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1、THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HORTICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING IN THE UKREPORT FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL HORTICULTURAL GROUPNOVEMBER 20241The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKTABLE OF CONTENTSNOVEMBER 2024Executive summary 21.Introduction 62.Direct impact 93.Indi

2、rect and induced impacts 174.Tourism impact 205.Social and environmental benefits of horticulture 246.Conclusion 337.Appendix 1:Results by nation 368.Appendix 2:Methodology 392The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKThe environmental horticulture and landscaping in

3、dustry encompasses a wide range of activitiesincluding companies that cultivate ornamental plants,manufacturers of garden equipment,wholesalers and retailers such as garden centres,and specialists in landscape and arboriculture who maintain home gardens and expansive parks.Beyond these activities,en

4、vironmental horticulture also boosts tourism by drawing visitors to the UKs renowned parks and gardens.Indeed,such is the increasing recognition of the benefits delivered by the plants and green spaces that the industry manages,the industry is increasingly referred to and recognised as environmental

5、 horticulture and landscaping.The Environmental Horticultural Group(EHG)commissioned Oxford Economics to assess the environmental horticulture and landscaping industrys contributions to the UK economy.This comprehensive study not only quantifies the substantial impact of the environmental horticultu

6、re industrys direct impact from on-site operations,but also the indirect impact stimulated by the environmental horticulture industry through its supply chain spending,and the induced impact supported through wage-funded consumption by the environmental horticulture industrys employees and those wor

7、king in its supply chains.These impacts are quantified in terms of gross value added contributions to GDP,the number of jobs supported,and government tax revenues raised.In addition to its economic contributions,this report also highlights the environmental horticulture industrys wider benefits,incl

8、uding social benefits such as health and wellbeing,and environmental benefits such as biodiversity and ecosystem services.The environmental horticulture and landscaping industry(excluding garden tourism)itself directly employed 378,000 people in the UK in 2023,which is broadly equivalent to the enti

9、re population of Cardiff.These workers were employed across a range of industries,occupations,and skill levels,but the largest broad groupings were in the ornamental landscaping(235,000)and retailing(77,000)segments.The environmental EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe economic impact of environmental horticulture

10、 and landscaping in the UK1 Referred to as the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry hereafter.2 ONS,Estimates of the population for the UK,2022.Total jobs supported by the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry in 2023722,0003The economic impact of environmental horticult

11、ure and landscaping in the UKhorticulture and landscaping industry(excluding garden tourism)is also estimated to have directly contributed 14.4 billion to UK GDP in 2023for context,this is greater than the direct GVA contributions of the manufacturing of aerospace sector in the same year.The environ

12、mental horticulture industry also generated 2.6 billion in direct revenues for HM Government in 2023which is equivalent to the salaries of 80,000 nursing professionals in the same year.In addition to the economic contributions of the environmental horticulture and landscaping industrys core segments

13、,garden tourism has estimated to have directly contributed an additional 1.8 billion in UK GDP in the same year.This activity also directly employed 39,000 people and generated 400 million in tax for the UK government.Altogether,the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry(including garde

14、n tourism)has estimated to have directly contributed 16.3 billion to UK GDP,employed with 417,000 jobs,and 3 billion in tax for the UK government.The environmental horticulture and landscaping industry stimulates significant activity in the wider UK economy indirectly through its spending with UK-ba

15、sed suppliers on inputs such as machinery and professional services.The industry also induces further activity through wage-funded consumption by its employees and those working its supply chains,which stimulates activity in the UK consumer economy.Including all three channels of impactdirect,indire

16、ct,and inducedwe estimate that the environmental horticulture industry(excluding garden tourism)made a 31.5 billion contribution to UK GDP and sustained the employment of 605,000 people in 2023.In addition to economic activity by the environmental horticulture industrys main segments,garden tourism

17、is estimated to have supported a further 6.6 billion total contribution to UK GDP in 2023,and in doing so sustained another 117,000 jobs and raised around 1.6 billion in tax revenues for the Exchequer.This included spending associated with both international and domestic tourists visiting gardens ac

18、ross all UK nations and regions.Across all channels of impact,the environmental horticulture industry(including garden tourism)is estimated to have contributed an estimated 38.0 billion contribution to UK GDP in 2023,equivalent to 1 in every 71 of the UKs GDP.The environmental horticulture industry

19、is also estimated to have supported around 722,000 jobs and 8.5 billion in government tax revenues in the same year.The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK3 Aerospace and related machinery refers to ONS SIC 30.3(Air and spacecraft and related machinery).More infor

20、mation can be found here:https:/www.ons.gov.uk/methodology/classificationsandstandards/ukstandardindustrialclassificationofeconomicactivities/uksic2007Environmental horticulture and landscaping industrys total GDP contribution in 202338.0bn4The economic impact of environmental horticulture and lands

21、caping in the UKIn addition to its economic impacts,the horticulture industry also creates wider social and environmental benefits.Horticulture,gardens,green spaces and gardening generate a broad range of benefits to individuals and wider society.These include significant physical and mental health

22、benefits including the alleviation of symptoms of chronic conditions,as well as benefits in the form of social integration.It is estimated that the removal of harmful pollutants by urban vegetation generated 800.5 million in avoided negative health impacts in Great Britain in 2021(ONS,2023).Further,

23、the Office for National Statistics(ONS)(2023)estimated that the total annual value of noise reduction from urban trees and vegetation in the UK in 2020 was 16.6 million,in avoided loss of quality adjusted life years from sleep disturbance and annoyance.There is also strong evidence for a range of en

24、vironmental benefits,including supporting biodiversity,as well as the provision of ecosystem services such as clean air and supporting pollinators.There are specific positive impacts of horticulture to vulnerable groups,including elderly people,and by mitigating some of the most significant environm

25、ental and social challenges experiences in urban areas.Notably,the ONS(2023)have estimated that the annual value of avoided costs from urban cooling provided by green and place spaces in UK urban environments was 233 million in 2021.The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping i

26、n the UKFig.1:Summary of direct and total impacts of the UK environmental horticulture industry,2023SECTORGDP impact(m)Employment(Jobs)Tax revenues(m)DirectTotalDirectTotalDirect TotalGarden Goods7001,90013,00029,000130450Ornamental Plants1,0002,00016,00032,000120380Landscape Services8,50017,900235,

27、000355,0001,2603,660Retail3,0005,70077,000112,0006101,310Wholesale7001,40014,00024,000220410Tree planting&management6002,60022,00052,000210730Total (excl.tourism)14,40031,500378,000605,0002,5606,900Garden Tourism1,8006,60039,000117,0004001,600Total16,30038,000417,000722,0002,9608,500Estimated avoide

28、d costs from urban cooling provided by green and blue spaces in 2021(ONS,2023).233mEstimated avoided negative health impacts from the removal of harmful pollutants by urban vegetation in 2021(ONS,2023).800m 5The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK1.9 billion GDP c

29、ontribution of garden goods manufacturing to UK GDP in 2023,supporting over 29,000 jobs across the UK2.0 billion GDP contribution of ornamental plants production to UK GDP in 2023,supporting almost 32,000 jobs across the UK 18.0 billion GDP contribution of landscaping services to UK GDP in 2023,supp

30、orting over 355,000 jobs across the UK THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HORTICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING IN THE UK5.7 billion GDP contribution of garden goods and equipment retail to UK GDP in 2023,supporting over 112,000 jobs across the UK 1.4 billion GDP contribution of garden goods and equipment

31、wholesale to UK GDP in 2023,supporting almost 24,000 jobs across the UK2.6 billion GDP contribution of tree planting and management to UK GDP in 2023,supporting over 52,000 jobs across the UK16.3bn21.8bn417,000306,000Direct impactSupply chain and wage-funded consumption impactEnvironmental horticult

32、ure and landscaping industrys contribution to UK GDP in 2023,or 1 in every 71 of the UKs GDP.38.0bn Total jobs supported by the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry in 2023.722,000Tax revenues supported by the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry.8.5bn 800m 6SECTION 1:I

33、NTRODUCTIONThe economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK7The environmental horticulture industry involves a wide range of activities that support a substantial amount of GDP,jobs,and government tax revenue in the UK.Gardening and maintaining plants and green space is an

34、 important leisure activity for many,with increasing evidence relating to the benefits to mental and physical health.This drives billions of pounds worth of household spending on horticultural goods,garden equipment,and plants,which in turn supports significant economic activity among the domestic i

35、ndustries that supply these goods and services,their supply chains,and consumer-facing businesses that serve horticulture workers.The quality and variety of UK parks,gardens,and landscapes also attract millions of visitors every year.This tourism spending support further economic activity,jobs,and t

36、ax revenues.Horticulture also has broader social and environmental benefits for society.This includes improvements to individuals physical and mental health,as well as supporting biodiversity and a range of other environmental benefits.Against this backdrop,the Environmental Horticultural Group(EHG)

37、commissioned Oxford Economics to conduct a comprehensive study to assess the environmental horticulture industrys contributions to the UK economy.This report presents updated results to a previous study conducted by Oxford Economics in 2018 and subsequently updated in 2021.4 The full definition of t

38、he environmental horticulture industry is detailed in Box 1(right).The structure of the report is as follows:Chapter 2 provides an overview of UK households demand for garden goods and services and our estimates of the scale and structure of the environmental horticulture industries;Chapter 3 presen

39、ts our modelling of the environmental horticulture industrys“multiplier impacts”throughout the UK economy;Chapter 4 outlines the ways in which the environmental horticulture industry drives domestic and international tourism;Chapter 5 provides an overview of evidence about the wider social and envir

40、onmental benefits of horticulture;and Chapter 6 summarises our assessment.4 Oxford Economics,The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK,October 2018.BOX 1:INDUSTRY DEFINITIONSTo assess the total economic impact of the environmental horticulture industry,we measured t

41、he individual contributions of the following segments:1 Supply of garden goods.This includes businesses that produce gardening goods and equipment,garden decora-tions and furniture,fertilisers and agro-chemicals,as well as structures such as garden fences,huts,and greenhouses.2 Ornamental plant prod

42、uction.This describes creators,cultivators,and sellers of potted and bedding plants and trees,bulbs,cut flowers,and real Christmas trees.It excludes the growing of any plants for commercial food production or consumption.3 Landscape services.This covers the building and maintenance of landscapes,gro

43、unds,gardens,and parkswhether on behalf of private households,busi-nesses,or government.It also includes landscape architects and designers,and those arranging and constructing green spaces during building activity.4 Retailing of garden products,plants,and cut flowers.This encompasses the activities

44、 of specialised plant and green-ery sellers,and garden centres.It also in-cludes the horticulture-related spending that takes place within supermarkets,DIY stores,and other retail channels and through online retailing;as well as the non-horticultural spend that takes place within garden centres.5 Wh

45、olesale of garden products and flowers.This describes the dealers and logistics suppliers that transport garden products from their makers to the retailers who sell to households and businesses.6 Tree planting and management.This includes the planting and conserving of woodlands,parks,street trees,a

46、nd timber tracts,as well as forest and tree evaluation/management and environ-mental consulting.It does not include logging and the production of wood for manufacturing purposes.7 Garden tourism.This describes the value of both international and domestic visitors to UK parks and gardens and the role

47、 of these green spaces in supporting wider tourism spending.This includes parks&gardens visitors ancillary spend-ing on travel,accommodation and food and drink in the UK.8The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKEmployees(including of the suppliers)spend their wages

48、 in the wider economy,generating more GDP,jobs and tax revenues.Added together,these three efectsdirect,indirect,inducedcomprise the total economic impact of the company or sector.It also spends money with suppliers who employ staf,generate GDP and pay taxes.They use other suppliers in turn.DIRECTIM

49、PACTINDIRECTIMPACTTOTALIMPACTINDUCEDIMPACTA company employs staf and generates GDP and tax for the authorities.AN OVERVIEW OF ECONOMIC IMPACT ANALYSISThe economic benefits of the environmental horticulture industry(as defined in Box 1)are calculated using a standard economic impact assessment framew

50、ork.This approach is used to quantify the industries impacts across three“core”channels,which can be understood as follows:Direct impactthe environmental horticulture industrys own activities,such as the GDP it generates,its direct employment,and tax contributions;Indirect impactthe activity and emp

51、loyment stimulated across the environmental horticulture industrys supply chain,through its procurement of goods and services;and Induced impactthe wider economic benefits that arise when workers employed within the environmental horticulture industry (and its supply chains)spend their earnings in t

52、he UKs consumer facing economy.Three main metrics are used to measure the environmental horticulture industrys full economic footprint:GDPthe most common measure used to describe the size of an economy.More specifically,we measure the environmental horticultures gross value added(GVA)contribution to

53、 national GDP.GVA is the sum of compensation of employees and earnings before interest,taxes,depreciation,and amortisation(EBITDA).It is also equal to revenue minus the cost of bought in goods and services used up to produce that revenue.Employmentthe number of people employed,measured on a headcoun

54、t basis;and,Tax revenuethe estimated fiscal contribution resulting from transactions and employment sustained by the environmental horticulture industry.The modelling is conducted using an input-output(I-O)based model of the UK economy,and country-level modules describing the economies of its consti

55、tuent nations.This model was constructed by Oxford Economics,using macroeconomic,employment,and tax data published by the Office for National Statistics(ONS)and HMRC.The figure below sets out how the channels of a standard economic impact study relate to one another.How the channels of economic impa

56、ct add upThe economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK9SECTION 2:DIRECT IMPACT10The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK2.1 HOUSEHOLDS ENVIRONMENTAL HORTICULTURE SPENDThe spending of private households on their gardens is a major drive

57、r of environmental horticulture in the UK.By purchasing flowers and plants,fertilisers and pesticides,garden tools and furniture,greenhouses and sheds,households generate demand for all aspects of the environmental horticulture industry.These include manufacturers and retailers of garden goods,plant

58、 growers,and landscaping service providers.We estimate that UK households spent around 13.2 billion on garden goods in 2023.This spendingmade up of routine purchases of supplies and equipment for gardening,such as houseplants,as well as“bigger ticket”items such as sheds and greenhousesis equivalent

59、to 1 in every 100 of household spending.Beyond these purchases of garden goods,households also spent around 5.8 billion on the services of professional gardeners and landscapers in 2023.These services range from routine maintenance and upkeep to larger scale works such as extensive redesign and land

60、scaping.While routine maintenance is a far more common activity,its relatively lower cost means that it accounted for just over one-third(36%)of the total spend.Landscaping projects made up the remaining two-thirds(64%)given their costlier nature.Fig 2:Household spending on environmental horticultur

61、al goods,by product,20235 Based on HTA analysis of YouGOV survey data for the landscaping services market(2023).Source:ONS,Mintel,HTA,Oxford Economics MillionsCut flowersOutdoor plantsGarden shedsGarden furnitureCompostHouseplantsGreenhousesGarden chemicalsLawnmowersBarbequesPlant potsSeedsBulbs01,5

62、005001,0002,0003,5002,5003,0004,5004,000Non-powered toolsPowered tools3,8801,9701,1201,02079069059055054053045041037020013011The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK2.2 DIRECT IMPACT BY SEGMENTUK-based environmental horticulture and landscaping businesses influence

63、 the economy in many ways.By undertaking core environmental horticulture-related activities,the sectors listed in Box 1 have a direct impact on the UK economy.Quantifying this impact requires leveraging various data sources to measure the direct employment engaged in these sectors,the GDP contributi

64、ons that arise from their activities,and the tax revenues generated for the UK government.This section of the report describes the direct economic contribution that was made by each segment of the environmental horticulture industry in the UK in 2023.In aggregate,the environmental horticulture and l

65、andscaping industry contributed an estimated 14.4 billion to UK GDP in 2023.The provision of landscape services contributed 59%of this direct GDP impact,followed by 20%generated through the retail sale of garden goods and other non-garden goods within garden centres.The UKs environmental horticultur

66、e industry also supported the employment of 378,000 people in 2023,again dominated by landscapers and retailers.The environmental horticulture industry also generated almost 2.6 billion in tax revenues for the UK Exchequer in 2023.This sum is broken out into the industrys various segments,as illustr

67、ated in Fig.4.Landscaping makes up nearly half of the industrys direct tax contribution,followed by retailing.The rest of this chapter details the direct impacts of each of the environmental horticulture industrys segments.Fig.3:Direct GDP and employment contributions of the environmental horticultu

68、re industry,by segment(excluding tourism),20236 These figures exclude garden tourism impacts presented in Chapter 5.Fig.4:Direct tax contributions of the environmental horticulture industries,by tax type,2023 Source:ONS,Mintel,Oxford EconomicsOuter circle:Direct GDP Inner circle:Employment62%20%6%4%

69、4%3%59%21%4%7%5%5%share1,300 630 215 120 135 225 Source:HTA,Oxford EconomicsmillionLandscapingRetailingTree planting and managementOrnamental plant productionGarden goods manufactureWholesale12The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK660 135 13,000 Direct GDP(LHS)Di

70、rect taxes(LHS)Direct employment(RHS)Source:HTA,Oxford Economics Millions02,0004,0006,0008,00010,00012,00014,0000100200300400500600700JobsNote:Left hand side(LHS)and Right hand side(RHS)2.3 MANUFACTURE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIPMENTThe spending of private households on their gardens creates considera

71、ble demand for garden goods and equipment producers.The manufacturing of such a broad range of lawn and garden supplies involves businesses from across the industrial spectrum,from makers of ceramic containers and pots to garden clothing manufacturers,from chemicals firms that synthesise fertilisers

72、 to metalworkers who forge hand tools for gardening.We estimated the size of this activity drawing from detailed official statistics on industrial production by product.These data provided us with the volume and value of garden-related items produced by UK manufacturers in 2022,which were then forec

73、asted to 2023 using ONS GDP growth by sector at a slightly more aggregated level.We also sought to isolate the“environmental horticulture-specific”proportion of such production,by excluding the shares of production that are ultimately consumed for agricultural purposes(e.g.,insecticides are used in

74、agriculture as well as environmental horticulture).We calculate that UK manufacturers of garden goods and equipment sold 2.0 billion worth of environmental horticulture-related products in 2023.From these sales,the environmental horticulture industry directly generated approximately 660 million wort

75、h of GDP,which is equivalent to the difference between these manufacturers total output and the cost of external goods and services required to generate this output.This activity also sustained around 13,000 jobs in 2023.UK manufacturers of garden goods and equipment were also responsible for a dire

76、ct tax contribution of 135 million in 2023.These tax revenues emerge from the activities of these garden goods suppliers through the profits they generate,the purchases they make from other businesses,the wage payments made to their employees,and business rates payable on their premises.7 This is fa

77、ctory-gate value.Products in PRODCOM dataset are valued at the price at which they are sold by the manufacturer.Fig.5:Direct contribution of garden goods and equipment manufacturers,202313The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK2.4 ORNAMENTAL PLANT PRODUCTIONThe gr

78、owing of plants(excluding for commercial food production),trees and flowers in nurseries is an essential component of the value generated by the UK environmental horticulture industry.Ornamental plants,or plants grown for aesthetic purposes and/or ecosystem service provision in gardens,green spaces,

79、and landscape design projects,include houseplants,cut flowers,and specimen exhibition as well as plants produced for planting outside.Ornamental plant producers across the UK cultivate flowers and plants that are meant to be appreciated for their colour,shape,texture,and fragrance,and/or for practic

80、al functions such as sustainable urban drainage systems,urban greening projects.Excluded from the definition is plant production for commercial food manufacturing,or essential oils extraction.UK ornamental plants producers grew and sold around 1.7 billion worth of products during 2023.Fig.6 breaks d

81、own this amount across the groupings provided by the Department for the Environment,Food&Rural Affairs(DEFRA)shows that the bulk this sum was hardy ornamental nursery stock(HONS).The UK also imported ornamental plants worth 1.5 billion in 2023,with 42%of this figure being cut flowers.From these sale

82、s,the environmental horticulture industry generated jobs and economic activity across the UK.In 2023,we estimate the production of ornamental plants generated around 16,000 jobs,a direct contribution to UK GDP of some 1.0 billion,and 120 million in tax revenues.Fig.6:Estimated value of ornamental pl

83、ant production in the UK,2023Fig.7:Direct GDP,employment,and tax contributions of ornamental plant production,2023millionSource:DEFRAFlowers and BulbsPot PlantsHardy Ornamental Nursery Stock1803301,200 MillionsJobs(thousands)1,00012016,000Source:Oxford EconomicsDirect GDP(LHS)Direct taxes(LHS)Direct

84、 employment(RHS)02004006008001000 048121614The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK2.5 LANDSCAPE SERVICESThe landscape services sector covers the design,building,planting,and maintaining of the UKs green spaces.The sector includes specialised landscape service firm

85、s,as well as landscaping activities carried out as part of broader facilities support contracts,or by groundsmen and greenkeepers employed by firms in other industries and public sector bodies.These landscape services take place across a wide range of environments,from public parks and green spaces

86、to the grounds of schools,hospitals,and offices.We estimate that some 235,000 workers helped to deliver landscape services across the UK in 2023.This figure includes the official scope of the sector as represented in national statistics(around 95,000 workers employed at registered landscaping firms)

87、,as well as those working within landscape services firms but in non-landscaping occupationssuch as administrators and managers.A further 75,000 people also worked in the landscape services sector in 2023,but who are“unregistered”in official business statistics,predominantly reflecting self-employed

88、 workers or sole traders.Lastly,we estimate that another 65,000 people worked in landscape-focussed roles within other industries(“wider landscaping activities”)during 2023.Landscaping activities carried out by these workers directly supported an estimated 8.5 billion contribution to UK GDP in 2023.

89、10 Landscaping activities also contribute significantly to government revenues,through a variety of different tax streams.Taxes on the profits,purchases,premises,and labour amounted to a direct tax contribution of 1.3 billion in 2023.8 The sector excludes non-commercial landscape gardening efforts.9

90、 This figure is based on the ONS Annual Population Survey(APS),which is a household survey rather than one of businesses.The employment we describe as“unregistered”predominantly describes self-employment and workers within sole proprietorships.Unregistered does not imply that this activity is illici

91、t;rather,that it occurs at a scale that falls below the relevant VAT/PAYE thresholds that require an official business registration.10 This figure assumes that the value added by landscape workers in other sectors is broadly equivalent to the average worker within the landscape services industry.Fig

92、.8:Landscape services direct employment in the UK,by employment type,2023Fig.9:Direct GDP,employment,and tax contributions of landscape services,2023 MillionsJobs(thousands)8,500 1,300 235,000 Source:Oxford EconomicsDirect GDP(LHS)Direct taxes(LHS)Direct employment(RHS)02,0004,0006,0008,00010,000 0

93、50 100 150 200 250JobsSource:BRES,APS,DBT,Oxford EconomicsRegisteredUnregisteredWider landscaping activities95,00075,00065,00015The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK2.6 RETAIL SALE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIPMENTConsumer purchases of garden supplies and equipment

94、sustain a large economic footprint across the UK.Using ONS statistics on retail turnover by type of store,as well as data from EHG members,we estimated how this spending was split between garden centres and non-specialised general retailers,such as DIY superstores,supermarkets and mail orders.In add

95、ition,an important proportion of garden centres turnover is attributable to the sale of non-garden goods(e.g.,catering income,garden books and magazines,and pet supplies)these are included as part of the economic impact of garden centres.11 Our estimates suggest that the retail sale of garden goods

96、and equipment directly added around 3.0 billion to UK GDP in 2023.Garden centres accounted for 42%of this total,with the remainder created by general retailers.The sale of garden goods and equipment(as well as non-garden sales by specialist garden centres)directly supported 77,000 jobs in 2023,evenl

97、y split between garden centres and general retailers.We also estimate that around 610 million worth of taxes accrued to the Exchequer,because of this retail activity during that same year.11 This“non-garden”revenue can be thought of as dependent upon the garden centres horticultural operations.For e

98、xample,the sales of a caf within a garden centre would likely not take place without people visiting the retailer primarily for garden supplies.Fig.10:Net retail turnover attributable to horticulture,2023Fig.11:Direct GDP,employment,and tax contributions of horticulture-related retail activities,202

99、3 MillionsJobs(thousands)3,00061077,000Source:Oxford EconomicsDirect GDP(LHS)Direct taxes(LHS)Direct employment(RHS)05001,0001,5002,0002,500 0204060803,000millionSource:ONS,Mintel,HTA,Oxford EconomicsNon-specialised general retailersGarden goods sold at garden centresNon-garden goods sold at garden

100、centres9,2001,9001,60016The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK MillionsJobs(thousands)56021022,000Source:Oxford EconomicsDirect GDP(LHS)Direct taxes(LHS)Direct employment(RHS)0100200 05101520300400500600252.7 WHOLESALE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIPMENTFor consumers t

101、o access environmental horticultural supplies across the country,a considerable logistical effort is required to deliver these goods to retailers.Wholesalers and logistics providers ensure plants are carefully handled,stored,and transported from nurseries and greenhouses to garden centres and superm

102、arkets,contributing considerable economic value in the process.Specialist wholesalers of plants and flowers contributed an estimated 370 million to UK GDP during 2023,while employing around 11,000 people.Non-specialist wholesalers that also transport garden goods and equipment contribute further eco

103、nomic value.When including the horticulture-related portion of this non-specialised industry,we estimate that the direct GDP impact of wholesale of environmental horticultural products reached 730 million in 2023.This activity directly generated 14,000 jobs during that year and gave rise to about 22

104、0 million in taxes.Fig.12:Direct GDP,employment,and tax contributions of horticulture-related wholesale activities,20232.8 TREE PLANTING AND MANAGEMENTTree planting and management describes a varied collection of tree-and forest-related activities.In this study,tree planning and management includes

105、the planting,thinning,and management of forests,parks,and street trees,carrying out inventories and evaluations,conservation,pest control,and the facilitation of woodland recreation and tourism.Our definition therefore does not include logging,the production of timber for use in manufacturing or for

106、 burning as fuel,and forestry activities focussed on the gathering of wild produce such as mushrooms,berries,and nuts.Note that this sub-industry is complex to define;more details on the approach taken is detailed in the methodology.Nearly 22,000 people worked in tree planting and management in 2023

107、 in the UKof which over 11,000 engaged in the planting,growing,and management of trees(silviculture)and a further 11,000 worked in other support areas such as evaluation and inventories,fire protection,and public administration.This activity directly generated approximately 560 million in contributi

108、ons to UK GDP in 2023,with silviculture accounting for just over half of this.Around 210 million in tax revenues emerged from this activity in the same year,predominantly because of labour taxes paid on the salaries of arborists and forestry workers.Fig.13:Direct GDP,employment,and tax contributions

109、 of tree planting and management,2023 MillionsJobs(thousands)73022014,000Source:Oxford EconomicsDirect GDP(LHS)Direct taxes(LHS)Direct employment(RHS)0200400 048121660080017SECTION 3:INDIRECT AND INDUCED IMPACTS18The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKThe total ec

110、onomic contribution of the environmental horticulture industry is made up of three channels.The first channel entails the direct operations of businesses within the horticulture industry in the UK,as described in Chapter 3.The second channel occurs through indirect activity stimulated by the industr

111、ys supply chain spending,while the third channel occurs through induced activity stimulated by employees working in the industry and its supply chains spending some of their wages in the consumer economy.This chapter discusses these multiplier effects in turn.3.1 INDIRECT IMPACTTo produce goods and

112、provide services,companies in the environmental horticulture and landscaping industry purchase inputs from a variety of domestic suppliers.In 2023,the environmental horticulture industry spent an estimated 10 billion on operational inputs of goods and services such as agriculture products,rental and

113、 leasing services and advertising and market.Imports made up 14%of this total.12 The 8.7 billion spent with other domestic industries constitutes the first round of the environmental horticulture sectors indirect impact.This spending supports GDP and jobs,not only with businesses that supply the env

114、ironmental horticulture industry directly,but also with suppliers own suppliers,and so on,along the entire length of the domestic supply chain.In this way,the environmental horticulture sectors economic footprint extends across many other industries throughout the UK.Fig.15 provides our estimated br

115、eakdown of the sectors domestic spending with its “Tier 1”suppliers.The UK industries benefitting most from the ornamental and landscaping industrys procurement spending were wholesale,construction,finance&insurance,utilities,administrative services,and agriculture.Throughout these,the largest contr

116、ibuting segment in terms of procurement spend was landscaping.Fig.14:Geographic source of procurement by the environmental horticulture industry,202313Fig.15:Domestic procurement of the environmental horticulture industry,by sector,202312 This analysis excludes the expenditures that elements of the

117、sector make with one another,to avoid the double counting of any activity.The economic significance of these transactions is captured in each subsectors direct impact.13 In this chart,the retail sectors procurement activity describes its operational inputs,but excludes goods that are bought and sold

118、 for resale in the same condition(i.e.,its retail stock).Retail sector procurement would encompass its rent and utilities payments,purchases of furniture and fixtures,logistics,professional services,finance and insurance,ICT costs,etc.Tree planting andmanagementLandscapingOrnamentalsRetailWholesaleG

119、arden goodsTotalSource:Oxford Economics0204060801009494928777528666813234814DomesticImports%02004006008001,0001,2001,4001,6001,8001,800 970 910 860 850 740 680 520 470 420 480 Garden GoodsOrnamentalsLandscapingRetailWholesaleTree planting&managementSource:Oxford Economics millionWholesaleConstructio

120、nFinanceUtilitiesAdminAgricultureTransportProf.servicesManufacturingICTOther19The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKIn 2023,the environmental horticulture industry supported a 7.9 billion contribution to UK GDP through its procurement spending.The sectors expendi

121、ture also sustained some 111,000 jobs along its supply chain,as illustrated in Fig.16.Firms in landscaping activities made up the largest portion of this indirect impact,with their 4.4 billion contribution accounting for over half(56%)of the total.This indirect activity also supported substantial re

122、venues for the Exchequer.In 2023,environmental horticulture indirectly enabled almost 1.8 billion in indirect taxes for the UK government,including 1.2 billion in labour taxes,260 million in corporation tax,and 380 million in other taxes on products and production.Fig.16:Sectoral distribution of the

123、 indirect impact of the environmental horticulture industry,20233.2 INDUCED IMPACTThe environmental horticulture industry paid some 7.5 billion in employee compensation to their 378,000 workers in 2023.These employees,as well as staff at firms along the sectors supply chains,spend a portion of their

124、 wages in the UK consumer economyfor example,at retail and leisure outlets.Through this induced channel,the environmental horticulture industry supported a 9.2 billion contribution to UK GDP in 2023.This accrued to many sectors of the consumer economy,with the largest GDP impact felt by the real est

125、ate(2.4 billion),and wholesale&retail industries(1.3 billion).The environmental horticulture industry also sustained some 116,000 jobs in 2023 through the induced channel.The largest proportion of these were at firms in the wholesale&retail(28,000 jobs),and accommodation&food industries(18,000 jobs)

126、.Through this induced channel,the environmental horticulture sector also enabled a 2.6 billion contribution to the Exchequer in 2023,mostly driven by VAT charged on consumer goods and services,and other product taxes on suppliers(1.6 billion).Fig.17.Sectoral distribution of the induced impact of the

127、 environmental horticulture industry,2023Source:ONS,DEFRA,HMRC,HTA,Oxford Economics millionPersons,000sGDP contribution(left axis)Employment(right axis)WholesaleConstructionFinanceUtilitiesAdmin.servicesAgricultureTransportProf.servicesManufacturingICTOther010203004008001,2001,600Source:ONS,HMRC,Oxf

128、ord Economics millionPersons,000sGDP contribution(left axis)Employment(right axis)Real estateWholesaleConstructionFinanceAccom.&foodTransportProf.servicesManufacturingICTOther0103001,0003,000202,000Admin.services2020SECTION 4:TOURISM IMPACT21Gardens and parks are an important part of the UKs cultura

129、l attractions and play a prominent role in driving UK tourism.The countrys nations and regions are filled with lots of beautiful green spaces that attract millions of visitors from all over the world every year.For example,the Royal Horticultural Society(RHS)Chelsea Flower Show attracts tens of thou

130、sands of visitors to the grounds of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London every year,and it takes approximately 8,000 people to put together.14 The UK is renowned for being the“gardening capital of the world”,and its gardens help attract international and domestic visitors,who spend billions of pound

131、s in the country year.This highlights the role of the environmental horticulture industry in bringing not only environmental,social,and cultural benefits to the UK,but also the important economic impacts.Trips that involve visits to parks or gardens support vast economic contributions,and such attra

132、ctions rely on the environmental horticulture industry for their viability and charm.For example,domestic producers grow many of the plants and trees at these parks,and UK-based landscapers and groundskeepers maintain their grounds,often utilising made-in-the-UK garden equipment.To quantify the exte

133、nt of tourism activity that is attributable specifically to parks and gardens,we followed an approach originally developed by VisitBritain.This method appraises the proportion of UK tourism activity that is motivated by various visitor attractions by leveraging survey evidence from ONS and VisitBrit

134、ain on the activities undertaken during visitors trips,and how important they were in motivating the visit.15 14 Gardens Illustrated,Chelsea Flower Show in numbers,May 2022.15 This survey evidence is only available for domestic visitors.For international visitors,total spending on a given inbound tr

135、ip is allocated equally across all activities undertaken by the visitor.Spending that takes place on trips that are undertaken for business reasons,for study,or to visit friends and relatives,are then“discounted”by 25-75%,to acknowledge the fact that these purposes were the main drivers of the visit

136、.22The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK4.1 TOURISM SPEND ATTRIBUTABLE TO GREEN SPACESWe estimate that 4.2 billion of international and domestic tourism spending was attributable to UK parks or gardens in 2023.International visitors accounted for over three-quar

137、ters (77%)of this total spend,and their 3.2 billion annual expenditure is“additional”to the UK economyamounting to exports of tourism services to overseas residents.The remaining 960 million was accounted for by domestic visits,including holidays that involved overnight stays,as well as day trips.Hi

138、storically,parks and gardens have been a prominent reason for international visits to the UK.In 2016(the last year when the question was asked),the ONS found that around one-third(32%)of all inbound visits to the UK involved at least one visit to a park or public garden,making it the most common act

139、ivity for international tourists according to the 2016 International Passenger Survey.Unfortunately,this statistic has not been updated since,so for the purpose of this study,we calculated the propensity to visit green spaces by demographic group using this data(by nationality,age,gender,purpose of

140、visit,and visit length).We then applied these propensities to the current demographic composition of UK international visitors and their spending in 2023.This assumes the propensity to visit parks by demographic has remained unchanged,with any variations reflecting changes in the profile of visitors

141、 to the UK and their spending.Following this approach,we estimate that 3.2 billion of international tourism spending was attributable to UK parks or gardens in 2023.It should be noted that this spending did not just take place at parks and gardens,but it encompassed all purchases of goods and servic

142、es by visitors during their trips,including on accommodation,food&beverage,merchandising,transportation,as well as other cultural and recreational spending.This spending therefore can be interpreted as the total tourism spending in the UK that is attributable to those visiting parks and gardens.When

143、 it comes to domestic tourists,our modelling suggests that in 2023,the UK saw around 960 million worth of domestic tourism spending that was attributable to parks and gardens.This included holidays that involved overnight stays,as well as day trips.Fig.18:Estimated tourism spending attributable to v

144、isits to UK parks and gardens,2023millionSource:ONS,Visit Britain,Oxford Economics9,1001,9001,900OverseasDomestic overnightDomestic day visits3,200 380 580 23The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK4.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF HORTICULTURE-ATTRIBUTABLE TOURISMThe 4.2 bil

145、lion of international and domestic tourism spending attributable to parks or gardens accrued to the UKs tourism industries,including the accommodation sector,food services,transportation,retailers,sports,and the creative&cultural industries.The ONS Tourism Satellite Accounts(TSAs)was used to give in

146、sights on how much spending flows to each industry.We estimate that in 2023,visitor spending attributable to parks and gardens supported some 6.6 billion in GDP in 2023.This scale of economic activity was enabled by some 117,000 workers and gave rise to around 1.6 billion in tax revenues for the Exc

147、hequer.Considering just the UKs tourism industry,visitor spending attributable to parks and gardens made a 1.8 billion direct contribution to GDP by the UKs tourism industries.This impact was associated with 39,000 jobs and around 400 million in tax revenues in 2023.Fig.19:Total economic impact of h

148、orticulture-attributable tourism,202316We estimate that in 2023,visitor spending attributable to parks and gardens supported some 6.6 billion in GDP.16 Figures may not sum due to rounding.MillionsJobs 000s1,800 400 3,200 720-1,500 430-39-59 19 02040608010012014001,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,000GD

149、P contribution(LHS)Taxes(LHS)Employment(RHS)6,6001,600Source:ONS,VisitBritain,Oxford EconomicsDirectIndirectInduced1172424SECTION 5:SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF HORTICULTURE25The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKThis section of the study presents evidenc

150、e on the wellbeing,social,and environmental benefits of horticulture.Evidence was gathered through a rapid literature review on the health,wellbeing,social inclusion,environmental,and ecosystem services benefits of gardens,gardening,green spaces,and horticulture.A range of articles were selected fro

151、m the literature,with research methods including meta-analysis and original research,and with a geographic scope ranging from global studies to research focussing on the UK,Europe,and the US.The literature includes research conducted by a range of UK organisations that are active in producing origin

152、al research in the field,including DEFRA,RHS,the University of Reading and the University of Sheffield.The literature review identifies a wide range of evidence pointing to the significant positive benefits that horticulture affords society and the natural world.This study separates these benefits i

153、nto two broad categories:first,those pertaining to health and wellbeing,and second,those pertaining to the environment.5.1 HEALTH AND WELLBEINGAs defined by the WHO(1948),health is“a state of complete physical,mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.In line wi

154、th Soga et al(2017),we interpret“health”in a broad sense to include physical and psychological wellbeing.On this basis,we consider three categories of health and wellbeing in this study:(1)Physical health;(2)Mental health and wellbeing;and(3)Social inclusion and wellbeing.Relevant literature to each

155、 category is outlined in further detail below.5.1.1 PHYSICAL HEALTHThe literature establishes that gardening and gardens hold a positive relationship with various physical health outcomes.Soga et al(2017)in their meta-analysis of 22 research papers examining the effects of gardening on health,found

156、that participating in gardening activities has a significant positive impact on a wide range of health outcomes.This positive association was observed for a breadth of physical health outcomes,including reductions in Body Mass Index(BMI)and increases in physical activity levels and cognitive functio

157、n.Notably,the studies assessed in the meta-analysis found that improvements in patients health,including cognitive function,persisted three months after their participation in horticulture therapy,suggesting that the positive impact of gardening on health continues over time.Soga et al(2017)outlined

158、 several possible causal pathways through which gardening promotes health.The first and most direct pathway identified was the added health benefits of direct experience with nature.A further pathway was that gardening was likely to encourage people to undertake physical exercise,which could,in turn

159、,contribute to improvements in health.The positive association between gardening and gardens and health and wellbeing was similarly established by Howarth et al(2020),through a meta-analysis of 77 studies to guide healthcare strategists decisions on how to use gardens and gardening as a non-medical

160、prescription.Howarth et al(2020)found that gardening could help improve physiological outcomes associated with long-term physical health conditions,such as blood glucose levels,cortisol levels,heart rate variability,blood lipids,and salivary stress cortisol.Focussing on the benefits of green spaces,

161、research has also established that the quantity,size,and percentage of vegetation cover of green space has positive impacts on health outcomes.26Van den Berg et al(2015)conducted a systematic review of 40 research papers addressing the relationship between quantity and quality of green spaces in the

162、 living environment and health outcomes.Van den Berg et al(2015)concluded that there was strong evidence for significant positive associations between the quantity of green space and reductions in all-cause mortality,and moderate evidence for an association with perceived general health.Reyes-Rivero

163、s et al(2021)built upon the research of Van den Berg et al(2015),and performed a systematic bibliographic review of 153 papers examining the association between green spaces and human health and wellbeing.Their findings showed that the number of green spaces,and their percentage of vegetation cover

164、and size,improved health and wellbeing in all aspects assessed,with the most significant positive association observed in mental health.Further,recent studies have examined associations of green space with the health-outcomes of participants in the longitudinal UK Biobank study,a national prospectiv

165、e cohort of adults in the UK with linked ONS mortality records(Roscoe et al,2022;Wan et al 2022;Yu et al,2023).The researchers found inverse relationships between green spaces and mortality,including all-cause,non-injury cardiovascular mortality and chronic respiratory disease mortality.A positive a

166、ssociation between health and urban horticulture is also established in the literature.It is estimated that the removal of harmful pollutants by urban vegetation generated 800.5 million in avoided negative health impacts in Great Britain in 2021(ONS,2023).Cruz-Piedrahita et al(2020)conducted a syste

167、matic review of the literature,focussing on the impacts of urban horticulture on public health,the environment,and health behaviours in the Global North.17 Cruz-Piedrahita et al(2020)concluded that urban horticulture could help to improve public health in cities of the Global North,with positive hea

168、lth outcomes including an increase in physical activity and in fruit and vegetable consumption.This positive relationship with increased physical activity has also been established with respect to gardening and access to gardens.Chalmin-Pui et al(2021)found a significant positive association between

169、 more frequent gardening and physical activity levels of UK gardeners,while de Bell et al(2020)found that access to a private garden in the UK was associated with a higher likelihood of meeting physical activity guidelines.17 Urban horticulture is the agriculture of plants for food consumption,mater

170、ials production,or decoration,developed inside city boundaries.275.1.2 MENTAL HEALTH AND WELLBEINGA key focus of the literature analysing the relationship between horticulture and health and wellbeing is on the significant positive association with mental health and broader wellbeing outcomes.In Sog

171、a et al(2017),“wellbeing”was interpreted simply as“the state of being comfortable,happy,or prosperous”.In addition to the researchers findings related to physical health outcomes,they concluded that gardening is positively associated with a broad range of mental health outcomes,including reductions

172、in depression and anxiety symptoms,stress,and mood disturbance,in addition to increases in general quality of life.In fact,Soga et als(2017)subgroup analysis indicated that mental wellbeing variables were more likely to be sharply enhanced by gardening than health variables.In Howarth et als(2020)me

173、ta-analysis,36%of the studies assessed focused on the impact of gardening on mental health.The researchers found that gardening interventions had a positive impact on mental health and wellbeing,including reducing depression and anxiety.Clatworthy et al(2013)found the same positive association in th

174、eir study,where they evaluated the evidence for gardening-based mental health interventions.When the researchers considered the papers that met their specified inclusion criteria,all the selected material reported positive effects of gardening as a mental health intervention,including reduced sympto

175、ms of depression and anxiety.The positive impact from gardening on mental health and wellbeing is also established in original research,in addition to the previously detailed systematic reviews.Wood et al(2020)assessed the impacts of a session of allotment gardening on mental wellbeing,measuring sel

176、f-esteem,mood,and general health in over 100 UK gardeners before and after an allotment session.They found a statistically significant improvement in self-esteem and mood as a result of one allotment session.Moreover,the researchers revealed that allotment gardeners had statistically significantly b

177、etter self-esteem and mood and experienced less depression than non-gardeners.Wakefield et al(2007)reached similar conclusions through their investigation of the health impacts of community gardening in Toronto,Canada,finding that community gardens were perceived by gardeners to provide numerous hea

178、lth benefits,including improved mental health.This positive association was also 28The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKfound by Scott et al(2020),who studied the relationships between home and community gardening and older adults self-reported psychosocial and

179、physical wellbeing in Australia.Scott et al(2020)found that older adults who took part in gardening-related activities reported psychological benefits,and that the more time spent doing these activities,the more the benefits accrued.Moreover,research on the impacts of green spaces and horticulture f

180、ind a significant positive impact on mental wellbeing.Van den Berg et al(2015),in their systematic review,found strong evidence for the significant positive association between the quantity of green space and perceived mental health.Wendelboe-Nelson et al(2019)utilised a scoping review approach to m

181、ap literature on green spaces and their associations with mental health and wellbeing.Of the 273 studies identified by the researchers,70%reported a positive association between some aspect of green space exposure and health and wellbeing.The researchers concluded that different types of green space

182、s,in a range of contexts and environments,had a positive effect on mental health and wellbeing.With respect to horticulture,Scott et al(2022)conducted a systematic review focussing on the impacts of horticulture-based activities for people living with dementia in community settings.They found that i

183、nvolvement in horticulture-based activities led to positive impacts on mental wellbeing and quality of life.Further,Chalmin-Pui et al(2021)analysed the impacts of a horticultural intervention in North England,UK,where ornamental plants were introduced to previously bare gardens.The researchers found

184、 that the intervention was associated with significant reductions in residents perceived stress,which was reflected in improved diurnal cortisol patterns.18 5.1.3 SOCIAL INCLUSION AND WELLBEINGBeyond physical and mental wellbeing,social wellbeing is also found in the literature to be positively affe

185、cted by gardens and gardening.Looking at the systematic reviews detailed in sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 above,Howarth et al (2020)identified a link between gardening and a reduction in social isolation,finding that gardening enabled greater social interaction with others and thus improved overall menta

186、l wellbeing,while reducing depression and anxiety.Similarly,Soga et al(2017)found that gardening was associated with an increased sense of community.This positive relationship between gardens and gardening and social inclusion is also established in original research conducted in the Netherlands and

187、 Australia.Veen et al(2016)analysed seven community gardens in the Netherlands,with varying organisational designs and objectives,and investigated the extent to which these influenced the enhancement of social cohesion.Notably,they found that community gardens contributed to the development of socia

188、l cohesion,even if people were not particularly driven by social motivations.In Australia,Kingsley et al(2019)presented findings from semi-structured interviews with participants from community gardens,and suggested that engagement in community gardens enhanced social and natural connectedness in ur

189、ban settings.This engagement was also shown to improve health and wellbeing and address the socio-ecological determinants of health.Scott et als(2020)study on the relationships between gardening and older adults in Australias self-reported wellbeing had a notable focus on social connectedness.They f

190、ound that increased social connectedness appeared to be a benefit of gardening group membership,as indicated by the significantly 18 The physiological stress response in humans is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal(HPA)axis and its synthesis of cortisol(Chalmin-Pui et al,2021).29higher m

191、ean on their“Social benefits”scale for members compared with non-members.19 The social benefits of gardening as marked by this scale included meeting new people,making and maintaining friendships,and having a shared interest to connect with other people.Horticulture-based activities and urban hortic

192、ulture are also assessed by the literature as providing benefits to social inclusion.Sempik et al(2014)conducted a study where they collected scores on social interaction,communication,motivation,and task engagement,as part of an assessment during a programme of social and therapeutic horticulture i

193、n the UK.20 The sample assessed was comprised of a varied group of participants,which included vulnerable people,principally those with a learning disability or a mental health problem.The key finding from the study was that scores for social interaction were significantly higher after 90 days of pa

194、rticipation,with this effect appearing to be most evident in participants with a learning disability.Sempik et al(2014)concluded that social and therapeutic horticulture promoted social inclusion among vulnerable and isolated groups.Scott et al(2022)reached a similar conclusion through their systema

195、tic review,concluding that participation in horticulture-based activities promoted social participation.With respect to urban horticulture,Cruz-Pedrahita(2020)identified social isolation as an issue of increasing concern in urban life,and found that urban horticulture was related to an increase in s

196、ocial cohesion.19 The scale was generated by combining participants answers to three questions relating to social benefits,measured on a five-point Likert-type scale.20 Therapeutic horticulture describes a process,either active or passive,of purposefully using plants and gardens in therapeutic and r

197、ehabilitative activities designed to positively affect a set of defined health outcomes for individuals(Scott et al,2020).Howarth et al(2020)identified a link between gardening and a reduction in social isolation 30The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK5.2 ENVIRO

198、NMENTAL IMPACTSAcademic literature suggests that gardens,green spaces,and horticulture play a significant role in promoting environmental benefits.In this study we focus on two categories of environmental benefits:firstly,the support of biodiversity;and secondly,the provision of related ecosystem se

199、rvices.5.2.1 BIODIVERSITYThe literature establishes that gardens are a principal component of green infrastructure and an important source of biodiversity.Gardens and green spaces include a variety of cultivated and wild plants,including both native and non-native species(Salisbury et al,2015;2017).

200、Delahay et al(2023)conducted a review that summarised evidence from 408 studies of garden biodiversity published in the scientific literature.The researchers found that of the studies that compared the biodiversity of gardens to other habitats,several showed similar or higher plant species richness

201、than nearby native habitats.An early assessment on the importance of green spaces and gardens in the UKs urban environments to biodiversity was conducted by Gaston et al in 2005.They performed a detailed audit of UK gardens,based on the Biodiversity in Urban Gardens in Sheffield(BUGS)project,to illu

202、strate how green spaces in UK urban environmentsincluding large numbers of ponds,nest-boxes,compost heaps,and treessupported biodiversity and the provision of related ecosystem services.Thompson et al(2003)also utilised findings from the BUGS project,analysing species biodiversity in UK gardens.The

203、researchers found that biodiversity in gardens was very high when compared to derelict land.The authors hence credited the variety of plants available to gardeners and identified that it was the active management of land that allowed plants to survive in low populations.The literature also includes

204、a range of studies focussing on the importance of gardens in supporting particular species.For example,Plummer et al(2023)used garden monitoring to illustrate how gardens play a significant role in providing habitats for butterflies,including increased visitations of species exceeding those in other

205、 habitats,and increases in species thought of as less common garden visitors.The researchers found that interventions such as increasing the number and diversity of flowering plants,as well as including shrubby areas,had a positive impact on butterfly species.With regard to invertebrates,RHS have co

206、nducted a series of experiments in the UK quantifying and comparing biodiversity benefits associated with different plant species in gardens and other green spaces(Salisbury et al 2015;2017;2020).The researchers found that gardens support a broad range of invertebrate species,with higher levels of p

207、lant matter availability associated with greater species abundance.Another particular interest in the literature is the impact of gardens on pollinators.Osborne et al(2008)found that gardens provided valuable nesting habitats for bumblebees in the UK.The researchers found that the density of bumbleb

208、ee nests in gardens were comparable to those of fence lines,slightly greater than in hedgerows and significantly greater than in other habitats such as woodland and grassland.Baldock et al(2015)also identified the important role of gardens in supporting pollinatorsparticularly bees.The researchers h

209、ighlighted the role that urban green areas can play in providing favourable habitats,refuges,and corridors for pollinators.Tew et al(2021)quantified the nectar supply of urban areas,farm land and nature reserve landscapes across 36 UK sites.The researchers found that residential gardens are the key

210、land use underpinning nectar sugar production within urban landscapes and concluded that retaining gardens within urban landscapes is a priority in urban pollinator conservation.The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UK315.2.2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICESA focus of research o

211、n the environmental benefits of horticulture is the support that it gives to the provision of ecosystem services.Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems.These include provisioning services such as food and water;regulating services such as regulation of floods,drought,land

212、degradation,and disease;supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling;and cultural services such as recreational,spiritual,religious,and other nonmaterial benefits(Millenium Ecosystem Assessment,2003).Notably,the ONS(2023)have estimated that the asset value of urban cooling provide

213、d by green and blue spaces in UK urban environments was 27.4 billion in 2021.Further,ONS(2023)have stated that allotments and growing spaces enable small scale food production in urban areas,yielding an estimated 116 million kilogrammes of produce in Great Britain in 2021.The support provided by hor

214、ticulture to the provision of ecosystem services is inherently connected to the previously mentioned research on the biodiversity benefits of horticulture and gardens.However,in addition to this literature,there are papers that have a more explicit focus on the impacts of horticulture and gardens on

215、 ecosystem services.For example,Evans et al(2020)conducted a systematic review of 157 peer-reviewed journal articles to synthesise the benefits and disbenefits of implementing various forms of urban agriculture and green infrastructure for the delivery of ecosystem services in urban areas.The resear

216、chers concluded that parks,community gardens,and green spaces supported diverse ecosystem provisions,each delivering more than 16 different ecosystem services across all four service categories.The most prevalent services provided by parks and green spaces were climate and air quality regulation,as

217、well as recreation and mental and physical health,while the most prevalent service provided by community gardens was maintenance of genetic diversity.With respect to horticulture,the systematic review Researchers concluded that parks,community gardens,and green spaces supported diverse ecosystem pro

218、visions 32The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKconducted by Cruz-Pedrahita et al(2020)found that urban horticulture could improve soil porosity and micro-diversity and regenerate urban soils,thus enhancing green spaces and increasing biodiversity in cities.Case

219、studies conducted across Europe,North America,and the UK have also found evidence of the supportive role that gardens play in ecosystem service provision.Speak et al(2015)analysed the ecosystem services provided by allotments gardens in Manchester,UK,and Pozna,Poland,by conducting surveys that inclu

220、ded land cover characterisation and an assessment of plant species.The researchers found that allotment gardens provided a broad range of ecosystem services in urban areasincluding pollination,food provision,and biodiversityand noted that many of the ecosystem services provided were of high importan

221、ce in cities.Case studies have also been conducted in the UK investigating the ecosystem service provision of green hedges,green facades and green roofs(Blanusa et al,2019;Kemp et al,2018;Thomsit-Ireland et al,2020).The researchers found that these green spaces support the provision of a range of ec

222、osystem services,including pollution capture,cooling and water management through increased rainfall retention.Clarke&Jenerette(2015)investigated the ecosystem services production in community gardens across Los Angeles in the US by conducting surveys across regional,garden,and plot scales.Quantitat

223、ive results from the study indicated that community gardens provided valued ecosystem services in food insecure regions and contributed to biologically diverse urban ecosystems.These conclusions are reinforced by the findings of Camps-Calvet et al(2016),who adopted an ecosystem services framework to

224、 assess the contributions of urban gardens to their users in Barcelona,Spain,and identified the provision of 20 ecosystem services,ranging from food production to social cohesion.Notably,the researchers found that the main beneficiaries of ecosystem services from urban gardens were older,low-middle

225、income,and migrant people.In an indoor context,Gubb et al(2022)find that houseplants reduce concentrations of nitrogen dioxide,which is associated with negative outcomes for human health.These impacts were found to be strongest in confined indoor spaces that were poorly ventilated and/or located in

226、highly polluted areas.Looking more specifically at ecosystem services related to soil formation and the impact of cultivation techniques,Bretzel et al(2018)conducted a study that focused on an allotment area in Italy,which since 1995 has been run as a municipal vegetable garden by the residents.The

227、study analysed the soil and compared the data with those collected five years previously,to verify the possible changes in soil properties and fertility.The researchers found that the allotment holders positively influenced the soil quality through the cultivation techniques.A specific focus in the

228、literature is on the carbon sequestration services provided by gardens and green spaces.Davies et al(2011)examined the quantities and spatial patterns of above-ground carbon stored in a typical British city,Leicester,by surveying vegetation across the entire urban area.Davies et al(2011)estimated th

229、at approximately 230,000 tonnes of carbon is stored within the above-ground vegetation of Leicester,equating to 316kgCm2 of urban area.The researchers concluded that current national estimates of this ecosystem service undervalue Leicesters contribution by an order of magnitude.Edmundson et al(2014)

230、investigated the effect of land-cover on soil organic carbon(SOC)stocks in domestic gardens and non-domestic greenspaces in Leicester.The researchers found that domestic gardens held greater SOC concentrations than non-domestic greenspaces and that urban green space SOC storage exceeded that of regi

231、onal agricultural soils.3333SECTION 6:CONCLUSION34The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKThe environmental horticulture and landscaping industrys wide range of activities support a significant amount of GDP,jobs,and government tax revenue in the UK.Through the env

232、ironmental horticulture and landscaping industrys own activitiesplus activity it stimulated through its supply chain spending with UK-based businesses and wage-financed consumption of people employed in the sector and among its suppliersthe nations environmental horticulture and landscaping industry

233、 (excluding garden tourism)supported a 31.5 billion GVA contribution to UK GDP in 2023 across the economy,equivalent to 1 in every 85 of the UKs GDP.Through these channels of activity,the environmental horticulture industry sustained the employment of 605,000 people and 6.9 billion in tax revenues a

234、cross the UK economy in that same year.On top its core impact,environmental horticulture also boosts the UKs attractiveness as a tourism destination.Green spaces across the country attract international and domestic visitors with their scenic beauty,enabling tourists to spend money within the UKs to

235、urism industries and thereby contributing further to the economy.We estimate that tourism activity attributable to parks and gardens boosted UK GDP by a further 6.6 billion in 2023,while sustaining another 117,000 jobs and raising 1.6 billion in tax.Altogether,the industry supported a 38.0 billion G

236、VA contribution to UK GDP in 2023 across the economy,equivalent to 1 in every 71 of the UKs GDP.Through these channels of activity,the environmental horticulture industry sustained the employment of 722,000 people and 8.5 billion in tax revenues across the UK economy in that same year.A significant

237、share of the environmental horticulture and landscaping industrys total impact was generated through its direct operations.Its activities directly generated an estimated billion gross value added contribution to UK GDP,employed around 417,000 jobs,and 3 billion in tax for the UK government.Horticult

238、ure also generates a broader range of social and environmental benefits.Through a review of key literature,we identified a broad range of benefits provided by gardens,gardening,green spaces and horticulture to health and wellbeing and the environment.This ranges from the alleviation of symptoms of c

239、hronic physical and mental health conditions,to the integral role played by gardens and green spaces in supporting the provision of ecosystem services.The literature review also provides insights into the positive impacts of horticulture for particularly vulnerable groups,such as the elderly,and in

240、lessening the specific environmental and social challenges of urban spaces.SECTORGDP IMPACT(m)EMPLOYMENT(Jobs)TAX REVENUES(m)DirectTotalDirectTotalDirect TotalGarden Goods7001,90013,00029,000130450Ornamental Plants1,0002,00016,00032,000120380Landscape Services8,50017,900235,000355,0001,2603,660Retai

241、l3,0005,70077,000112,0006101,310Wholesale7001,40014,00024,000220410Tree planting&management6002,60022,00052,000210730Total(excl.tourism)14,40031,500378,000605,0002,5606,900Garden Tourism1,8006,60039,000117,0004001,600Total16,30038,000417,000722,0002,9608,500Fig.20:Summary of direct and total impacts

242、 of the UK environmental horticulture industry,20233535APPENDICES36The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKGDP IMPACT(m)Garden Goods7006006001,900Ornamental Plants1,0005005002,000Landscape Services8,5004,4005,00017,900Retail3,0009001,8005,700Wholesale7003004001,400

243、Tree planting&management6001,1009002,600Total(excl.tourism)14,4007,9009,20031,500Garden Tourism1,8003,2001,5006,600Total16,30011,10010,70038,000Fig.21:Environmental horticultures core economic impact,by channel of impact and segment,2023APPENDIX 1:DETAILED RESULTSSECTORDirectIndirectInducedTotalEMPL

244、OYMENT(Jobs)Garden Goods12,8008,9007,60029,300Ornamental Plants16,2009,5006,30032,000Landscape Services235,40057,20062,900355,500Retail77,10012,90022,300112,300Wholesale14,4004,2005,40024,000Tree planting&management21,60018,70011,20051,600Total(excl.tourism)378,000111,000116,000605,000Garden Tourism

245、38,90059,10019,300117,400Total417,000171,000135,000722,000TAX REVENUES(m)Garden Goods130140170450Ornamental Plants120120140380Landscape Services1,3001,0001,4003,700Retail6102104901,310Wholesale22070120410Tree planting&management210270250730Total(excl.tourism)2,6001,8002,6006,900Garden Tourism4007004

246、001,600Total3,0002,5003,0008,50037The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKNATIONAL IMPACT SUMMARIESGDP IMPACT(m)EMPLOYMENT(Jobs)DirectTotalDirectTotalEngland12,20025,900311,000490,000Wales5401,80016,40037,000Scotland1,3002,60041,90059,700Northern Ireland4401,4008,7

247、0022,400United Kingdom14,40032,000378,000610,000Fig.22:Environmental horticultures economic impact,excluding tourism,by nation,202321 Fig.23:Environmental horticultures GDP impact,excluding tourism,by nation and segment,202321 Tourism activity cannot be broken down along national lines using the sam

248、e methodology that is employed for other segments of the environmental horticulture industry.NATIONAL GDP IMPACTORNAMENTAL PLANTSLANDSCAPE SERVICESGARDEN GOODSDirectTotalDirectTotalDirect TotalEngland7701,7007,20014,7005201,500Wales7017031096040130Scotland301308401,60080170Northern Ireland1001801807

249、202090United Kingdom1,0002,2008,50017,9006601,900NATIONAL GDP IMPACTRETAILWHOLESALETREE PLANTING AND MANAGEMENTDirectTotalDirectTotalDirect TotalEngland2,7004,8006001,2004502,000Wales80250206030180Scotland200400308070230Northern Ireland90230408010130United Kingdom3,0005,7007301,4005602,600Note:May n

250、ot sum due to rounding.38The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKFig.24:Environmental horticultures employment impact,excluding tourism,by nation and segment,2023REGIONAL EMPLOYMENT IMPACT(Jobs)ORNAMENTAL PLANTSLANDSCAPE SERVICESGARDEN GOODSDirectTotalDirectTotalDi

251、rect TotalEngland12,10025,800194,000287,60011,10023,900Wales1,5003,70010,30020,3005001,900Scotland8002,40027,40036,7009002,100Northern Ireland1,8003,0003,60010,9003001,300United Kingdom16,20034,900235,400355,50012,80029,300REGIONAL EMPLOYMENT IMPACT(Jobs)RETAILWHOLESALETREE PLANTING AND MANAGEMENTDi

252、rectTotalDirectTotalDirect TotalEngland66,80094,90012,50020,00013,90036,000Wales2,7005,5004001,1001,0004,500Scotland5,9008,4005001,2006,4008,900Northern Ireland1,7003,6009001,4003002,100United Kingdom77,100112,30014,40023,80021,60051,400Note:May not sum due to rounding.39The economic impact of envir

253、onmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKAPPENDIX 2:METHODOLOGYTo conduct the analysis,we used an update UK Input-Output(IO)table sourced from the ONS.This is effectively a cross-section of the economy,outlining the transactions between different industrial sectors(who purchases what from whom

254、).It forms the basis of our economic impact assessment model.The updated IO table reflects structural changes in the economy.We include the latest National Accounts data,also sourced from the ONS,so to reflect the structure and industrial relationships of the UKs economy in 2023.HOUSEHOLDS ENVIRONME

255、NTAL HORTICULTURE SPENDTo understand the magnitude and structure of households demand for garden goods and products,we drew upon a range of sources.YouGovs detailed product-by-product sales figures form the core of this analysis.These figuressense checked by HTAwere used to measure the magnitude of

256、horticulture spending across detailed product groups.This differs from the source used in the previous project(Kantar-TGI)hence there are some minor differences in definition.Namely,houseplants and indoor plants are included in other garden plants/trees,which is an addition to the previous data sour

257、ce,and fertilisers/weeds has been re-defined as garden chemicals.Due to the data not including cut flowers,these are added using an estimate from Mintel.MANUFACTURE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIPMENTTo estimate the direct impact of garden goods and equipment production,we used PRODCOM data accessed via O

258、NS and Eurostat.This is a dataset that records detailed production statistics across 3,900 different types of manufactured products.We identified a list of environmental horticultural products from these data and used them as the starting point for our analysis.For products that could be used for ei

259、ther horticultural or agricultural purposes,we adjusted total production to isolate environmental horticultural demand.This adjustment drew upon data from the ONS input-output tables.These record the extent to which different goods and services are consumed by various sectors of the economy and allo

260、wed us to estimate the share of demand for(e.g.)agro-chemicals used by households and landscape services firms,as opposed to the agriculture sector and food manufacturers.We estimated GDP contributions using the ONS Annual Business Survey(ABS).This provides details on the turnover and gross value-ad

261、ded(GVA,that is broadly equivalent to GDP)for many industries across the UK economy,including a detailed list of manufacturing subsectors.The ABS uses the same industrial classification as the PRODCOM database,albeit at a greater level of aggregation.Import propensities were added,sourced from HRMCs

262、 Overseas Trade Statistics.We estimated garden goods direct GDP impact using the ratio of GDP to turnover from the broader manufacturing subsector within which this production takes place.The employment impact of this production is estimated in the same fashion,using ABS data on manufacturing employ

263、ment.40The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKORNAMENTAL PLANT PRODUCTIONThe production value of ornamental plants was sourced from DEFRAs Horticulture Statistics bulletin.We estimated the GDP impact of this production using a ratio drawn from HTAs survey of ornam

264、ental plant producers.We estimated employment using Annual Population Survey(APS)figures for the plant propagation sector.LANDSCAPE SERVICESThe direct impact of landscape services first used ABS data on the landscape services industry.This provided estimates of the turnover,GDP,and employment that a

265、rises through the sectors activities.However,household-based employment surveys reveal that there is much more employment within this sector than is suggested by the ABS.As such,we incorporated the estimated“unregistered”employment using data from the APS.This encompasses self-employed and own-accou

266、nt workers,whose activities are not at a scale that necessitates VAT/PAYE registration,and thus do not appear in official business register-based statistics.We estimated turnover per person among this workforce using a factor drawn from BEIS Business Population Estimates(BPEs).This provided turnover

267、 estimates for unregistered workers within the broader sector,“Services to buildings and landscape”.We calculated the ratio of turnover per worker among unregistered and registered workers in this broader sector.This ratio was then applied to turnover per worker as provided in the ABS data,to estima

268、te the average turnover that is accrued by unregistered landscape service workers.Data from the APS disaggregated by both industry and occupation also revealed that gardeners,groundsmen,and greenkeepers are employed within many other sectors of the economy.Some are horticultural professionals within

269、 other facilities service firms that provide landscape services as part of broader service contracts.Others are employed within sports,education,health,and public sectors,amongst others.We characterised this employment collectively as“wider landscape activities”.RETAIL SALE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIP

270、MENTTo understand the impact of garden goods and equipment retailing,we combined household spending estimates with ABS figures for turnover among specialist garden centres and pet stores.We adjusted for the increment of this turnover accounted for by specialist pet stores,using the relative proporti

271、ons of horticultural and pet-related consumer spending from the ONS Family Spending Survey.We also made use of the Horticultural Trades Associations(HTA)estimates of aggregate garden centre turnover,drawn from industry surveys.Once we estimated how much of households environmental horticultural spen

272、d flowed to garden centres,we assigned the rest to non-specialist retailers(i.e.supermarkets).We then used ABS data on general retailers output and productivity to quantify how many employees this spending supported;and how much GDP was generated as a result.We then estimated the employment and GDP

273、of garden centres using ratios from the ABS.We used data from the ONS Business Register and Employment Survey(BRES)as supposed to the ABS data previously used,which was not availableto estimate employment.41The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKFor both general a

274、nd specialist retailers,ABS figures allow for the estimation of retail margins as a proportion of overall turnover.These margins amount to the gross output of a retailer,and are distinct from total turnover,since turnover also encompasses the value of goods the retailer has sold.By excluding the val

275、ue of the goods themselves,we ensure that we do not double-count;retailers accrue only that revenue that is attributable to their retail services(i.e.,their margin),and manufacturers accrue the revenue that is attributable to the value of the goods.Data on the number of real Christmas trees purchase

276、d was sourced from an IPSOS survey,while the average price of real Christmas trees came from HTAs Garden Retail Monitor system.While included in the specialist garden centres turnover data provided by HTA,turnover estimates for non-specialist stores did not include the value of Christmas tree sales.

277、To account for this this,we assumed that 50%of Christmas tree sales was generated by non-specialist stores.WHOLESALE OF GARDEN GOODS AND EQUIPMENTOur estimates for wholesaling began with ABS figures for GDP and employment in the“wholesale of flowers and plants”industry.This describes the direct econ

278、omic contribution of specialist wholesalers of flowers,plants,and bulbs.To estimate the impact that the trade of environmental horticulture products supports among non-specialist wholesalers,we began with our estimates of domestic production of garden goods.We then included the value of imported gar

279、den goods(via trade data from HRMC and Eurostat),to arrive at an estimate of the total supply of environmental horticulture products to the UK market.To this value,we applied average wholesale margins for non-specialist wholesalers,as indicated by the ABS.These margins form the wholesalers output an

280、d allow us to derive the GDP and employment contributions sustained by this activity.TREE PLANTING AND MANAGEMENTOur estimates for tree planting and management drew on ABS data for the sectors“Silviculture and other forestry activities”and“Support services to forestry”.We adjusted this latter sector

281、 to exclude the estimated proportion of support services that are focussed on logging activity.This adjustment factor drew upon a detailed breakdown of forestry sector employment from the ONS BRES,contrary to the previous project which drew from analysis by CJC Consulting looking at Scotlands loggin

282、g activities.We also incorporated APS-based estimates of employment within forestry and arboriculture occupations that fall outside of the forestry sector itself.An important sector of the Environmental horticulture and Landscaping industry is arboriculture.Elements of this industry are likely captu

283、red within this sector,and other sectors of our model such as landscaping services.However,the absence of definitive SIC codes for arboriculture is a barrier to obtaining definitive values for this sector.42The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in the UKTOURISMOur methodo

284、logy for environmental horticultures tourism impact utilises the latest available information to estimate the visitor spending which is attributable to the UKs horticultural attractions and sites.The starting point is the Visit Britain domestic overnight and day tourism visit and spend data.We then

285、reduce this to the total value of tourist spending on trips which include a visit to a park or a garden.Next,we factor in the number of other activities undertaken by tourists during their tripsnote,this information is not available for 2023,so it is retained from the previous studyalong with the im

286、portance of the park and garden visit to their trip.For this,we used the latest data from Visit Britain to estimate the share of visitors going to parks and gardens as the main,or an important,reason for their trip.Combining this information,we our estimate for the visitor spend which is attributabl

287、e to horticultural attractions and sites.For international passengers,we used information from the we used International Passenger Survey(IPS)data on the inbound tourists to the UK.Because the latest(2023)survey no longer asks visitors about the activities they undertake on their visit(incl.visiting

288、 parks and gardens)we took the activity profile from the last available year(2016)and applied to the 2023 visitors based on age,country of origin,gender,duration,purpose of visit,and spending during visit.The total spending of tourists who undertook only visits to parks and gardens is undiscounted,w

289、hile the spending of tourists who also undertook other activities is divided by the number of activities undertaken(i.e.,for an inbound tourist that visited parks and gardens as well as three other activities,only 25%of their spending was included in the calculation).International visitors spending

290、was then discounted again,according to their stated trip purpose in the IPS,using the following discount factors:1 Holiday:.100%2 VFR:.50%3 Business:.25%4 Study:.25%5 Miscellaneous (including multiple reasons):.25%6 Transit:.25%43The economic impact of environmental horticulture and landscaping in t

291、he UKAPPENDIX 3:LITERATURE REVIEW SOURCESKatherine Baldock,et al,“Where is the UKs pollinator biodiversity?The importance of urban areas for flower visiting insects”,Proceedings of the Royal Society B 282,No.1803,(2015),pp.1-10,accessed August 2024.Tijana Blanusa,et al,“Urban hedges:A review of plan

292、t species and cultivars for ecosystem service delivery in north-west Europe”,Urban Forestry&Urban Greening 44,(2019),accessed September 2024.Francesca Bretzel,et al,“Culture and horticulture:Protecting soil quality in urban gardening”,Science of The Total Environment 644,(2018),pp.45-51,accessed Aug

293、ust 2024.Marta Camps-Calvet,et al,“Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona,Spain:Insights for policy and planning”,Environmental Science&Policy 62,(2016),pp.14-23,accessed August 2024.Lauriane Chalmin-Pui,et al,“Why garden?Attitudes and the perceived health benefits of home gardeni

294、ng”,Cities 112,(2021),accessed September 2024.Lauriane Chalmin-Pui,et al,“It made me feel brighter in myself”-The health and well-being impacts of a residential front garden horticultural intervention”,Landscape and Urban Planning 205,(2021),accessed September 2024.Jane Clatworthy,et al,“Gardening a

295、s a mental health intervention:a review”,Mental Health Review Journal 18,No.4(2013),pp.214-225,accessed August 2024.Lorraine Clarke,and G.Jenerette,“Biodiversity and direct ecosystem service regulation in the community gardens of Los Angeles,CA”,Landscape Ecology 30,(2015),pp.627-653,accessed 2024.C

296、atalina Cruz-Piedrahita,et al,“Public health benefits from urban horticulture in the global north:A scoping review and framework”,Global Transitions 2,(2020),pp.246-256,accessed August 2024.Zoe Davies,et al,“Mapping an urban ecosystem service:quantifying above-ground carbon storage at a citywide sca

297、le”,Journal of Applied Ecology 48,(2011),pp.1125-1134,accessed September 2024.Sin de Bell,et al,“Spending time in the garden is positively associated with health and wellbeing:Results from a national survey in England”,Landscape and Urban Planning 200,(2020),accessed September 2024.Richard Delahay,e

298、t al,“Biodiversity in residential gardens:a review of the evidence base”,Biodiversity and Conservation 32,(2023),accessed August 2024.Jill Edmondson,et al,“Land-cover effects on soil organic carbon stocks in a European city”,Science of The Total Environment 472,(2014),pp.444-453,accessed September 2

299、024.Daniel Evans,et al,“Ecosystem service delivery by urban agriculture and green infrastructure a systematic review”,Ecosystem Services 54,(2022),accessed August 2024.Kevin Gaston,et al,“Urban Domestic Gardens(IV):The Extent of the Resource and its Associated Features”,Biodiversity and Conservation

300、 14,(2005),pp.33273349,accessed August 2024.Curtis Gubb,et al,“Potted plants can remove the pollutant nitrogen dioxide indoors”,Air Quality,Atmosphere&Health 15,(2022),pp.479-490,accessed November 2024.Michelle Howarth,et al,“What is the evidence for the impact of gardens and gardening on health and

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304、ndscaping in the UKKate Plummer,et al,“Trends in butterfly populations in UK gardensNew evidence from citizen science monitoring”,Insect Conservation and Diversity,Special Issue:The Ecology and Conservation of Urban Insects 17,No.2(2023),accessed August 2024.Rosa Reyes-Riveros,et al,“Linking public

305、urban green spaces and human well-being:A systematic review”,Urban Forestry&Urban Greening 61,(2021),accessed August 2024.Charlotte Roscoe,et al,“Associations of Private Residential Gardens versus Other Greenspace Types with Cardiovascular and Respiratory Disease Mortality:Observational Evidence fro

306、m UK Biobank”,Environment International 167,(2022),accessed September 2024.Andrew Salisbury,et al,“Enhancing gardens as habitats for flower-visiting aerial insects(pollinators):Should we plant native or exotic species?”,Journal of Applied Ecology 52,(2015),pp.1156-1164,accessed September 2024.Andrew

307、 Salisbury,et al,“Enhancing Gardens as Habitats for Plant-Associated Invertebrates:Should We Plant Native or Exotic Species?”,Biodiversity and conservation 26,(2017),pp.26572673,accessed September 2024.Andrew Salisbury,et al,“Enhancing gardens as habitats for soil-surface-active invertebrates:should

308、 we plant native or exotic species?”,Biodiversity and Conservation 29,(2020),pp.129-151,accessed September 2024.Theresa Scott,et al,“Positive aging benefits of home and community gardening activities:Older adults report enhanced self-esteem,productive endeavours,social engagement and exercise”,SAGE

309、Open Medicine 8,(2020),accessed August 2024.Theresa Scott,et al,“Well-Being Benefits of Horticulture-Based Activities for Community Dwelling People with Dementia:A Systematic Review”,International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19,No.17(2022),accessed August 2024.Joe Sempik,et a

310、l,“The effects of social and therapeutic horticulture on aspects of social behaviour”,British Journal of Occupational Therapy 77,No.6(2013),accessed August 2024.Masashi Soga,et al,“Gardening is beneficial for health:A meta-analysis”,Preventive Medicine Reports 5,(2017),pp.92-99,accessed August 2024.

311、Andrew Speak,et al,“Allotment gardens and parks:Provision of ecosystem services with an emphasis on biodiversity”,Urban Forestry&Urban Greening 14,No.4,(2015),pp.772-781,accessed August 2024.Nicholas Tew,et al,“Quantifying nectar production by flowering plants in urban and rural landscapes”,Journal

312、of Ecology 109,(2021),pp.1365-2745,accessed August 2024.Ken Thompson,et al,“Urban domestic gardens(I):Putting small-scale plant diversity in context”,Journal of Vegetation Science 14,No.1(2003),pp.71-78,accessed August 2024.Faye Thomsit-Ireland,et al,“The impact of green facades and vegetative cover

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317、 and well-being benefits of allotment gardening”,Journal of Public Health 38,No.3(2016),pp.336344,accessed August 2024.Kexin Yu,et al,“Association of Residential Greenness with Incident Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease:A Prospective Cohort Study in the UK Biobank”,Environment international 171,

318、(2023),accessed September 2024.4545OXFORD ECONOMICSOxford Economics was founded in 1981 as a commercial venture with Oxford Universitys business college to provide economic forecasting and modelling to UK companies and financial institutions expanding abroad.Since then,we have become one of the worl

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