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1、THE STATEOF GLOBAL AIR QUALITYFUNDING20241The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024ABOUT CLEAN AIR FUNDClean Air Fund is a global philanthropic organisation that works with governments,funders,businesses and campaigners to create a future where everyone breathes clean air.We fund and partner with

2、 organisations across the globe that promote air quality data,build public demand for clean air and drive action.We also influence and support decision makers to act on air pollution.ABOUT CLIMATE POLICY INITIATIVECPI is an analysis and advisory organisation with deep expertise in finance and policy

3、.Our mission is to help governments,businesses,and financial institutions drive economic growth while addressing climate change.CPI has seven offices around the world in Brazil,India,Indonesia,South Africa,the United Kingdom,and the United States.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report has been made possible by

4、 the generous data sharing of Climate Policy Initiative.Authors include Sasha Abraham,Ben Melling,Claris Parenti,Eddie Dilworth,Alfred Sloley,and Victoria Tan.Contributors include Dharshan Wignarajah,Costanza Strinati,Baysa Naran,Jake Connolly,Kirsty Taylor,Jana Stupperich,Rob Kahn,Merel Krediet,Ros

5、ie Childs,Sue Wixley,Rachel Dungate,Lorriann Robinson,Sean Maguire,Tom Grylls,Arindam Roy,Areeshya Thevamanohar,Nina Renshaw,Nina Jeffs,Elisa Puzzolo,Venetia Bell,Jenaina Irani,Michal Blaszczyk and Shirish Sinha.The report benefitted from a number of expert peer reviews,including from Dr Patience Gw

6、aze,Andrea Liverani,Helena Naber,Selelah Okoth,Jessica Seddon,and Rogerio Studart.CLEAN AIR FUND IS FUNDED BY:ABOUT THE PHOTOS IN THIS REPORTAll the photos in this report capture real-life people and places by local photographers,and were commissioned by Clean Air Fund.Many of these photos are avail

7、able to use for free at climatevisuals.org Cover image credit:Aji Styawan/Climate Visuals2The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024FOREWORDAir pollution is a global challenge that transcends borders.The World Health Organization estimates that 99%of us breathe harmful air.Over 8 million people di

8、e prematurely each year as a result of air pollution more than twice as many as from malaria,tuberculosis,and HIV/AIDS combined.In my country Brazil,nearly 68,000 lives were cut short in 2021 due to exposure to dirty air.Illegal fires and deforestation are a major driver of poor air quality,impactin

9、g the health of our people and our planet.Although progress has been made,change is not coming fast enough.The cost of air pollution can be counted in dollars as well as human lives.The World Bank estimates that the health damage alone from air pollution is equivalent to USD 8.1 trillion a year,or 6

10、.1%of global GDP.Around 1.2 billion working days are lost annually to sickness related to outdoor air pollution,and by 2060 this is projected to rise to 3.7 billion.It doesnt have to be this way.We need to bring together countries to share the benefits of a more sustainable and resilient world.As cu

11、rrent Chair of the G20 and upcoming host of next years UN Climate Change conference,COP30,Brazil is proud to be championing another vision for the planet:one where humans and nature co-exist in harmony,where we respect the environment we are blessed with,and where economic prosperity leaves no one b

12、ehind and doesnt come at the expense of our health and wellbeing.Brazil has just approved new timelines to achieve the World Health Organizations air quality standards.Reducing air pollution can help deliver stronger economies,improved health and social outcomes,and more sustainable and inclusive gr

13、owth.Action to clean our air also reduces greenhouse gas emissions,delivering multiple benefits for society,the economy,nature and climate.And yet this is an overlooked area of international policymaking and is severely underfunded.In my capacity as co-chair of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CC

14、AC)I have the privilege to work with policy makers across the world to place these issues in the spotlight,accelerate air pollution action globally,bring synergies from existing Multilateral Environment agreements,and raise national ambitions.Adalberto MalufNational Secretary of Urban Environment an

15、d Environmental Quality,Ministry of Environment and Climate Change,Brazil3The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024 report offers an annual snapshot of how much international development funding is being allocated to clean air action.The report provides

16、 a comprehensive analysis of the current state of funding for air quality initiatives and reveals the shortfall that persists,despite growing awareness and urgency.It examines not just how much funding is allocated,but also where and how.It shows that international public funding does not come close

17、 to meeting the scale of the challenge we are facing or unlocking the significant opportunity of investment in air quality.What funding exists often does not reach the worst affected geographies and communities.Recognising the significant gap between developed and developing countries in capacities,

18、resources and technologies for tacking air pollution,we need to mobilise new and additional resources from all sources and partnerships at all levels,including under existing multilateral environmental agreements.This includes recommending additional funding for air quality action and using existing

19、 money more effectively through better integration of the climate and air quality agendas.By acknowledging that air quality can be an outcome of climate and development funding,and building this aim in from the outset,donors could reap far more impact from their investments.And in addition to intern

20、ational public finance,we need national and city level investment,and private sector participation too.We all desire a world where clean air is available to all.As host of the G20 and COP30,Brazil is committed to reducing poverty,inequality and promoting social inclusion,as well as reducing air poll

21、ution for the most vulnerable,who suffer the most from pollution and extreme weather events resulting from climate change.Any just transition must take into account the needs of the most vulnerable.Air pollution knows no borders.Tackling it is a global challenge that we can,and must,address together

22、 before it blights many more lives.4The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024EXECUTIVE SUMMARYDespite overwhelming evidence of the harm it inflicts,air pollution is still treated as the poor cousin of other development areas within health and climate.Toxic air is one of the leading causes of prem

23、ature deaths worldwide1,with a death toll of more than 8 million people each year.2 It also has crippling economic consequences.From loss of productivity and diminished crop yields to the health costs of treating conditions such as cancer and dementia,the cost of inaction runs into the trillions.The

24、 World Bank has estimated that these costs a dirty air tax of sorts amount to around 6.1%of annual global GDP.3 Increasingly,air pollution is recognised as a delayer of development and driver of inequalities within and between countries.4 This report analyses international development funding flows

25、to outdoor air quality-related projects for the five years up to and including 2022 and is based on the latest publicly available data.5 The donors covered in this analysis include bilateral and multilateral Development Finance Institutions(DFIs)and governments that provide international funding.Lev

26、els of air pollution are escalating in most low-and middle-income countries,but international development funding for clean air efforts reached$4.7 billion in 2022.Investments have crept back to pre-pandemic levels($4.6 billion in 2019),but clean air funding still only makes up 1%of all internationa

27、l development funding.Along with this chronic underfunding,our analysis shows that investments are uneven and not sufficiently targeted or tailored.As a result,opportunities to realise clean air dividends are being missed:Compared with other international development funding,overall air quality fina

28、nce is unusually skewed towards loans rather than grants:92%of air quality funding is provided in the form of loans,creating costs for recipient countries and hindering uptake of this vital assistance.This comes in sharp contrast to the 63%share of grant funding seen for total Official Development A

29、ssistance in 2022.6 There are wide funding deserts because funding is spread unevenly across regions.For example,outdoor air quality funding for every country in Africa and the Middle East was only a third of the funding channelled to one Asian country,the Philippines($1.5 billion versus$4.7 billion

30、 from 20182022).Low-income countries such as Chad and Somalia receive much less funding than upper middle-income countries such as Serbia and Costa Rica:$2 versus$73 of overall air quality funding per person from 2018 to 2022.Although the air pollution and climate crises share many of the same cause

31、s and solutions,less than 3%of international public climate finance explicitly targeted air quality improvements from 2018 to 2022.5The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024 Projects focused on tackling black carbon(or soot)received only 0.1%of donors outdoor air quality funding($18 million out o

32、f$16 billion from 2018 to 2022),despite the unique and powerful role this pollutant plays in planetary and human health.Perversely,funding for fossil-fuel prolonging projects increased by 350%from$1.2 billion in 2021 to$5.4 billion in 2022,reversing the promising downward trend reported last year.7

33、Our analysis shows that bilateral development agencies need to play a bigger role,bringing their expertise,and maximising many of their existing focuses on health funding,in order to balance the over-reliance on loan financing for outdoor air quality projects.The report calls on bilateral and multil

34、ateral funders to increase the volume of outdoor air quality funding,to support states to realise the benefits from reduced air pollution,to improve the geographical balance of their portfolios and to tackle black carbon.Specifically,international development funders are encouraged to:expand their g

35、rant funding;integrate air quality considerations across all thematic portfolios and funding decisions,especially for investments in climate and health;develop and enhance monitoring and tracking systems that fully account for air quality;and stop funding projects that prolong the use of fossil fuel

36、s.6The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024TABLE OF CONTENTS1.THE URGENT CASE FOR INTEGRATED ACTION ON AIR POLLUTION 111.1 AIR POLLUTION IS A DEVELOPMENT DELAYER 111.2 AIR POLLUTION IS A DRIVER OF GROWING INEQUALITY 121.3 SCOPE OF ANALYSIS 121.4 WHAT THIS REPORT COVERS 152.OVERALL AIR QUALITY FU

37、NDING 163.AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING 314.FOSSILFUEL-PROLONGINGFUNDING445.RECOMMENDATIONS 516.REFERENCES 567The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024GLOSSARYOutdoor air pollutionOutdoor air pollution,also known as ambient air pollution,refers to the presence of harmful substances and pollutan

38、ts in the Earths atmosphere,primarily generated by human activities such as industrial processes,transportation and energy production.These pollutants including particulate matter,gases(e.g.nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide),ozone,carbon monoxide,and volatile organic compounds can adversely affec

39、t human health,ecosystems and the environment,leading to various respiratory,cardiovascular and environmental issues.Indoor air pollutionIndoor air pollution refers to the presence of harmful pollutants within enclosed spaces,such as homes,workplaces,and buildings,and can negatively impact human hea

40、lth and well-being.These pollutants arise from sources such as household cleaning products,tobacco smoke,cooking emissions,building materials and inadequate ventilation.Prolonged exposure to indoor air pollutants(such as fine particles,volatile organic compounds,radon and mould spores)can lead to a

41、range of health issues,including respiratory problems,allergies and other related ailments.Outdoor air quality fundingFinance committed to projects where improvements to outdoor/ambient air quality are an explicit benefit and objective(usually stated in the project description).Projects can include

42、those relating to the transport,energy and health sectors.Funding with air quality co-benefitsFinance committed to projects where improvements to outdoor/ambient air quality are a co-benefit to the investment but are not explicitly mentioned in the project description.This also includes indoor air q

43、uality projects,which improve outdoor air quality indirectly.Overall air quality fundingThe sum of outdoor air quality funding and funding with air quality co-benefits.Concessional financeConcessional finance is debt or grant capital offered at more favourable terms than offered by the market.This c

44、ould include lower interest rates or non-financial benefits such as longer repayment options or the inclusion of guarantees.Air quality and climate fundingFunding for projects that deliver dual benefits across air quality and climate(including both mitigation and adaptation).This covers both(a)outdo

45、or air quality funding that addresses climate change and(b)funding with air quality co-benefits that addresses climate change.This funding category represents the subset of air quality funding flows that simultaneously address climate change.Fossil fuel-prolonging fundingFinance committed to project

46、s or interventions(a)involving the construction of assets and infrastructure,which directly cause air pollution;or(b)leading to the creation of or promoting,air polluting activities.International development fundersInternational development funders include multilateral development banks,bilateral de

47、velopment agencies and governments providing international funding to recipient countries,mainly in the form of concessional and non-concessional loans and grants.This funding is provided for a range of development purposes,including air quality.Bilateral development finance institutions(DFI)Develop

48、ment finance institutions(DFI)that are owned by a single country and direct international finance flows internationally.Bilateral DFIs include both bilateral development banks and bilateral development agencies that deliver development finance on behalf of government departments.8The State of Global

49、 Air Quality Funding 2024National DFIsDevelopment finance institutions that are owned by a single country and direct finance flows domestically.Multilateral DFIsDevelopment finance institutions with multiple shareholder countries that direct finance flows internationally.GovernmentsMention of govern

50、ments refers to government departments and agencies providing development finance to other countries.Climate mitigation financeResources directed to activities(a)contributing to reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions,including gases regulated by the Montreal Protocol;or(b)maintaining or e

51、nhancing GHG sinks and reservoirs.Climate adaptation financeResources directed to activities aimed at reducing the vulnerability of human or natural systems to the impacts of climate change and climate-related risks by maintaining or increasing adaptive capacity and resilience.Super pollutants/short

52、-lived climate pollutants(SLCPs)Super pollutants,short-lived climate pollutants(SLCPs)or non-CO2 pollutants include methane(CH4),black carbon,hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs),and tropospheric ozone(O3).8 These contribute to global warming,cause local environmental degradation and harm human health.Black car

53、bonBlack carbon is a short-lived climate pollutant and a major component of particulate matter that has air quality and climate impacts.It is the sooty black material emitted beside other air pollutants during incomplete combustion.For example,diesel engines,brick kilns,residential energy,wildfires

54、and other sources that burn fossil fuels,biomass and waste emit black carbon.9The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024ABBREVIATIONSADBAsian Development BankAFDFrances development agencyAFOLUAgriculture,forestry and other land useAQIPAir Quality Improvement ProgrammeBMZGermanys Federal Ministry f

55、or Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentCAEMCorporacin Ambiental EmpresarialCARAClimate Action for a Resilient AsiaCCACClimate and Clean Air CoalitionCEBCouncil of Europe Development BankCH4MethaneCOPConference of Parties of the UNFCCCCO2Carbon DioxideCOVID-19 Coronavirus DiseaseDACDevelopment Assist

56、ance Committee(of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)DFIDevelopment finance institutionsEBRDEuropean Bank for Reconstruction&DevelopmentEIBEuropean Investment BankEPDEnding Preventable DeathG7Group of SevenG20Group of 20GDPGross Domestic ProductGHGGreenhouse GasHFCsHydrofluor

57、ocarbonsIPCCIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIsDBIslamic Development BankJICAJapan International Cooperation AgencyKfWGerman state-owned investment and development bankMAP-AQMonitoring,Analysis and Prediction of Air QualityMDBMultilateral development bank10The State of Global Air Quality Fun

58、ding 2024MIGAMultilateral Investment Guarantee AgencyNCQGNew Collective Quantified GoalNDCNationally Determined ContributionO3OzoneOECDOrganisation for Economic Development and Co-operationOFIDOPEC Fund for International DevelopmentOPECOrganization of the Petroleum Exporting CountriesOpenAQOpen Air

59、QualityPMParticulate MatterPM2.5Particulate Matter(2.5 micrometers or less in diameter)PROPARCOSubsidiary of the French development agency AFD,focused on private sector developmentRAPResilient Asia Programme SLCPShort-Lived Climate PollutantsUNEPUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUNFCCCUnited Natio

60、nal Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUSAIDU.S.Agency for International DevelopmentWHOWorld Health Organization11The State of Global Air Quality Funding 20241.THE URGENT CASE FOR INTEGRATED ACTION ON AIR POLLUTIONAir quality is in a state of crisis.99%of the worlds population breathes dangerous,

61、polluted air9 with disastrous consequences to health and wellbeing.Toxic air is estimated to have led to 8.1 million premature deaths in 2021 alone,and is the second leading risk factor for death globally.10 Beyond the human toll,there is a crippling economic cost:the World Bank estimates the cost o

62、f health damages from PM 2.5 air pollution at$8.1 trillion a year in 2019,the equivalent of 6.1%of global GDP.11Despite the overwhelming evidence of the significant harms that poor air quality causes,air pollution is being overlooked by international development funders.Air quality has been treated

63、for too long as the poor cousin of other development areas,such as health and climate,receiving insufficient funding that has not been effectively tailored or targeted to the issues at hand.Investing in air quality at the required scale and integrating air quality considerations across development p

64、ortfolios will save lives,support sustainable economic growth and aid in the critical shift away from fossil fuels towards greener and less polluting energy sources.1.1 AIR POLLUTION IS A DEVELOPMENT DELAYERAir pollution can no longer be considered an unavoidable byproduct of economic growth.Todays

65、clean technologies offer countries the opportunity to pursue stable,sustainable development that limits the pollution of our common air.Poor air quality holds countries back,delaying development and erasing some of the gains made in areas such as health,education and economic growth.The Organisation

66、 for Economic Development and Co-operation(OECD)estimates that the annual number of working days lost to outdoor air pollution could reach 3.7 billion by 2060(currently around 1.2 billion)if no action is taken.12With an increasing focus on the climate change and health nexus,air quality should becom

67、e a major topic in international climate discussions,such as COP,and other multilateral forums,such as G7 and G20.Positive first steps towards recognising this issue at recent multilateral events must be taken further.Developments at the UN COP28,hosted by the United Arab Emirates in 2023,included t

68、he climate and health political declaration,which made air quality recommendations and was endorsed by over 140 member states.A resolution adopted at the 77th World Health Assembly in 202413 recognises the vital role climate and clean air play in improving health outcomes and sets new ambitions for

69、governments to act.In addition,the International Energy Agencys summit on Clean Cooking in Africa in 2024 mobilised$2.2 billion in commitments to increase access to clean cooking.It also promised significant benefits for air quality,health,growth and education in Africa,particularly for African wome

70、n and girls,and showed how funding for air quality can be realised with effective leadership.12The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024The Global Methane Pledge increased focus on reducing methane emissions,a significant contributor to outdoor air quality issues.The Pledge has been signed by the

71、 European Union and 158 countries and mobilised over$1 billion.While there have been promising signs of political movement on air pollution on the international stage,the development funding needed to turn this into concrete action has not been forthcoming.1.2 AIR POLLUTION IS A DRIVER OF GROWING IN

72、EQUALITYThe impact of air pollution is not felt equally,with nine out of ten deaths attributed to outdoor air quality occurring in low-and middle-income countries.14 Despite this evidence,international development funders are still not sufficiently targeting their financing towards those most in nee

73、d.Donors must tighten the focus of their air quality funding on populations and countries that are disproportionately affected by air pollution,including older people,pregnant women and children and communities living in poverty.They must also ensure that funding better reaches underfinanced low-and

74、 middle-income countries,especially in Africa.Donors also must consider the ability of countries to take on additional debt.The analysis in this report shows that international development funders offer remarkably low levels of concessional finance for air quality(i.e.finance offered at more favoura

75、ble terms than the market),which may lead to reluctance to take up funding,given the mounting debt burdens being faced by low-and middle-income countries.To address the inequities of existing air quality funding,financing must be increased and the terms on which it is offered must improve.1.3 SCOPE

76、OF ANALYSISThis report analyses international development funding going to projects related to outdoor air quality for the five years up to and including 2022 and is based on the latest data available.International development funders include bilateral and multilateral Development Finance Institutio

77、ns(DFIs)and governments that provide international funding.Their finance flows can be in the form of concessional or non-concessional loans,grants,and/or other instruments.Due to data limitations,the following funding modalities are excluded from this report,their importance to funding air quality e

78、fforts notwithstanding:Domestic public spending for air quality Private sector funding Philanthropic fundingi Risk management instruments,owing to actual disbursements under these mechanisms being dependent on uncertain future events.i The Clean Air Funds report,Philanthropic Foundation Funding for

79、Clean Air,provides an in-depth analysis of funding from this source.13The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024The methodology sets out the approach taken on data sourcing and processing.Air quality funding data has challenges that make it difficult to build exhaustive datasets,including difficul

80、ties disaggregating air quality components from some wider environmental or public health spending;fragmented reporting with wide institutional disparities;and lack of a standardised tracking and reporting procedure for air quality finance from international development donors.The State of Global Ai

81、r Quality Funding 2024:Methodology recognises and addresses these limitations,taking a leading approach to identifying and categorising global air quality finance flows.Due to improvements in the keywords applied and additional manual checks,previously published data on pre-2022 years may have chang

82、ed slightly.Table 1.1 presents the flows assessed in the report analysis.Addressing outdoor air pollution is too often neglected as a development intervention,thereby missing considerable health,economic and climate gains that could otherwise be achieved.Funders do,nonetheless,invest in projects tha

83、t deliver air quality improvements as a co-benefit,without explicitly focusing on air quality.The Clean Air Fund welcomes this latter form of spending;nevertheless,it believes that making air quality aspects explicit will ensure projects are better designed to deliver stronger returns on investment.

84、A separate analysis of each funding category conveys richer detail on how air quality funding is changing over time and provides support for targeted recommendations on how to maximise the efficiency of this funding.14The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024TABLE 1.1:FUNDING FLOWS COVERED IN REP

85、ORT ANALYSISFunding flowDefinitionProject exampleOverall air quality funding Outdoor air quality fundingFinance committed to projects where improvements to outdoor/ambient air quality are an explicit benefit and objective(usually stated in the project description).Projects can include those relating

86、 to the transport,energy and health sectors.Air pollution prevention programmes,such as a multi-strand project to address air quality in a specific city through improving monitoring,funding interventions and raising awareness.Funding with air quality co-benefitsFinance committed to projects where im

87、provements to outdoor/ambient air quality are a co-benefit to the investment but are not explicitly mentioned in the project description.This also includes indoor air quality projects,which improve outdoor air quality indirectly.Electric vehicle incentive programmes for commercial fleets.Air quality

88、 and climate fundingFunding for projects that deliver dual benefits across air quality and climate(including both mitigation and adaptation).This covers both(a)outdoor air quality funding that addresses climate change and(b)funding with air quality co-benefits that addresses climate change.This fund

89、ing category represents the subset of air quality funding flows that simultaneously address climate change.Bus rapid transit projects to reduce urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.Fossil fuel-prolonging fundingFinance committed to projects or interventions(a)involving the construction o

90、f assets and infrastructure that directly cause air pollution;or(b)leading to the creation of,or promoting,air polluting activities.Development of a coal power plant.15The State of Global Air Quality Funding 20241.4 WHAT THIS REPORT COVERSThe sixth edition of our annual report presents the global la

91、ndscape of outdoor air quality funding,analyses international development funding flows and draws insight from wider trends in development,climate,and fossil fuel finance.New this year is a deep dive into black carbon financing,highlighting the crucial role that targeted funding to mitigate super po

92、llutants which contribute to global warming and harm human health plays in achieving climate and air quality goals.This report aims to build transparency,evidence,and practical recommendations for donors,policymakers and civil society to support and accelerate progress on outdoor air quality financi

93、ng.Figure 1.1 depicts the different flows analysed in this report.FIGURE 1.1:INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDING,AIR QUALITY FUNDING,CLIMATE FINANCE AND FOSSIL FUEL-PROLONGING FUNDING,20182022*Other air quality funding refers to air quality funding that does not address climate c

94、hange.This category includes projects from both outdoor air quality funding and funding with air quality co-benefits.Examples of other air quality funding include efforts to improve the monitoring and modelling of air pollution and measures for the reduction of dust.The report is structured as follo

95、ws:Overall air quality funding(area inside red circle)Air quality and climate funding(dark orange shaded area)Fossil fuel-prolonging funding(dark grey shaded area)RecommendationsInternational development funding$1888 billionAir quality and climate funding$94 billionOther air quality funding*$18 bill

96、ionOverall air quality funding$112 billionFossil fuel-prolonging funding$32 billionInternational publicclimate finance$525 billion*Other air quality funding refers to air quality funding that does not address climate change.This category includes projects from both outdoor air quality funding and fu

97、nding with air quality co-benefits.Examples of other air quality funding include efforts to improve the monitoring and modelling of air pollution and measures for the reduction of dust.16The State of Global Air Quality Funding 20242.OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDINGFunding for outdoor air quality projects

98、 was$4.7 billion in 2022,bringing funding levels just above the pre-pandemic levels seen in 2019(Table 2.1).Clean air funding,however,continues to represent an extremely small proportion of all international development funding,with levels flatlining at only 1%over the five years from 2018 to 2022.D

99、espite mounting evidence of the urgent need to increase air quality finance,funding commitments fail to grow at the necessary rate.To unlock the full potential of funding,air quality action must be mainstreamed across climate and development interventions,ensuring that air quality outcomes are consi

100、dered throughout the project planning,implementation and evaluation processes.This chapter analyses the following:International development funding for outdoor air quality projects that have air quality as a primary or explicit objective(hereafter referred to as outdoor air quality funding).Funding

101、for projects with air quality co-benefits that do not explicitly target air quality but that are likely to improve air quality outcomes through planned activities(hereafter referred to as funding with air quality co-benefits).ii Both these types of funding are important components of the air quality

102、 landscape.Regardless of whether air quality is a primary objective or a co-benefit of a given project,explicitly designing and planning for improvements in air quality will increase the projects likelihood of achieving positive air quality outcomes.This also will ensure that opportunities to improv

103、e air quality are not inadvertently eroded as a result of a failure to consider air quality during the implementation process.TABLE 2.1:AIR QUALITY FUNDING 20182022($BILLION)2018201920202021202220182022 totalOverall air quality funding24.721.011.223.331.7112.0Outdoor air quality funding3.24.61.02.44

104、.715.8Funding with air quality co-benefits21.616.410.221.027.096.2ii Further details on the classification of projects are available in The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024 Methodology.OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING CREPT BACK POST-COVID,BUT IT STILL MAKES UP ONLY 1%OF ALL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOP

105、MENT FUNDING.A SCHOOL PLAYGROUND INEAR BELCHATOW COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT IN KLESZCZOW,POLAND.CREDIT:ANNA LIMINOWICZ/CLIMATE VISUALS17The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024Funding has fluctuated significantly over the last five years,with volumes roughly halved in 2020 and 2021,most likely due t

106、o finance focused on pressures from COVID-19.While outdoor air quality funding in 2022 represented a recovery from this dip,funding levels have still barely surpassed 2019 levels(Figure 2.1).FIGURE 2.1:OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING AS A SHARE OF TOTAL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMMITMENTS,2018-2022iii

107、When compared with total international development funding flows,outdoor air quality projects still made up only 1.1%in 2022:for every$1,000 spent by international development funders,roughly$11 was spent on outdoor air quality.This percentage has fluctuated around 1%for the last five years of data(

108、20182022),with a dip to 0.4%in 2020.Although international development funding continued to increase in 2020 and 2021,outdoor air quality funding fell in those years as funders prioritised COVID-19-related budget support and vaccine donations to recipient countries.15 iii Previously published figure

109、s may have changed due to amendments in keywords and improvements in additional manual checks.0.8%012345201820192020202120223.24.61.02.44.7Outdoor air quality funding($billion)International development funding,2018 2022OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING CREPT BACK POST-COVID,BUT IT STILL MAKES UP ONLY 1%OF

110、 ALL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDING.A SCHOOL PLAYGROUND INEAR BELCHATOW COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT IN KLESZCZOW,POLAND.CREDIT:ANNA LIMINOWICZ/CLIMATE VISUALS18The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024There appears to be growing momentum behind public financial institutions climate finance commitme

111、nts and development of climate strategies.16 These efforts should be mirrored for air quality,and opportunities for dual benefit finance(benefitting both air quality and climate outcomes)identified and pursued.Against a backdrop of funding constraints,opportunities that simultaneously address multip

112、le objectives cannot be ignored,nor the untapped potential in sectors such as health.Pursuing these dual benefit opportunities can result in a greater percentage of international development funding being channelled into air quality even if funders total spending remains the same.FROM 2018 TO 2022,$

113、112 BILLION WAS PROVIDED IN OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING;MOST($96 BILLION)WENT TO PROJECTS WITH AIR QUALITY CO-BENEFITS.In addition to the relatively small pool of outdoor air quality funding,there is a larger pool for projects with air quality co-benefits.These projects achieve air quality improveme

114、nts without that being an explicit objective.Combined,outdoor air quality funding and funding with air quality co-benefits represent the full breadth of international development financing that addresses air quality.BOX 2.1:POSITIVE STEPS ON AIR QUALITY BY SOME INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDERSAltho

115、ugh overall air quality funding from development donors remains far too low,a number of institutions have taken positive steps in recent years.Noteworthy examples include:The World Banks Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency(MIGA)pledged$1 billion in financial guarantees in April 2024 to de-risk

116、air quality projects in low-and middle-income countries.17 These guarantees aim to increase the creditworthiness of air quality projects,thereby mobilising much needed private sector investment.The UK Foreign,Commonwealth&Development Office(FCDO)has committed to ending the preventable deaths(EPD)of

117、mothers,newborns and children by 2030,18 supported by a nearly 15 million programme.19 Tackling air pollution is a key focus within this EPD strategy since it increases the risks of respiratory illnesses to which children are particularly vulnerable.Through the EPD strategy,FCDO will support partner

118、ing countries in understanding and mitigating air pollution.The Asian Development Bank(ADB)launched the Asia Clean Blue Skies Programme in 2022 with$1.5 million for the first phase.20 The programme seeks to build the capacity of ADB recipient countries in designing and implementing air quality impro

119、vement solutions,and scaling up financing for air quality in the region.21 The programme would also develop air quality monitoring networks,train air quality specialists and raise public awareness on air quality.22 19The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024FIGURE 2.2:OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING

120、AND FUNDING WITH AIR QUALITY CO-BENEFITS AS A SHARE OF TOTAL INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMMITMENTS,20182022 Of the total$31.7 billion of overall air quality financing in 2022,iv 85%($27 billion)was directed to projects that provide air quality co-benefits(Figure 2.2);this means that only 15%($4.7 bi

121、llion)went to projects that have air quality as an explicit objective.The proportion of dedicated air quality funding has fluctuated between 10%and 20%of overall air quality funding for the last five years.From 2018 to 2022,$96.2 billion of financing with air quality co-benefits was provided,demonst

122、rating that comparatively,there is a large pool of development finance that is improving air quality without explicitly setting out to do so.These projects are often focused on development or climate action in sectors and sub-sectors that generate air pollution,such as energy generation and transpor

123、t.Funding for these types of projects should continue to increase,while ensuring air quality is mainstreamed in project planning.61%OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING WENT TOWARDS TRANSPORT PROJECTS FROM 20182022.At$9.6 billion,transport projects continued to draw in the majority of explicit outdoor air

124、 quality funding from 2018 to 2022(Figure 2.3),amounting to 61%of the$15.8 billion total.v While transports share of explicit outdoor air quality funding has been high throughout the five-year period from 20182022,it dropped to around 40%in 2020 and 2021 before rebounding to 82%in 2022.While the tra

125、nsport sector provides abundant opportunity for projects that explicitly target air quality improvements,international development funders should also ensure that potentially high-impact projects in sectors such as waste,buildings and agriculture are not overlooked.iv References to overall air quali

126、ty funding refer to the overall total of outdoor air quality funding(i.e.for projects that have air quality as a primary or explicit objective)and that for projects with outdoor air quality co-benefits(i.e.those that do not explicitly target air quality other than potentially improve air quality out

127、comes through planned activities).v Methodological improvements for this years report have resulted in a transport share of air quality funding that has increased across all years of data.For this reason,the sector analysis in this years The State of Global Air Quality Funding report is not directly

128、 comparable with analyses from previous years.5.9%Air quality funding($billion)International development funding,2018 20220510152025303520182019202020212022Outdoor air quality fundingFunding with air quality co-benefits24.721.011.223.331.720The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024FIGURE 2.3:OUTD

129、OOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING,20182022 Outdoor air quality funding is highly concentrated in a small number of Asian countries,creating a regional inequity that is leaving countries in need behind(Figure 2.4).vi Between 2018 and 2022,around 70%of international development funders outdoor air quality fundi

130、ng was concentrated in three Asian countries:the Philippines,Bangladesh and China.vii The majority of countries receiving considerable financing flows for outdoor air quality are in Asia and Central Asia,with Egypt and Senegal representing the only two African countries out of ten doing so.Indeed,to

131、tal outdoor air quality funding for all countries in Africa and the Middle East from 2018 to 2022 stood at$1.5 billion,less than a third of the funding received by one country,the Philippines,over the same period.The geographic concentration in funding is further illustrated by the fact that around

132、half of Africa and the Middle Easts$1.5 billion was received by only one country:Egypt.Overall air quality funding is slightly less concentrated,with the top three recipient countries(India,the Philippines and Bangladesh)receiving 33%of total flows(Figure 2.5).vi This analysis focuses exclusively on

133、 countries that receive international development financing.vii It should be noted that all countries could also be in receipt of other air quality funding flows,such as domestic public finance,which are not tracked in this report.Energy2%Transport61%Multi-sector air pollutioncontrol programmes31%Wa

134、ste5%Residential sector/Buildings2%Agriculture1%OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING REMAINS CONCENTRATED IN A HANDFUL OF ASIAN COUNTRIES,WITH JUST ONE COUNTRY RECEIVING TRIPLE THE AMOUNT RECEIVED BY ALL OF AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST.TRAFFIC JAM IN ULAANBAATAR,MONGOLIA.CREDIT:TSEND-OCHIR SANJAA21The State of

135、 Global Air Quality Funding 2024FIGURE 2.4:TOP TEN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES FOR OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FUNDING,2018-2022 FIGURE 2.5:TOP TEN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES FOR OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING,2018-2022 OF THE MOST POLLUTED COUNTRIES,SEVEN OUT OF TEN RECEIVED NO MORE THAN 1%OF GLOBAL OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUND

136、ING.Many countriesviii with the highest exposure to air pollution receive a low level of overall air quality funding(Table 2.2),leaving them with little international support to address their growing air pollution crises.Seven of the ten most highly polluted countries received a 1%or lower share of

137、global overall air quality funding from 2018 to 2022.It is important to understand that factors such as population size and GDP affect a countrys ability to absorb funding and explain why some countries may receive low levels of financing.When controlling for population size,however,there is evidenc

138、e that countries with high exposure to air pollution receive low amounts.Eight of the viii This analysis focuses specifically on countries that receive international development financing.SenegalKazakhstanUzbekistanPakistanIndiaEgyptMongoliaChinaBangladeshPhilippinesShare of global outdoor air quali

139、ty funding($16 billion)30%23%19%5%5%2%2%1%1%1%Outdoor air quality funding,2018-2022($billion)Philippines4.7China3.1Egypt0.8India0.3Senegal0.1Kazakhstan0.2Uzbekistan0.2Mongolia0.9Pakistan0.3Bangladesh3.6ArgentinaBrazilSerbiaTurkeyEgyptChinaIndonesiaBangladeshPhilippinesIndiaShare of global overall ai

140、r quality funding($112 billion)14%Overall air quality funding,2018-2022($billion)China5.5India16.2Egypt5.4Indonesia6Turkey4Serbia3.2Brazil2.6Argentina2.3Philippines12.7Bangladesh7.811%7%5%5%5%4%3%2%2%22The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024ten most highly polluted countries received under$17 p

141、er person in overall air quality funding from 2018 to 2022 compared to the recipient-country average of$40 per person.ix This underlines that many of the countries being overlooked by international development funders are those that are the most in need of support.TABLE 2.2:OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDI

142、NG FOR COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT PARTICULATE MATTERCountry Annual mean concentrations of PM2.5(2021)Overall air quality funding 20182022($bn)Overall air quality funding per capita($)Share of global overall air quality fundingBangladesh74.07.847.27%India58.716.212.114%Nepal51.70.

143、516.01%Pakistan44.71.14.71%Mongolia36.00.9297.01%Myanmar35.00.00.51%Rwanda32.40.01.61%Cameroon31.00.414.41%Bhutan30.60.02.31%China30.25.54.05%Source:Air Quality Life IndexOf the 7.3 billion people exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution every year,80%live in low-and middle-income countries.23 Air

144、pollution disproportionately affects individuals and especially marginalised communities in lower-income countries where there are fewer and less strict air quality regulations and which often have a higher prevalence of polluting industry,transport and energy practices.24 This exposure to air pollu

145、tion can be compounded if those experiencing it do not have access to quality healthcare.Despite these findings,air quality funding is not sufficiently being targeted at low-income countries.In fact,upper middle-income countries tend to dominate recipient rankings.For instance,from 2018 to 2022,low-

146、income countries received an average of$2 of overall air quality funding per person,compared to$24 and$73 per person for lower middle-income countries and upper middle-income countries,respectively.x Average funding per person for upper-middle income countries is skewed upwards by a small number of

147、countries that receive relatively high levels of per capita of overall air quality funding,including Costa Rica($386),Georgia($226),Montenegro($277),Mongolia($297)and Serbia($452).Lower-income countries have limited fiscal space and therefore a lower capacity to introduce domestic measures to addres

148、s air quality.International development funders must ensure that they take income,pollution exposure and wider developmental context into account when considering recipient countries for outdoor air quality funding.International funding initiatives,such as The Global Fund to Fight AIDS,Tuberculosis

149、and Malaria which invests over$5 billion a year,25 demonstrate that health is a priority for international funding.Evidence of air pollutions burden on ix The average of overall air quality for all countries receiving international development financing.x This analysis was conducted using the World

150、Banks country income classification data,accessed July 2024.23The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024human health implies that improving air quality should be considered in parallel with other critical health priorities to save lives and protect the poorest in society.By centring equity in the

151、development of clean air strategies,donors can ensure that their funding reaches those highly exposed countries in underserved regions that face significant challenges in addressing the health consequences of air pollution as a result of their weaker health systems.Combined with an increase in total

152、 flows of air quality finance,these positive steps will make it possible to address the regional inequity evidenced by the data.CASE STUDY:USAID CLEAN AIR CATALYSTCities in low-and middle-income countries bear the brunt of air pollution and climate change,globally.The flagship programme of the U.S.A

153、gency for International Development(USAID),Clean Air Catalyst,aims to tackle this by providing the necessary capacity and support to local governments in three pilot cities,Indore(India),Jakarta(Indonesia)and Nairobi(Kenya).The programme is supported by an international consortium led by the World R

154、esources Institute and Environmental Defense Fund that includes Columbia Universitys Clean Air Toolbox for Cities,the Climate and Clean Air Coalition,the Internews Network,MAP-AQ,OpenAQ and Vital Strategies.TACKLING AIR POLLUTION BY APPLYING A HOLISTIC APPROACHFrom 2021 to 2025,USAID is investing up

155、 to$20 million by way of grant support to the cities of Indore,Jakarta and Nairobi.26 The initiative applies a holistic approach by improving the knowledge around the source of pollution and by using this information to identify the most effective interventions.It aims to work with local governments

156、,the private sector and community partners to reduce the bottlenecks.Some project examples are detailed below:IndoreTo improve the knowledge of air pollution distribution and its sources within Indore,USAID funded,in January 2023,the installation of three new air quality monitoring stations,includin

157、g one that monitors both black carbon and PM2.5.The results from these have provided an understanding of the timing of air pollution,with high levels recorded during the mornings and evenings.These suggest that transportation is a significant contributor of air pollution.27 JakartaAlongside funding

158、improvements in the data collection,USAID also has engaged stakeholders for their perspectives.A learning workshop was held including mostly female neighbours from urban villages,non-government organisations and air pollution experts.Topics included the impacts of air quality solutions and informati

159、on sharing strategies for hard-to-reach communities.28NairobiUSAID has funded a training workshop,relating to air pollution in the Kenyan capital,for 49 journalists and editors.It focussed on building the capacity of local journalists to improve the media coverage of air quality issues as well as a

160、deepening of public understanding.29 This initiative aims to demonstrate how future projects can map local air pollution sources cost effectively,as well as provide tailored solutions with an inclusive approach.The workshop demonstrated how actions to reduce air pollution also should consider the im

161、pact on marginalised communities and how the co-benefits of health,climate change and development goals can be effectively captured.24The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024INDEBTED COUNTRIES ARE RECEIVING 92%OF THEIR OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING AS LOANS.Debt vulnerabilities in lower-income cou

162、ntries have increased sharply in recent years.30 Sluggish growth following the COVID-19 pandemic and cost-of-living shocks have led to many countries borrowing more to support domestic spending and meet costly import bills.Countries with growing debt burdens have been hit hard by higher interest rat

163、es,with debt servicing costs expected to increase by up to 39%for the worlds 24 poorest countries in 2023 and 2024.31 As a result,many governments have less money for domestic spending in areas that could promote growth and sustainable development,such as air quality.Countries struggling to manage d

164、ebt burdens may be reluctant or unable to take on new borrowing.Against this backdrop,concessional air quality finance(i.e.finance offered at more favourable terms than the market)can be a lifeline for highly polluted countries that cannot afford to take on more market-rate loans.Increasing the volu

165、me and efficiency of concessional capital,particularly grants,is key to avoiding recipient-side delays to project implementation and ensuring air quality funding reaches where it is needed most.Despite the demonstrated need for grant financing,air quality funding is dominated by loans.From 20182022,

166、92%of overall air quality funding was provided as loans,and just one third of that loan funding was provided at concessional rates(Table 2.3).Only 6%of overall air quality funding came in the form of grants,xi in stark contrast to the 63%share of grant funding seen for total Official Development Ass

167、istance in 2022.32,xiiTABLE 2.3:AIR QUALITY FUNDING BY INSTRUMENT,2018-2022Funding provided as loans Loan total($bn)Funding provided as grants Grant total($bn)Concessional funding Concessional funding total($bn)2018 2022 totalOverall air quality funding92%103.56%6.336%40.4112.0Outdoor air quality fu

168、nding91%14.78%1.370%11.215.8Funding with air quality co-benefits92%88.85%5.030%29.296.2Table note:funding totals include very small amounts of funding delivered through instruments other than grants and loans,such as risk management instruments and project-level equity.This means that together,grant

169、 funding and loan funding will make up slightly less than 100%of the total.This imbalance highlights that international development funders should increase the provision of low-cost loans and especially grants being committed for projects with air quality co-benefits.Ensuring careful targeting of th

170、ese instruments xi The remaining 2%of overall air quality funding was provided through other instruments including project-level equity and risk management funding.xii For 2022 specifically,the percentage of overall air quality provided as loans was 93%.25The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024

171、for countries at risk of debt distress with high exposure to air pollution could yield high returns.The ADB provides a good example of this targeting with its Concessional Assistance Policy,33 which uses measures of debt distress to determine the proportion of grants received by recipients.The pictu

172、re is slightly improved when considering outdoor air quality funding in isolation,though proportions of concessional finance still sit far below the average for international development funding.Outdoor air quality was similarly dominated by loan funding from 2018-2022,with loans making up 91%of the

173、 total.However,70%of financing was concessional;this is a measured improvement on the 30%seen for funding with air quality co-benefits.However,the proportion of grant financing still remains very low when focusing on outdoor air quality,making up only 8%of flows.Development agencies,national governm

174、ents and multilateral DFIs all appear in the list of top providers of concessional air quality finance(Table 2.4).Even within this table,there is a great deal of variation;some funders,such as the ADB,are included due to the sheer volume of their overall financing but provide very low shares at conc

175、essional terms.Many provide high volumes of low-cost loans but very few grants,and only the Canadian Government is providing the majority of its overall air quality funding in grant form.Air quality cannot continue to be the poor cousin within development,receiving chronically low levels of concessi

176、onal funding and even lower levels as grants.The high proportion of market-rate loans in funders air quality finance means that it is more expensive for recipient countries to pursue air quality improvements than to address other areas of development.As many low and middle-income countries struggle

177、to keep on top of their debt burdens,this can actively discourage efforts to address one of the greatest dangers to public health and development today.TABLE 2.4:TOP PROVIDERS OF CONCESSIONAL OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING,2018-2022RankingFunderConcessional finance($million)%of grants in overall air qu

178、ality finance%of low-cost loans in overall air quality finance1Japan International Cooperation Agency 15,361 0%100%2European Investment Bank 4,007 0%15%3Frances Agence Franaise de Dveloppement 2,745 4%81%4Germanys KfW Group 2,414 0%100%5Green Climate Fund 1,858 20%45%6Government of Japan 1,505 0%100

179、%7Export-Import Bank of Korea 1,497 0%100%8Central American Bank for Economic Integration 1,312 0%100%9Asian Development Bank 1,052 1%4%10Government of Canada 959 75%25%26FIGURE 2.6:OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING BY INSTRUMENT AND TYPE OF FUNDER,2018-2022 Multilateral DFIs continue to provide the large

180、st share of overall air quality funding,making up 63%of the total over the five years from 2018 to 2022 and representing six of the top ten donors(Table 2.5).Two multilateral DFIs in particular,the European Investment Bank and the Asian Development Bank(ADB),have provided two-thirds of multilateral

181、DFI funding for overall air quality(Table 2.6).The ranking of donors changed little since last years 20172021 assessment in terms of rankings,with no new entrants or exits.While bilateral DFIs(Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA),Agence Franaise de Dveloppement/PROPARCO),national DFIs(i.e.Ch

182、ina Development Bank)and multilateral climate funds(i.e.Green Climate Fund)are all present in the top donor ranking,these types of institutions,collectively,have provided less than half the multilateral DFI-level of funding over 20182022.MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS ARE THE BIGGEST PROVIDERS OF IN

183、TERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDING FOR AIR QUALITY.TRUCK REPAIR IN ACCRA,GHANA.CREDIT:PRINCE KUARANCHIEMultilateral DFIBilateral DFIGovernmentNational DFIGovernmentMultilateral Climate FundMultilateral DFIBilateral DFI68%21%5%Other/Unknown2%2%5%2%74%11%Other/UnknownMultilateral Climate Fund2%8%92%2%6%L

184、oans(market rate and concessional)GrantsOtherThe State of Global Air Quality Funding 202427The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024TABLE 2.5:TOP TEN DONORS FOR OVERALL AIR QUALITY,20182022Current ranking(20182022)Previous ranking(20172021)FunderOverall air quality funding($bn)12European Investme

185、nt Bank26.721Asian Development Bank19.733Japan International Cooperation Agency15.445World Bank Group6.054Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank4.866China Development Bank 4.577Inter-American Development Bank4.488European Bank for Reconstruction and Development4.299Frances Agence Franaise de Dveloppem

186、ent/PROPARCO3.71010Green Climate Fund2.9 TABLE 2.6:TOP TEN MULTILATERAL FUNDERS OF OVERALL AIR QUALITY,20182022Current ranking(20182022)Previous ranking(20172021)FunderOverall air quality funding($bn)12European Investment Bank 26.7 21Asian Development Bank 19.7 34World Bank Group 6.0 46Asian Infrast

187、ructure Investment Bank 4.8 53Inter-American Development Bank 4.4 65European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 4.2 77Development Bank of Latin America 1.5 810Central American Bank for Economic Integration 1.3 99CEB(Council of Europe Development Bank)0.6 1011New Development Bank 0.5 In contrast

188、,when focusing specifically on the smaller pool of outdoor air quality financing,bilateral DFIs have contributed more than multilateral DFIs.From 2018 to 2022,bilateral DFIs have provided 58%of global outdoor air quality funding(or$9.1 billion)in comparison to the 30%($4.8 billion)contributed by mul

189、tilateral DFIs.xiii xiii Small amounts of outdoor air quality funding are provided by other types of funders,including government departments and agencies that provide international development funding.This means that the total provided by bilateral and multilateral DFIs will be less than 100%.28The

190、 State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024Bilateral DFIs are explicitly targeting air quality outcomes in more of their funding than multilateral DFIs.From 2018 to 2022,40%(or$9.1 billion out of$22.7 billion)of bilateral DFI air quality funding went to projects with explicit air quality objectives.Fo

191、r multilateral DFIs,this figure was 7%(or$4.8 billion out of$70.6 billion).Bilateral DFIs should maintain and expand their outdoor air quality funding and multilateral DFI should emulate their progress,integrating air quality considerations across sectors and thematic areas.The smaller pool of expli

192、cit outdoor air quality funding comes from a limited number of funders:seven multilateral and five bilateral DFIs contributing the most significant amounts of finance(Table 2.7 and Table 2.8).It is therefore clear that the number of institutions providing outdoor air quality funding must expand.All

193、international development funders need to strengthen the internal case for action on air pollution,integrating air quality considerations across all their respective thematic areas and portfolios.It is worth noting that the figures and shares discussed in this section can be skewed by large projects

194、(e.g.JICAs$1.9 billion loan in 2022 relating to the expansion of metro systems in the Philippines).Not only the bilateral but also the multilateral DFIs have seen significant fluctuations in funding over the five years from 2018 to 2022.Thus,data from the years following 2022 will be key to understa

195、nding if post-COVID-19 funding changes will be maintained and start to build towards consistent trends.34353637383940 TABLE 2.7:TOP MULTILATERAL DFI FUNDERS OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY,2018-2022RankingFunderOutdoor air quality funding($million)Previous years ranking1Asian Development Bank3,06912World Ban

196、k Group51543European Bank for Reconstruction and Development49734Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank38025European Investment Bank14166Islamic Development Bank13357Inter-American Development Bank307TABLE 2.8:TOP BILATERAL DFI FUNDERS OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY,20182022RankingFunderOutdoor air quality fu

197、nding($million)Previous years ranking1Japan International Cooperation Agency 8,508 12Germanys KfW Group 344 n/a3Frances Agence Franaise de Dveloppement/PROPARCO 175 24Austrian Development Bank 94 35USAID Inter-American Development Foundation 1 n/a29The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024Bilater

198、al DFIs are explicitly targeting air quality outcomes in more of their funding than multilateral DFIs.From 2018 to 2022,40%(or$9.1 billion out of$22.7 billion)of bilateral DFI air quality funding went to projects with explicit air quality objectives.For multilateral DFIs,this figure was 7%(or$4.8 bi

199、llion out of$70.6 billion).Bilateral DFIs should maintain and expand their outdoor air quality funding and multilateral DFI should emulate their progress,integrating air quality considerations across sectors and thematic areas.The smaller pool of explicit outdoor air quality funding comes from a lim

200、ited number of funders:seven multilateral and five bilateral DFIs contributing the most significant amounts of finance(Table 2.7 and Table 2.8).It is therefore clear that the number of institutions providing outdoor air quality funding must expand.All international development funders need to streng

201、then the internal case for action on air pollution,integrating air quality considerations across all their respective thematic areas and portfolios.It is worth noting that the figures and shares discussed in this section can be skewed by large projects(e.g.JICAs$1.9 billion loan in 2022 relating to

202、the expansion of metro systems in the Philippines).Not only the bilateral but also the multilateral DFIs have seen significant fluctuations in funding over the five years from 2018 to 2022.Thus,data from the years following 2022 will be key to understanding if post-COVID-19 funding changes will be m

203、aintained and start to build towards consistent trends.34353637383940 TABLE 2.7:TOP MULTILATERAL DFI FUNDERS OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY,2018-2022RankingFunderOutdoor air quality funding($million)Previous years ranking1Asian Development Bank3,06912World Bank Group51543European Bank for Reconstruction and

204、 Development49734Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank38025European Investment Bank14166Islamic Development Bank13357Inter-American Development Bank307TABLE 2.8:TOP BILATERAL DFI FUNDERS OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY,20182022RankingFunderOutdoor air quality funding($million)Previous years ranking1Japan Inte

205、rnational Cooperation Agency 8,508 12Germanys KfW Group 344 n/a3Frances Agence Franaise de Dveloppement/PROPARCO 175 24Austrian Development Bank 94 35USAID Inter-American Development Foundation 1 n/aCASE STUDY:GOVERNMENTS AND BILATERAL DFIS FUNDING OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY PROJECTSAir quality management

206、begins with air quality tracking that can identify pollution sources and direct funding and support to where it is most needed.However,the absence of comprehensive and precise air quality tracking and data systems continues to be a significant barrier globally.34 Bilateral development finance instit

207、utions(DFI)and government agencies with data expertise including the Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA),Agence Franaise de Dveloppement(AFD)and the UK Foreign,Commonwealth&Development Office(UK FCDO)have been funding technical assistance programmes for air pollution monitoring in several A

208、sian cities to address this issue.Since 2022,JICA has funded a technical co-operation project in Thailand(Project for Sustainable Management of PM2.5 Prevention and Reduction Measures),which relates to Bangkoks Metropolitan Region.The project aims to strengthen Bangkoks capacity for air quality mana

209、gement by improving its PM emission inventory,developing a simulation model,assessing the pollution structure,formulating effective pollution control measures and sharing knowledge.35 In 2020,the AFD implemented the Air Quality Improvement Program(AQIP)as part of its regional air quality program in

210、Southeast Asia.The program aims to support member countries within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations in developing clean air policies.36 Through AQIP,AFDin partnership with the Global Green Growth Instituteinitiated,in May 2023,a two-year 800,000 project in the Siem Reap Municipality of Cam

211、bodia.37 The project aims to monitor and ultimately publish air quality data to better inform the public and private sectors.Within its first year,AQIP notably developed quality assurance and quality control measures for air quality monitoring stations as well as updating the emission inventory tool

212、 for the transport sector.38Bilateral and multilateral DFIs and government agencies can also partner with each other with a view to expanding their regional reach to more comprehensively address air quality management.As part of its Climate Action for a Resilient Asia(CARA)initiative,the UK FCDO fin

213、ances 50 million for the Resilient Asia Programme(RAP).RAP seeks to strengthen regional capacity and climate resilience in Asia,including management of its air quality.39 In particular,the Indo-Gangetic Plains that comprise Bangladesh,India,Nepal and Pakistan face critical air pollution,trapped with

214、in airsheds.The World Bank is partnering with this programme to implement a broader airshed management approach under its Asia Regional Integration,Cooperation,and Engagement umbrella Trust Fund.4030The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024IMPROVEMENTS TO THE TRACKING OF AIR QUALITY FINANCE ARE L

215、ONG OVERDUE.International development agencies must prioritise the standardisation of methodologies to track and report air quality finance.Implementation of robust tracking and reporting will make it easier for funders to track their own progress on air quality and make iterative improvements.Funde

216、rs taking these steps will be able to assess project impacts in a way that will contribute to improving the business case for future air quality projects.Introduction of a new air quality marker for the reporting of development funding to the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for

217、Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD-DAC)would be a valuable first step.It should be accompanied by wider efforts to develop the shared metrics that allow for enhanced analyses of the effectiveness of the various air quality interventions,to support the increase in funding for maximum impact.C

218、limate finance tracking frameworks can also be modified to include air quality considerations.As multilateral,bilateral and national DFIs begin to implement frameworks such as the Common Principles for Climate Finance Tracking and their national or regional taxonomies,they also should consider how t

219、hese methodologies can be built on to track project impact on air pollution metrics alongside factors such as emissions.31The State of Global Air Quality Funding 20243.AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDINGAir quality and climate change are two sides of the same coin.41 Both issues have compounding effects

220、 on each other and share many of the same sources,pollutants and,ultimately,solutions.Like air quality,no one is safe from the risks associated with climate impacts,although those in lower-income countries are likely to be harmed first and worst42 despite having a low historical contribution to the

221、greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions driving these issues.Projects and interventions that address both climate and air pollution offer the opportunity for international funders to achieve synergies across multiple outcomes,such as health,climate and wider development,thus maximising the impact of their inve

222、stments.International climate finance is increasing,albeit too slowly and at too small a scale.xiv It must be used effectively in a way that ensures co-benefits across development metrics(including climate,air quality,gender and poverty)are realised.Funding measures to address super pollutants,such

223、as black carbon,are a clear example;with irreversible climate impacts and lives lost to dirty air,we cannot afford to overlook potential win-win solutions.At COP29 in November 2024,countries are expected to agree on significant new financial commitments to tackle the climate crisis under the New Col

224、lective Quantified Goal(NCQG).There is no better time to take stock of the funding needed to jointly tackle air pollution and climate change.Donor countries should take account of the full range of benefits their financing can achieve in acting on climate change,including pricing in the many air qua

225、lity,development and security benefits associated with this investment.xiv The 2020$100 billion goal agreed by member states at COP15(2009),held in Copenhagen and reiterated at COP21(2015)in Paris was met for the first time in 2022(with Annex I countries providing and mobilizing$116 billion that yea

226、r).BOX 3.1:INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE CHANGEAir quality and climate are intrinsically linked,with significant crossover in their sources,pollutants and solutions.Global warming and air pollution can be affected by various natural factors(e.g.volcanic eruptions,suspended desert d

227、ust);however,the two have been pushed to crisis levels by human activity.Fossil fuels are a key driver,accounting for more than half of the 8.3 million deaths caused by ambient air pollution each year.43 Climate scientists have estimated that 90%of global CO2 emissions in 2023 were related to fossil

228、 fuels(as opposed to land-use).44 Furthermore,super pollutants,such as methane and black carbon,contribute to both the warming of the planet and to the pollution of our common air.The negative impacts of climate change exacerbate poor air quality,with longer and hotter summers increasing the risk of

229、 polluting and health-harming wildfires and drought-related dust storms.45 Reducing the volumes of combusted fossil fuels has a positive impact on not only air quality but also on greenhouse gas emissions,meaning that actions such as replacing diesel vehicles with electric ones,improving energy effi

230、ciency in homes and combining an expansion of renewable power generation with a phase-out of fossil generation will all reap the benefits of climate and air quality.32The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024This section analyses the sub-set of international development funding flows that address

231、 both air quality and climate,henceforth referred to as air quality and climate funding.As shown in Figure 3.1,this is made up of projects from both outdoor air quality funding and funding with air quality co-benefits.FIGURE 3.1:RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AIR QUALITY FUNDING AND CLIMATE FUNDING BETWEEN 2

232、018 AND 2022,84%OF OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING($94 BILLION OUT OF$112 BILLION)WAS DIRECTED TO PROJECTS THAT ALSO ADDRESSED CLIMATE CHANGE.The majority of international development overall air quality funding also addresses climate change.From 2018 to 2022,$94 billion(84%)of overall air quality fundi

233、ng went to projects that delivered climate benefits(Table 3.1).Air quality and climate funding reached a record$31 billion in 2022a third higher than any other year in this period.The increase can be explained by a greater number of large transport projects with air quality co-benefits being tagged

234、as climate finance in 2022.xvFrom 2018 to 2022,a remaining$18 billion(16%)of overall air quality funding went to projects that did not address climate change nor delivered climate-related improvements(Figure 3.2).Examples of these include efforts to improve the monitoring and modelling of air pollut

235、ion and measures for the reduction of dust.As with the overall funding of air quality,recipients are regionally concentrated,with 65%of the$94 billion directed to countries in the Asia,Central Asia and Eastern Europe region during the same period,with India and the Philippines benefiting from 15%and

236、 13%,respectively.TABLE 3.1:AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING,20182022($BILLION)2018201920202021202220182022 totalAir quality and climate funding20.015.77.819.131.494.0 xv This increase was also impacted by methodological improvements carried out for this years report,resulting in a number of out-of-s

237、cope projects being removed from the pool of overall air quality funding that does not address climate.This has led to a small increase in the share of air quality and climate funding for 2022.Climate fundingOverall air quality fundingAir quality and climate funding33The State of Global Air Quality

238、Funding 2024FIGURE 3.2:AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING AS A SHARE OF OVERALL AIR QUALITY FUNDING,20182022($BILLION)*Other air quality funding refers to air quality funding that does not address climate change.This category includes projects from both outdoor air quality funding and funding with air

239、quality co-benefits.Examples of other air quality funding include efforts to improve the monitoring and modelling of air pollution and measures for the reduction of dust.Most overall air quality and climate funding is spent on projects that do not explicitly target air quality.Of the$94 billion comm

240、itted to air quality and climate from 2018 to 2022,only$13 billion(or 14%of total)has included projects with an explicit air quality objective.This is not surprising,as many climate projects are captured within the broader category of funding with air quality co-benefits even if they do not have an

241、explicit air quality objective.Examples of these eligible climate solutions include modal shifts from fossil fuel vehicles to public transport and programmes that promote energy efficiency.The large volume of air quality and climate funding that does not explicitly target air pollution provides the

242、opportunity to improve and maximise air quality outcomes across projects,as was discussed earlier in this report.46 BILATERAL DEVELOPMENT FINANCE INSTITUTIONS ARE LEADING THE WAY ON INTEGRATING AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE AT SCALE,BUT MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT FINANCE INSTITUTIONS ARE PROVIDING GREATER V

243、OLUMES OF FUNDING.Bilateral DFIs are integrating air quality and climate at scale,with 94%of their overall air quality funding also addressing climate change.JICA is an example of this,with 96%of its overall air quality funding also delivering climate improvements.Other donor types,including multila

244、teral DFIs and national governments,offer slightly lower shares of air quality and climate funding,at 81%and 73%,respectively.During the 20182022 period,multilateral DFIs provided 61%of global air quality and climate funding,or$57 billion out of a total of$94 billion.The top ten donors for air quali

245、ty and climate funding have entries from multilateral DFIs,bilateral DFIs,national DFIs and multilateral climate funds(Table 3.2).0510152025303520182019202020212022Other air quality funding*Air quality and climate funding$billion24.72111.223.331.734The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024$88 bil

246、lion of the$94 billion air quality and climate funding total was provided through loans,with a third of these loans being provided at concessional rates.Only$4 billion(4%)of air quality and climate funding was given as grants,which is broadly in line with the proportions seen for outdoor air quality

247、 funding and overall air quality funding more generally.TABLE 3.2:TOP FUNDERS OF AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING,20182022 RankingFunderOverall air quality and climate funding($billion)1European Investment Bank23.72Asian Development Bank17.93Japan International Cooperation Agency14.74China Developmen

248、t Bank4.55World Bank3.46Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank3.17Frances Agence Franaise de Dveloppement/PROPARCO3.18European Bank for Reconstruction and Development3.09Green Climate Fund2.610Germanys KfW Group2.4 MOSTOFTHEOVERALLAIRQUALITYANDCLIMATEFUNDING(87%)WENT TO CLIMATE MITIGATION PROJECTS,WIT

249、H MUCH OF THIS CONCENTRATED IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR.Air quality and climate funding was concentrated in climate mitigation,as opposed to climate adaptation,with$82 billion(87%)of funding going towards projects aiming to cut emissions.Climate adaptation projects specifically addressing air quality,ho

250、wever,are scarce,making up only 4%of air quality and climate funding,at$3.9 billion.With significant barriers still in place for private adaptation finance,international development funding continues to play an important role in providing and leveraging finance.Adaptation interventions must be caref

251、ully assessed and based on the context of the various adaptation activities.Air quality should be considered in parallel with biodiversity,water and land use to avoid an unintentional worsening of air quality in the targeted area.35The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024Within the mitigation co

252、mponent of air quality and climate funding,the projects covered a range of sectors,with transport(73%),energy systems(12%)xvi,and cross-sectoral projects(10%)topping the list(Figure 3.3).Transport projects are a significant example of how climate and air quality considerations can be integrated in p

253、roject design.Rail and public transport projects dominate air quality and climate funding,as illustrated by three major projects in 2022:Launch of the Manila subway project($1.9 billion)Creation of a mass rapid transit system in Dhaka($984 million)Construction of a high-speed rail in Mumbai-Ahmedaba

254、d($761 million)Other notable sectors with far-reaching impacts,such as AFOLU,continue to be overlooked in terms of air quality and climate funding,making up only 0.3%of the total during the 20182022 period.FIGURE 3.3:AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING BY SECTOR,20182022xvi The methodology in The State

255、of Global Air Quality Funding 2024 includes funding only for clean and renewable energy technologies for those projects that specify the replacement of fossil fuels.For further details,see hereTransport73%Energy12%Cross-sectoral10%Industry3%Water and wastewater1%Agriculture,forestry and other land u

256、se1%36The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024LESS THAN 3%OF INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC CLIMATE FINANCE SPECIFICALLY TARGETED AIR QUALITY,20182022.The proportion of climate financing from international development funders relating to air quality increased in 2022;this suggests that this share may be b

257、ouncing back from the 2020/2021 dip(Figure 3.4).For instance,in 2022,a quarter of international public climate finance either explicitly targeted air quality or delivered air quality co-benefits,representing a strong rebound from the shares of 7%and 19%in 2020 and 2021,respectively.The increase also

258、 represents a five-year peak.Looking over the five years from 20182022,international public climate finance amounted to$525 billion.xvii Of this,2.6%($13 billion)explicitly targeted outdoor air pollution,representing the intersection between outdoor air quality and climate finance.This is a small in

259、crease on the 2%share reported in The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2023 for the 20172021 period.The share continues to be too low,considering the significant gains that could have been achieved from targeting,tracking and reporting the air quality benefits of climate interventions.FIGURE 3.4:

260、AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING AS A SHARE OF INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC CLIMATE FINANCE,20182022($BILLION)xvii These figures are higher than those reported by the OECD since the figures in this report include development spending from non-OECD members.02040608010012014020182019202020212022Explicit air qu

261、ality and climate fundingOther air quality and climate fundingInternational public climate finance that does not address air quality10388109100125$billion19%81%82%7%93%19%81%25%75%18%37The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024LESS THAN 3%OF INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC CLIMATE FINANCE SPECIFICALLY TARGET

262、ED AIR QUALITY,20182022.The proportion of climate financing from international development funders relating to air quality increased in 2022;this suggests that this share may be bouncing back from the 2020/2021 dip(Figure 3.4).For instance,in 2022,a quarter of international public climate finance ei

263、ther explicitly targeted air quality or delivered air quality co-benefits,representing a strong rebound from the shares of 7%and 19%in 2020 and 2021,respectively.The increase also represents a five-year peak.Looking over the five years from 20182022,international public climate finance amounted to$5

264、25 billion.xvii Of this,2.6%($13 billion)explicitly targeted outdoor air pollution,representing the intersection between outdoor air quality and climate finance.This is a small increase on the 2%share reported in The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2023 for the 20172021 period.The share continue

265、s to be too low,considering the significant gains that could have been achieved from targeting,tracking and reporting the air quality benefits of climate interventions.FIGURE 3.4:AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE FUNDING AS A SHARE OF INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC CLIMATE FINANCE,20182022($BILLION)xvii These figures a

266、re higher than those reported by the OECD since the figures in this report include development spending from non-OECD members.CASESTUDY:LEVERAGINGAIRQUALITYCO-BENEFITSINCLIMATEFINANCE:GREENCLIMATEFUNDSINVESTMENTINNAIROBI,KENYA(2018)ProblemAs a rapidly urbanising middle-income country,Kenya faces ris

267、ing emissions and deteriorating air quality.Transport,waste mismanagement and biomass fuel burning are key sources of air pollution in the countrys capital city,accounting for 40%,25%,and 15%of PM2.5 concentrations in the city.47 In 2019,Nairobi recorded air pollution that was 4.2 times higher than

268、recommended levels by the World Health Organization.48 Limited national monitoring capabilities hindered informed decision-making and investments on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.49 Air quality monitoring stations were often private or serving specific research purposes,lacking

269、 the scope and data accessibility required for national planning.SolutionThe Kenyan government secured$9.3 million funding from the Green Climate Fund and co-financers to develop a greenhouse gas(GHG)and short-lived climate pollutant monitoring network in Nairobi for improved compliance and stricter

270、 enforcement of emission standards.This was in addition to more comprehensive climate change reporting.This project aligns with multiple goals of the Kenyan government.It directly supports Kenyas“Vision 2030”,which aims to elevate itself to a nation that provides a high quality of life in the next d

271、ecade by reducing air pollution.The emissions data collected will inform Kenyas efforts to reduce GHG emissions by 32%by 2030 under the Paris Agreement.50 This project has four main components:1.Establish a city-wide emissions monitoring network to track various SLCPs,including black carbon and meth

272、ane,as well as GHGs like carbon dioxide,along with atmospheric parameters.2.Develop emission and transport models to estimate pollution levels in areas not covered by monitoring stations;identify pollution sources;and predict future air quality scenarios.3.Strategic communication and outreach focuse

273、d on raising public awareness about air quality issues.This includes sharing targeted air quality data with enforcement agencies and policymakers to bridge knowledge gaps.4.Strengthen institutions to maintain the network beyond the duration of the project and build human and institutional capacity.I

274、mpactFinancing air quality makes climate finance more comprehensive.The Green Climate Fund considers a range of investment criteria when approving projects.Air quality has been specifically identified as an environmental co-benefit indicator under sustainable development potential criteria.51 Beyond

275、 directly meeting these criteria,this project also showcases the co-benefits of addressing air quality,especially in terms of reducing burdens on the healthcare sector and the economy at large.An estimated 2,100 deaths could be prevented if clean air interventions are implemented from 2030 to 2040.T

276、he cumulative impact of these interventions would also translate into an estimated$192 million savings,representing approximately 23%of Kenyas total healthcare expenditure in 2022.52 38The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024THE INTERSECTION OF AIR QUALITY AND CLIMATE:SHORT-LIVED CLIMATE POLLUTA

277、NTS.Short-lived climate pollutants,or super pollutants methane(CH4),black carbon,hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs),and tropospheric ozone(O3)-are significant contributors to anthropogenic global warming.53 The names of these pollutants are derived from the fact that they remain in the atmosphere for a relati

278、vely short period in comparison to CO2,which continues to affect climate for a longer period.54 Although super pollutants atmospheric lifetimes are short,their warming potential is greater than that of CO2.In other words,they are more effective at trapping solar radiation in the atmosphere for the t

279、ime that they are around.The short lifetimes and potent climate effects of these pollutants mean that reducing them can have fast and powerful benefits on warming.Action on super pollutants is needed to meet the temperature goal of the Paris Agreement.According to the IPCCs Sixth Assessment Report,e

280、ven rigorous action on CO2 leaves a greater than 66%chance of exceeding the 1.5C limit if non-CO2 pollutants are not significantly reduced.55At the intersection of climate change and air pollution,the super pollutants black carbon,methane and tropospheric ozone severely affect health outcomes(Figure

281、 3.5).Many of the 8.3 million deaths from air pollution,worldwide,in 2021 were the result of super pollutants(6%were due to ozone,of which methane is a precursor;38%were from household air pollution,including black carbon emissions from cookstoves;and 58%were from ambient PM2.5,of which black carbon

282、 is a primary component).56 Tackling these pollutants will not only slow the warming of the planet but also save lives.An overview of the sources,major impacts,and regional scope of short-lived climate pollutants is depicted in Figure 3.5.FIGURE 3.5:OVERVIEW OF SHORT-LIVED CLIMATE POLLUTANTS AT THE

283、INTERSECTION OF CLIMATE AND AIR QUALITYSource:Adapted from World Resources Institute(2023)and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(2021).BLACKCARBONMETHANETROPOSPHERICOZONEPollutantAnthropogenic SourcesRelated ActivitiesExpected LifetimeMajor ImpactsScope Rearing livestock Rice production Open

284、dumps Wastewater Key greenhouse gasInteraction of sunlight with precursors(CH4,NOx,CO,VOCs)Precursor pollutants can originate from:Diesel-powered transportation Agriculture production Fossil fuel production Industrial production6-27 days12 years4-12 daysAgricultureFossil FuelsWasteAgricultureFossil

285、FuelsWasteResidential energyTransport Biomass burning Forest burning Brick kiln firing Diesel-powered transportation Residential energy consumption Irreversible damage to sensitive cryosphere ecosystems Accelerated melting of the Artic,Himalayan and Andean glaciers Disruption of monsoon and water cy

286、cles Increased frequency of heatwaves Increased risks of lung and heart diseaseRegionalGlobalClimateHealthClimateHealth Precursor to toxic tropospheric ozoneClimateHealth Key greenhouse gas Disrupts plant growth and seed production Reduces annual crop yields Increased risks of asthma,respiratory and

287、 heart diseaseGlobalRegionalGlobal39The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024DEADLY SUPER POLLUTANT BLACK CARBON IS SYSTEMATICALLY OVERLOOKED BY INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUNDERS.Methane,a short-lived climate pollutant,has been attracting increased global attention in recent years,following the l

288、aunch of the Global Methane Pledge at COP26 in 2021.This pollutant-specific approach has seen remarkable success,with 158 countries and the European Union participating in the pledge and over$1 billion in new grant funding mobilised in the year between COP27 and COP28 for methane action.57 The urgen

289、t need for action on black carbon funding(Box 3.3)suggests that a similar pollutant-specific drive from the international climate community also should be considered.Under current policy scenarios,it is estimated that black carbon emissions will decrease slightly(around 3%)by 2030 mostly originating

290、 from black carbon reductions in China.62 These limited reductions are not sufficient to limit global warming to 1.5C and will not reduce the health burden of black carbon to the required scale.Far more remains to be done in terms of black carbon reductions for climate and health benefits.According

291、to the Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC),an 80%reduction of black carbon is technically possible using existing solutions,such as interventions in the brick manufacturing sector,improved standards in transport fuels,and improved access to finance and technology.63,64Black carbon has been repeate

292、dly overlooked by climate and air quality protocols and targeted financing,often going completely untracked.65,66 As such,it is vital that more development finance is directed towards black carbon to establish monitoring,scale deployment of solutions and integrate considerations of short-lived clima

293、te pollutants across climate and development agendas.BOX 3.3:WHY FUND BLACK CARBON?Black carbon,a component of particulate matter that is primarily produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass,deserves a unique focus among short-lived climate pollutants and climate-air quality p

294、ollutants:Climate impacts and tipping points:Black carbon absorbs sunlight and heats the atmosphere,increasing global warming.When deposited on ice and snow,it limits the ability of surfaces to reflect sunlight,leading to the heating of the surface and an accelerated melt.58 Loss of Arctic ice can e

295、stablish feedback loops that result in further warming,as less ice means reduced reflection of sunlight and ice melt risks releasing methane stored in permafrost.59 Black carbon also affects the formation of clouds and rain patterns and can exacerbate heatwaves and heat-related illnesses.60 Impact o

296、n human health:This particulate matter is a component of air pollution,causing significant harm to human health,including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.Black carbon is a major contributor to the 8.3 million yearly deaths from ambient air pollution.Known solutions:Black carbon is co-emitted

297、 alongside other particulate matter and gases,including CO2,that have established monitoring processes and known mitigation solutions.While sources vary by geographic region,there are many tried and tested solutions to reduce black carbon emissions(and their co-pollutants),such as switching to clean

298、 cooking and clean transportation.Results are demonstrated through Californias success in reducing these emissions by approximately 90%over 50 years by way of emission standards for diesel vehicles and regulations on biomass burning.6140The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024DESPITE THE POWERFU

299、L BENEFITS OF TACKLING BLACK CARBON,IT IS BARELY BEING FUNDED,RECEIVING LESS THAN 1%OF OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY FINANCE.This is the first time funding for addressing black carbon is tracked in The State of Global Air Quality Funding.xviii The analysis shows that explicit action on black carbon carbon(pro

300、jects where black carbon or soot are mentioned directly)is barely being funded,receiving only$18 million during the 20182022 period(Figure 3.6).International development funders black carbon finance from 2018 to 2022 represents only 0.1%of their outdoor air quality funding;in other words,black carbo

301、n finance makes up an incredibly small fraction of an already limited pool of funds.These figures are extremely low considering the unique and powerful role this pollutant plays in planetary health.Only eight international development funders provided black carbon finance from 2018 to 2022,and all o

302、f them were bilateral DFIs and government departments and agencies(Table 3.3).The absence of multilateral DFI funding represents a costly missed opportunity.Funding for projects addressing black carbon-rich sources over the same time period was estimated at a higher$2.8 billion.These funds predomina

303、ntly support projects in the residential sector,e.g.on clean cooking,and large market-rate loans to China where black carbon emissions have been reducing over the last decade.Greater awareness and understanding on black carbon,particularly its powerful climate effects close to cryosphere regions lik

304、e the Himalayas and monsoon systems like in West Africa,is vital towards prioritising underfunded solutions that can maximise local climate and health benefits.FIGURE 3.6:BLACK CARBON FINANCE,20182022($MILLIONS)xviii Information on the methodology for black carbon funding can be found here0123456789

305、201820192020202120224.565.880.030.067.76$billion41The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024TABLE 3.3:PROVIDERS OF BLACK CARBON FINANCE,20182022 RankingFunderBlack carbon finance($million)1Government of Canada82U.S.Agency for International Development 53Government of Norway 34Government of Germany

306、 35Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency 16Government of the United Kingdom17Slovak Agency for International Development18Swedish Research Council1A clear opportunity exists for development funders to tackle black carbon emissions through their investments.Improving the data collectio

307、n and reporting of black carbon is an important first step.This would help funders in their efforts to amass evidence on the triple benefits of their projects(climate mitigation,adaptation,and health)as well as encourage funding for future projects.One way to address the staggering gaps in black car

308、bon financing is by integrating black carbon targets and additional measures into Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs),which will attract donor funding by communicating national needs and signalling intent to act(Box 3.4).Ultimately,this would also allow better tracking of progress against blac

309、k carbon reductions.As of 2023,however,only 17 countries have included black carbon considerations in their NDCs.67 The Climate and Clean Air Coalition provides various publications to support inclusion of black carbon and other non-CO2 pollutants within NDCs.68 Black carbon has been overlooked not

310、only by international development funders but also by policymakers,regulators and the private sector.Addressing black carbon does not require a new suite of solutions to detract from wider development efforts;rather,huge gains can be unlocked by targeting this super pollutant in joined-up overall ai

311、r quality and climate action.To be effective,however,it calls for increased financing.Drawing on the success of the single-pollutant approach utilised for methane,development funders,governments,the private sector and civil society must be well informed of the urgency required to address the polluta

312、nts harms,with actors joining together as soon as possible to initiate the mobilisation of funds at scale.As development resources wear thin,these win-win opportunities must not remain untapped.6970717273747576777879808182838485868742The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024CASESTUDY:INTEGRATINGS

313、HORT-LIVEDCLIMATEPOLLUTANTSINTONATIONALLYDETERMINEDCONTRIBUTIONS:SUCCESSOFTHEBRICKSINITIATIVEINCOLOMBIA(2020)An integrated approach Colombia has undertaken a proactive and integrated approach to address air pollution and climate change.In its 2020 NDC,Colombia emerged as a leader in tackling the cli

314、mate change-air quality nexus.The countrys effort is underscored by its top ranking on the Global Climate&Health Alliances NDC Scorecard for having developed a set of comprehensive national policies on air quality,a prime example for integrating short-lived climate pollutants(SLCP)into NDC objective

315、s.69 Methane and hydrofluorocarbons represent 9%of Colombias total greenhouse gas reduction commitment.70 Moreover,Colombia became one of the first countries to prominently feature black carbon in its NDC by committing to a 40%reduction from 2014 levels.71 This successful integration of SLCPs into C

316、olombias 2020 NDC stems from its longstanding collaboration with the Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC).By applying the CCACs Supporting National Action and Planning on SLCP methodology,Colombia effectively developed its national strategy for SLCP mitigation in 2018.72A notable example of its NDC

317、 sectoral target-setting on critical linkages between climate change and air quality is evidenced from the brick industry,historically one of Colombias most significant black carbon and CO2 emitters.73 The proposed measures within the brick industry are projected to reduce CO2 emissions by 0.19 mill

318、ion tonnes and black carbon emissions by 83 tonnes by 2030,compared to 2014 levels.74 Evidently,integrating black carbon into NDCs is an effective way to achieve synergy between climate and air quality governance.The case study below,coupled with the integration of black carbon in Colombias NDC,ulti

319、mately demonstrates the importance of consistently and holistically tracking climate and air quality co-benefits in projects.In doing so,countries can leverage compelling narratives to attract funding by demonstrating that addressing air pollution can contribute significantly to global climate goals

320、.Similarly,SLCP targets can act as an incentive for project developers to actively seek these co-benefits to enhance their access to funding,while also promoting greater government coordination between climate and air quality domains.Tackling black carbon and CO2 emissions in brick production:a succ

321、essful initiative funded by the CCAC(20132020)Problem Production of hand-moulded bricks using rudimentary kilns accounts for an estimated 20%of total worldwide black carbon emissions.75 These kilns,typically heated with coal,are widespread globally.In Colombia,with over 2,435 brick kilns,70%of which

322、 operate on fossil fuels,the brick sector was an important sector to address.76 It is an economically significant industry,directly employing 21,000 people and indirectly supporting nearly 8,000 more.77 A major problem lies with artisanal kilns,which produce only 11%of the countrys bricks but make u

323、p the majority(75%)of kilns.78 The industry has severe health implications,contributing to estimated 15,700 annual air pollution-related deaths in the country.7943The State of Global Air Quality Funding 2024Solution From 2013 to 2020,a CCAC-funded project,in collaboration with Colombias Ministry of

324、Environment and the Corporacin Ambiental Empresarial,targeted sustainable production practices in the brick industry through three key objectives.80 1.Create an enabling public policy environment:This aims to reduce black carbon emissions and increase sustainability in the sector.2.Increase scientif

325、ic knowledge and technical tools:The project developed detailed inventories,conducted emission measurements,and performed cost-benefit analyses.3.Raise awareness and provide incentives:This involved engaging brick producers in the transition to sustainable practices.4.For the first time in Latin Ame

326、rica,black carbon emissions from the brick industry were monitored and measured,providing the basis for a comprehensive portfolio of mitigation and reduction actions.81 The project,with an implemented budget of$647,130,was part of the broader CCAC Bricks Initiative,which had a global budget of over$

327、3.8 million.82,83Impact This CCAC initiative made significant progress between 2016 and 2017,resulting in the reduction of 194,775 tonnes of CO2 emissions through the adoption of more energy-efficient technologies and practices across 255 brick kilns in Latin America.84 In Colombia,the collaboration

328、 achieved notable milestones:85 Identification of nine emission factors for technological models 168 black carbon measurements,carried out across ten departments 2,446 people trained 832 hours of measurements 34 businesses and eight universities involved in research and measurement efforts A portfol

329、io of black carbon reduction activities developed for the sector.Additionally,the project led to the amendment of legislation to better regulate the brick industry,a significant step in formalising and overseeing this historically informal sector.87 In recognition of its pioneering efforts,the proje

330、ct received the Sustainable Development Goals Award in 2020 under the non-business category by the Global Compact Network for Colombia and the Bogota Chamber of Commerce.The Colombian model has been lauded for sustainable brick production,serving as a template for similar initiatives worldwide.87“Ho

331、using is about shelter.Seeing-very literally-air pollution from brick production,a primary building material in many regions,was simply unacceptable.We supported work that brought together brick producers and governments,to improve processes,to cut down emissions and operating cost.Investing in impr

332、oved operations means investing in clean air and reducing near-term warming.Our work with Colombias brick sector demonstrates these multiple benefits,including reduced pollutant exposure for producers,their families and surrounding communities.It is high time we prioritize investments and actions th

333、at cut super pollutants in key sectors.”-Martina Otto,Head of Climate and Clean Air Coalition Secretariat at UNEP44The State of Global Air Quality Funding 20244.FOSSILFUEL-PROLONGINGFUNDING At the conclusion of the 2022 German G7 summit,world leaders committed to end their direct international public funding of fossil fuels by the end of the year.88 Since then,countries from across the world have