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1、A Quality Infrastructure Roadmap for green hydrogenIn partnership with:IRENA 2024Unless otherwise stated,material in this publication may be freely used,shared,copied,reproduced,printed and/or stored,provided that appropriate acknowledgement is given of IRENA as the source and copyright holder.Mater

2、ial in this publication that is attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions,and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material.ISBN:978-92-9260-639-8Citation:IRENA(2024),A quality infrastructure roadmap

3、 for green hydrogen,International Renewable Energy Agency,Abu Dhabi.About IRENAThe International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)serves as the principal platform for international co-operation;a centre of excellence;a repository of policy,technology,resource,and financial knowledge;and a driver of act

4、ion on the ground to advance the transformation of the global energy system.A global intergovernmental organisation established in 2011,IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,including bioenergy and geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solar and wind energ

5、y,in the pursuit of sustainable development,energy access,energy security,and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.www.irena.orgAbout Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt(PTB)Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt(PTB)is the National Metrology Institute of Germany.PTB performs research in the f

6、ield of metrology for the benefit of society,trade and industry,and the sciences,and advises the German federal government on all metrology issues.Internationally,PTB supports developing and emerging countries in the development and use of a needs-based and internationally recognised quality infrast

7、ructure.AcknowledgementsThis report was authored by Jaidev Dhavle(IRENA),Arno van den Bos(IRENA)and Niels Ferdinand(Ferdinand Consultants)under the guidance of Francisco Boshell(IRENA)and Roland Roesch(Director,IRENA Innovation and Technology Centre).This publication,which is an output from the IREN

8、A PTB project“Quality Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen:technical standards and quality control for the production and trade of renewable hydrogen”,benefitted from invaluable inputs and support from:Gayathri Prakash(IRENA),James Walker(IRENA),Francesco Pasemini(ex-IRENA),Jeffrey Tchouambe(ex-IRENA),

9、Carl Felix Wolff(PTB);Ulf Seiler(PTB);Iris Nadolny(ex-PTB);Jana Bante(BMZ);Andrea Ulbrich(ex-BMZ);and Maria Llaurado(Ferdinand Consultants).For the development of the complementary Tunisia Case Study gratitude is extended to the following colleagues:Franziska Schindler(PTB);Amel Samti(PTB);Ourida Ch

10、alwati(Tunisia Ministry of Mines and Industry);Balkis Jrad(Tunisia Ministry of Mines and Industry);Amal Turky(Tunisia Ministry of Mines and Industry);and Nada Elachaal(Tunisia Ministry of Mines and Industry).The report also benefited from contributions and review by the following IRENA colleagues:Pa

11、ul Komor;Zafar Samadov;Abdullah Fahad;and Emanuele Bianco(ex-IRENA)Valuable external review,inputs and comments were provided by:Andrei Tchouvelev(Hydrogen Council);Martins Thedens(IEC);Chris Agius(IEC);Maria Sandqvist(ISO);Mortiz Ackermann(PTB),Berts Anders(PTB);Detlev Markus(PTB);Michael Beyer(PTB

12、);Mortiz Ackermann(PTB);Christian Gnther(PTB);Mario Antonio Sandoval(UNIDO);Lydia Vogt(DIN);Florian Konert(Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und prfung);Milos B Djukic(University of Belgrade);Oscar Pearce(Ammonia Energy Association);Victoria Monsma(DNVGL);Annarita Baldan(EURAMET);Lutz Schaefer(BMZ)

13、;Maria Varbeva-Daley(UKAS);Abbey Dorian(British Standards Institute);Ben Rowton(National Physical Laboratory);and Gareth Hinds(National Physical Laboratory)IRENA appreciates the inputs and comments provided by the participants who attended the Quality Infrastructure Symposium that was organised duri

14、ng IRENAs Innovation Week 2023.IRENA is grateful for the generous support provided by Germanys Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development.Publications and editorial support were provided by Francis Field and Stephanie Clarke.Technical review was conducted by Paul Komor.The report was e

15、dited by Fayre Makeig,with design provided by Strategic Agenda.DisclaimerThis publication and the material herein are provided“as is”.All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material in this publication.However,neither IRENA nor any of its officials,agent

16、s,data,or other third-party content providers provides a warranty of any kind,either expressed or implied,and they accept no responsibility or liability for any consequence of use of the publication or material herein.The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of all M

17、embers of IRENA.The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expres

18、sion of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region,country,territory,city,or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 3ContentsFigures 4Boxes 4Tables 4Abbreviations 5Execut

19、ive summary 61.Introduction 102.Developments in the global hydrogen market 132.1 Hydrogen trade 142.2 Ammonia 152.3 Methanol 153.Quality infrastructure:Creating the basis for the sustainable development of the green hydrogen sector 163.1 Elements of the quality infrastructure system 163.2 National q

20、uality infrastructure system and its international relations 184.Quality infrastructure services for green hydrogen 214.1 Overview of quality infrastructure along the green hydrogen value chain 214.2 Levels of quality infrastructure development and specialisation for the green hydrogen sector 234.3

21、Fulfilling the demand for quality infrastructure nationally or by using services from other countries 274.4 Standardisation 274.5 Metrology 334.6 Testing 374.7 Certification,inspection,verification and validation 404.8 Accreditation 444.9 Technical regulation 464.10 QI contributions to the developme

22、nt of green hydrogen 525.Quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 575.1 Step 1 Assessing the potential for green hydrogen 58 5.2 Step 2 Development of a national hydrogen strategy 58 5.3 Step 3 Assessment of the national QI system 61 5.4 Step 4 Quality infrastructure service offerings and d

23、emand assessment 645.5 Step 5 Quality infrastructure development action plan 666.Supporting quality infrastructure considering specific national conditions:General recommendations 72References 77A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 4FiguresFigure 1 Emission abatements required by 2050

24、 1.5C Scenario 10Figure 2 Energy mix in 2050 in the 1.5C Scenario 13Figure 3 Overview of the quality infrastructure ecosystem 19Figure 4 Quality infrastructure along the green hydrogen value chain 22Figure 5 Levels of development and specialisation of quality infrastructure services to support the g

25、reen hydrogen sector 24Figure 6 Roadmap for a green hydrogen quality infrastructure 57Figure 7 Types of renewable energy potential 59Figure 8 Results of the PTBWorld Bank Rapid Diagnostic Tool in the area of testing 62Figure 9 Quality infrastructure development aligned with the focus of the national

26、 green hydrogen strategy 65Figure 10 Quality considerations for preparing a tangible action plan 68BoxesBox 1 Recent IRENA publications on hydrogen 12Box 2 Quality Infrastructure considerations for pipeline utilisation for hydrogen transport 54Box 3 Key points from Tunisias national hydrogen strateg

27、y 60Box 4 The status of Tunisias quality infrastructure 63TablesTable 1 Sector-specific requirements considered at the three levels of the pyramid model 25Table 2 Standardisation checklist 29Table 3 Metrology checklist 34Table 4 Testing checklist 37Table 5 Certification,inspection,validation and ver

28、ification checklist 41Table 6 Accreditation checklist 45Table 7 Technical regulation checklist 47Table 8 Metrology short-,medium-and long-term action plans for Tunisia 69A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 5AbbreviationsANM Agence Nationale de Mtrologie(Tunisia)BIPM Bureau internatio

29、nal des poids et mesuresBMZ Bundesministerium fr wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und EntwicklungCMC calibration and measurement capacitiesCO2 carbon dioxideCRTEn Center for Energy Research and Technology(Tunisia)DEF-NAT Laboratoire de mtrologie du Ministre de la Dfense Nationale(Tunisia)EURAMET Europ

30、ean Association of National Metrology InstitutesGHG greenhouse gasGt gigatonneGW gigawattINRAP National Institute of Research and Physical and Chemical Analysis IRENA International Renewable Energy AgencyIAF International Accreditation Forum IEC International Electrotechnical CommissionIECEE IEC Sys

31、tem of Conformity Assessment Schemes for Electrotechnical EquipmentIECEx International Electrotechnical Commission System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Explosive AtmospheresILAC International Laboratory Accreditation CooperationINetQI International Network on Qualit

32、y Infrastructure INNORPI Institut National de la Normalisation et de la Proprit Industrielle(Tunisia)INSPIRE International Standards and Patents in Renewable EnergyISO International Organization for StandardizationLCAE Central Laboratory for Analysis and Testing(Tunisia)MIME Ministry of Mines,Indust

33、ry and Energy(Ministre de lIndustrie,des Mines et de lEnergie)MRA mutual recognition arrangementMt million tonnesNMI National Metrology InstituteOIML International Organization of Legal Metrology(Organisation Internationale de Mtrologie Lgale)PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt PV photovoltaic

34、R&D research and developmentQI quality infrastructureTC technical committee WTO World Trade OrganizationA quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 6Executive summaryDue to the global climate crisis,there is an urgency for all sectors of the global economy to be decarbonised-following a net-

35、zero compatible pathway by or around 2050.While most industries and applications can rely on electrification with renewable power,some hard-to-abate sectors need more than electrification alone,and require the use of hydrogen,or hydrogen derived commodities like ammonia,methanol or direct reduced ir

36、on(DRI)steel to achieve net-zero emissions.According to IRENAs 1.5C scenario,green and blue hydrogen production would need to increase to 125 million tonnes per year(Mtpa)by 2030 and 523 Mtpa by 2050.This brings both opportunities for development,as well as challenges for scaling and adapting the pr

37、oduction,infrastructure and end-use value chains required.The existence and further development of a robust Quality Infrastructure-defined as a system comprised of organisations,policies,legal framework,and practices required to assure quality,safety and sustainability of products and services for g

38、reen hydrogen is a key pillar for enabling this transition.To raise awareness on the importance of quality infrastructure for the green hydrogen value chain and in order to provide recommendations on the development of the related services,IRENA together with Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt(Ge

39、rmanys national metrology institute-PTB)and with financial support from Germanys Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development(BMZ)implemented a project entitled“Quality Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen:Technical standards and quality control for the production and trade of renewable hyd

40、rogen”.This report presents the findings of this work.Quality infrastructure provides instruments and services to reduce safety,financial and reputational risks in the sector,while supporting the achievement of the intended positive sustainability impacts of investments.This report includes an overv

41、iew of the main considerations and good practices for the key elements that underpin the quality infrastructure ecosystem,namely standardisation,metrology,conformity assessment(testing,certification,inspection,verification and validation)and accreditation as well as technical regulations that are re

42、levant for the hydrogen sector.A key output of this project is a general roadmap on how countries can develop their quality infrastructure to effectively support the green hydrogen sector with particular focus on the hydrogen production and distribution segments of the value chain.The five steps tha

43、t have been included in this roadmap approach are:1.Assessing the green hydrogen potential2.Development of a national hydrogen strategy 3.Assessment of the national quality infrastructure ecosystem 4.Assessment of quality infrastructure service offering and demand 5.Quality infrastructure developmen

44、t action plan The roadmap steps provide guidance on key considerations for developing the hydrogen sector and the required quality infrastructure in parallel.The application of these roadmap steps was piloted in a Tunisia case study developed together with the Ministry of Industry,Mines and Energy.I

45、t is available as a PowerPoint slide deck on the IRENA webpage where this report is hosted.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 7A three-level model is proposed which defines the required quality infrastructure services at different levels of development of the green hydrogen sector.T

46、he first level encompasses basic services that are essential to ensuring quality and safety of renewable energy generation,as well as in the distribution and use of electricity and gas(especially natural gas),covering the quality of components and safety of installation and operation.Most countries

47、already have a fairly robust quality infrastructure in place at this level.It represents and creates a foundation for the integration of green hydrogen as innovative energy carrier into the existing energy system.The second level focuses on medium advanced quality infrastructure services,required to

48、 assure quality and sustainability in the generation,transport and distribution of renewable energy and gas(especially natural gas).The requirements at this level encompass and extend to hydrogen and blended mixtures with hydrogen content above 20%.In many countries,especially in developing and emer

49、ging economies,these services are currently not offered,or the existing offering does not fulfil the requirements defined in the applicable international standards.The third level includes advanced quality infrastructure services specifically required to assure safety,quality and sustainability of t

50、he production,transport,distribution,trade and use of green hydrogen.This includes for example certification of compliance with criteria related to the carbon intensity of the products and characteristics of the sourced energy generation.Many of the specific services for the quality infrastructure a

51、t this level are still under development or non-existent in most countries.A checklist of services for each quality infrastructure pillar is provided,that can be used by policymakers and industry stakeholders to ensure that key services are in place from basic services to specialised requirements fo

52、r green hydrogen.A database,comprising of a non-exhaustive list of available and upcoming quality infrastructure standards and technical regulations for hydrogen is also provided as an annex on the IRENA webpage where this report is hosted.This publication applies the comprehensive knowledge and sys

53、temic approach of quality infrastructure to the emerging green hydrogen economy which the international community is actively exploring to catalyse energy transition efforts.The roadmap provides a structured method and tools for decision-makers and practitioners to apply when considering the vital r

54、ole of quality infrastructure in supporting their energy transition efforts.Assess green H2 economy potentialCountries need to determine their supply and demand potential for green hydrogen economyDevelop green H2 strategyHave a strategic vision that will allow for green hydrogen economy development

55、QI assessmentAssess the state of quality infrastructure services available QI supply and demandIdentify the existing services and future requirements to develop a robust QI ecosystemQI action planDevelop a practical guide to address QI gapsPre-requisites to quality infrastructure servicesIn parallel

56、 to Step 2 if possibleStep 1Step 2Step 3Step 4Step 5Figure S1 Roadmap for green hydrogen quality infrastructureNote:QI=quality infrastructure.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 8Figure S2 Development and specialisation of quality infrastructure services to support green hydrogenObje

57、ctives Level 1Establish the quality infrastructure system according to international standards and good practice.Provide all quality infrastructure services required to assure safety in the generation of renewable energy as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and natural gas.Provide

58、basic quality infrastructure services required to assure quality and sustainability in the previously mentioned sectors.Objectives Level 2Provide all quality infrastructure services required to assure safety of production,distribution/transport and use of gas mixtures with hydrogen content over 20%a

59、s well as pure hydrogen.Provide medium advanced quality infrastructure services required to assure quality and sustainability in the generation of renewable energy as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and natural gas.Objective Level 3Assure safety,quality and sustainability of gree

60、n H2 throughout the entire value chain.Level 1Quality infrastructure system according to international standards and good practice.Basic quality infrastructure services required for renewable energy,electric energy and natural gas.Level 2Medium advanced quality infrastructure services required for r

61、enewable energy,electric energy and natural gas as well as for hydrogen safety.Level 3Quality infrastructure services specifically required for green hydrogen.Level of development and specialisation for green H2 A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 101.Introduction The global transiti

62、on to clean energy requires bold and innovative approaches to prevent greenhouse gas emissions from overshooting the agreed goals of the 1.5C Scenario pathway(IRENA,2024a).In addition to energy efficiency and direct electrification with renewables,green hydrogen produced from renewable-energy-powere

63、d water electrolysis,and its associated derivatives,is needed to reach net-zero emissions,particularly in sectors where emissions are hard to abate(Hydrogen Council and McKinsey&Company,2021;IEA,2024a;IRENA,2023a,2024b).In the IRENA 1.5C Scenario,by 2050,green hydrogen and its derivatives could redu

64、ce global emissions by 12%,as shown in Figure 1(IRENA,2023a,2024b).Figure 1 Emission abatements required by 2050 1.5C Scenario Abatements2050Renewables(power and direct uses)Energy conservationand efciencyElectrification in end-use sectors(direct)BECCS and other carbon removal measuresHydrogen and i

65、ts derivativesCCS/U in industry19%12%8%25%25%11%-34.2GtCO2/yr-34.2GtCO2/yr100%1.5C Scenario Source:(IRENA,2023a).Note:BECCS=bioenergy with carbon capture and storage;CCS/U=carbon capture and storage/utilisation;GtCO2/yr=gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year.There is great opportunity for the use of

66、green hydrogen to accelerate decarbonisation across sectors in developed economies and simultaneously open a path to accelerate the energy transition in emerging and developing economies.The international community is continuing its exploration of the viability of the hydrogen economy in making a su

67、stainable energy transition successful.However,this will require strong demand signals,robust public policies and active private sector participation.Pursuit of this path will also result in the development of value chains,with a possible shift to producer countries that have abundant renewable ener

68、gy resources(IRENA,2024b).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 11Amid the focus on green hydrogen projects and associated infrastructure,an often-overlooked requirement is robust and resilient quality infrastructure1(QI).This trend is largely due to a lack of knowledge of quality infr

69、astructure as well as its associated benefits for hydrogen stakeholders.The successful development of green hydrogen at scale,especially with due consideration to quality,sustainability and safety,must rely on a robust QI system.Well-functioning quality infrastructure also enables innovation,since r

70、eliable measurements and control are at the heart of technological improvements in hydrogen production processes.The establishment of a QI system for green hydrogen starts with information on,and awareness of,the systems importance,the required QI services and the priority areas for intervention.The

71、n,the required QI services,which in part might still be missing,need to be implemented through co-ordination and co-operation among key national,regional and global stakeholders.It is also worth emphasising that expansion of quality infrastructure will be required across the hydrogen value chain(reg

72、ardless of production avenue)along with exploration of quality developments for other decarbonisation pathways such as carbon capture,storage and utilisation.To address this need,IRENA,together with Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt(PTB)2 and with financial support from Germanys Federal Ministry

73、 of Economic Co-operation and Development(BMZ),implemented a project titled“Quality infrastructure for green hydrogen:technical standards and quality control for the production and trade of renewable hydrogen”,whose objective was to analyse the role of QI services as a key instrument for the success

74、ful global production and use of green hydrogen and selected derivatives.To fulfil this objective,two core outputs from this project were:Output 1:A roadmap on the development of the quality infrastructure to overcome existing quality,sustainability and safety challenges in green hydrogen production

75、 and trade.Output 2:For at least one selected country,recommendations for an action plan,resulting from a national stakeholder engagement process and geared towards overcoming existing quality,sustainability and safety challenges in green hydrogen production and trade.This publication provides a gen

76、eral roadmap for quality infrastructure for green hydrogen and was developed in consultation with a broad stakeholder group.The roadmap has been prepared to guide policy makers and green hydrogen players on the key considerations to be followed in developing a robust QI system.It highlights key QI s

77、ervices(in the form of checklists and a tabular database annex),from a basic to an advanced level,that should be available for the green hydrogen sector in any national context.The publication is organised as follows:Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the latest developments in green hydrogen,lo

78、oking into market developments,trade potential and sustainability.Chapter 3 defines quality infrastructure as well as the associated pillars supporting this system.Chapter 4 outlines the global landscape of QI services for green hydrogen,based on desk research as well as expert stakeholder consultat

79、ions.Chapter 5 explains five roadmap steps to ensure the availability of relevant QI services.Chapter 6 offers key recommendations for decision makers to promote quality infrastructure at an industrial scale for green hydrogen development.1 Chapter 3 of this report provides a comprehensive definitio

80、n of what quality infrastructure entails.2 PTB is the national metrology institute of Germany.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 12The application of this roadmap was undertaken as a case study for Tunisia(presentation available via the report landing page).Tunisia was chosen for se

81、veral reasons,including the countrys recent publication of an ambitious hydrogen strategy,which includes targets for local use and export of hydrogen.Another factor is Tunisias close co-operation with PTB in the development of the countrys QI services through dedicated bilateral projects.A link has

82、thus been created between this IRENA project and the PTB-Tunisia project“Renforcement de linfrastructure qualit pour un dveloppement conomique durable en Tunisie”(IQ.DED)and the project “Renforcement de linfrastructure qualit pour lhydrogne vert en Tunisie”launched in October 2024.Box 1 provides a l

83、ist of IRENAs most recent hydrogen-themed publications;they can be viewed as complementary readings to this publication.Box 1 Recent IRENA publications on hydrogenThis report follows prior relevant work published by IRENA on the subject of green hydrogen and its derivatives.Readers may consult these

84、 further references if interested:Global trade in green hydrogen derivatives:Trends in regulation,standardisation and certification(IRENA,2024).Green hydrogen strategy:A guide to design(IRENA,2024).Shaping sustainable international hydrogen value chains(IRENA,2024).Green hydrogen auctions:A guide to

85、 design(IRENA,2024).International trade and green hydrogen:Supporting the global transition to a low-carbon economy(IRENA-WTO,2023).Global hydrogen trade to meet the 1.5C climate goal:Trade outlook for 2050 and way forward (IRENA,2022).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 132.Developm

86、ents in the global hydrogen marketTransitioning to a sustainable energy system and limiting the global average surface temperature increase to 1.5C requires cross-sectoral decarbonisation.While hydrogen is used in fertilisers,chemicals and refineries,its production releases substantial carbon dioxid

87、e(CO2)emissions because its origin is in natural gas or coal.This hydrogen needs to be replaced with clean hydrogen.In addition to existing uses,some sectors that do not use hydrogen today,namely,shipping,aviation,iron and steel,chemicals and petrochemicals,are particularly hard to decarbonise.While

88、 elements of these sectors can be electrified with renewable electricity,a significant portion could shift to sustainably produced hydrogen,either directly or in the form of hydrogen derivatives like ammonia,methanol and e-fuels.In the 1.5C Scenario,by 2050,14%of the worlds final energy consumption

89、will stem from the indirect electrification of these sectors using low-carbon hydrogen(refer to Figure 2).This will require annual renewable hydrogen production of 125 million tonnes(Mt)by 2030 and 523 Mt by 2050,with green hydrogen dominating in the long term(rising from 40%in 2030 to 94%by 2050),a

90、nd an installed electrolyser capacity of 428 gigawatts(GW)by 2030 and 5 722 GW by 2050(IRENA,2023b),from less than 3 GW in 2023(IEA,2024b).Figure 2 Energy mix in 2050 in the 1.5C ScenarioTFEC(%)20202050(1.5C Scenario)374 EJ Total final energy consumption353 EJ Total final energy consumption22%Electr

91、icity(direct)51%Electricity(direct)4%6%Traditional uses of biomass5%Modernbiomassuses63%Fossil fuels16%Modern biomass uses14%Hydrogen(direct use and e-fuels)*7%OthersFossil fuels12%OthersRenewable sharein hydrogen94%91%Renewable share in electricity28%Renewable share in electricitySource:(IRENA,2023

92、a).Note:EJ=exajoule;TFEC=total final energy consumption.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 14Meanwhile,the higher production costs of green hydrogen relative to those of its dominant fossil-fuel-derived counterpart limit its contribution to the energy transition.The costs for green

93、hydrogen are mainly driven by the cost of renewable electricity;the cost of the electrolysis plant;consisting of electrolysers and balance of plant(BoP);and,depending on the final use,the cost of transport,storage and distribution.IRENAs analysis shows that the cost for renewable power generation is

94、 declining quite rapidly,with the average costs for solar photovoltaicsbased generation,and on-shore and off-shore wind generation having dropped by almost 90%,69%and 59%,respectively,over 2010-2022.Today,solar and wind are the cheapest forms of new power generation in many regions of the world,and

95、costs will likely continue to decline as these technologies continue to mature(IRENA,2023c).On the cost for electrolysers,IRENAs analysis suggests that,if deployment volumes increase in the next years,the effects of“learning by doing”and economies of scale would lead to significant cost reductions o

96、f 40%in the short term and 80%in the long term(IRENA,2022a).As of May 2024,more than 50 countries had published national hydrogen strategies,setting targets for a projected electrolyser capacity of 113.5 GW by 2030 and 287 GW by 2050(IRENA,2024c).The global technical potential of green hydrogen is s

97、ufficient to meet their expected energy demand.However,some regions boast a competitive advantage in terms of resources(solar,wind,but also land,labour etc.)and therefore plan to become(net)exporters,whereas others may not be able to meet all of the demand and may require imports to complement their

98、 domestic production.IRENA estimates that about a quarter of all hydrogen consumed will be traded internationally by 2050(in line with the 1.5C Scenario),and approximately 55%of this hydrogen would be transported via pipelines,while the remaining 45%would be shipped,mainly as ammonia,which would pre

99、dominantly be used directly as a synthetic fuel for international shipping or as a feedstock for the fertiliser and chemical industry(IRENA,2022a).Achieving these goals requires massive investments from the public and private sectors.Just as quality assurance has proven to be indispensable for estab

100、lishing an enabling environment for the rapid deployment of renewable power technologies(IRENA,2015a),developing a solid quality infrastructure for sustainable hydrogen supply chains will be key to gaining and maintaining the trust of investors and the public alike,in order to attract capital and ma

101、intain a license to operate.2.1 Hydrogen tradeToday,almost all hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels,mostly at the location of its use,and the demand for trade is low.To achieve net-zero targets,hydrogen production must grow five-fold by 2050;to achieve this growth,regions with abundant renewable e

102、nergy sources,due to lower production costs,along with factors such as access to capital,land and water,will deploy a substantial share of production facilities.This geographic separation of supply and demand creates a need for trade,allowing different regions to participate in the hydrogen economy(

103、IRENA,2022a:1;IRENA and WTO,2023).International hydrogen trade will occur partly via pipelines,but also in the form of hydrogen-derived products like ammonia and methanol.A global low-carbon economy will require significant infrastructure investments,technology improvements and international co-oper

104、ation to scale green hydrogen and meet the rising demand.Trade in hydrogen(from different production pathways)occurs at a small scale today,and mainly between neighbouring economies,because the costs of transporting hydrogen over long distances is high and natural-gas-based blue hydrogen continues t

105、o be used mainly to produce fertiliser and refine oil,the main sources of current demand.Global hydrogen imports amounted to USD 240 million in 2023;over 60%was traded between pairs of neighbouring countries(e.g.Canada to the United States,and Belgium to the Netherlands)(IRENA et al.,2023).A quality

106、 infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 152.2 AmmoniaAmmonia is an essential commodity,which is used globally in the production of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers(85%).Ammonia production accounts for the emission of about 0.5 gigatonnes(Gt)of CO2 annually,which is 1%of global CO2 emissions.It is a

107、lso ranks second in hydrogen consumption;about 45%of global hydrogen is used in the production of ammonia.A transition to green-hydrogen-based renewable ammonia is key to decarbonising the chemical industry.By 2050,the global ammonia market could reach 688 Mt,driven by the use of renewable ammonia i

108、n agriculture,as a maritime fuel and as a hydrogen carrier(IRENA,2022b).Despite its high initial costs,renewable ammonia could become cost competitive by 2030 with the right policies,including carbon pricing and contracts for difference(IRENA,2022b).The shipping sector is projected to need 197 Mt of

109、 ammonia by 2050,representing a significant share of the demand for renewable ammonia,and indirectly for green hydrogen,while international trade of ammonia as a hydrogen carrier is expected to grow to 127 Mt annually(IRENA et al.,2022).The global ammonia trade is more diversified and less regionali

110、sed than the global hydrogen trade,reflecting its global commodity nature(IRENA et al.,2023).Global ammonia imports amounted to USD 10.4 billion in 2023,43 times the value of hydrogen trade.Trinidad and Tobago and Saudi Arabia are the main exporters,while the United States,the European Union,India a

111、nd Morocco are the main importers(IRENA et al.,2023).It is expected that green ammonia shipped overseas would address about 40%of the global hydrogen demand by 2050(IRENA et al.,2023).Just as for hydrogen,countries with significant renewable energy sources can develop a green ammonia export industry

112、 or produce green ammonia for their own fertiliser industry.2.3 MethanolMethanol is a key commodity in the chemical industry;it is used to produce different types of chemicals,for example,formaldehyde and plastics.Today,approximately 98 Mt of methanol are produced annually,from fossil fuels,releasin

113、g about 0.3 Gt of CO2 emissions every year.Renewable methanol can be produced from biomass,as bio-methanol,or as green e-methanol from renewable CO2 and green hydrogen.However,renewable methanol production is just starting to develop,with annual production of less than 0.2 Mt(IRENA and Institute Met

114、hanol,2021),but there is a pipeline of announced projects that could lead to the production of over 29 Mt of renewable methanol by 2030(Methanol Institute,2024).The value of global methanol imports amounted to USD 13.9 billion in 2023;supply was dominated by natural gas producers including Trinidad

115、and Tobago,Oman,Saudi Arabia and the United States.The main market for methanol is China,which accounted for about 30%of the global methanol imports in 2023.Other major importers of methanol are the European Union,India,Brazil,the Republic of Korea and Japan(IRENA et al.,2023).While renewable methan

116、ol is compatible with existing methanol distribution infrastructure,which is its advantage,its higher costs compared with fossil-fuel-based methanol,which is its disadvantage,continue to hinder its widespread adoption.Appropriate support mechanisms,clear certification schemes and production scale-up

117、 could help lower the production costs of renewable methanol and make it competitive with fossil-fuel-based methanol in the future(IRENA et al.,2021).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 163.Quality infrastructure:Creating the basis for the sustainable development of the green hydroge

118、n sector The International Network on Quality Infrastructure(INetQI)formally defined quality infrastructure(QI)in 2017 as the national system of organisations,policies,legal framework and practices required to assure products and services are safe and sustainable.It serves as a fundamental element i

119、n the smooth functioning of domestic markets and facilitates international market access(INetQI,2024).It also plays a pivotal role in fostering economic development and promoting environmental and social well-being(BIPM,2017;Kellermann,2019).3.1 Elements of the quality infrastructure systemQuality i

120、nfrastructure includes metrology,standardisation,accreditation,conformity assessment(including testing,certification,verification/validation and inspection)3 and market surveillance as its components(INetQI,2024).A cross-cutting aspect is technical regulation.Technical regulations define mandatory r

121、equirements to safeguard human health,safety and the environment.Standards can specify,and conformity assessments may verify,whether such requirements are met.Also,laws and technical regulations define the legal framework required for the national QI system.The purpose of this subchapter is to provi

122、de a brief overview of the elements of a QI system.Standardisation Standardisation provides the technical requirements and specifications to ensure that products,processes and services are fit for their purpose.The process of standardisation involves creating and distributing standards,as well as in

123、forming interested parties about them.Developing standards is a process based on consensus as well as the contributions of interested parties.Standards establish a reference framework between suppliers and their customers,in turn facilitating trade,technology transfer and efficiency improvements(San

124、etra and Marban,2007).While the utilisation of standards is generally voluntary,they may become mandatory if referenced in legislation.The national standardisation body is responsible for developing standards,for the adoption and adaptation of international standards,and for raising awareness and pr

125、oviding the related information(IRENA,2015b,2017,2020).3 Conformity assessment bodies can be accredited under the related international standards:ISO/IEC 17020:2012,ISO/IEC 17021-1:2015,ISO/IEC 17024:2012,ISO/IEC 17025_2017,ISO/IEC 17065:2012,ISO 14065:2020 and ISO/IEC 17029:2019.A quality infrastru

126、cture roadmap for green hydrogen 17Metrology Metrology is the science of measurement.It is used in legal matters,industry and science.The national metrology institute or a designated institute is responsible for developing and maintaining primary measurement standards(IRENA,2017,2020).The key servic

127、e offered through metrology is the calibration or verification of measurement devices,wherein an instrument for measurement is compared to a measurement standard representing a higher hierarchy(IRENA,2015b;JGCM,2012).Metrology represents a fundamental pillar of quality infrastructure,as it supports

128、standardisation,the regulatory framework,certification methods and testing regimes,among others.4 Calibration is an operation that,under specified conditions,“in a first step,establishes a relation between the quantity values with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corre

129、sponding indications with associated measurement uncertainties and,in a second step,uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result from an indication”(BIPM,n.d.).Calibration laboratories are frequently affiliated with universities,research centres or private enterpr

130、ises,and offer calibration services for a wide range of measuring equipment or help ensure traceability with certified reference materials by comparing the measurement values delivered by a device with the values for a calibration standard of known accuracy as established by the national metrology i

131、nstitute.Accreditation Accreditation,provided by a national accreditation body or co-ordinated through a national focal point for accreditation,is a“third-party attestation related to a conformity assessment body conveying formal demonstration of its competence to carry out specific conformity asses

132、sment tasks”(ISO and IEC,2020).The accreditation process entails a rigorous evaluation of an organisations capabilities and its adherence to recognised standards.Testing and calibration laboratories,and certified reference material producers,along with certification,inspection,validation and verific

133、ation bodies,seek accreditation to demonstrate organisations reliability and competence in delivering services that fulfil established quality criteria.Accreditation boosts confidence in the services provided by accredited organisations and creates trust among stakeholders,including customers,regula

134、tory bodies and other interested parties.Based on mutual recognition agreements,accreditation assures the international recognition of conformity assessment bodies.Conformity assessment:Testing,certification,inspection,validation and verification Testing allows the characteristics or performance of

135、a product or process to be determined following a specific procedure.It involves evaluating one or more properties of an object or product against the specifications outlined in a standard.This process is typically conducted by a testing laboratory.Standards often outline not only the specifications

136、 for the tested product but also the system requirements for the testing laboratory(as stated in ISO/IEC 17025:2005)and the testing processes(or guidelines)(IRENA,2015b,2017,2020).4 Service delivery and technical competency regarding metrology are demonstrated by the availability of measurement stan

137、dards and the number and breadth of calibration and measurement capacities in any area required by,and provided to,the calibration laboratories.International recognition of metrology is achieved through participation in the Consultative Committees of the International Committee for Weights and Measu

138、res(CIPM),membership in the Bureau international des poids et mesures(BIPM)and Organisation Internationale de Mtrologie Lgale(OIML),and participation in key and supplementary comparisons.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 18 Certification is the provision of written assurance(a cert

139、ificate)that a product,service,process,person or system fulfils certain requirements.Product certification is based on testing to ensure that the products fulfil the criteria that are typically defined in a standard.Product and system certification requires periodic audits or inspections to verify t

140、hat the products and systems conform to the specified standards(IRENA,2015b,2017,2020).Inspection can be used to determine whether a product or process complies with certain requirements,and involves the examination of the respective sites,equipment or processes.Inspection bodies conduct the assessm

141、ents on behalf of government agencies,parent companies or private clients(IRENA,2015b,2017,2020).Validation and verification are“understood to be a confirmation of the reliability of the information declared in claims.The activities are distinct according to the timeline of the assessed claim.Valida

142、tion is applied to claims regarding an intended future use or projected outcome(confirmation of plausibility),while verification is applied to claims regarding events that have already occurred or results that have already been obtained(confirmation of truthfulness)”(ISO et al.,2023).5Market surveil

143、lance Market surveillance refers to the activities of authorities that involve monitoring and enforcing compliance with regulatory requirements,standards and specifications for the products or services.It relates to the identification of non-compliant products or to activities to safeguard customers

144、,uphold fair competition and preserve the integrity of the market.3.2 National quality infrastructure system and its international relationsNational quality infrastructure systemThe national QI system functions as a system of inter-related complementary components.The components described in the pre

145、vious section must complement each other to be coherent and functional.The national policy environment and pertinent public and private institutions should be considered integral components of the extended quality infrastructure.They lay the groundwork for various services by establishing the necess

146、ary framework and guidelines.For instance,a ministry may choose to incorporate a standard into a technical regulation,thereby rendering the voluntary requirements outlined in that standard legally binding to safeguard environmental protection,health,safety and security.Public authorities or private

147、service providers can evaluate the compliance of a product or a process with such requirements specified in a standard or technical regulation,depending on the context.Figure 3 provides a graphical overview of this system in a national context.5 Important accreditation schemes for validation are as

148、follows:ISO 14065:2020 General principles and requirements for bodies validating and verifying environmental information;ISO/IEC 17029:2019 Conformity assessment:General principles and requirements for validation and verification bodies.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 19Figure 3

149、Overview of the quality infrastructure ecosystemMinistry of Energy/regulatory agencypower stationsISO 9001ISO 14001ISO 50001ISO/IEC 17065ISO/IEC 17021ISO/IEC 17024-Products-Processes-PersonsAccreditationCertificationCalibration laboratoriesMetrologyInspection bodiesTestinglaboratoriesISO/IEC 17025IS

150、O/IEC 17043ISO/IEC 17020ISO/IEC 17025national,regional,internationalstandardsIAF,ILAC,EA,IAACALAC,PAC,AFRACISO,IEC,CEN,CENELEC,COPANT,AFSEC,ARSO,PASCIntercomparisonsproficiency testsBIPM,OIML,EURAMENT,SIM,APMP,COOMET,AFRIMETS;WELMEC,APLMFrelevant ICEstandards,private standards,good practicestests,an

151、alysisresearchinspectionsCalibration of instrumentsVerification of meters,reference materialsRE generation andconsumptionProduction ofcomponentsInstallationGenerationStorage,transmission,distributionConsumptionNational quality infrastructureTechnical Regulations/Market SurveillancetraceabilityStanda

152、rdisationConstruction of REInternationalsystemValue chain Source:(IRENA,2015a,2024d).Notes:AFRAC=African Accreditation Cooperation;AFRIMETS=Intra-Africa Metrology System;AFSEC=African Electrotechnical Standardization Commission;APAC=Asia Pacific Accreditation Cooperation;APLMF=Asia-Pacific Legal Met

153、rology Forum;APMP=Asia Pacific Metrology Programme;ARSO=African Organisation for Standardisation;BIPM=International Bureau of Weights and Measures;CEN=European Committee for Standardization;CENELEC=European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization;COOMET=Euro-Asian Metrology Cooperation;COPANT

154、=Comisin Panamericana de Normas Tcnicas;EA=European Accreditation;EURAMET=European Association of National Metrology Institutes;IAAC=Inter American Accreditation Cooperation;IAF=International Accreditation Forum;IEC=International Electrotechnical Commission;ILAC=International Laboratory Accreditatio

155、n Cooperation;ISO=International Organisation for Standardization;OIML=International Organization of Legal Metrology;PAC=Pennsylvania Accreditation Centre;PASC=Pacific Area Standards Congress;RE=renewable energy;SIM=Inter-American Metrology System;WELMEC=European Cooperation in Legal Metrology.A qual

156、ity infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 20Global integration of the national quality infrastructure systemBuilding a national QI system requires integrating it with the global system,forging connections with essential international entities including:The International Organization for Standard

157、ization(ISO),the International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC)and the International Telecommunication Union(for digital standards)for standardisation and certification;6 The International Bureau of Weights and Measures(BIPM)and the International Organization of Legal Metrology(OIML)for scientific/i

158、ndustrial and legal metrology;and The International Accreditation Forum(IAF)and the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation(ILAC)for accreditation.Only through this inter-connectedness is it possible to ensure international traceability;inter-operability;comparability;and recognition for

159、local products,processes or services,and to benefit fully from the national QI system(Sanetra et al.,2007).To promote quality infrastructure globally,there is a strong case for strengthening the links between these international bodies and the respective regional organisations,for example:For the Am

160、ericas,the Inter-American Metrology System(SIM),the Pan American Standards Commission(COPANT),Inter-American Accreditation Cooperation(IAAC)and the Quality Infrastructure Council for the Americas(QICA).For Africa,the Intra-Africa Metrology System(AFRIMETS),African Organisation for Standardisation(AR

161、SO),African Electrotechnical Standardization Commission(AFSEC),African Accreditation Cooperation(AFRAC)and Pan African Quality Infrastructure(PAQI);and For Europe,the European Association of National Metrology Institutes(EURAMET)and the European Committee for Standardization(CEN)/European Committee

162、for Electrotechnical Standardization(CENELEC).6 Dedicated international organisations such as the Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards(VAMAS)co-ordinate standards development around specific themes VAMAS,for example,provides the technical basis for drafting codes of practice and sp

163、ecifications for advanced materials as the precursor to standards(ISO,n.d.).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 214.Quality infrastructure services for green hydrogen Global hydrogen demand was 94 Mt in 2021.This demand was mainly covered by fossil-fuel-based hydrogen production,whic

164、h was approximately 77 Mt.Of the total hydrogen production,over one-sixth was by-products(approximately 16.5 Mt),mainly from the petrochemical industry.(IEA,2024a).Hydrogen is produced,transported,distributed and utilised globally.In the existing value chain,hydrogen is mostly used as an industrial

165、feedstock and is handled by specialised and safety-conscious personnel within industrial sites.Effective quality infrastructure(QI)services are implemented across the value chain to guarantee safe operation and the required gas quality.However,the planned expansion of the green hydrogen sector requi

166、res a wider provision of QI services as more countries participate in the generation,distribution and use of this energy carrier.The physical and chemical properties of hydrogen are unique and more challenging than those of natural gas,for which well-established QI services exist in most countries.G

167、reen hydrogen thus requires many specific QI services.Also,a substantial increase of renewable energy generation is required for its production.Based on an overview of quality infrastructure along the green hydrogen value chain,this chapter describes a model to differentiate the QI services accordin

168、g to their level of development and specialisation.The model can be used to analyse and plan the development of QI for the green hydrogen sector.4.1 Overview of quality infrastructure along the green hydrogen value chain Figure 4 summarises the green hydrogen value chain,example services provided by

169、 quality infrastructure and the relations among the organisations involved.The section on top of the figure shows the green hydrogen value chain,which begins at renewable energy generation and proceeds through hydrogen production(via water electrolysis),distribution and transport,and ends with its u

170、tilisation.The section in the middle shows the components described in the previous chapter,with examples of the QI services provided at different steps of the value chain.This section also indicates the links between the components of the quality infrastructure.The section at the bottom summarises

171、the links between the national quality infrastructure and international organisations.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 22Source:(Ferdinand,2023).Note:BIPM=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures(International Bureau of Weights and Measures);H2=hydrogen;IEC=International Electrot

172、echnical Commission;IECEE=IEC System of Conformity Assessment Schemes for Electrotechnical Equipment;IECQ=IECs Quality Assessment System;IECEx=International Electrotechnical Commission System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Explosive Atmospheres;ISO=International Orga

173、nization for Standardization;OIML=International Organization of Legal Metrology;R&D=research and development.Figure 4 Quality infrastructure along the green hydrogen value chain Overview:Quality Infrastructure along the Green H2 Value ChainNational quality infrastructureGreen hydrogen value chainTra

174、ceabilityCertificationStandardisationInspectionTestingBIPM,OIML Calibration of components(e.g.solar cells)and instruments(e.g.wind speed,irradiation),verification of meters Materials and components,R&D,hydrogen fuel quality,energy efficiencyEfficiency,quantity,explosion protection,pressure,purityMat

175、erials and components,R&D,gas purity,hydrogen generators and storage systems Environmental conditions,component quality,plant performance,R&DMetrologyTemperature,explosion protection,quantity,purity,efficiency,pressure,process parameterse.g.ISO 22734,ISO 16110AccreditationISO,IECProficiency tests IA

176、F,ILAC ISO/IEC 17021 ISO/IEC 17065ISO/IEC 17024IECEE,IECRE,IECEx,IECQISO/IEC 17020ISO/IEC 17025ISO/IEC 17025,17043 Guarantee of origin schemes (e.g.CertifHy),non-specific standards (e.g.ISO 50001)IEC standards for components and power plantsGeneration of renewable energyProductionDistribution,transp

177、ort and storageUtilisationH2 ElectrolyserEfficiency,flowrate/quantity,explosion protection,calorific valueExplosion protection IEC 60079 and ISO/IEC 80079 H2Gas gridMethaneP2XLiquid deriv.H2H2H2H2Inspection,e.g.based on national safety regulationsInternational systemA quality infrastructure roadmap

178、for green hydrogen 234.2 Levels of quality infrastructure development and specialisation for the green hydrogen sectorA pyramid model(shown in Figure 5)differentiates the levels of the QI services required for the green hydrogen sector.The model defines three levels with increasing development and s

179、pecialisation from bottom to top.The pyramid model considers that QI services specific to green hydrogen will only be demanded in the long term in most countries.Different to that,QI services to assure safety,quality and sustainability in sectors complementing the green hydrogen value chain are dema

180、nded already today.As shown in Table 1,such sectors include renewable energy,as well as electric energy and gas(especially natural gas)derived from non-renewable sources.The national priorities in the development of such services must consider the concrete demand,for example,whether natural gas is d

181、istributed via a gas network or to what extent“grey”hydrogen is used.The generation of non-renewable energy(e.g.the generation of natural gas or“grey”hydrogen)is excluded from the analysis of the QI service requirements as part of this publication,since it is not compatible with the green hydrogen v

182、alue chain.S SucceedA quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 24Figure 5 Levels of development and specialisation of quality infrastructure services to support the green hydrogen sector Objectives Level 1Establish the quality infrastructure system according to international standards and g

183、ood practice.Provide all quality infrastructure services required to assure safety in the generation of renewable energy as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and natural gas.Provide basic quality infrastructure services required to assure quality and sustainability in the previousl

184、y mentioned sectors.Objectives Level 2Provide all quality infrastructure services required to assure safety of production,distribution/transport and use of gas mixtures with hydrogen content over 20%as well as pure hydrogen.Provide medium advanced quality infrastructure services required to assure q

185、uality and sustainability in the generation of renewable energy as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and natural gas.Objective Level 3Assure safety,quality and sustainability of green H2 throughout the entire value chain.Level 1Quality infrastructure system according to internation

186、al standards and good practice.Basic quality infrastructure services required for renewable energy,electric energy and natural gas.Level 2Medium advanced quality infrastructure services required for renewable energy,electric energy and natural gas as well as for hydrogen safety.Level 3Quality infras

187、tructure services specifically required for green hydrogen.Level of development and specialisation for green H2 A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 25Table 1 Sector-specific requirements considered at the three levels of the pyramid modelSectorRenewable energy Electric energy derived

188、 from non-renewable sources Gas(especially natural gas)Hydrogen derived from non-renewable sourcesGreen hydrogenConsideration of sector-specific quality infrastructure services for:Assurance of safetyLevel 1Level 1Level 1Level 2 Level 2Assurance of quality and sustainability Levels 1+2+3Levels 1+2Le

189、vels 1+2Level 2Level 3Value chain section GenerationIncludedNot includedNot includedNot includedIncludedDistribution IncludedIncludedIncludedUse The three levels are described in more detail in the following section.Level 1Level 1 establishes the foundation for more specific services for the green h

190、ydrogen sector,which are included in the middle and top levels of the pyramid(Levels 2 and 3 of Figure 5).The foundation requires a QI system that is set up in accordance with international standards and good practices.Especially the standards published by the International Organization for Standard

191、ization Committee for Conformity Assessment(ISO CASCO)must be considered with this regard.Further criteria and good practices are defined in the rapid diagnostic tool jointly developed by Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt(PTB)and the World Bank Group.Regarding specific QI services,Level 1 includ

192、es services defined as“basic”because they are already available or in demand in most countries.These services are essential not only for assuring quality and sustainability of renewable energy generation,but also of the distribution and use of electricity and gas(especially natural gas).A quality in

193、frastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 26For instance,they ensure that renewable energy power plants are appropriately installed and that imported components meet the required quality,safety and sustainability standards.Level 1 also includes all services related to assuring safety within these sect

194、ors.7The related QI services form the basis for any(future)development of green hydrogen as they help assure quality,safe and sustainable operations of the technologies,products,processes and services that are foundational for the hydrogen value chain.They are required in any country,8 independent o

195、f the(future)demand for specific services in the green hydrogen sector.Level 2Level 2 includes medium advanced QI services required for assuring quality and sustainability in renewable energy generation as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and gas(especially natural gas).Such servi

196、ces are defined as“medium advanced”because they are currently not offered in many countries,especially developing and emerging economies,or the existing offering does not fulfil the requirements defined in the applicable international standards.Level 2 also includes all QI services required to assur

197、e safe production,distribution/transport and use of gas mixtures with more than 20%hydrogen content,as well as pure hydrogen.The Level 2 QI services are required in all countries planning to develop the green hydrogen sector.Level 3 Level 3 includes advanced QI services specifically required to assu

198、re safe,quality and sustainable production,distribution/transport,trade and use of green hydrogen.Since green hydrogen is still an evolving sector,many of these specific QI services are still being developed.Level 3 also includes advanced services related to assuring quality and sustainability of re

199、newable energy.Such services are required,among others,for trade with renewable energy components and to fulfil sustainability criteria(e.g.carbon dioxide CO2 emissions related to energy generation).7 It should be noted that QI services applied to natural gas are gradually also being applied for hyd

200、rogen.In particular,many standards for natural gas applications have been modified to account for the needs of the green hydrogen value chain.For example,the European Clean Hydrogen Alliances Road Map on Hydrogen Standardization(published by the European Clean Hydrogen Alliance)lists many standards

201、for all types of applications and components in the natural gas value chain that have been modified or remain to be adapted to include requirements for the use of hydrogen.The testing and calibration requirements are being specified accordingly(EU Commission,2023).8 This is the case for countries wh

202、ere natural gas is distributed and used.The assurance of safety,quality and sustainability in the distribution and use of natural gas is essential for the development of the green hydrogen sector since the majority of the infrastructure can be used to distribute and use mixtures with hydrogen(up to

203、a certain percentage).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 274.3 Fulfilling the demand for quality infrastructure nationally or by using services from other countries It is worth noting that the development of the QI services essential for green hydrogen is both time and resource inte

204、nsive.Such resources are to be provided not just once(e.g.for the equipment required in a testing laboratory)but also in the long term,as part of operational expenditure,for example,for rental,staff,training,calibrations and auditing/accreditation.Such substantial costs must result in the services g

205、enerating equivalent benefits,for example,the income generated and/or macroeconomic benefits for the sectors development.In this context,it is recommended to elaborate business plans for the development of specific required QI services.As explained above,Level 1 services are labelled“basic”since the

206、y have current demand.At the same time,such services are required in multiple sectors,since they are related to assuring basic safety and quality aspects.This means that in most countries,there should be sufficient demand to justify the development of the related services nationally.However,especial

207、ly for developing and emerging economies and for the services indicated for Levels 2 and 3,it may be advisable to assure access to the required services through co-operation with other QI organisations in neighbouring countries,in the region or internationally.This can make it possible to quickly me

208、et the demand of the national sector using the services of foreign QI organisations experienced and internationally recognised in the field.For example,the metrology services included at Level 2 for renewable energy,irradiance level and spectral irradiance of the light source,wind speed,and the cali

209、bration of photovoltaic(PV)reference cells and modules require important investments in national metrology institutes(NMIs)and secondary metrology laboratories.In many national cases,co-operation with foreign NMIs and calibration laboratories to provide access to PV reference cells(especially primar

210、y calibrated cells)and modules is the economically and politically better approach.4.4 StandardisationStandardisation establishes commonly accepted criteria for products(or components),practices and services required along the green hydrogen value chain.Standards provide the basis for efficient,safe

211、 and sustainable interactions between market players,businesses and organisations in the hydrogen value chain.It also establishes agreed terms for market access and international trade.As described in Chapter 3,standardisation involves creating and distributing standards,as well as informing interes

212、ted parties about them.Because of that,enabling green hydrogen development requires national standardisation bodies to:Participate in relevant international technical committees(TCs),Participate in regional standardisation organisations,Establish related national mirror committees,and Adopt or adapt

213、 relevant international standards.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 28A.Participation in relevant international technical committees National standardisation bodies must ensure they actively participate in international standardisation organisations relevant for the green hydrogen

214、sector(Level 3)and for the complementing sectors described in the previous section.This includes mainly ISO and the International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC),as well as in their TCs.The participation of national standardisation bodies in these organisations facilitates:Alignment with global sta

215、ndards.Participation ensures that national standards are aligned with international standards.This facilitates global trade and ensures compatibility with international markets.Influence and representation.Participation in international committees can enable national bodies to represent their countr

216、ies interests.This contributes to the development of standards that reflect national priorities and needs.Knowledge sharing and expertise.Active involvement enables national bodies to stay updated on the latest technical developments and best practices.This facilitates knowledge and expertise transf

217、er.Considering the above,the QI checklist developed as part of this publication describes the most relevant international TCs concerning the three development and specification levels of the pyramid model.Since participation in international standardisation activities requires substantial resources,

218、countries applying the checklist must determine which international TCs are a priority in the country context.B.Participation in relevant regional standardisation organisations Regional standardisation organisations are bodies established to develop and harmonise standards across specific regions.9

219、They have a fundamental role in aligning national,regional and international standards relevant for the green hydrogen sector within their regions.Because of that,national certification bodies should participate in relevant regional organisations,in addition to participating in international standar

220、disation organisations and their TCs.10C.Establishment of related national mirror committees National mirror committees help adopt or adapt international standards into national standards guidelines or technical specifications.This ensures stakeholder engagement,consistency and smooth implementation

221、 at the national level.Because of that,national standardisation bodies should also establish national mirror committees for the international TCs identified as relevant in the country context.9 Examples of important regional standardisation organisations include the European Committee for Standardiz

222、ation(CEN),African Organisation for Standardisation(ARSO),Pan American Standards Commission(COPANT)and the Pacific Area Standards Congress(PASC),which coordinates standardisation efforts in the Pacific region.10 In specific cases,it can be sufficient for national certification bodies to participate

223、only in regional standardisation activities,for example,if a topic is already well covered and an exchange with international TCs is assured.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 29D.Adoption or adaptation of relevant international standards To ensure global compatibility,promote best

224、practices,simplify compliance and facilitate innovation,international standards relevant for the development of green hydrogen must be adopted or adapted11 into the national standards system.An annex was developed,as part of this publication,to facilitate the identification of relevant standards.The

225、 annex describes the standards required for the three development and specification levels of the pyramid model.The checklist for the QI development for standardisation(see below)refers to this database.Since the standards required for renewable energy are highly sector specific,they are not include

226、d in the database created as part of this publication.Depending on the specific focus of their national renewable energy policies,countries amongst others can refer IRENAs International Standards and Patents in Renewable Energy(INSPIRE)database which has a compendium of relevant standards for differ

227、ent renewable energy technologies that can be searched via technology and sub-technology(IRENA,2024).The standardisation checklist summarises the standardisation requirements at the three development and specification levels.The requirements are further described in the section below.Table 2 Standar

228、disation checklistRenewable energy generation ProductionDistribution and transportUtilisationElectrolysisConversion into derivativesStorageLevel 1 Adopt international standards in the national standard system as defined in the database for Level 1.At least“observer”status in international TCs and es

229、tablishment of the related national mirror committees in the following areas:IEC TC 31 Explosive atmospheres and related subcommittees(i.e.SC 31J,SC 31M),IECEx(acceptance of international certificates of conformity),ISO/TC 180 Solar energy,IEC TC 82 Solar photovoltaic energy systems,IEC TC 88 Wind e

230、nergy generation systems,ISO/TC 161 Controls and protective devices for gaseous and liquid fuels,ISO/TC 22/SC 32 Electrical and electronic components and general system aspects,ISO/TC 301 Energy management and energy savings,ISO/TC 58 Gas cylinders.Adopt relevant ISO CASCO Standards related to the n

231、ational quality infrastructure system.Level 2 Adopt international standards into the national standard system as defined in the database for Level 2.Full participating member in international TCs and establishment of national mirror committees in the following areas:TCs mentioned for Level 1 with“ob

232、server status”previously,IECEx and IECEE(Member Body),ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen technologies.At least“observer”status in international TCs and national mirror committees in the following areas:ISO/TC 207 Environmental management(i.e.SC 7 Greenhouse gas and climate change management and related activities)

233、,ISO/TC 158 Analysis of gases,ISO/TC 161/WG 5 High-pressure controls,ISO/TC 193 Natural gas.Level 3 Adopt international standards into the national standard system as defined in the database for Level 3.Full participating member in international TCs and national mirror committees in the following ar

234、eas:TCs mentioned for Level 2 with“observer status”previously,IEC/TC 105 Fuel cells,IECRE(Member Body).Note:CASCO=Committee for Conformity Assessment;IECEE=IEC System of Conformity Assessment Schemes for Electrotechnical Equipment;IECEx=International Electrotechnical Commission System for Certificat

235、ion to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Explosive Atmospheres;IECRE=IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy;ISO=International Organization for Standardization;TC=technical committee.11 Adoption refers to the direct use of an international

236、 standard without modification.The national body fully accepts the international standard as it is.Adaptation involves modifying an international standard to suit specific national needs or conditions.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 30Standardisation requirements at Level 1Level

237、1 covers standardisation related to assuring quality and sustainability in renewable energy as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and gas(especially natural gas).Level 1 also includes standardisation required to assure safety in the sectors mentioned before:Countries should adapt or

238、 adopt the following specific standards into their national standard system:international standards related to safety in the energy and gas sectors,which include,among others,the IEC and ISO standards on risk management,hazard identification and analysis as well as process safety(including safety in

239、strumented systems,pressure containment,fire safety,explosive atmospheres,electrical components and,if required,natural gas).Countries should additionally adapt or adopt relevant safety and quality standards for renewable energies,depending on the specific national focus.The specific standards requi

240、red can be found in the standard database created as part of this publication.Regarding participation in relevant international TCs,depending on their specific national contexts at this level,countries should consider at least“observer”status in the committees described in the checklist and establis

241、h the related national mirror committees.Among others,this includes the IEC System for Certification to Standards relating to equipment for use in explosive atmospheres(IECEx System)and the related IEC TC 31 equipment for explosive atmospheres,as they are vital for supporting the development of the

242、required safety standards.Standardisation requirements at Level 2Level 2 includes standardisation required to assure quality and sustainability in renewable energy generation as well as the distribution and use of electric energy and gas,especially natural gas.Level 2 also includes standardisation n

243、eeded to assure safe production,distribution/transport and use of gas mixtures with more than 20%hydrogen content as well as pure hydrogen.The related requirements are mentioned in Table 2 and can be summarised as follows:National adoption or adaptation of international standards related to hydrogen

244、 safety,quality(e.g.purity specification)and sustainability(e.g.greenhouse gas GHG emissions).Additionally,national adoption or adaptation of quality requirements for the gas sector(if nationally relevant),gas analysis,extended requirements for explosion protection and,depending on national prioriti

245、es,sustainability aspects in renewable energies(see the standard database for a detailed list of the international standards suggested to be considered).Participation in the related international TCs of IEC and ISO as described in the standardisation checklist(e.g.ISO TC/197 Hydrogen technologies)an

246、d establishment of national mirror committees.National standardisation organisations should have“full participating membership”status in ISO/TC 197 as well as the TCs with“observer”status at Level 1.Additionally,“Member Body”status in the IEC System of Conformity Assessment Schemes for Electrotechni

247、cal Equipment(IECEE)is advisable.Standardisation requirements at Level 3Level 3 includes standardisation requirements related to safety,quality and sustainability of the production,distribution/transport,trade and use of green hydrogen.This includes:National adoption or adaptation of international s

248、tandards defining sustainability and quality requirements A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 31specifically for the green hydrogen sector,including,for example,ISO/TS 19870:2023 Hydrogen technologies.Among others,the methodology for determining GHG emissions associated with the prod

249、uction,conditioning and transport of hydrogen to consumption must be defined(for further standards required at this level,see the list of international standards in the standards database annex).Active role in international TCs as full participating member and,if required nationally,establishment of

250、 the related national mirror committees on the use of hydrogen(i.e.IEC TC Fuel Cells 105).Additionally,an active role in the IEC System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Renewable Energy(IECRE)is important.Also,national standardisation organisations should have“full par

251、ticipating membership”status in the TCs with“observer”status at Level 2.International requirements for standardisation While safety-related international standardisation for hydrogen production is already relatively well developed,standards for other parts of the value chain and standards related to

252、 quality and sustainability still need to be developed.The development of commonly accepted criteria to facilitate international green hydrogen trade requires harmonising requirements and establishing minimum quality criteria.Such requirements should be defined in the standards developed by internat

253、ionally recognised organisations(i.e.ISO and IEC),which apply good standardisation practices based on the principles of consensus,balance,transparency and stakeholder engagement.Additionally,convergence of national and regional standards and international standards is fundamental.The following are t

254、he main areas identified as being required for agile and fit-for-purpose standardisation for green hydrogen:Since material and equipment must be fit for purpose to tolerate higher or 100%hydrogen content in storage,transport and distribution,new standards are required(i.e.for storing equipment),and

255、the requirements established by existing standards must be adapted or updated.International standards must specify safety-related criteria applicable to the components relevant for the hydrogen sector,for example,requirements for protection against electric shock from electrolysers (DIN et al.,2024)

256、.Criteria must be defined for classifying hydrogen and its explosion characteristics:(1)above atmospheric conditions and(2)for mixtures with other gases or substances.Also,methods to determine these characteristics must be developed(amongst others,this is relevant for metrology and testing).Hydrogen

257、 purification is associated with considerable costs,and not all applications require hydrogen of high purity.Existing hydrogen quality standards must be adapted,or quality standards must be specified(i.e.ISO 14687 and CEN/TS 17977)as part of the expansion of the hydrogen sector.Liquid hydrogen and d

258、erivatives,such as synthetic fuels,are currently not sufficiently covered by international standards.The same applies for emergency response procedures and comprehensive management frameworks to ensure safe operations in an expanded green hydrogen sector.Internationally recognised criteria are also

259、required for life cycle assessments(LCA).LCAs amongst others are important to estimate emissions and other unintended environmental impacts generated in the hydrogen value chain.Especially fugitive emissions of hydrogen must be considered,since the gas has high indirect global warming potential due

260、to its interference with atmospheric chemistry(Sand et al.,2023).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 32 Requirements for guarantee of origin certification(see also the certification section below)for green hydrogen must be defined,specifying,among others,the traceability of renewable

261、 energy sources and criteria for reporting carbon emissions(including CO2 emissions released by ancillary processes,particularly transport).Further,“whole of system”standards to assess the sustainability impacts of green hydrogen along the value chain are required.Such standards are especially impor

262、tant to promote a just transition(BMWK,n.d.),which refers to a fair and inclusive transition towards a sustainable economy,ensuring equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of the energy transition.This is especially important in preventing adverse impacts on vulnerable communities,for exa

263、mple,impacts related to the use of water,competition for renewable energy resources(i.e.lack of additionality)or the creation of new dependencies on hydrogen exports among developing countries.Standardisation is an iterative process,which relies on contributions from industry and other stakeholders

264、to define fit-for-purpose,technically rigorous criteria and guidance.Broad and active stakeholder engagement is essential to ensure international standards remain technically coherent,technologically agnostic and broadly representative of the global consensus on the best practices.In this context,it

265、 must be noted that new standards or updated criteria must be supported by other components of the quality infrastructure.Standards must refer to metrology and conformity assessment services,which in some areas still need to be developed and validated.Due this requirement,it is crucial that the repr

266、esentatives of the different QI components are involved in the relevant TCs.S SimpleA quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 334.5 MetrologyMetrology is required to guarantee accuracy and traceability in green hydrogen.Metrology is the“science of measurement and its application,including

267、all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement”.The term“metrology service”in the context of this publication is understood as the provision of all key elements of metrology relevant for the green hydrogen sector,including determining uncertainty(quantifying uncertainty or variability in measu

268、rement results),establishing traceability(ensuring measurement results are linked to references through an unbroken chain of comparisons,usually to international or national standards)and calibration(comparing a measurement instrument or system to a known reference to verify its accuracy and perform

269、ance)(JGCM,2012;Standards Alliance,2022a).Such metrology services are provided by NMIs12 as well as secondary and tertiary calibration laboratories.Metrology services assure safe operations along the green hydrogen value chain.They are also crucial for reducing environmental risks,making production

270、and use more efficient,assuring high gas quality and enabling correct billing(including custody transfer,where hydrogen is transferred between two parties).International measurement systems are built on consensus,which is established among global NMIs.Mutual equivalence among measurements and improv

271、ed measurement capabilities requires comparison of national measurements through the NMIs.For countries to be able to participate in global green hydrogen trade and reduce technical barriers to trade,NMIs have the important role of establishing this mutual equivalence among national measurement stan

272、dards and calibration capacity relevant for green hydrogen(Standards Alliance,2022a,2022b).In this context,all the services summarised in the checklist below require measurement standards and calibration and measurement capacities of NMIs.For NMIs to effectively contribute to the sectors development

273、,they must participate in the CIPM Consultative Committees(expert committees advising the International Committee for Weights and Measures CIPM)(Krietsch and Werhahn,2024),have active membership in the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures(BIPM)and the International Organization of Legal Metrolo

274、gy(OIML),and participate in key and supplementary comparisons related to the services required for the green hydrogen sector.The checklist below summarises the metrology services needed for green hydrogen at the three development and specification levels of the pyramid model as well as in the differ

275、ent parts of the value chain.These services are further described in the section that follows.12 An NMI is an organisation responsible for developing,maintaining and disseminating national measurement standards;ensuring their traceability to the International System of Units(SI);and providing calibr

276、ation services and expertise to support accurate measurements in science,industry and commerce(NPL,2024).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 34Table 3 Metrology checklistOverview of the metrology services required for the development of the green hydrogen sectorRenewable energy gener

277、ation ProductionDistribution and transportUtilisationElectrolysisConversion into derivativesStorageLevel 1 Electrical characteristics:Current and voltage Temperature Humidity Conductivity Force and torque Verification of electricity meters Reduced temperature range(-40oC to 100oC)Pressure(up to 200

278、bar)Calibration of gas detectorsLevel 2 Irradiance level and spectral irradiance of light source Wind speed Calibration of photovoltaic reference cells and modules Verification of smart/digital electricity meters Frequency Harmonic distortion Expanded temperature range(-260oC to 100oC)Pressure(up to

279、 800 bar)Gas flow rate Mass(e.g.for the production of reference gas)Density(liquid)Chemical composition and purity of gases Calorific value Gas standards and certified reference gas mixtures Level 3 Acoustics Efficiency of hydrogen generators Water purity Efficiency of hydrogen utilisation Chemical

280、composition of hydrogen derivatives Very high pressure(up to 1 000 bar)VolumeModelling of green hydrogen systemsA quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 35Metrology services required at Level 1Several basic metrology services are required to assure safety and explosion protection,13 quali

281、ty and efficiency in the sectors related to green hydrogen.These includes services in the following areas:Among others,measurement of electrical characteristics,temperature,humidity,conductivity,force,torque and verification of electricity meters are required in the renewable energy sector.Reduced t

282、emperature ranges(-40oC to 100oC),pressure up to 200 bar and calibration of gas detectors are especially required to ensure safety in the gas sector.Metrology services required at Level 2The following are the medium advanced metrology services required to ensure safety,quality and efficiency in the

283、sectors related to green hydrogen:In the renewable energy sector,especially wind and PV,the following metrology services are demanded to assure quality of components and power plants as well as appropriate grid management:irradiance level and spectral irradiance,wind speed,calibration of PV cells an

284、d modules,and verification of smart/digital electricity meters.Measurements of frequency and harmonic distortion,among others,are relevant for the integration of renewable energy into the grid and for grid management.An expanded temperature range(-260oC to 100oC),pressure up to 800 bar,gas flow rate

285、,mass,density,chemical composition and purity of gases,and calorific value are crucial for assuring quality in the gas sector,at the same time creating the basis for safely operating gas infrastructure with high percentages of hydrogen.Access to gas standards and the provision of traceable and certi

286、fied reference gas mixtures amongst others are relevant for the analysis of gas quality and the determination of gas properties for product control and billing purposes.Metrology services required at Level 3Advanced NMIs and designated institutes14 already offer many services relevant for green hydr

287、ogen.Such services typically exist for pressure,temperature,density or efficiency.However,certain specific metrology services relevant for green hydrogen are offered by only a few institutes worldwide,while they are being developed by others.The following is a list of such services:Measurement of ve

288、ry high pressures with small measurement uncertainties.These measurements,for example,are required for tests of equipment durability and for leak detection during the generation,distribution and storage of hydrogen.(IRENA et al.,2023)Many advanced NMIs are developing metrology services for determini

289、ng the hydrogen gas quantity and gas flow required for gas meters.Calibrated gas meters are important for correct billing for end users.Flow measurement with very high accuracy is required for precise monitoring of gas flow across all segments of the value chain.Measuring high flow ranges(e.g.requir

290、ed by hydrogen transmission and distribution 13 In this context,it is important to take note of the United Nations past extensive study,UNECE WP6,to arrive at the Common Regulatory Objective,which acknowledges the concerns of explosion protection and supports the international standards issued by IS

291、O and IEC with support from international certification through the IECEx.Refer to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe publication“A Common Regulatory Framework for Equipment Used in Environments with an Explosive Atmosphere:ECE/TRADE/391”.14 A designated institute is an institute that

292、 has been officially recognised by a government or national authority to perform specific metrological functions,which may not fall under the responsibility of the countrys NMI.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 36operators,or at refuelling stations for heavy-duty vehicles,which hav

293、e conditions of extreme pressure and temperature),and different gas mixtures is a metrological challenge.Reference measurement methods and gas standards,among others,aid in measuring the purity of water in the electrolysis process and trace impurities in hydrogen and its derivatives.The same applies

294、 to hydrogen content variations in mixtures with natural gas that affect the calorific value and the safety of appliances.Currently,only a few advanced NMIs and calibration laboratories offer measurement of the chemical composition of hydrogen and its derivatives,the modelling of entire green hydrog

295、en systems15 and the validation of procedures to determine calorific value important if hydrogen is mixed with natural gas(Ferdinand,2023).For process management and controlling hydrogen quality,it is crucial to calibrate online/real-time sensors(e.g.moisture and oxygen content,ancillaries such as t

296、emperature and pressure).Such calibration services are currently still under development.Metrological services related to the efficiency of electrolysis plants and applications using hydrogen are lacking in most countries.Especially the determination of the efficiency of electrolysis plants over tim

297、e needs to be investigated more.Metrological standards16 and methods to be developed internationallySeveral metrological standards and methods still need to be developed internationally to fulfil the current and future demand of the emerging green hydrogen sector,and major efforts are needed to adva

298、nce metrology accordingly.The following is a list of such areas17:Standards and methods that allow the traceable validation and performance evaluation of gas quality(EURAMET,2022).Among others,this is important to guarantee high hydrogen purity for applications such as fuel cells and for determining

299、 the hydrogen production method at the end of the value chain.Improved methods for evaluating measurement uncertainty along the green hydrogen value chain (EURAMET,2022).Such methods are required to correctly interpret measurement results and further improve their precision.The international recomme

300、ndations of the OIML,which establish the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments and specify methods and equipment to assessing their conformity,must be adapted to cover the specific characteristics of hydrogen.This is especially the case for OIML R 140 on measurement systems for gaseo

301、us fuel and for OIML R 139-1 on measurement systems for compressed gaseous fuel for vehicles.Measurement standards for calibrating and validating flow metering equipment must be developed internationally to guarantee precise determination of the hydrogen quantity in pipelines(EURAMET,2022;PA Consult

302、ing,2020).Measurement devices need to be adapted and validated to ensure accuracy is maintained even when the gas composition fluctuates(DIN et al.,2024).New measurement methods are also required for determining hydrogen release from leaks(fugitive emissions).15 The modelling of a green hydrogen sys

303、tem means a systemic consideration of the characteristic values of all production processes combined by modelling facilities.Such modelling is crucial for further process improvements(Ferdinand,2023).16 A metrological standard is an object or system with a defined relationship with a unit of measure

304、ment of a physical quantity.Metrological standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures,against which all other measuring devices are compared(Ostwald and Muoz,1997).17 Further areas that are currently being developed are defined in the Strategic Research Agenda of the

305、European Metrology Network(Version 2.0(09/2022)(EURAMET,2022).A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 374.6 TestingTesting laboratories,whether public or private,have played a crucial role in ensuring safety of the operations in the hydrogen industry over decades.One example of an essent

306、ial service offered by testing laboratories is the examination of storage tanks,which must demonstrate robustness to be considered safe and effective.Rigorous standards and regulations establish stringent criteria for these tanks and their components;this in turn necessitates a diversity of tests co

307、nducted under extreme conditions.With rapid expansion of the green hydrogen sector,there arises a need for increasingly stringent requirements accompanied by additional and new testing.For instance,the purity of hydrogen must now be scrutinised at refuelling stations,especially because fuel cell veh

308、icles are much more sensitive to impurities.Moreover,testing conducted as part of research and development initiatives supports amongst others the development of more efficient electrolysers or dependable remote sensing systems for storage and distribution.Table 4 Testing checklistRenewable energy g

309、eneration ProductionDistribution and transportUtilisationElectrolysisConversion into derivativesStorageLevel 1Environmental conditions:Air salinity Explosion protection and safety of gas pipelines,valves and storage devices(e.g.durability,mechanical/hydraulic,chemical,insulation)Electrical safety De

310、tection of gas leakages Level 2Environmental conditions:Irradiance Wind speed Plant performance and safety(field testing):Power(IV curves,current,voltage)Sound power Structural analysis Electroluminescence imaging Insulation testing Infrared imaging Cables/connector boxes Component resistance to cor

311、rosion(including in ammoniacal atmosphere)and hydrogen embrittlement Hydrogen permeation in metals Gas composition,purity Calorific value(i.e.of gas mixtures)IECEx and IECEE approved testing of equipment for use in explosive atmospheres and electrotechnical components Level 3Testing of renewable ene

312、rgy components according to ISO/IEC standards,i.e.Photovoltaic modules Inverters Wind turbines Water purity Efficiency of hydrogen generators Efficiency of hydrogen utilisation Component quality according to applicable standards for hydrogen generators,as well as components for hydrogen distribution

313、 and transportNote:IEC=International Electrotechnical Commission;IECEE=IEC System of Conformity Assessment Schemes for Electrotechnical Equipment;IECEx=International Electrotechnical Commission System for Certification to Standards Relating to Equipment for Use in Explosive Atmospheres;ISO=Internati

314、onal Organization for Standardization.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 38Testing requirements along the green hydrogen value chain can be summarised as follows.Testing services required at Level 1 Basic testing services required to assure the quality and sustainability of renewabl

315、e energy include the monitoring of environmental conditions:Temperature and humidity tests,offered in all countries,are not included in the checklist.The testing of air salinity(in the environment and in climate chambers)is to be considered in the design of renewable energy power plants and is not o

316、ffered in all countries.Considering this,it is included as a Level 1 service in the checklist.In the gas(especially natural gas)and electricity sectors,tests in the following areas are required to assure safe operations:Explosion protection and safety of gas pipelines,valves and storage devices(e.g.

317、durability,mechanical/hydraulic,chemical,insulation)Electrical safety Detection of gas leakagesTesting services required at Level 2 Services at Level 2 include the following tests that are crucial for the correct design of renewable energy plants and for the determination of their performance:Irradi

318、ance tests using pyranometers are conducted in all countries,but are often not performed correctly(e.g.due to incorrectly installed pyranometers).Wind speed can be considered as a basic test,but the related data are often insufficient(e.g.due to inappropriate anemometer placement and measurement dur

319、ation).Additionally,on this level important field-testing services and tests related to the safety of renewable energy plants are required.This includes the following:For most renewable energy installations,testing of electric parameters,structural elements,cables and connector boxes,as well as insu

320、lation.For wind power plants,sound power tests in the field.To analyse the quality of PV modules,electroluminescence and infrared imaging.Testing services on this level also include those required to assure quality and sustainability in the distribution and use of electric energy and gas,especially

321、natural gas.Additionally,all testing services required to assure safety of production,distribution/transport and use of gas mixtures with hydrogen content over 20%as well as pure hydrogen are included at this level.Such services include:A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 39 Tests to

322、 determine the component resistance to corrosion and the hydrogen enhanced degradation of materials properties are fundamental to guarantee safe operation of equipment,especially with higher percentages of hydrogen.Understanding the impact of hydrogen on materials is crucial across various applicati

323、ons,including hydrogen storage,equipment and pipelines.While significant research has been conducted on hydrogens effects on pipeline materials,limited information is available on its impact on other types of equipment materials.As hydrogen is frequently mixed with other gases,such as natural gas,fo

324、r distribution and transport,it is increasingly important to test the gas composition and purity of these blends.In this context,highly selective and sensitive analysis of hydrogen purity and its trace contaminants is required.Specifically,the adsorptive properties of trace impurities like sulphur c

325、ompounds,ammonia or water present challenges.For these tests,traceability to certified reference materials or reference methods must be ensured(see the metrology section above)(DVGW,2023;Holger et al.,2023).Hydraulic cycle and hydraulic burst tests are critical for evaluating whether the materials a

326、nd designs of pipelines,storage tanks and transportation vehicles are suitable for the high pressures at which hydrogen is often stored and transported.Furthermore,tests of equipment for use in explosive atmospheres and electrotechnical components,conducted by approved laboratories under the IECEx a

327、nd IECEE schemes,are also included at this level.Testing services required at Level 3 Advanced testing requirements for the renewable energy sector include the assessment of components according to ISO/IEC standards.These tests are vital for market surveillance and enforcing technical regulations re

328、lated to components as well as ensuring the quality of national production.The following components are among those subject to testing at this level:PV modules Inverters Wind turbines In particular for the production,distribution/transport,and utilisation of hydrogen generated via electrolysis,the f

329、ollowing tests are necessary:Water purity to ensure the appropriate quality as input for electrolysis.Efficiency of hydrogen generators and hydrogen applications.Component quality,including endurance and reliability,in accordance with applicable standards for hydrogen generators as well as component

330、s used in hydrogen distribution and transport.A quality infrastructure roadmap for green hydrogen 40International development of testing services Testing laboratories must further develop their services,in line with the growth of the green hydrogen sector.Testing services to be developed internation

331、ally include the following:Tests for large-scale hydrogen generators and related equipment,such as hydrogen compressors,heat exchangers,liquid hydrogen pumps and valves.High-precision tests of gas purity,including the relevant sampling procedures and protocols.These tests are particularly crucial fo

332、r fuel cell vehicles,which are highly sensitive to impurities.Testing of hydrogen emissions to support related regulatory frameworks.Evaluation of cryogenic components,which are utilised for the storage and distribution of hydrogen in liquid form at approximately-253oC.Cryogenic storage allows for h

333、ydrogen to be stored in small volumes,offering higher energy density;however,it may lead to damage to materials due to embrittlement.It is essential to test the resistance of materials over time to ensure safe operation.In this context,reliability testing of systems and components is required,such as environmental simulation,fatigue,accelerated stress and environmental endurance tests.Development