car dependency.The TOD literature,in contrast,recommends planning to generate a“compact,mixed-use,pedestrian-friendly development organized around a transit station.TOD embraces the

199、 idea that locating amenities,employment,retail shops,and housing around transit hubs promotes transit usage and non-motorized travel”(Suzuki,Cervero,&Iuchi,2013).Further,“TOD is a planning and design strategy that focuses on creating urban development patterns which facilitate the use of public tra

200、nsit,walking and cycling,as primary modes of transport and which supports vibrant,Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities7diverse,and livable communities.This is achieved by concentrating urban densities,communities,and activities within a 510-minute walking distance from mass r

201、apid transit stations(high-capacity bus or rail),developing quality urban space,and providing convenient and efficient access to a diverse mix of land uses”(Ollivier G.,Ghate,Bankim,&Mehta,2021).A third definition emphasizes these points:TOD“means integrated urban places designed to bring people,act

202、ivities,buildings,and public space together,with easy walking and cycling connection between them and near-excellent transit service to the rest of the city”(ITDP,2017).Finally,“Transit-oriented development(TOD)has emerged as a concept to describe the coordination of land development with investment

203、s in mass transit.This integrated approach is mutually beneficial because certain patterns of land development increase the demand and the attractiveness of sustainable travel options in which mass transit is included,along with pedestrian and bicycle modes.Simultaneously,mass transit supports urban

204、 development that is compact and dense”(Rodriguez,2021).In sum,the TOD literature explains what should be done around transit stations for existing or planned transit lines.Recommendations include improving sidewalks and public space,increasing the floor area ratio to increase density,and promoting

205、mixed land uses(Ollivier G.,Ghate,Bankim,&Mehta,2021)These recommendations apply to cities without mass transit that are planning mass transit lines(Ardila-Gomez,Bianchi Alves,&Moody,2021).The TOD literature,however,could pay more attention to urban economics and price signals.As seen,urban economic

206、s states that urban plans play little role because markets determine densities and city form.Bertaud(2018),an urban economist,summarizes the situation:“Planners use TOD to increase FAR around transit stations.If FAR had not been regulated around stations in the first place,they would have reached th

207、e level corresponding to demand in these areas.TOD is a good example of the arbitrariness that characterizes modern land use planning:a new regulation to correct the effect of an older regulation to obtain the exact outcome that would have been achieved if the first regulation had not existed.”Still

208、,transit lines are built on alignments that justify the investment because of demand,which is caused by high density.12 Problem StatementThis book attempts to bridge the urban economics and TOD bodies of literature because each contributes to answering the question:What are the transport and land-us

209、e policies that allow emerging cities without existing mass transit to develop into transit-oriented cities supported by low-carbon modes?The entry point is emerging citieswhere 75 percent of the urban population livesthat aspire to grow,having corridors that support public transport and even mass t

210、ransit.Emerging cities typically refer to urban areas that are in the process of rapid growth and development.They have around half a million people and are often located close to rural populations.These cities are often characterized by increasing population and expanding economic activities and ar

211、e undergoing social,economic,and physical transformations.They may be experiencing a transition from rural to urban economies.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities8Emerging cities are usually in the developing world but can also be found in developed countries where new areas

212、are urbanizing.They are often seen as having the potential to become major economic and cultural centers in the future if they continue their growth trajectory(Paller,Kherigi,Lust,Bob-Milliar,&Post,2024).The book is agnostic regarding public transport modes.Emerging cities in developing countries mi

213、ght have formal or informal public transport,but they could still need mass transit as their population increase.As the cities grow with the correct pattern,public transport will respond to the demand.If demand is higher,public transport operators will increase their fleets to provide frequent servi

214、ce.If demand is high,plans can justify mass transit linescost-benefit analysis,for example.The book focuses on cities in the developing world.The book uses a theoretical framework based on urban economics and the TOD literature.On the urban economics side,the framework uses the Standard Urban Model:

215、urban density decreases as distance from downtown increases as a function of transport costs and other urban economics insights.On the TOD side,it uses the 3V.“The 3-V Framework is a methodology for identifying economic opportunities in areas around mass transit stations and optimizing them through

216、the interplay between the node,place,and market potential values.It provides a typology to cluster stations based on the three values.It equips policy and decision-makers with quantified indicators to better understand the interplay between the economic vision for the city,its land use,its mass tran

217、sit network,and its stations urban qualities and market vibrancy”(Ollivier G.,Ghate,Bankim,&Mehta,2021).The book uses examples from the developed and developing world.The book also uses an innovative stylized model to understand how land use regulations promoteor hinderpublic transport and walking.T

218、he model shows the interplay between LUR and offers recommendations.The stylized model has no prices,but urban economic insights are necessary to interpret the results.In sum,this book seeks to help planners understand how urban economics complements and improves the recommendations in the TOD liter

219、ature to allow a city without transit to grow into a transit-oriented city that relies on public transport and walking.It is organized in two parts.The first part discusses public transport,land use regulations,and planning for future transit-supportive urban development.The appendix presents a deta

220、iled description of the critical land-use regulations.The objective is to help transport practitioners understand these regulations and their impacts so they can discuss them with their counterparts to improve land use planning to lead to a walkable and transit-oriented future.2Theoretical Framework

221、:Urban and Transport Economics and the 3-Value ApproachAn explanation of the theoretical framework used in this book.It blends insights from urban and transport economics with TOD literature and answers these questions.What is the fundamental approach in urban economics to understanding cities with

222、insights from transport economics?How are these parameters linked to the 3-Value approach to promote transit-oriented development?And what does this mean for impactful development in emerging cities?Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities1021 The Standard Urban Economics ModelTh

223、e standard model represents the city as a circle located on a plain,with a central business district(CBD)that concentrates all jobsa monocentric cityand a transport system that generates costs for the traveler(Bertaud,2018).Commuting travel costs are lower the closer a worker resides to the CBD.Conv

224、ersely,their willingness to pay to reside close to the CBD is commensurately higher.Consequently,rents are the highest in the CBD at the center of the circle and decrease with distance(and travel cost)to the CBD.People make a trade-off between travel costs to the CBD and their rents(Bertaud,2018),(J

225、aramillo-Gonzalez,2009),(Glaeser,2011).Additionally,in the CBD,where rents are high,people consume less housing,resulting in higher densities.Equation(1)presents the standard urban economics model based on(Wheaton,2008)and(DiPasquale&Wheaton,1996).This section explains the equation in detail,showing

226、 its predictions and usefulness.Here is an explanation of the term in the model that bridges the urban economics literature and the TOD literature via the LUR.Equation(1)R(d)=R(a)+c+k(b-d)Where:R(d)is the rent for urban land located a distance d from the CBD.R(a)is the agricultural rent or opportuni

227、ty cost of urbanizing agricultural land.c is the cost of constructing buildings,assumed constant for all building types.k is the average commuting cost per unit of distance traveled.b is the citys radius or frontier,where the urbanized area ends and agricultural land begins.This equation slopes nega

228、tively with respect to distance(d)from downtown at a rate equal to k,the unit transport cost.Figure 2.1 shows the rent profile when k changes from 5 to zero.The other parameters remain constant,including the location of the city frontier,b.The section below explains the models expression for b.Highe

229、r values of k mean walking or high congestion for buses and trucks.Transport projects reduce the value of k.The urban rent is lower at the same distance from the CBD for a given city extent,b.The same line of reasoning applies at a local rather than city-wide scale.Transport projects reduce travel c

230、osts and attract activity around them.This insight is behind the cost-benefit analysis of transport projects,explained in the next section.It is also the reason TOD argues that mass transit projects will generate higher demand for land around the stations,thus justifying higher-density LUR.When tran

231、sport costs are zero(k=0),people telework.Their rent is agricultural rent plus the construction costthe same value as if they were in the citys frontier because of the term(b-d=0).The model correctly predicts,moreover,that teleworkers can live anywhere in the citythey must pay for internet access in

232、stead.Property prices are the net present value of the rent at the location in question,including the construction cost.Land prices are the net present value of the rent minus the construction cost.Figure 2.2 shows how urban rents vary as a function of b,the frontier.The transport cost is constant a

233、t k=2.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities11Larger cities have higher rents than smaller ones because the commuting costs are higher.Because higher rents translate into higher densities,larger cities have more high-rise buildings in the CBD than smaller cities.Figure 21 Urban

234、 Rent Profiles as Function of Travel Costs(k)Distance from the CBD012345676050403020100r(d)k=5r(d)k=4r(d)k=3r(d)k=2r(d)k=1r(d)k=0RentSource:Based on equation(1).Figure 22 Urban Rent Profiles as a Function of City Radius,b Transport Cost ConstantDistance from the CBDRent01234567454035302520151050r(d)

235、b=10r(d)b=9r(d)b=8r(d)b=7r(d)b=6r(d)b=5Source:Based on equation(1).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities12The model predicts that the city will extend until the rent equals the agricultural rent.However,land is finite within the city frontier,but it can be used more intensely.

236、Equation(2)captures this insight by expressing the citys radius,b,as a function of the number of households(N),average lot size(q),and the fraction of the land available for urban development(V).Each household occupies one lot.The square root appears because the city is a circle with an area of b2.E

237、quation(2)b=Nq/VEquation(2)links the economic model for urban rent with LUR because b is a parameter in Equation(1).First,the LUR can demand a large lot size,increasing the radius and area needed to house the same population.Second,cities need public goods such as roads,parks,schools,hospitals,libra

238、ries,and utility buildings that occupy land,thus reducing the value of V.LUR can also reduce the value of V by mandating front yards and backyards,for example.The lower the land available for housing and jobs,the larger the city radius and area.More importantly,increasing b(for fixed k)increases ren

239、t.In turn,those who cannot afford the higher rents will be displaced to informal settlementsthat do not adhere to the LUR(World Bank,2020).Equation(2),therefore,links urban economics and urban planning via the LUR.Urban planning can use the LUR to allow more people to live close to transit stations,

240、for example.If a segment of the population prefers living close to the transit station,then they will demand floor space close to the metro station.Developers will build it because the LUR allows it.On the other hand,if a market segment prefers to live away from the metro,then they will live in anot

241、her neighborhood.The market always determines the outcomes,but urban planning plays a role,as this book explains.22 Transport Economics and Cost-Benefit AnalysisTransport projects,such as a metro line,supply additional mobility and reduce the cost of traveling.In economic terms,transport projects ex

242、pand the supply of mobility services.If the benefits are larger than the costs,the project is justified.Figure 2.3 uses standard economic theory applied to a transport project that expanded the supply of mobility services.The vertical axis represents prices and the horizontal one quantity,like trips

243、 per day.The curve Sm1 is the without project supply,and Sm2 is the supply with the mobility project operational.Dm1 is the demand for mobility services.The projects benefits are reducing the cost of traveling from P1 to P2 and increasing the amount traveled from Qm1 to Qm2.A metro line significantl

244、y expands the capacity to travel.The metro will also save time for its userspart of the price reduction in Figure 2.3.The metro will also attract some car users who do not incur the cost of traveling by car.The metro project has other benefits that,added up,represent the change from Pm1 to Pm2.The d

245、ifference of Pm1 minus Pm2 is the change in the transport cost,k,in the urban economics model.The transport projects benefits attract people who want to live close to its stationsthis is the economic foundation of TOD because people demand more floor space near the metro.Figure 2.4 shows the mobilit

246、y projects economic impact on the real estate market by representing the demand and supply for floor space.The initial demand is Dfs1,and the initial supply is Sfs1.The mobility project draws interest,shifting the demand for floor space to the curve Dfs2.People are willing to pay Planning for Transi

247、t-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities13more to live close to the metro.This willingness is the difference between Psf2 and Psf1.The critical assumption is that the floor space supply can increase to meet the additional demand.In this case,the cost-benefit for the mobility project could be done u

248、sing the information in Figure 2.4.The change in prices and quantities will result in the same benefits as the ones in Figure 2.3.Market forces capitalize the mobility benefits into the floor space pricesprovided real estate developers can build more floor space.The cost-benefit analysis can count o

249、nly once as the projects benefits.Figure 23 The Economic Impact of a Transport Project that Expanded the Supply of MobilityPm1PmSm1Sm2Dm1Q1 Q2 QmPm2Source:Authors.Figure 24 The Economic Impact of a Transport Project on the Real Estate MarketPsfSfs1Dfs1Dfs2Qfs1 Qfs2QfsPsf2Psf1Source:Authors.Planning

250、for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities14What happens if the supply of floor space cannot increase?Assume that the LURs do not allow developers to build additional floor space.This means Qsf1 is the maximum floor space allowed.The supply cannot increase,no matter the price.The supply cur

251、ve becomes vertical at Qfs1(Figure 2.5).The price increases to Psf2,which is higher than when the floor space supply could increase,Psf2.In this case,consumers must pay a high price for living close to the mobility project.This price increase should guide planners in correcting the situation by rela

252、xing the LUR to allow developers to build additional floor space.Absent this change in LUR,the area will gentrify because wealthier people can afford to live close to the mobility project.In extreme cases,these people travel by car because of their high income and do not use the metro.The metro user

253、s were priced out.Alternatively,property owners can rent out rooms in their apartments.(Bertaud,2018)describes nine and 11 square meter units in Paris,where the supply of floor space cannot increase,selling for US$17,945 per square meter,compared to US$1,944 in downtown Chicago for a one-bedroom apa

254、rtment.Density increases in this case because of the smaller unit size.Sometimes,city authorities set minimum areas for the units size,aggravating the gentrification.To prevent gentrification,the solution is to increase the allowed floor area developers can legally build by adopting generous LUR.(Be

255、rtaud,2018)states,“Regulations may decrease the total area of floor space that can be built on a given area of land.These types of regulations would,of course,change the price and density profiles that the standard urban model would project for unconstrained markets.For instance,regulations routinel

256、y restrict the heights of buildings or impose a maximum limit on the number of dwelling units that can be built per hectare.If these regulations are bindingthat is,if the regulations reduce the number of dwellings that developers would have built to respond to consumer preferences for these areasthe

257、n the regulations will create a shortage of floor space in areas of high demand”.Figure 25 The Economic Impact of a Transport Project on a Supply-constrained Real Estate MarketPsfPsf2Psf2Psf1Sfs1Dfs1Dfs2Sfs1Qfs1QfsSource:Authors.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities1523 The 3-

258、Value FrameworkThe link via Equation(2)between the economic model of an urban area and land use regulations suggests that urban and transport planning play a role.LUR can help create a dense city with diverse land uses suitable for public transportor induce a car-oriented pattern.The authors of the

259、3V explain that it is a methodology that“considers the node,place,and market potential value of each station.The 3V Framework outlines a typology to facilitate TOD implementation at the metropolitan and urban scale in various contexts as part of a methodology that aims to:Identify the economic devel

260、opment potential of different transit corridors and different areas around mass transit stations in terms of type,scale,and timing,considering the level of connectivity and market demand through quantified indicators Develop planning and implementation measures and prioritize limited public resource

261、s to create such value through coordinated interagency measures Develop and communicate with residents,government agencies,and private developers a vision for the city that articulates development around its mass transit networkBy doing so,the 3V Framework can facilitate an alignment of TOD strategi

262、es at the metropolitan,city,network,and local levels”(Salat&Ollivier,2016).The 3 values are node,place,and market potential.(Ollivier G.,Ghate,Bankim,&Mehta,2021)“Node value describes the importance of a station in the public transit network based on its passenger traffic volume,intermodality,and ce

263、ntrality within.”“Place or placemaking value describes the urban quality of a place and its attractiveness in terms of amenities,including schools,plazas/open spaces representing the urban fabric around the station.”“Market potential value refers to the unrealized market value of station areas.It is

264、 derived through market analysis measured by analyzing major drivers of demand,including current and future human densities(residential plus employment).”Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities16Daily ridership is a critical indicator of node value.LURs that promote public trans

265、port demand will increase the nodes value.Critical indicators for place value are walkability around the station,and mixed land uses that allow housing,commercial,office,schools,and hospital uses in the area near the station.LURs that segregate land uses will lower the place value.The market potenti

266、al value is measured by indicators such as residential and employment density growth potential and average personal income.Another indicator of the market potential value is the number of jobs accessible by public transport from that point.LURs that allow developers to build buildings that increase

267、density will increase the market value(Figure 2.6).The market potential value should be linked to economic models,such as the one explained in the previous section,because it predicts prices.These models can consider an entire city,even a polycentric one.Figure 26 High-density Urban Development in M

268、anhattan and Tokyo Source:Arturo Ardila-Gomez.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities17Box 21 Markets Need Information to Work:Roads,Parks,and Public GoodsThe analysis validates that urban and transport plannings basic function is to allocate space for the citys road network,par

269、ks,public schools,and hospitals.Market forces cannot allocate spaces for these items because they are public goods(Bertaud,2018).However,urban markets need information on the location of the public goods to function properly.Investors want to locate buildings by roads to benefit from the mobility th

270、ey provide,which helps access opportunities in the city.An example of this approach is the Commissioners Plan in New York City in 1811.This plan defined the rectangular grid for Manhattan,which still exists today,including parks(Wikipedia,2024).Chicago,which,in 1834,had only 1800 inhabitants,generat

271、ed an extensive road plan with arterials and local roads plus alleys that split some blocks(Encyclopedia of Chicago,2005).Chicago has the best-organized grid in the world(Geoff,2019)(The Economist,2022).Chicago also allocated space for public schools.In 1860,Barcelona adopted the Plan Cerda,which de

272、fined the road network.The plan had 20-,30-and 60-meter-wide streets(Wikipedia,2024).Washington D.C.s initial urban design,conceived by Pierre LEnfant,features avenues stemming from rectangular spaces,enabling both open areas and aesthetic landscaping.Influences for this design were drawn from LEnfa

273、nts collection of European city plans,including notable cities like Amsterdam,Paris and Aranjuez.The design boasted a proposed grand avenue,now known as the National Mall,framed by natural boundaries including the Anacostia and Potomac Rivers and Rock Creek(Wikipedia,2024).Figure 2.6 shows the road

274、plans for these cities:New York City,Chicago,Barcelona,and Washington D.C.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities18Box 21 Markets Need Information to Work(cont)Figure 27 Road Plans of New York City,Chicago,Barcelona,and Washington DCNew YorkChicagoBarcelonaWashington DCSources:W

275、ikipedia,Commissioners Plan of 1811,2024;Encyclopedia of Chicago,2005,Wikipedia,The Cerda Plan,2024 and(Wikipedia,2024),Sources:(Wikipedia,2024),(Encyclopedia of Chicago,2005),(Wikipedia,2024),(Wikipedia,2024).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities1924 ConclusionThis chapter bu

276、ilt a theoretical framework using the standard urban economics model,insights from transport economics,and the 3-Value approach.The framework recognizes that market forces shape cities and that urban planning and LUR have important roles to play in guiding and facilitating those forces.This market-o

277、riented claim is aligned with the node,place,and market value.LUR can maximize these values so that TOD is feasible.Public transport needs demand,and more so mass transit.The node and market potential values are higher if density is higher,which generates more demand for public transport.In turn,the

278、 place-making value increases by LUR that promote walkability,mixed land uses,and provide public goods.The framework allows for an understanding of the impact of LUR on public transport demand.3Transport and Urban Growth:Urban Road Network and DevelopmentHow a comprehensive network of roads and tran

279、sport infrastructure can lead to widespread development and increased mobility.Plus,it provides insights into the impact of urban growth in formal and informal areas,the resulting road patterns in various cities,and the 3-D pattern of urban development:Distant,Dispersed,Disconnected.Planning for Tra

280、nsit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities2131 The Link Between Roads and DevelopmentPeople must live close to a transport system so they can access opportunities,from jobs to health to education.Local and arterial roads are basic elements of a citys transport system.Arterial roads attract urban d

281、evelopment around them because they offer good mobility.Studies have tracked and mapped the spatiotemporal pattern of urban development in Dongguan,China,from 1988 to 2006(Liu,et al.,2010).“New development mainly occurred along the major transportation networks,exhibiting a disordered and scattered

282、pattern,”with subsequent infilling.Figure 3.1 illustrates that urban growth followed the arterial roads.Roads attract urban development,as predicted by the urban economics model in Chapter 2.This city later introduced its first metro line on its highest-density corridor,as shown in Figure 3.2.The ro

283、ads attracted development,generating edge expansion,but there were patches of empty lots that developers developed laterinfill development.The book Pancakes to Pyramids(Lall S.,Lebrand,Park,Sturm,&Venables,2021)validates this pattern by examining urban expansion for 10,000 cities from 1990 to 2015 a

284、cross income levels.The study found that,“In low-income and lower-middle-income countries,90 percent of urban built-up area expansion occurs as horizontal growth.Nevertheless,there is a silver lining:in high-income and upper-middle-income country cities,a larger share of new built-up areas is provid

285、ed through infill development.For example,a city in a high-income country that increases its built-up area by 100 m2 will add about 35 m2 through infill development and 65 m2 through the horizontal spread.But a similar city in a low-income country will add about 90 m2 through horizontal spread and o

286、nly 10 mt from infill.”Pancakes to Pyramids also argues that LUR plays a role in the horizontal spread because it limits verticalizationthe other limit is personal income because high-rises are more expensive to build than houses.It also calls for flexible LUR that allows higher floor area ratios to

287、 allow vertical growth.LUR can,therefore,help by allowing higher densities,as suggested by the framework explained in Chapter 2.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities22Figure 31 Urban Growth in Dongguan,China,1988-2006Source:(Liu,et al.,2010).Figure 32 Dongguans First Metro Lin

288、eGediXipingChenwuLiaoxiaChashanXiaqiaoTianbaoShanmeiDongchengQifeng ParkHongfu RoadLiuhua ParkExhibition CenterHumen Railway StationDongguanRailway StationGediXipingChenwuLiaoxiaChashanXiaqiaoTianbaoShanmeiDongchengQifeng ParkHongfu RoadLiuhua ParkExhibition CenterHumen Railway StationDongguanRailwa

289、y StationGAOBUDONGPOZHONGTANWANGNIUDUNDAOJIAOHENGJIAOHOUJIESHATIANZHENDALINGSHANCHANGANZHENHUMEN TOWNXINTANGHENSHIJIESHILONGZHENCHASHANGUANGCHENGDONGCHENGLIAOBULIBEILINGGAOBUDONGPOZHONGTANWANGNIUDUNDAOJIAOHENGJIAOHOUJIESHATIANZHENDALINGSHANCHANGANZHENHUMEN TOWNXINTANGHENSHIJIESHILONGZHENCHASHANGUANG

290、CHENGDONGCHENGLIAOBULIBEILINGG94G15G15G9411IBRD 48268|AUGUST 20240510 Kilometers0510 KilometersIBRD 48268|AUGUST 2024METRO LINESTATIONSource:(Liu,et al.,2010)and metro map from https:/ for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities2332 The Urban Road Network in Formal and Informal AreasThe data

291、 in the Atlas of Urban Expansion(Shlomo,Blei,Lamson-Hall,Parent,&Handal Gonzalez,2016)highlights the role of transport in urban expansion.This Atlas analyzed 200 cities,dividing the world into eight regions.It includes detailed data and videos that show the expansion of 30 cities.Table 3.1 presents

292、the changes in world averages when comparing the values before 1990 against the values from 1990 to 2015.On average,cities devoted 1 percent less land to roads,and the roads were,on average,1.5 meters narrower.The share of arterials 16 meters or more in width dropped by 5 percent points,while the sh

293、are of roads 4 meters or less wide increased by 9 percent.Walkability also decreased because the share of the urban area within walking distance of arterial roads went from 92 to 82 percentand the beeline to arterial roads increased by 175 meters.The actual walking distance is longer because the bee

294、line is a straight line that ignores roadshence,it is easy to calculate.Table 3.2 shows the regional averages for the same attributes as in Table 3.1.The patterns are similar.Cities are building fewer arterial roads,and the roads are narrower.This outcome is not positive because arterial roads provi

295、de the capacity for public transport and private vehicles to access opportunities.In parallel,the share of roads narrower than 4 meters is increasing.Such narrow roads do not allow public transport to operateonly mini-vans and tuk-tuk-like services,plus motorcycles in one direction.Bidirectional tra

296、vel would be dangerous to pedestrians.These results correlate with the increase in informal urban development worldwide.In addition,the share of the urban area that was informally developedoutside the LUR frameworkincreased by 11 percent points.In Sub-Saharan Africa,46 percent of urban development w

297、as informal pre-1990 and 47 percent by 2015.The change was small,but the share of informal urban development is the highest in the world.Latin America,South and Central Asia,East Asia and the Pacific,and Western Asia and North Africa saw increases in informality from 12 to 20 percent points(Table 3.

298、2).Table 31 World Average Changes Between Pre-1990 Against 1990-2015 Values for Critical Attributes Measured by the Atlas of Urban Expansion Attribute Change in World AverageShare of Built-up Area Occupied by Roads-1%Average Road Width(meters)-1.5Share of Roads More Than 16 Meters Wide-5%Share of Ro

299、ads Less Than 4 Meters Wide9%Share of Area within Walking Distance of All Arterial Roads-10%Average Beeline Distance to All Arterial Roads(meters)174.84Share of Residential Areas in Informal Land Subdivisions11%Source:Atlas of Urban Expansion database and calculations by authors.Planning for Transit

300、-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities24Table 32 Regional Averages Pre-1990 and 1990-2015 Values for Critical Attributes Measured by the Atlas of Urban ExpansionAttributeValueEast Asia and the PacificEurope and JapanLand-Rich Developed CountriesLatin America and the CaribbeanSouth and Central Asia

301、Sub-Saharan AfricaWestern Asia and North AfricaShare of Built-up Area Occupied by RoadsValue 1990-201521%19%20%23%20%16%25%(Value before 1990)22%22%22%24%19%17%25%Average Road Width(meters)Value 1990-2015 7.506.3111.257.496.506.406.10(Value before 1990)8.738.1011.1710.187.668.008.79Share of Roads Mo

302、re Than 16 Meters WideValue 1990-201510%4%15%5%5%5%3%(Value before 1990)14%9%22%14%8%9%10%Share of Roads Less Than 4 Meters WideValue 1990-201537%31%15%16%31%30%32%(Value before 1990)27%24%13%9%25%20%15%Average Beeline Distance to All Arterial Roads(meters)Value 1990-2015542.69356.60414.13324.34300.

303、22450.65520.89(Value before 1990)211.83261.29221.01181.38234.98276.63271.49Share of Residential Area in Informal Land SubdivisionsValue 1990-201522%25%1%36%45%20%47%(Value before 1990)8%11%0%16%26%13%46%Source:Atlas of Urban Expansion database and calculations by the authors.Planning for Transit-Ori

304、ented Development in Emerging Cities25Figure 3.3 shows the road network in the formally and informally developed areas of the city of Cali,Colombia.The formal areas on the right of the image follow a grid pattern with arterials and secondary roads.Public transport is possible.The end terminus of the

305、 citys bus rapid transit is located close to the border between the formal and informal areas in Figure 3.3.The informal areas,however,have irregular and narrow roads that do not allow public transport,aggravated by the hilly nature of the terrain.Figure 3.4 shows the narrow roads in informal areas

306、on the left panel.The right panel shows formally developed housing.Figure 3.5 illustrates the high density of the informal areas,suitable for public transportmore so,given the income of the population.However,the only way to provide public transport was by building a telphriquecable carthat connects

307、 this area to the citys Bus Rapid Transit network.Informal urban development has costs.However,it provides affordable housing for its residents.Finally,as shown in Figure 3.6,arterial roads do not need to be very wide to accommodate public transport.Both examples have wide sidewalks and two lanes pe

308、r direction.One example has an elevated metro line above,and the other has buses in mixed traffic.Figure 33 Road Patterns in Cali,Colombia,at the Boundary Between Formality and InformalityUnidad Residencial Santiago de CaliEucarsticoSanta IsabelAltos de Santa Isabel3 de JulioNuevo San FernandoLos Cm

309、bulosTequendamaNueva GranadaEl LidoBelisario CaicedoTierra BlancaBelnLleras CamargoEl CortijoSiloCuarto de Legua-GuadalupeNueva TequendamaPanamericanoVenezuela-Urbanizacin CaaveralejoCaaveralejo GuadalupeLa SultanaBrisas de MayoPueblo JovenUnidad Residencial Santiago de CaliEucarsticoSanta IsabelAlt

310、os de Santa Isabel3 de JulioNuevo San FernandoLos CmbulosTequendamaNueva GranadaEl LidoBelisario CaicedoTierra BlancaBelnLleras CamargoEl CortijoSiloCuarto de Legua-GuadalupeNueva TequendamaVenezuela-Urbanizacin CaaveralejoCaaveralejo GuadalupeLa SultanaBrisas de MayoPueblo JovenInformal road networ

311、kPlanned gridPACIFICOCEANCaribbean SeaBOGOTACaliVENEZUELAPERUBRAZILECUADORPANAMAIBRD 48269|AUGUST 2024IBRD 48269|AUGUST 2024Source:Authors.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities26Figure 34 Images of Urban Development at the Boundary Between Formally and Informally Developed Are

312、as in Cali,ColombiaSource:Arturo Ardila-Gomez.Figure 35 Images of the Informal Developed Area in Cali and the TelphriqueSource:Arturo Ardila-Gomez.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities27Figure 36 Examples of arterials roads in Queens in New York City and Wuhan,China Source:Art

313、uro Ardila-Gomez.33 Urban Development in 3-D:Distant,Dispersed,DisconnectedUrbanization also happens along the pattern known as distant,dispersed,disconnected,otherwise referred to as development in“3-D”(see Figure 16)(Zamorano,2016)(Kim&Zangerling,2016).The 3-D urban development pattern is expensiv

314、e to serve with public transportwalking and biking are difficult or impossible.These developments lack mixed land uses,concentrating houses but lacking jobs and services(i.e.,health,education,and others)within the development.As a result,residents find it expensive to access the citys labor market a

315、nd basic services.This prevents them from exiting poverty(Hobbs,et al.,2021).The labor market does not work as intended,particularly for people who depend on leaving their houses to generate income.The high cost of transport makes many residents abandon these houses(Zamorano,2016).Many of these deve

316、lopments had government subsidies,but they were still insufficient to compensate for the high cost of transport.Building these houses consumed resources and they became stranded assets without a viable mobility solution.“On one hand,the massive building of low-income housing has created“bedroom comm

317、unities”instead of allowing for the generation of conditions that promote a competitive city.On the other hand,the construction of low-income housing rarely considers other infrastructure and facilities necessary for the urban life of thousands of people.The spaces planned for these purposes are oft

318、en left vacant and are poorly maintained as a result of lack of investment interest from the public/private sectors”(Centro de Transporte Sustentable de Mexico A.C.,2012).Poor people end up spending a high share of their income because of the need to transfer from these informal vehicles to a bus or

319、 metro(Gwilliam,2002).Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities28Figure 37 Examples of Urban Development in 3-DSource:(right)Gary Todd via Flickr and(left)Chris Parker via Flickr under creative commons license.34 ConclusionTransport infrastructure attracts urban development becaus

320、e people want to live close to the mobility they providemobility that allows access to opportunities.For the urban market to work,agents need to know the location of the future road network.Without this information,developers imagine the roads,resulting in haphazard road patterns.Urban development i

321、s increasingly informal.Cities are investing less in arterials,which are critical for public transport.The share of 4m wide roads is increasing.These roads are unsuitable for regular buses.Mini-vans barely fit but in one direction.Reversing these trends will require improvements in municipal public

322、finance so municipalities can afford better road networks(see(Ardila-Gomez&Adriana Ortegon Sanchez,2016).In addition,LUR can play a positive role.The next chapter explains the basic LUR,including zoning.4Zoning and Land Use RegulationsThe definitions of zoning and land use regulations(LUR)help under

323、stand how they impact urban development.Alternative zoning approaches in Japan and the USA showcase possible solutions for replicating them in emerging cities.A case for relaxing regulations raises the question of how much is too much.Planning for Transit-Oriented Development in Emerging Cities30Cha

324、pter 3 described how transport facilities attract urban development around them.Chapter 2 explained how this increase in demand could result in more floor space if the LUR allows developers to construct to meet the demand.In addition,Chapter 2 showed that LUR can constrain the floor space supply.LUR

325、 can be beneficial by allowing supply to meet demand.Further,LUR can lead to designs that promote walkability and density,thus increasing the node and place values.LUR can also increase the market value by allowing more built space to meet demand.41 Defining Zoning and LURZoning divides land into zo

326、nes,each with regulations defining the purposes for which the land can and cannot be used.This is known as Euclidean zoning.The term comes from a US Supreme Court ruling that recognized zoning as a legitimate use of police power to protect public welfare(McDonald&McMillen,2012).Zoning started in the

327、 early 1920s to spatially separate different land uses deemed incompatible,i.e.,residential and industrial(Planetizen,2022).Zoning ordinances define the use permitted and the intensity of use on each parcel(McDonald&McMillen,2012).Zoning can lock a land use,single-family housing,for example,because

328、they are difficult to change due to vested interests(Levine,2005).For example,Curitiba,the capital of the state of Paran in Brazil,has a master development plan with zones to separate industrial uses from others.In the early 1970s,the mayor of Curitiba,Jaime Lerner,changed land use plans to allocate

329、 10 percent of the city area to the Industrial City of Curitiba(Cidade Industrial de Curitiba,CIC).By 1992,the CIC had 400 industrial firms that directly employed 50,000 and indirectly 200,000.The CIC generated 17 percent of the total revenue from the tax on commerce and industry of the state(Ardila

330、-Gomez,2004).Industrial jobs are formal and pay higher salaries,which allows these employees to buy quality built-up areas that pay property tax.Formal industrial firms also pay taxes,showing the importance of having a local economic development strategy.In the US,New York City adopted a zoning ordi

331、nance in 1916,and soon,most cities in this country emulated the example after their state government authorized them.Other countries,including low-and middle-income,emulated this example.The first zoning iterations were hierarchical because they started with the residential use and then extended the

332、 scope by adding other uses.Housing was,therefore,allowed in all zones except where it was explicitly prohibited(McDonald&McMillen,2012).Allowing housing in all zones gives more land for housing that is closer to jobs.However,in the 1950s,as cars became more prevalent,cities abandoned the hierarchic

333、al zoning,replacing it with segregated uses by zone.Many residential zones became single-family detached houses.Zoning also included LUR such as setback,backyard,front yard,minimum lot size,floor area ratio,and parking requirements(McDonald&McMillen,2012).The area allocated for housing diminished,and distances between homes and jobs increased,generating a car-dependent urban development pattern.Mi