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1、2024OXFORD ECONOMICS GLOBAL CITIES INDEXOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20242ForewordIn an era defined by uncertainty,one trend remains constant:cities are still at the forefront of economic growth.The ability of cities to serve as the engines of future growth is underpinned by their dynamic ne

2、tworks of businesses,institutions,and people.Agglomeration affects foster creativity,innovation,andprosperity,which further add to the draw of diverse and skilled populations.Whilst we forecast cities to continue to fuel global growth and drive global competitiveness over the coming decades,each cit

3、y is different and understanding their unique characteristics is crucial.Our Global Cities Index provides a consistent framework for assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the largest 1,000 cities across the world,and when coupled with our forecasts,it enables organisations and policymakers to ma

4、ke more informed strategic decisions.Mark Britton Director of City Services at Oxford EconomicsOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243Project Leaders and Principal AuthorsMark Britton is the Director of City Services at Oxford Economics.His responsibilities include forming Oxford Economics global

5、 city outlook,and managing and developing forecasting solutions.With extensive experience working in the field of urban and regional economics over the last two decades,Mark now oversees the activities of the Cities and Regions forecasting teams globally.His expertise helps support a range of client

6、s,across both the public and private sectors,with strategic location decision-Anthony Bernard-Sasges is a Senior Economist on the Cities and Regions team at Oxford Economics.He manages the Global Cities Index and is the principal author of this report.He has extensive experience forecasting urban ec

7、onomies in both advanced and emerging markets.Anthony also helps develop the teams benchmarking capabilities and contributes to geospatial data analysis projects.abernard- George Bowen is a Senior Economist on the Cities and Regions team at Oxford Economics.He manages the Global Cities Forecasting S

8、ervice,which brings together city level forecasts for over 1,000 locations globally.He has a breadth of experience forecasting cities across all four corners of the world.George also leads the development of our novel geospatial data techniques which we use to analyse and estimate economic activity

9、at a hyper-local Oxford EconomicsOxford Economics is the worlds foremost independent economic advisory firm.Covering over 200 countries,over 100 industrial sectors,and 8,000 cities and regions,we provide insights and solutions that enable clients to make intelligent and responsible business decision

10、s faster in an increasingly complex and uncertain world.For more information,visit https:/.The Oxford Economics Cities and Regions team provides both forecasting and bespoke consulting services.Our unique suite of forecasting services covers 8,000 cities and regions across the world.Our regularly up

11、dated data and forecasts provide clients with regional economic outlooks and specific city insights.By drawing on our proprietary data,our consulting services provide bespoke solutions tailored to clients needs.We offer evidence and strategic advice to support urban and regional development;produce

12、bespoke datasets,models,and reports;and assess the economic impact of local investments.Oxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20244All information in this file is copyright Oxford Economics Ltd and may not be published or distributed without our prior written permission.Because of the uncertainty of

13、future events and circumstances and because the contents are based on data and information provided by third parties upon which Oxford Economics has relied in producing its reports and forecasts in good faith,Oxford Economics does not warrant that its forecasts,projections,advice,recommendations or

14、the contents of any report,presentation or other document will be accurate or achievable and Oxford Economics will not be liable for the contents any of the foregoing or for the reliance by the Customer on any of the foregoing.All images from SContentsINTRODUCTION 5The Oxford Economics Global Cities

15、 Index 7The Economics Category 8The Human Capital Category 9The Quality of Life Category 10The Environment Category 11The Governance Category 12The Top Cities in the World 13THE TOP 50 CITIES 17METHODOLOGY 681,000 GLOBAL CITIES RANKINGS 72Oxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20245IntroductionCities

16、are the driving force behind our global economy.They are the engines for national economic growth,centres for education and innovation,and seats of political power.In 2023,the 1,000 largest cities in the world accounted for 60%of global GDP and over 30%of the worlds populationand the importance of c

17、ities will only continue to grow in the future.In the decade preceding the Covid-19 outbreak,70%of cities outperformed their respective countries in terms of either GDP or employment growth.But beyond economic strength,cities lead in other domains as well.They tend to have more educated populations

18、and better access to services,as compared to their countries as a whole.In 2023,the 1,000 largest cities in the world accounted for 60%of global GDP.This is not just a regional or high-income country story though.Oxford Economics 1,000 Global Cities are located across the world,in both advanced and

19、developing countries.Metropolitan areas in 163 countries are represented in our 1,000 Global Cities,and the phenomena described above are present in cities in every region of the world,across income levels.In the decade preceding the Covid-19 outbreak,70%of cities outperformed their respective count

20、ries in terms of either GDP or employment growth.The importance of cities is well documented,but comparing metropolitan areas in different countries and regions can be challenging due to disparities in data collection and inherent structural differences across cities.Nonetheless,assessing the relati

21、ve strengths and importance of cities around the world is valuable for businesses,academics,and policymakers alike to be able to make informed decisions.Hence,these comparisons must consider more than just economic output or growth;there are several dimensions that can make a city attractive to resi

22、dents and investors.To solve this issue,we are launching the Oxford Economics Global Cities Index.Oxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20246North America103 citiesCentral America&the Caribbean46 citiesSouth America63 citiesWestern Europe141 citiesEastern Europe&Central Asia107 citiesOceania12 cities

23、Middle East&North Africa62 citiesSouthern Asia137 citiesSub-Saharan Africa86 citiesEast Asia205 citiesOxford Economics 1,000 Global CitiesThe Global Cities Index covers the 1,000 largest cities in the world,which are located in 163 different countries.Oxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20247The Ox

24、ford Economics Global Cities IndexWe have developed our Global Cities Index to provide a holistic assessment of the 1,000 largest cities in the world.Leveraging our economic data,and supplemented by other publicly available datasets,the index allows us to directly compare cities around the world on

25、a range of metrics.The index contains five categories:Economics,Human Capital,Quality of Life,Environment,and Governance,which are aggregated to create a overall score for each city.Each category is comprised of multiple indicators(four to six,depending on the category),which aim to address some of

26、the most important considerations within their respective categories.As a result,the Global Cities Index provides a more complete comparison of cities,by ranking them not just on their economic performance,but considering other important factors that influence their relative strengths.With a total o

27、f 1,000 cities and 27 indicators included,our truly global and multidimensional coverage allows us to provide a remarkable breadth and depth to the Global Cities Index.GLOBAL CITIES INDEXEnvironmentQuality of LifeHuman CapitalEconomicsGovernanceOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20248The Economics

28、 CategoryA citys economy plays a crucial role in its prosperity and attractiveness.Economic vitality is a fundamental aspect of urban development,driving a citys wealth generation,employment opportunities,access to goods and services,and much more.Including economic metrics in the index acknowledges

29、 the pivotal role that the economy plays in shaping urban landscapes and driving investment.This category allows for an assessment of a citys potential for sustained growth and development,essential for any comprehensive comparison of cities around the world.The cities topping the Economics category

30、 are the engines of the global economy.In this category,American cities dominate.Seven of the top 10 cities are located in the United States,with New York taking the top spot.It has the largest economy of any city in the world by far and has benefitted from stable economic growth in the decade prece

31、ding the Covid-19 outbreak.Los Angeles,in second place,also has one of the largest economies in the world,while third place San Jose has the highest GDP per person globally.The only three non-American cities to crack the top 10 are London,Paris,and Tokyo,behemoths of the global economy in their own

32、right.They trail the top American cities mostly due to their lower levels of GDP per person.Economics indicators:GDP sizeGDP growthGDP per personEmployment growthEconomic stabilityEconomic diversity100.097.095.391.491.290.286.486.185.884.7New York,United StatesLos Angeles,United StatesSan Jose,Unite

33、d StatesSeattle,United StatesSan Francisco,United StatesDallas,United StatesLondon,United KingdomChicago,United StatesParis,FranceTokyo,JapanTop cities by Economics scoreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20249The Human Capital CategoryHuman capital encompasses the collective knowledge and skills

34、of a citys population,underpinning the economic potential of every city.It reflects the dynamics of educational attainment,innovation,and demographics at play across metropolitan areas.In todays knowledge-based economy,cities with diverse,highly-skilled workforces and innovative businesses are bette

35、r positioned to adapt to technological change and compete globally.Incorporating human capital indicators into the index emphasises the importance of people in driving economic prosperity and recognises cities that invest in education,business,and diversity.The cities leading the Human Capital categ

36、ory are hubs for higher education and business innovation,helping them attract diverse and highly educated populations.There are more regions represented at the top of this category than in the Economics category,with cities in five regions in the top 10.London takes the top spot,as it has the most

37、globally ranked universities of any city in the world,and nearly the most global corporate headquarters as well.Tokyo comes in second,having the most corporate headquarters in the world,and nearly as many universities as London.Riyadh is next;the city benefits from a young,diverse population,with ma

38、ny immigrants having moved there to join the workforce of its growing business hub.Other notable cities in the top 10 include Washington,DC and Boston,two of the most highly educated cities in the world.Human Capital indicators:Educational attainmentUniversitiesCorporate headquartersPopulation growt

39、hAge profileForeign-born population100.092.391.489.486.785.983.883.481.381.2London,United KingdomTokyo,JapanRiyadh,Saudi ArabiaNew York,United StatesSeoul,South KoreaParis,FranceWashington,DC,United StatesAbu Dhabi,United Arab EmiratesSydney,AustraliaBoston,United StatesTop cities by Human Capital s

40、coreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 202410The Quality of Life CategoryQuality of Life encapsulates the wellbeing and satisfaction of a citys residents,reflecting the intersection of various socioeconomic factors.This category provides insights into the liveability and attractiveness of a city,w

41、hich can play a role in migration patterns,talent retention,and the overall happiness of residents.Evaluating quality of life metrics in the index underscores the importance of urban policies that not only prioritise economic prosperity but also health,equality,and cultural vibrancy,enhancing reside

42、nts overall wellbeing.At the top of the Quality of Life category are cities with lower inequality and residents that live long lives.Most of them also provide residents with access to a range of recreation and cultural amenities.These cities tend to be smaller than the leading cities in the Economic

43、s or Human Capital categories,and every city in the top 10 is located in Western Europe,bar one in Australia.Grenoble,France scores highest in this category,driven by its multitude of recreation and cultural sites per person and income equality.In second place is the lone non-European city in the to

44、p 10,Canberra.It benefits from among the highest life expectancy rates in the world and high levels of income per person.The rest of the top 10 are cities in northwestern Europe,all of which have a combination of high incomes with relatively high income equality,long life expectancies,and vast offer

45、ings of recreation and cultural sites.Quality of Life indicators:Life expectancyIncome per personIncome equalityHousing expenditureRecreation&cultural sitesInternet speed100.099.899.798.597.597.094.494.193.592.5Grenoble,FranceCanberra,AustraliaBern,SwitzerlandBergen,NorwayBasel,SwitzerlandLuxembourg

46、,LuxembourgReykjavik,IcelandZurich,SwitzerlandGent,BelgiumNantes,FranceTop cities by Quality of Life scoreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 202411The Environment CategoryWith climate change at the forefront of international,national,and urban policymaking,the relevance of this category is undenia

47、ble.The Environment category evaluates a citys commitment to environmental sustainability and its predisposition to climate change risks,critical factors for ensuring long-term resilience.Incorporating environmental metrics into the index reflects the growing recognition of the interconnectedness be

48、tween economic prosperity and the natural environment,highlighting the imperative for cities to adopt climate change-conscious policies and initiatives,and the hazards of not doing so.The Environment category rewards cities thateither through policymaking or geographical fortunebenefit from outstand

49、ing natural environments.The cities in this top 10 are located around the world,although many of them are on islands,highlighting the role that luck can play in this category.Suva,Fiji leads the rankings,in part because the city has among the best air quality in the world.Fortaleza,Brazil,San Juan,P

50、uerto Rico,and Natal,Brazil come next,scoring highly because of their stable climates;they do not experience very volatile temperatures.All three cities in New Zealand also crack the top 10,due to their clean air and low frequency of natural disasters.Environment indicators:Air qualityEmissions inte

51、nsityNatural disastersTemperature anomaliesRainfall anomalies100.098.898.097.997.696.594.994.394.193.9Suva,Fiji Fortaleza,BrazilSan Juan,Puerto RicoNatal,BrazilWellington,New ZealandMale,MaldivesNassau,BahamasPort Louis,MauritiusChristchurch,New ZealandAuckland,New ZealandTop cities by Environment s

52、coreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 202412The Governance CategoryGovernance is the basic foundation for city prosperity across the other four categories.Good governance fosters trust,social cohesion,and equitable access to opportunities,while poor governance can lead to inefficiencies,corruptio

53、n,and social unrest.Including governance indicators in the index acknowledges the categorys pivotal role in shaping the overall trajectory of a city,influencing policy outcomes,public services delivery,and resident protection and engagement.The Governance category is measured slightly differently th

54、an the other four,in recognition of the fact that national governmentsnot just those at the city levelhave a significant influence on these outcomes.As a result,scores in this category are calculated at the national level rather than the city level,meaning that every city in a given country is given

55、 the same score for a given indicator.Cities at the top of the Governance category have a pedigree of institutions that protect the rights of their residents and foster political stability.Leading the Governance category are the three cities in New Zealand:Auckland,Christchurch,and Wellington,due to

56、 the countrys political stability and its stellar business environment.The rest of the top 10 is comprised of Nordic cities,in part due to the commitment of Nordic countries in protecting the civil liberties of their residents.First come the Danish cities,followed by those in Finland,then Norway,the

57、n Sweden.Governance indicators:InstitutionsPolitical stabilityBusiness environmentCivil liberties100.0100.0100.097.297.296.696.695.695.694.894.894.8Auckland,New Zealand Christchurch,New ZealandWellington,New ZealandAarhus,DenmarkCopenhagen,DenmarkHelsinki,FinlandTampere,FinlandBergen,NorwayOslo,Norw

58、ayGothenburg,SwedenMalmo,SwedenStockholm,SwedenTop cities by Governance scoreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 202413The Top Cities in the WorldThe top cities overall in the Global Cities Index possess strong scores in all five categories.Not only do they provide important economic contributions

59、to the global economy,they are hubs for education and business innovation,and invest in the infrastructure necessary to maintain a high quality of life.They also prioritise policies that focus on the environment and goodgovernance.The top 10 cities are located in North America,Western Europe,East As

60、ia,and Oceania.Leading the rankings in 2024 is New York,followed by London.Both cities perform best in the Economics and Human Capital categories,and the next three citiesSan Jose,Tokyo,and Parisall have top Economics and Human Capital scores as well.Furthermore,San Jose and Paris have strong scores

61、 in the Quality of Life category.Rounding out the top 10 are Seattle,Los Angeles,San Francisco,Melbourne,and Zurich.The diversity in characteristics of these cities emphasises that there is no single formula to become a top city globally.Some,like Seattle and San Francisco,possess outsized economic

62、influence.Others,like Melbourne and Zurich,are not as powerful economically but benefit from superior Environment or Quality of Life scores.100.099.498.597.896.395.895.494.794.694.2New York,United StatesLondon,United KingdomSan Jose,United StatesTokyo,JapanParis,FranceSeattle,United StatesLos Angele

63、s,United StatesSan Francisco,United StatesMelbourne,AustraliaZurich,SwitzerlandTop cities by overall scoreHigher scoreLower scoreOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 202414Regional Trends in the Global Cities IndexExamining the overall rankings for our 1,000 cities reveals interesting regional trend

64、s.Among the 10 regions,it is unsurprising that North America,Western Europe,and Oceania perform best,as cities in these regions tend to score highly across all five categories.At the other end of the spectrum,the regions of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia have the lowest average scores.Oxford E

65、conomics|Global Cities Index 202415Within regions,different patterns emerge as well.In some regions,most cities are ranked closely to one another.In general,cities in North America are all clumped at the higher end of the rankings,while those in Sub-Saharan Africa are nearly all at the bottom.But no

66、t all regions are homogenous.In East Asia,for example,Tokyo scores near the top of our rankings,while the lowest-scoring city,Fushun,China,ranks in the bottom 50.Southern Asia also has a high-scoring outlier in Singapore,while Oceania has a low-scoring outlier in Port Moresby,Papua New Guinea.This d

67、ot plot reveals another interesting finding:under our index criteria,a few of the top cities in Central America&the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa outperform the weakest cities in North America and Western Europe.This suggests that while there are some regional effects at play,within-region and ev

68、en within-country differences are significant.North AmericaWestern EuropeEast AsiaOceaniaMiddle East&North AfricaSouthern AsiaEastern Europe&Central AsiaSouth AmericaCentral America&the CaribbeanSub-Saharan Africa020406080100Overall scoreOverall scores by regionOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2

69、02416Future Challenges Facing CitiesThe Global Cities Index scores cities based on how they are performing today.Looking ahead to the coming years,there are several global trends that have the potential to disrupt these rankings.An uneven economic outlook across regions and lingering inflationary co

70、ncerns could negatively impact the Economics score of many locations.Along similar lines,debt sustainability continues to be an issue for many developing countries following the Covid-19 pandemic and a period of heightened interest rates,which further threatens the economies of cities in these count

71、ries.The phenomenon of“deglobalisation”and other global migration trends could have an impact on Human Capital scores.Cities making significant investments in their healthcare infrastructure following the challenges of Covid-19 may see their Quality of Life scores increase.Conversely,cities unable t

72、o get a handle on their housing crises may see declines in this category.Scores in the Environment category will certainly be impacted by the effects of climate change in the coming years,especially in cities most vulnerable to volatile temperatures and natural disasters.And finally,the threat of vi

73、olence and political instability remains present in many countries,which could impact their Governance scores.There is potential for significant movement within the rankings in the coming years,as the 1,000 Global Cities navigate the concurrence of several global trends.THE TOP 50 CITIESOxford Econo

74、mics|Global Cities Index 2024181 New York|United StatesNew York is the top city in our 2024 Global Cities Index.The city is the economic capital of the United States,and in many ways,the world.It is a global hub for finance,tech,advertising,media,and fashion,which explains New Yorks top ranking in t

75、he Economics category.While the citys economy suffered more than many other American metros during the Covid-19 outbreak,it has rebounded quite strongly,and its fortunes look positive for the future.The citys other relative strength is in the Human Capital category,where it has the fourth-highest sc

76、ore of our 1,000 cities.New York is the largest city in the US by population,with over 20 million people calling the metro area homeand high rates of international in-migration continue to drive this figure upward.Many people are attracted to the city for its world-class universities,cultural instit

77、utions,and the several head offices for multinational corporations.As a result,the citys population is also highly educated and quite diverse.New York slightly underachieves relative to other top cities in the Quality of Life and Environment categories,the areas that are generally weakest for megaci

78、ties.That being said,compared to the worlds other 41 megacities,New York ranks fifth in Quality of Life,which is a much better showing.The city has among the highest levels of income per person in the world,but the distribution of that income across the citys residents is very unequal.Housing afford

79、ability is also a chronic issue in New York(as it is in many megacities)and while there has been some recent momentum towards building more affordable housing,it is unlikely to satiate the sky-high demand for housing in the city that drives up prices.In the Environment category,two different stories

80、 emerge.New Yorks large public transit system earns it a lower emissions intensity than most peer cities and better air quality,but the metro is more prone to natural disasters and volatile temperatures than other top cities in the rankings.Overall,this leaves the city near the top third of the rank

81、ings in Environment.Finally,in the Governance category,the city benefits from a welcoming business environment,but the outcome of the 2024 presidential election has the potential to create significant movement in this category next year.Despite underperforming other top cities in a few areas,New Yor

82、k still scores quite highly in all five categories in absolute terms.While there are areas with room for improvement,New York reigns supreme in this years Global Cities Index,riding its outstanding Economics and Human Capital scores to the top of the rankings.And it seems poised to defend that title

83、 for years to come.ECONOMICS 1stHUMAN CAPITAL 4thENVIRONMENT 353rdQUALITY OF LIFE 278thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$2.3 trillionGDP per person:US$114,000Population:20.5 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESLarge GDP sizeLower income equalityMany corporate headquartersMore natural disastersHigh inc

84、ome per personLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024192 London|United KingdomLondon may fit the definition of a“Global City”more than anywhere else in the world.The city has established itself as a perpetually relevant locale for business,science and technology,educ

85、ation,and the arts.This global economic powerhouse scores seventh in our Economics category thanks to the size of the citys economy(the fourth largest in the world)and the stable growth it experienced in the decade before the Covid-19 outbreak.But London performs even better in our Human Capital cat

86、egory,topping all other cities in the rankings.This is,in part,due to the number of higher education institutions in the city,which helps it achieve one of the highest rates of educational attainment in the world.London also attracts many highly educated people from abroad(nearly 40%of its populatio

87、n is foreign-born)and several global corporations are headquartered in the city to take advantage of this world-class talent pool.This should help keep population growth aboveand the age profile younger thanthe rate of many peer cities,including New York,Tokyo,and Paris.This diverse and well-educate

88、d workforce creates a more productive economy,translating to higher average incomes for city residents.But,like New York,this income isnt equally distributed across London,with the majority of the wealth concentrated in just a few neighbourhoods.Also hurting the citys Quality of Life score is London

89、s housing affordability crisis.London residents spend more of their income on housing than the residents of nearly every other city in the world.At the core of this crisis are structural affordable housing supply issues,which will take both political willpower and time to resolve.Londons Environment

90、 score benefits from its lower carbon emissions intensity compared to peer cities,as much of the citys economic output is driven by the low-carbon finance and business sectors.However,despite the implementation of congestion charges and central Londons ultra-low emission zone(ULEZ)policies,the city

91、still suffers from worse air quality than New York and other peers,which somewhat drives down its score.Yet,ranking in the top 200 cities in the Environment category is an impressive feat for a city the size of London,especially when the top cities tend to be much smaller.Overall,London has weathere

92、d the UKs recent stumbles related to Brexit and the turmoil of the Prime Ministers office quite well.Fears that Brexit would lead to a decline of the city as a global financial centre have not been realised.And we expect London to continue to attract migrants from all over the world to access its wo

93、rld-class institutions and range of job opportunities.The city is set to remain a top Global City for years to come,potentially fighting New York for the top spot.ECONOMICS 7thHUMAN CAPITAL 1stENVIRONMENT 197thQUALITY OF LIFE 292ndGOVERNANCE 72ndKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$1.0 trillionGDP per person:U

94、S$78,800Population:12.8 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESMany universitiesHigh housing expenditureLarge GDP sizeLess economic diversityMany corporate headquartersLower income equalityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024203 San Jose|United StatesSan Jose is home to most of the major technology

95、companies,including Apple,Meta,Alphabet(Google),and Nvidia,as well as the operations for Microsoft and Amazon,among others.Its renowned Silicon Valley is what gives it an overall 3rd Global Cities Index ranking.With technology firms generating significantly higher GDP than most industries,San Joses

96、GDP per person is the highest of all 1,000 cities.Hence,despite having only the 21st largest GDP by size,it has the 3rd highest Economics score.However,the tech sector has experienced booms and busts over the years,and thus,San Joses economic stability is relatively weak.And,given that there are few

97、 large companies outside of tech operating in Silicon Valley,the lack of economic diversity makes the city more exposed to this volatility.San Jose attracts some of the brightest minds around the globe,with all of them having the aspiration to work for one of the high-profile tech companies.Thus,its

98、 Human Capital category includes a large foreign-born population and a relatively high corporate headquarter measure.However,San Joses Human Capital is hampered by an ageing population,as well as its low population growth.Although it attracts healthy in-migration of young and foreign workers,it lose

99、s some middle-aged residents who struggle to maintain a reasonable lifestyle given the high cost of living.Indeed,San Joses Quality of Life ranks the highest in the US and is competitive in the overall index,complementing its higher Economics score.Many of San Joses residents are high-income earners

100、,with nearly a quarter of the households earning greater than$350,000more than four times the US average.A high measure indeed,but an unfortunate byproduct is the high income inequality,for which it ranks in the bottom half globally.With its abundant wealth,popular restaurants,and shopping mecca on

101、Santana Row,San Jose has a strong recreation offering.Adding to this,the San Jose Museum of Art,the Center for Performing Arts,and other sites grant the city a place in the top 25 in the US for recreation and cultural sites,though still far away from the top 100 globally.San Jose has little heavy ma

102、nufacturing outside of computers and semiconductors,and despite its limited public transportation and heavy reliance on cars,its overall emissions intensity is lower than most Californian towns.This boosts the citys Environment score,which is weighed down by temperature anomalies and higher propensi

103、ty for natural disasters.This area of Northern California is near the Diablo Mountain Range,which is vulnerable to forest fires in dry climates.Aside from its lower Governance score,which is the case for all US cities,San Jose ranks within the top 100 in the other four categories,highlighting the we

104、ll-rounded nature of this global tech hub.ECONOMICS 3rdHUMAN CAPITAL 28thENVIRONMENT 53rdQUALITY OF LIFE 38thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$475 billionGDP per person:US$242,900Population:2.0 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP per personLarger temperature anomaliesMany corporate headquarte

105、rsLower income equalityLower emissions intensityOlder age profileRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024214 Tokyo|JapanA prolonged period of stagnation since the 1990s,often referred to as the Lost Decades,has weakened narratives about Tokyo,but the citys position in the Global Cities Inde

106、x is self-evident.Tokyo remains a key financial centre within the global context despite recent APAC competition,and it is still the second-largest city in the world in terms of GDP.Although GDP growth has been slow in comparison to its peers,such as London and New York,its diverse economy of indust

107、ry and services has kept the wheels turning.Since the reopening of Japanese borders post-Covid-19,visitor numbers to Tokyo have rebounded to levels higher than 2019,providing a sizeable contribution to the economy.The area where Tokyo excels most is in the Human Capital category,ranking 2nd in the w

108、orld.While worries about Japans ageing population have grabbed headlines,the population of Tokyo is one of the largest in the world and still continues to grow,in part due to internal migration of individuals relocating to the city where universities and job opportunities are concentrated.High educa

109、tional attainment means the majority of national and numerous international corporations are based in Tokyo,close to the Japanese government and administrative institutions.However,Tokyos size and magnitude also come with problems,which become evident when examining the quality of life.Just like in

110、other megacities across the world,residents face high housing expenditure,with space in central Tokyo coming at a high cost.Additionally,Tokyo experiences similar problems to Japan as a whole concerning stagnant wages and lower incomes per head,stemming from economic but also cultural factors.Howeve

111、r,it is not solely negative,as a high life expectancy and the abundance of recreational sites help Tokyo place in the top quartile for the category despite its challenges.Environmentally,Tokyo has moderate levels of pollution,although it scores significantly higher than other major cities in East As

112、ia.The city performs far better in emissions intensity than in air quality,which shows that the citys pollution levels are negatively affected by activity of regional neighbours.Tokyo does see its score in this category worsened by the effects of natural disasters,with earthquakes a frequent occurre

113、nce in Japan.An established economy,extensive human capital,and strong and secure institutions have created a stable metropolis which appeals to businesses and individuals,both domestically and internationally.We expect Tokyo to remain relevant in global rankings,but the presence of increasing compe

114、tition from faster-growing cities cant be ignored.The foundations for Tokyo are all present,but whether it can capitalise on its potential through more efficient policy decisions will ultimately decide if Tokyo can retain its position on the Global Cities Index.ECONOMICS 10thHUMAN CAPITAL 2ndENVIRON

115、MENT 277thQUALITY OF LIFE 218thGOVERNANCE 26thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$1.4 trillionGDP per person:US$38,700Population:36.3 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESMany corporate headquartersOlder age profileLarge GDP sizeSlower GDP growthHigh life expectancyHigh housing expenditureRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global

116、 Cities Index 2024225 Paris|FranceFor centuries,Paris has stood as one of the largest cities in the world,forging a path as a leader in diplomacy,commerce,sciences,culture,and gastronomy.With an economy largely focused on services,it is now the fifth-largest city in the world in terms of GDP,and the

117、 second-largest in Europe.Its cultural heritage along with the presence of significant historical landmarks have contributed to making the city one of the top tourist destinations worldwide,attracting millions of visitors annually.Paris ranks ninth in our Economics category,thanks to its size and it

118、s economic stability.The importance of Paris as an economic powerhouse is also well reflected in our Human Capital category,where it has the sixth-highest score globally.Paris is the largest city in a historically highly centralised country,and although regional strategies have been in place for dec

119、ades,the capital still has the highest concentration of most major companies headquarters,renowned universities,key decision-making institutions,and various international organisations.As a result,it draws in a highly-educated population,coming from across France and from abroad.Although larger citi

120、es tend to rank relatively poorly in the Quality of Life category,Paris scores in the top 100,thanks to a high life expectancy,a good average income per person,and easy access to culture.Along with over 1,800 listed monuments and 130 museums,Paris has a diverse cultural scene,supported by proactive

121、national and local policies.For example,since 2022 a national programme offers every young person aged 15 to 18 a monetary allowance of up to 300 to be used for cultural activities.However,housing affordability is a significant issue in the city,and while prices have recently started to fall after y

122、ears of growth,housing remains a significant challenge.Instead,it is in the Environment category where Paris largely underperforms.The city has been prone to natural disasters,mainly in the form of flooding from the Seine River.Although a long-standing phenomenon,global warming is likely to increase

123、 the frequency of these events in the future.Meanwhile,there has been a recorded rise in the number of heatwave days,and this trend is expected to accelerate over time.The French government has attempted to change investors perceptions of heavy bureaucracy and red tape by multiplying incentives to a

124、ttract foreign businesses to France.But Paris Governance score still falls behind some other global cities,including Londonits closest rivalspecifically because of the quality of its business environment and institutions.The Olympic Games in summer 2024 will be an occasion for Paris to showcase the

125、citys governance and management capabilities,and to reassert its position as a top global economic player.ECONOMICS 9thHUMAN CAPITAL 6thENVIRONMENT 409thQUALITY OF LIFE 65thGOVERNANCE 161stKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$941 billionGDP per person:US$71,200Population:13.2 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESMany uni

126、versitiesHigh housing expenditureLarge GDP sizeMore natural disastersMany corporate headquartersLarger temperature anomaliesRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024236 Seattle|United StatesSeattles economic strength propels it into the top 10 of our 2024 Global Cities Index.The citys major

127、tech sectorhome to Microsoft and Amazonrivals those in any other city in the world.Aerospace is also a significant contributor to the economy,including Boeing(which was founded in the city).Seattle hosts a number of retail headquarters as well,including Starbucks,Costco,and Nordstrom.This range of l

128、arge employers gives the city one of the highest GDP per person levels in our index,and a healthy economic stability measure.Though Seattle has a highly educated workforce employed in its sizeable high-value tech and aerospace sectors,slower than expected population growth and an ageing population h

129、old it back with respect to the Human Capital categoryalthough it is still ranked 40th globally.The city suffered a slowdown in population growth during the Covid-19 outbreak due to increased out-migration to other US destinations,as well as reduced foreign immigration.However,this has begun to reve

130、rse according to the latest data.The city scores favourably in the Quality of Life category as the large number of workers employed in the tech,aerospace,and corporate sectors means its residents have a very high income per person.However,this can be a double-edged sword,as it has likely contributed

131、 to high income inequality in the city.This is especially concerning as Seattles growth and limited housing supply has led to rising house prices and rents,causing housing affordability to become an increasingly prevalent issue.Seattle residents enjoy a wide range of cultural,recreational,and outdoo

132、r amenities,that further boost its Quality of Life ranking.The city benefits from its location on the west coast of the US,between an inlet of the Pacific Ocean and Lake Washington,and has a wide selection of urban parks and natural landscapes.Seattle also has diverse cultural and arts offerings,inc

133、luding the Seattle Art Museum(SAM),the Seattle Symphony,and Seattle Opera company.The city is known for its contemporary music scene,being the birthplace of grunge and key to the emergence of alternative rock bands such as Nirvana and Sonic Youth.Finally,the city scores well in the Environment categ

134、ory due to its high air quality and low emissions.However,temperature anomalies and vulnerability to coastal flooding and storms weigh down this category.Seattles strong business environment contributes positively to its Governance rank.However,like the rest of the US,political instability weakens t

135、he citys score,especially with the upcoming 2024 Presidential election.Despite vulnerabilities,Seattles excellent scores in four out of our five categories results in an overall ranking just outside the global top five.ECONOMICS 4thHUMAN CAPITAL 40thENVIRONMENT 40thQUALITY OF LIFE 56thGOVERNANCE 184

136、thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$558 billionGDP per person:US$136,600Population:4.1 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh income per personLarger temperature anomaliesGood air qualityLower income equalityLarge GDP sizeHigh housing expenditureRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024247 Los Angeles|Unite

137、d StatesOne of the largest metropolitan areas in the world with renowned entertainment and film sectors,Los Angeles boasts the seventh highest ranking in our 2024 Global Cities Index.With the third largest GDP in the world(behind New York and Tokyo),as well as a healthy economic diversity measure,th

138、e city yields the second highest overall Economics ranking.Indeed,although it is known for Hollywood with Paramount,Warner Brothers,and other big studio companies,Los Angeles also boasts healthy tech and high-end manufacturing sectors,including a large aerospace base.SpaceX is just one of several sp

139、acecraft companies with production facilities in the metro.The film sector has seen great volatility in jobs in recent times,though its GDP has generally remained high.These three sectorsfilm,tech,and aerospacedrive the citys high GDP per person.Los Angeles Human Capital measure ranks 19th overall.T

140、he city is the second most popular destination for immigrants to the US(other than New York),and it attracts many highly educated people who are drawn to its tech and creative industries.Many come to study at renowned universities,including USC and UCLA.Despite this,Los Angeles has suffered signific

141、ant out-migration over the last few years as many seek to escape the high cost of living in the city;and this out-migration weighs on its population growth.Los Angeles ranks less favourably on its Quality of Life measure due to several factors,including its high cost of living.Its housing expenditur

142、e measure is higher than most other cities as the cost of housing is hampered by strict zoning that prevents developers from building dense housing in many parts of the region.Although it has a high income per person,the wealth is not spread evenly;Los Angeles has significant income inequality.The c

143、ity does have a large leisure and hospitality sector,with many people working at its theme parks,but these service jobs offer low pay which exacerbates the disparity.While the city does have numerous entertainment options,its recreation and cultural sites on a per-person scale is relatively low,a re

144、flection of the metro areas massive population.Finally,Los Angeless sprawl and limited public transportation options require many to drive to work.This has historically created air quality issues.LA,however,is leading the drive for more electric vehicles with a pledge of 10%by 2025.Los Angeless Envi

145、ronment score as a whole reflects its generally favourable weather and limited natural disasters.In addition,with relatively few heavy manufacturing companies,its overall emissions score is better than most major US cities.While strong scores in the Economics and Human Capital categories propel Los

146、Angeles into the global top 10 cities,its weaker Quality of Life holds it back from an even stronger result.With future improvements in this space,Los Angeles is well positioned to move even closer to the top.ECONOMICS 2ndHUMAN CAPITAL 19thENVIRONMENT 79thQUALITY OF LIFE 280thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIG

147、URES IN 2023GDP:US$1.3 trillionGDP per person:US$101,800Population:12.9 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESLarge GDP sizeLarger temperature anomaliesMany universitiesLower income equalityHigh income per personSlower population growthRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024258 San Francisco|United St

148、atesWith a broad range of corporate headquarters in the area,from techs S,Uber,and Yelp to Levi Strauss,the Gap,and Wells Fargo,San Franciscos global ranking reflects a robust economy that is heavily weighted by the pros and cons of having a large tech sector in its region.Its high Economics score i

149、s driven by having the second highest GDP per person in the world,trailing only San Jose.The tech sector generates high GDP on a per-job basis,but it has been notoriously volatile over the years,with sharp declines following both the dot-com and housing busts of the 2000s.Thus,its GDP and employment

150、 growth measures rank low.Moreover,it lacks economic diversity despite having other headquarters in the region,as well as a large banking sector concentrated near Montgomery Street.Indeed,the failures of First Republic and Silicon Valley banks in 2023 took a toll and demonstrated the vulnerability o

151、f San Franciscos economy to the vicissitudes of tech.San Franciscos reputation as a world class city has only been partially damaged in recent years,as reflected in other measures such as its Human Capital.With its high cost of living and a legacy of booms and busts,San Francisco sees considerable s

152、wings in net migration patterns that yield lower-than-average population growth and faster ageing of the population.In recent years,in-migration of those under 34 has declined sharply.With the attraction of the tech sector,however,San Franciscos foreign-born population is generally higher than most,

153、but on the flip side,its educational attainment is lower than other gateway cities.With many earning enviable salaries paid by tech and finance firms,San Francisco has the third highest income per person in the world after San Jose and Bridgeport,Connecticut.Yet,income inequality is pervasive;this d

154、eeply affects the citys affordability,and the cost of housing is high despite high incomes.All of these account for San Franciscos relatively weak Quality of Life measure relative to other US cities.Although it is known for its charming streetscapes and popular tourism destinationssuch as Fishermans

155、 Wharf,the Presidio,Lombard Street,and AlcatrazSan Francisco does not have as many cultural amenities as the East Coast gateway cities.San Franciscos Environment score reflects a favourable emissions intensity that comes from its strong public transportation network which frees residents from a reli

156、ance on cars.Likewise,with a lack of heavy manufacturing in the area,San Franciscos air quality is better than most.The city has taken a bit of a beating in the media in recent years,but clearly,San Francisco remains a top city in the world.Time will tell whether the volatility of the tech sector an

157、d housing market will lead San Francisco to move up or down in the rankings in the future.ECONOMICS 5thHUMAN CAPITAL 34thENVIRONMENT 62ndQUALITY OF LIFE 101stGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$778 billionGDP per person:US$168,600Population:4.6 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP per personHigh

158、 housing expenditureMany corporate headquartersLower income equalityLower emissions intensityLarger temperature anomaliesRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 2024269 Melbourne|AustraliaMelbourne ranks ninth overall in the Global Cities Index,doing particularly well in the Human Capital and E

159、conomics categories.It is the highest-ranking Australian city in our index,seven positions above its slightly larger and more famous counterpart,Sydney.Indeed,Melbourne has in the last two decades been catching up to Sydney in aspects ranging from economics to population size.Because of its many art

160、 galleries and the fact that it hosts major sports eventssuch as the Australian Open and the Australian Grand PrixMelbourne is widely considered to be the cultural and sporting capital of Australia.Melbournes strong performance in terms of its economics is a result of multiple different metrics.As t

161、he second largest city in Australia in terms of GDP,Melbourne places just within the top 50 cities worldwide.Also boasting a diversified,service-oriented economy,with a large business services sector and leading research facilities in healthcare,the city has been able to grow at a relatively high an

162、d stable rate in recent years.Overall,Melbournes achievement in the Economics category is centred around its being a global city,with a diverse and durable economy.However,where Melbourne truly shines is in the Human Capital category,where the city achieves its highest ranking of 11th worldwide.This

163、 ranking is attributable to its many high-quality universities,with two of them notably belonging to the prestigious“Group of Eight,”a club of top Australian universities.Melbournes fast-growing economy makes it an appealing destination for immigration,and over the past few years the city has attrac

164、ted many foreign workers.Melbourne is also the best ranking Australian city in the Environment category.The presence of few heavy industries and its geographical location mean that the city has good air quality and a low emissions intensity,whilst also benefitting from a relatively stable climate wi

165、th few rainfall anomalies and few natural disasters.Combined,these metrics mean that Melbourne places 30th overall.Conversely,Melbourne ranks less well in the Quality of Life category.The citys fast-growing population has made housing increasingly unaffordable,and as is the case in most Australian c

166、ities,Melbourne suffers from slow internet speed due to structural underinvestment into broadband infrastructure.Nevertheless,Melbourne does rank highly in terms of life expectancy,thanks to its world-class healthcare system comprised of over 150 public and private hospitals located across the city.

167、Ultimately,these globally leading medical research centres help prop up the citys ranking in this category.Like the rest of Australia,Melbournes high quality government institutions and democratic system promote a high degree of civil liberty and an open business environment,underpinning the citys h

168、igh ranking in the Governance category.While missing some of the“soft power”of its northern peer,Sydney,Melbourne ranks higher in our index,and is on a path to overtake its main competitor as Australias largest city.ECONOMICS 16thHUMAN CAPITAL 11thENVIRONMENT 30thQUALITY OF LIFE 185thGOVERNANCE 18th

169、KEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$292 billionGDP per person:US$56,300Population:5.2 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh life expectancyHigh housing expenditureMany universitiesOlder age profileLarge foreign-born populationSlower internet speedRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20242710 Zurich|Switzerla

170、ndRounding out the top 10 cities in 2024 is Zurich.While the city may not have the population or GDP size of other business hubs around the world,it remains an important financial capital in Europe.The fact that the city punches well above its weight is reflected in its top-30 scores in four out of

171、the five categories.Zurich has the 81st-largest economy in the world,but in per-person terms,it has the 11th-largest.It is one of only 19 cities in the world with a GDP per person above$100,000,and one of only six cities in Europe to achieve that feat,which helps explain its high score in our Econom

172、ics category.Zurich ranks even higher in the Human Capital category.Here,the city benefits from having one of the most educated populations in the world,as well as several globally ranked universities.Zurich is also home to many head offices for multinational corporations,due to the citys role as a

173、financial hub.These features attract people from all around the world to Zurich for its educational and employment opportunities.If people come to Zurich for the economic opportunities,they stay for the citys liveability;Zurichs strongest performance lies in the Quality of Life category.Incomes per

174、person are very high,and crucially,relatively equally distributed.Unlike some other cities with high incomes per person(such as those in the US),income inequality is relatively low in Zurich.Further boosting the citys Quality of Life score is its high life expectancy and many cultural sites,such as

175、the famous Opera House and many museums.Where Zurich does struggle in this category,however,is with housing expenditure.It is no surprise that Zurichs lakefront location and snow-capped mountain skyline come with the downside of high house prices and rents.But despite this,Zurich has the highest Qua

176、lity of Life score of any city in the overall top ten.The citys visually stunning location comes with another downside,however,as seen in the Environment category.Zurichs climate can be quite volatile,with large swings in temperatures and rainfall.It is also prone to natural disasters,especially flo

177、oding.These incidents are likely to get worse as the effects of climate change intensify,which may explain Zurichs urgency in responding to the climate crisis,seen through its legally enshrined commitment to reducing emissions.Still,the Environment remains Zurichs only underperforming category.In th

178、e Governance category,Zurich benefits from Switzerlands strong institutions and political stability,scoring among the highest in the world for these two indicators.Overall,Zurich demonstrates that its not just a large economy or population that makes a top city;doing the little things right is just

179、as important.ECONOMICS 29thHUMAN CAPITAL 14thENVIRONMENT 382ndQUALITY OF LIFE 8thGOVERNANCE 13thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$185 billionGDP per person:US$115,400Population:1.6 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESStrong institutionsSlower GDP growthHigh educational attainmentLarger temperature anomaliesHigh incom

180、e per personHigh housing expenditureRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20242811 Boston|United StatesDespite just missing out on the overall top 10,Boston is still undoubtedly a global powerhouse in the Economics and Human Capital categories.The city ranks 10th globally in Human Capital,in

181、large part because of its role as a global hub for education.Boston is home to some of the best universities in the world,including Harvard and MIT,attracting talented students,academics,and researchers from around the globe.Unsurprisingly then,Bostonians have among the highest levels of educational

182、 attainment in the world.The citys universities foster a culture of innovation and cutting-edge research,bolstered by the many companiesparticularly those in the healthcare and tech sectorsthat are headquartered in Boston.As a hub for innovation and technology,Bostons economy benefits from its large

183、 life sciences and tech sectors.These help the city achieve the 13th-largest GDP in the world,and the sixth-largest in per person terms.In fact,Bostons R&D-based sectors make up such an important share of the citys output that its economy is less diverse than nearly every other city in North America

184、.Relying on just a few industries for growth can be risky,but this is slightly less of an issue for Boston as its R&D-based sectors tend to be less volatile than industries dependent on financial markets or commodity prices.Bostons role in the knowledge economy results in some of the highest incomes

185、 per person in the world,boosting the citys Quality of Life score.However,Boston has very high levels of income inequality.The disparities facing the citys residents extend to housing and educational opportunities as well.But Bostons Quality of Life score receives a boost from the number of recreati

186、on and cultural sites in the city,many of which are related to Bostons role in the founding of the United States.In the Environment category,Bostons score takes a hit because the city is prone to natural disasters,particularly flooding.And new research shows that many neighbourhoods in Boston that w

187、ere initially built on marshlands are sinking into the ground,compounding the issue of sea level rise already facing the city.Each centimeter the land sinks can make floods significantly worse.Fortunately,with its sizeable public transit system,Boston is already among the worlds cleanest cities,both

188、 in terms of air quality and CO2 emissions intensity.But more will need to be done to protect Bostons residents from the growing climate hazards facing the city.Like other US cities,Bostons Governance score is driven by its strong business environment.In Bostons case,this business environment is mar

189、ried with the citys many centres for higher education,resulting in a city that is a global hub of innovation and entrepreneurship.ECONOMICS 12thHUMAN CAPITAL 10thENVIRONMENT 237thQUALITY OF LIFE 123rdGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$617 billionGDP per person:US$125,100Population:4.9 million

190、STRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh income per personLower income equalityMany universitiesLess economic diversityHigh educational attainmentMore natural disastersRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20242912 Dublin|IrelandDublin is the economic engine of Ireland,and it is the first of three cities to r

191、ank in the top 100 in every category(the others being Stockholm and Oslo).The citys Economics score is strengthened by having the ninth highest GDP per person of our 1,000 cities and placing in the top three in Western Europe for GDP growth.Though Dublins GDP per person is impressive,GDP can be a fl

192、awed measure of Dublins economy,given that it continues to be distorted by activities of large multinationals operating in the city.Instead,other metrics can provide a more accurate insight into Dublins economy.Like,for instance,employment growth;with Dublin having the second highest employment grow

193、th in Western Europe,it indicates that the citys labour market is indeed in good shape.Dublins recent success has been concentrated in tech,finance,and pharmaceuticals,and although these sectors are high value,they can be exposed to global economic shocks.The stock of human capital in Dublin is key

194、to its economic prowess.The city has one of Western Europes most favourable demographics in terms of population growth and age.The population has access to high-quality universities such as Trinity College Dublin and the citys talent pool is part of what attracts businesses,with many global corporat

195、ions headquartered in Dublin,including Accenture.These advantages help Dublin rank fifth for Human Capital in Western Europe.Although in the top decile globally for Quality of Life,certain factors weigh down Dublins ranking.Residents spend relatively more on housing than nearly anywhere elseit is in

196、 the bottom 50 globally and one of the most expensive cities in Europe for housingwhich is unsurprising given Irelands housing crisis.Dublin ranks just outside the top decile for income per person,likely driven by its high earners working in the large multinationals in the citys Docklands,including

197、the IFSC(International Financial Services Centre).Dubliners enjoy one of the highest Environment scores globally,reflecting the citys temperate climate and ambitious climate action.Residents experience superior air quality due to a low concentration of carbon-intensive industries,and further progres

198、s is planned by the city council as it aims for climate neutrality by 2030.In terms of risk,there is a small chance of flooding along the river Liffey in the city during storms.Dublin,Irelands political centre,benefits from the countrys stable representative democracy with good civil protections,tho

199、ugh its business environment is average compared to Scandinavian cities.Dublins challenges include its acute housing shortage,lack of economic diversity,and the instability that comes with its sectoral composition.Though despite these,Dublin earns a very respectable position in the index,grounded in

200、 its economic growth,environment,and highly skilled workforce.ECONOMICS 33rdHUMAN CAPITAL 16thENVIRONMENT 17thQUALITY OF LIFE 67thGOVERNANCE 51stKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$260 billionGDP per person:US$117,400Population:2.2 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP per personLess economic stabilityMany unive

201、rsitiesHigh housing expenditureGood air qualityLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243013 Washington,DC|United StatesWashington,DCs two strongest categories,Human Capital and Economics,are a result of the citys role as the seat of the US federal government.Its score

202、 in the Economics category is reflective of the citys large GDP,both in total and per person terms.Unsurprisingly,the public sector plays an outsized role in the economy,as around one quarter of the population works for the federal government.However,Washington is also home to a large services secto

203、r that supports government activities,from law firms,non-profits,and consultancies to the hotels that host conferences year-round.However,having an economy so closely tied to the public sector can have a downside.The public sector tends to be less productive than others,which can explain Washingtons

204、 slower GDP growth as compared to other US cities.Washingtons top score is in the Human Capital category.The citys residents are among the most educated in the world(and are the most educated in the US),which is a byproduct of many of them working in Washingtons several policy-making arenas.The city

205、 is also home to many universities and corporate headquarters that want to benefit from being in proximity to the federal government.As the US capital,Washington is also a very international city,thanks to the many foreign diplomats stationed there.The prevalence of well-paid government jobs also pl

206、ays a role in Washingtons high levels of income per person.In addition,the city benefits from decent recreation and cultural infrastructure for its size,with its plethora of museums(including 17 Smithsonian Museums alone)and monuments catering to tourists and residents alike.But Washingtons Quality

207、of Life score is hindered by relatively high levels of inequality(a feature of most American cities)and an expensive housing market.The citys Environment score takes a hit because the region is prone to natural disasters and can experience volatile temperatures.But Washington gains points in this ca

208、tegory for having a low CO2 emissions intensity,in part due to its density and broad public transportation infrastructure.Additionally,the city is not home to many carbon-intensive industries,and as a result,has one of the lowest emissions intensities of any American city.Perhaps nowhere is a citys

209、Governance score felt more acutely than in Washington.In addition to influencing its score,a new administration with new priorities can make Washington feel like an entirely different place.Like other US cities,Washingtons Governance score is brought down by the increasing instability of the US poli

210、tical system.Overall,the citys fortunes are closely tied to its role as the US capital.In good times,Washington attracts new residents and visitors alike to its halls of power.But in bad times,the political gridlock can be crippling,causing government shutdowns and sluggish growth.ECONOMICS 11thHUMA

211、N CAPITAL 7thENVIRONMENT 314thQUALITY OF LIFE 224thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$706 billionGDP per person:US$110,300Population:6.4 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh educational attainmentSlower GDP growthHigh income per personMore natural disastersLarge GDP sizeLess economic diversityRANKI

212、NGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243114 Stockholm|SwedenStockholm comes in at 14th in our rankings,making it the highest placed city in the Nordic region.The citys strength in the index lies in its consistency,as it is the second of only three cities to score in the top 100 for every catego

213、ry.As the economic centre of Sweden and the Nordics,Stockholm is the largest city in terms of GDP and population in the region.Its Economics score is further bolstered by a relatively high GDP per person,and a diverse economy that is less exposed to sector-specific shocks than many of its peers.This

214、 has helped Stockholm achieve healthy GDP growth by Western European standards.Closely tied to the citys strong economy is its performance in the Human Capital category.Several global corporations have established their headquarters in Stockholm,accessing a talent pool of highly educated residents a

215、nd globally ranked universities.This makes Stockholm an attractive destination to do business,which has boosted job opportunities and helped to support healthy population growth,which has been increasing at one of the fastest rates in Europe.People and businesses are also choosing Stockholm because

216、of the high standard of living,which includes one of the highest life expectancies in the world.The city also has many recreational and cultural offerings,which include the Vasa Museum,Skansen,and the several islands of the Stockholm archipelago(popular destinations for Swedes and international visi

217、tors alike).But like many other cities at the top of the rankings,Stockholms housing market remains a key challenge.On average,residents spend a larger share of their income on housing than in most other cities.Rent controlled housing is available,but the average wait time is currently over nine yea

218、rs,and this pushes residents into the secondary market where sublets are often more expensive and less secure.With its high rates of population growth,it is likely that Stockholms housing stock will become further strained without government intervention.But it is a testament to Stockholms overall s

219、trength that its worst-performing category,Environment,still scores in the top decile globally.In this category,however,competing forces are at play.On the one hand,Stockholm has one of the lowest CO2 emissions intensities of any city in the world.At the same time,the city has particularly volatile

220、temperatures,a common problem across the Nordic region,and this is likely to worsen as the impacts of climate change continue to grow.Stockholm also benefits from Swedens strong institutions that enable political stability and a welcoming business environment.Residents of Stockholm have among the mo

221、st robust civil liberties protections in the world.Across the five categories in our index,Stockholm is among the most well-rounded.The citys strength lies in its ability to have no glaring weakness across any of our categories.ECONOMICS 28thHUMAN CAPITAL 15thENVIRONMENT 88thQUALITY OF LIFE 85thGOVE

222、RNANCE 10thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$189 billionGDP per person:US$77,000Population:2.5 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESLower emissions intensityLarger temperature anomaliesMany corporate headquartersHigh housing expenditureStrong civil libertiesLarger rainfall anomaliesRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Citi

223、es Index 20243215 Copenhagen|DenmarkCopenhagen ranks 15th in our Global Cities Index,just one place behind its(perhaps)greatest rival,Stockholm.And although smaller in size,the Danish capital has a lot going for it.Copenhagens greatest strength is in the Economics category,where it benefits from par

224、ticularly high scores for sectoral diversity and GDP per head.The citys economic diversity is evident from it serving as headquarters for companies in a wide range of industries,from the pharma giant Novo Nordisk,to the worlds largest shipping company Maersk,to Danske Bank(finance),and Carlsberg(bev

225、erages).Transport is another important sector for the city,with Copenhagen Airport the busiest in the Nordic region,and a major hub for European travellers.Copenhagen also performs well in the Human Capital category,with its labour force achieving a very high rate of educational attainment.This is l

226、inked to the strong reputation of the citys universities,represented primarily by the University of Copenhagen,Technical University of Denmark,and the Copenhagen Business School.The city also does well in attracting skilled workers from abroad,with one-in-five of Copenhagens residents being foreign-

227、born.The Danish capital ranks somewhat lower in our Quality of Life category,largely brought down by its limited and expensive housing.Indeed,in a recent Eurostat survey only 2.5%of Copenhagens residents indicated that its easy to find good housing at a reasonable pricethe lowest positive response a

228、mong 80 major European cities.So much so that to help alleviate housing shortages,there are long-term plans to build an artificial island(to be called Lynetteholm)in the Copenhagen harbour,which would accommodate 35,000 people.On a more positive note,Copenhagen does benefit from high income per pers

229、on,a long life expectancy,and rich cultural offerings,including the world-renowned Tivoli Gardens amusement park in the centre of the city.As well as having many green spaces,Copenhagen enjoys a low emissions intensity,in part due to its extensive public transportation network and bike-friendly infr

230、astructure.Already the eighth-best city in the world in terms of emissions intensity,Copenhagen has aspirations to become the first climate neutral capital in the world,although its plan to reach that target by 2025 has been delayed.However,Copenhagens Environment ranking takes a hit because tempera

231、tures in the city can be very volatile.Finally,Copenhagens score for Governance is second only to cities in New Zealand.In particular,the Danish capital earns the highest marks across all cities for business environment,reflecting low levels of corruption and administrative burdens.And that is furth

232、er reflected in strong scores of Copenhagens institutions,which in turn support the citys positive economic and demographic outlook.ECONOMICS 13thHUMAN CAPITAL 37thENVIRONMENT 110thQUALITY OF LIFE 179thGOVERNANCE 4thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$190 billionGDP per person:US$87,100Population:2.2 millionS

233、TRENGTHSWEAKNESSESMore economic diversityHigh housing expenditureHigh educational attainmentLower income equalityStrong business environmentLarger temperature anomaliesRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243316 Sydney|AustraliaAs arguably the most iconic Australian city and the largest in

234、 terms of economic size,Sydney occupies the 16th place in our Global Cities Index.Sydney is the financial capital of Australia and hosts a large business services sector,as well as key institutions like the Reserve Bank of Australia and Australias stock exchange.With an outreach both into Australia

235、and the Asia Pacific region,Sydney has attracted many foreign companies over the years and currently has the largest number of corporate headquarters among Australian cities.Sydney falls just within the top 20 in our index for the Economics category.It has enjoyed relatively high stability in its GD

236、P growth rate over the years,in line with Australias economic resilience in general.Also,Sydneys economy gets a large contribution from tourism,as it is home to some of Australias most famed landmarks,including the Opera House,the Harbour Bridge,and Bondi Beach.With two universities in the“Group of

237、Eight”and several others,Sydney offers a broad array of higher education options.This contributes to the citys high average educational attainment level and attracts many foreign students.In conjunction with its large number of company headquarters,Sydney has highest share of foreign-born people in

238、its population among Australian cities,bolstering its Human Capital score.However,a major weakness in the form of high housing costs persists.Property prices and rents have risen steeply in the city due to rapid growth in population,and the housing supply has not been able to keep up.Indeed,Sydneys

239、housing supply is constrained by its geographical location on the coastline and regulatory restrictions protecting heritage neighbourhoods;this makes new construction or increases in density difficult.As such,residents of Sydney have very high levels of housing expenditure,which weighs considerably

240、on the citys Quality of Life score.In terms of environmental risk,Sydney has the worst ranking among all Australian cities in our index.Because of its subtropical climate,Sydney faces a greater exposure to temperature and rainfall anomalies than Melbourne(a city with a milder,temperate climate).Also

241、,Sydney tends to be more affected by bush fires due to its forested surroundings,further increasing the environmental hazards.Still the foremost city in Australia,Sydney continues to be an attractive place for individuals and companies alike.However,as shown by its ranking in the index,Sydney has lo

242、st some ground to its main competitor,Melbourne,in recent years.In order to bounce back,Sydney will have to make gains in its two weakest categories:Environment and Quality of Life.ECONOMICS 19thHUMAN CAPITAL 9thENVIRONMENT 363rdQUALITY OF LIFE 230thGOVERNANCE 18thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$339 billi

243、onGDP per person:US$62,500Population:5.4 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESMany universitiesHigh housing expenditureLarge foreign-born populationMore natural disastersStrong institutionsSlower internet speedRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243417 Toronto|CanadaToronto is the highest-scoring Ca

244、nadian city in the rankings,as it is the countrys premier centre for business,finance,culture,and art.Positioned in the top-20 of both the Economics and Human Capital categories,the citys relevance is not only keenly felt in Canada,but also around the world.Toronto boasts one of the most historicall

245、y stable economies in North America,yet it hasnt sacrificed robust GDP growth to achieve this feat and it remains one of the fastest-growing cities in the region.Sustaining this strong growth over a long period of time is possible thanks to Torontos persistently high levels of in-migration,particula

246、rly from international immigrants.The city has the third-highest population growth rate in North America and the largest share of foreign-born residents.Torontos Human Capital score is further boosted by its role as a corporate and educational hub.Canadas five largest banks are headquartered in the

247、city,as are many companies in the hospitality and communications sectors.Several universities are also located in the city,driving a robust climate of research and innovation,including the world-renowned University of Toronto,a notable trailblazer in the medical field.While Torontos strong populatio

248、n growth rate has boosted its Human Capital score,it may have negatively impacted the citys Quality of Life score.The large influx of new residents has strained the metros already expensive housing market.With housing supply unable to keep up with demand,unaffordability hit record highs in early 202

249、2.As a result,residents of Toronto spend more of their income on housing than residents of nearly every other city in the world.While the government of Ontario has increased its targets for new housing construction to help abate this crisis,elevated immigration rates could impede any significant imp

250、rovements.Despite this issue,Toronto still ranks relatively strongly in Quality of Life given its high levels of life expectancy and income equality.Torontos lowest-ranking category is the Environment,in part because the city struggles with significant temperature anomalies,especially in winter.But

251、heat waves have also hit the city in summertime in recent years,increasing the amount of risk the city faces due to climate change.Moreover,as Toronto sits on the shores of Lake Ontario,it is prone to flooding.Like all Canadian cities,Toronto benefits from the robust civil liberties protections enfo

252、rced by the government,earning the city a strong Governance score.Despite housing market challenges and a temperamental climate,Toronto continues to attract new residents from the world over.At a time when many cities in the developed world are struggling to maintain their population growth,Toronto

253、is primed to remain a strong contender in the rankings for years to come.ECONOMICS 17thHUMAN CAPITAL 13thENVIRONMENT 316thQUALITY OF LIFE 197thGOVERNANCE 52ndKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$435 billionGDP per person:US$63,900Population:6.8 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh economic stabilityHigh housing expe

254、nditureLarge foreign-born populationLarger temperature anomaliesMany corporate headquartersLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243518 Dallas|United StatesDallas places 18th overall in our Global Cities Index,driven by its economic size and stability.What was a railr

255、oad and cotton-trading centre just over a century ago is now the fifth largest metropolitan economy in the US,and the ninth largest in the world.Diversification away from oil production since the 1980s into downstream oil refining and other high-value services sectors means that the city is no longe

256、r beholden to oil booms and busts.The“business friendly”political climate has stimulated private sector investment and has attracted many corporate relocations,including Caterpillar,Aecom,Toyota,CBRE,and Charles Schwab.Dallas also hosts the headquarters of Texas Instruments,American Airlines,and Sou

257、thwest Airlines.The significant number of corporate headquarters located in Dallas means that the city is amongst the best performers in terms of the Human Capital metric.However,when looking at the other measures of Human Capital,the city does not perform as well.Population growth is expected to sl

258、ow,and an increasing share of the population will be of retirement age.Also,Dallas lacks the abundance of world-class education institutions present in other top cities,and its residents are not as highly educated as its competitors.The city also has fewer foreign-born residents than most of its lar

259、ge US peer metros.Nevertheless,in the global context,Dallas still ranks an impressive 23rd in this category.Housing affordability has become an increasing issue in recent years,exacerbated by the citys high income inequality.Dallas also suffers from relatively slow internet speed,and overall,these f

260、actors weigh on Dallas Quality of Life ranking.In addition,despite some notable recreational and outdoor amenities such as the Dallas Arboretum and Botanical Gardens,and cultural institutions like the Dallas Symphony Orchestra,the city lacks the breadth of art and cultural offerings present in other

261、 leading cities.Even though Dallas score in this category is bolstered by high average incomes,partly driven by the absence of state income tax in Texas,this alone isnt enough to overcome Dallas other liveability challenges.Dallas urban sprawl,along with a public transportation infrastructure in nee

262、d of further investment,means that there is a significant dependency on cars and high levels of traffic congestion.Coupled with the elevated emissions and reduced air quality,the citys Environmental score takes a hit.Moreover,Dallas also experiences frequent heatwaves that weigh on the citys perform

263、ance in this category,and the urban heat island effect compounds these temperature extremes.Without more concrete plans to address this and other climate change hazards,the city risks further sliding in this category(and in others)in future years.ECONOMICS 6thHUMAN CAPITAL 23rdENVIRONMENT 280thQUALI

264、TY OF LIFE 320thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$742 billionGDP per person:US$91,600Population:8.1 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESLarge GDP sizeLarger temperature anomaliesMany corporate headquartersHigh income inequalityHigh economic stabilitySlower internet speedRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global

265、 Cities Index 20243619 Oslo|NorwayJust making it in the top 20 is the Norwegian capital,Oslo.Unlike others in the index,Oslos strength is broad-based,and it is one of only three cities which ranks inside the top 100 across all categories.While not a large economy in global terms,Oslos GDP per person

266、 is high at$72,750,the citys residents are wealthy,and personal taxes are notably lower compared with its Nordic peers(albeit still high in the global context),thanks to levies on Norways colossal oil and gas industry.Oslos strong overall performance is characterised by its stability.The citys econo

267、my is reasonably broad-based,which means Oslo is less exposed to sector-specific downturns than some of its peers.Plus,the citys economic performance has also been consistently healthy with GDP growth routinely hovering around the 2%-3%mark in the decade prior to the pandemic.The political climate i

268、s also favourable.Civil liberties are well protected by strong institutions,and the threat of political instability is low.This lack of volatility and risk has made Oslo an attractive destination to do business,and unsurprisingly,the city scores well in the Economics and Governance categories.This f

269、avourable economic and political background is supported by Oslos well-educated and young workforce,many of whom are foreign-born and enjoy a high quality of life.Oslos residents live some of the longest lives in the world,and resident satisfaction is among the highest in Europe.Part of this is as a

270、 result of the numerous recreational facilities and outdoor spaces that the city has to offer.In fact,the Norwegian capital is one of the only urban centres in the world where it is possible to ski within the city boundary,a popular pastime for residents.However,this quality of life comes at a cost.

271、While incomes are high,the city is notoriously one of the most expensive places in the world to live and housing costs take up a significant share of residents incomes.This drags Oslo down in the Quality of Life category.But the city is far from alone when it comes to this,as housing affordability i

272、s a key concern for many cities in our list.Oslos weakest performing category is the Environment,although notably the city still features in the top decile globally.Emissions intensity is very low in the city and the air quality is high,helped in part by the large swathes of forested areas that surr

273、ound it.Where Oslo falls in this category is through temperature and rainfall anomalies,a common problem for cities as far north as Oslo.But,by and large,Oslo is a city which consistently performs well in almost all areas in our index.ECONOMICS 48thHUMAN CAPITAL 53rdENVIRONMENT 72ndQUALITY OF LIFE 3

274、1stGOVERNANCE 8thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$108 billionGDP per person:US$72,800Population:1.5 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh economic stabilityHigh housing expenditureStrong civil libertiesLarger temperature anomaliesMany recreation and cultural sitesLarger rainfall anomaliesRANKINGSOxford Economics|

275、Global Cities Index 20243720 Vancouver|CanadaAlthough Vancouver is best known for its stunning natural beauty,its performance across the index shows that quality of life isnt the only thing that is impressive about this city.Like Toronto,Vancouvers economy is both stable and fast-growing;the metro e

276、xperienced steady economic growth in the decade preceding the pandemic and is among one of the fastest-growing cities in North America today.At the same time,Vancouvers economy isnt particularly diverse,and an overdependence on the real estate and tech sectors poses risks to future growth if these s

277、ectors begin to struggle.Despite the potential risks,the preponderance of the tech sector ultimately benefits Vancouvers Human Capital ranking.The industry attracts workers from around the world;many US tech firms have established offices in Vancouver in order to recruit international talent.As a re

278、sult,population growth is high,and the city is one of the most diverse in the worldnearly half of Vancouvers residents are not native English nor French speakers.Another byproduct of the influx of highly skilled workers is that Vancouver also has one of the highest rates of educational attainment.Be

279、yond the availability of jobs in tech,Vancouver also attracts new residents due to its high quality of life.Surrounded by both the Pacific Ocean and snow-capped mountains,Vancouvers proximity to outdoor recreational activities of all types enhances its Quality of Life score.The outdoorsy nature of t

280、he citys residents also likely contributes to their high life expectancy.But Vancouvers amenities and scenic views come at a costnamely,in the housing market.House prices and rental costs are a chronic issue,and the citys housing market has regularly topped lists of the most expensive in the world s

281、ince the early 2010s.With these high costs,Vancouverites tend to spend a significantly larger share of their income on housing than nearly every other city in the world.But despite these costs,quality of life in the city remains high.Vancouvers landscape isnt the only factor drawing its residents ou

282、tdoorsfor a city,it also boasts very good air quality.Vancouvers Environment score is further boosted by the steps the city has taken to reduce its carbon emissions,first with the Greenest City Action Plan which concluded in 2020,and now with the Climate Emergency Action Plan.As a city with large te

283、mperature anomalies that is at risk of flooding and coastal storm surges,well-defined energy transition and climate adaptation plans are essential for Vancouver to manage climate change.Arguably one of the most picturesque cities in the world,its no surprise that Vancouver is such an attractive loca

284、tion for many Canadians and international migrants.For those who can stomach the housing costs,there are few other cities that can match Vancouvers economic strength and quality of life.ECONOMICS 35thHUMAN CAPITAL 33rdENVIRONMENT 149thQUALITY OF LIFE 78thGOVERNANCE 52ndKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$164

285、billionGDP per person:US$56,900Population:2.9 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh economic stabilityHigh housing expenditureLarge foreign-born populationLarger temperature anomaliesHigh life expectancyLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243821 Geneva|SwitzerlandGeneva is

286、 the second Swiss city to appear in the index,following Zurich at#11.Like its slightly larger compatriot,Geneva punches well above its weight in the Economics category,owing to having a GDP per person among the highest in the world.The citys economy is also very stable,as a significant share of its

287、activity comes from the numerous international organisations located around Geneva,including the headquarters of many UN bodies.While the public administration sector doesnt experience the volatility of other industries,the downside is that it tends to grow more slowly,contributing to a poor GDP gro

288、wth ranking.However,this is balanced out by the other major industry in Genevathe much faster-growing,but more volatile,finance sector.The city hosts one of the worlds largest marketplaces for the trading of oil,sugar,grains,and other commodities,which offsets some of the slowness from the public se

289、ctor.Given the citys key role in both global diplomacy and trade,it is unsurprising that Genevas population is also very international.The share of its population that is foreign-born is the highest in Europe,which boosts its Human Capital score.Educational attainment is also high,as jobs in the pub

290、lic administration and finance sectors often require advanced degrees.And as the home of CERN,one of the largest research centres in the world,the city also attracts a wide array of scientists from across the globe.But Geneva performs even better in the Quality of Life category.The city boasts the s

291、econd-highest life expectancy of any city in Europe.And nestled between the Alps and Lake Geneva,the city has access to a wide range of outdoor recreational activities,from world-class skiing in the winter to swimming and hiking in the summer.But as is the case with many Swiss cities,residents face

292、high housing costs as a result of Genevas picturesque location,slightly bringing down its score in this category.Another consequence of the citys location is its relatively poor Environment score.Lake Geneva poses a flooding risk to some neighbourhoods,and the mountains cause significant temperature

293、 anomalies as the weather can change dramatically from one day to the next.Conversely,Genevas Environment score is boosted by the citys low emissions intensity,ranking fifth-best in the world due to an economy largely driven by services,rather than carbon-intensive industrials.Like other Swiss citie

294、s,Genevas top Governance score is driven by the countrys robust institutions and political stability.Switzerlands carefully calibrated policy of neutrality has served Geneva well over the years and helps explain why so many international organisations are headquartered here.Despite a relatively smal

295、l GDP and population,Geneva maintains an outsized relevance on the global stage.ECONOMICS 36thHUMAN CAPITAL 60thENVIRONMENT 335thQUALITY OF LIFE 14thGOVERNANCE 13thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$75 billionGDP per person:US$121,000Population:620,000STRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP per personLarger temperature

296、anomaliesLarge foreign-born populationSlower GDP growthLower emissions intensityHigh housing expenditureRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20243922 Luxembourg|LuxembourgLuxembourg is one of the smallest cities in the top 50 both in terms of population and GDP,but for what the city lacks in

297、 quantity,it makes up for with quality.Specifically,quality of life.It has among the most recreation and cultural sites per person of any city in the world,thanks to its rich history and many notable museums.Luxembourg is the only city to have been crowned a European Capital of Culture twice.Residen

298、ts of Luxembourg also benefit from high incomes,which are relatively evenly distributeda rare combination.All of these characteristics contribute to Luxembourgs achievement of the sixth-highest Quality of Life score in the world.Underpinning Luxembourgs high incomes is the citys robust economy.While

299、 its total GDP doesnt rank in the top 100 globally,in per-person terms,Luxembourg has the fifth-largest GDP in the world.This is mostly due to the citys role in the financial services sector,where it specialises in providing banking and wealth management services to a predominantly international cli

300、entele.As such,the citys economy is among the least diverse in Europe,with growth heavily dependent on the financial sector.Ultimately,this results in a high-risk,high-reward growth strategy:Luxembourg has among the fastest GDP growth rates in Western Europe,but it is also highly exposed to financia

301、l market volatility and regulatory changes.In addition to being a financial hub,Luxembourg is also one of the de facto capitals of the European Union as the seat of several EU institutions and agencies.Because it is an international centre for finance and policymaking,Luxembourg has one of the large

302、st shares of foreign-born residents in the world.This trend is set to continue as the city is forecast to have one of the fastest population growth rates in Western Europe in the next few years,further bolstering Luxembourgs Human Capital score.Luxembourgs worst category by far is the Environment,bu

303、t this is largely climate,rather than policy,related.The city has a relatively low emissions intensity as much of its economic output comes from the low-carbon financial sector.However,it suffers from significant temperature and rainfall anomalies.Large swings in temperatures and rainfall have led t

304、o heat waves and flash floods in Luxembourg in recent years,the risks of which will continue to grow as the impacts of climate change worsen.In many ways,Luxembourg is unique among the worlds premier business hubs,having leveraged its financial revenues more equally for its residents.This is in part

305、 due to its political stability and strong institutions,resulting in a high Governance score.While Luxembourgs prosperity is largely at the mercy of the global financial sector,for now,the city has maximised the benefits of these conditions.ECONOMICS 38thHUMAN CAPITAL 66thENVIRONMENT 440thQUALITY OF

306、 LIFE 6thGOVERNANCE 70thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$86 billionGDP per person:US$129,600Population:660,000STRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP per personLarger temperature anomaliesMany recreation and cultural sitesLarger rainfall anomaliesLarge foreign-born populationLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Econo

307、mics|Global Cities Index 20244023 Perth|AustraliaPerth is the third ranking city in Australia and places 23rd in our index.The Western Australian citys performance is broad based across the categories we include in our index,and is situated in the top 100 in all but Quality of Life.The city is home

308、to and serves as the operational and export basis to a large part of Australias important mining sector.This is both a strength and a weakness for Perth;the mining generates substantial economic value for the city,contributing to a high GDP per person as well as a high rate of economic growth for a

309、developed economy city.However,Perths reliance on the mining sector also comes with drawbacks as it makes the city vulnerable to commodity price and demand fluctuations.Perths mining sector also enables the city to attract many foreign-born inhabitants seeking opportunities in its high paying labour

310、 market.Indeed,Perth has the strongest population growth score and the second largest share of foreign-born residents in Australia.The city also boasts a high level of educational attainment,supported by the presence of multiple universities,among which one is a part of the“Group of Eight”,a group o

311、f elite Australian universities.All these elements drive Perths strong performance in the Human Capital category,in which it is ranked 22nd worldwide.High incomes associated with the mining and extraction sector also imply that Perths inhabitants enjoy a good quality of life on average.However,all o

312、f Perths inhabitants do not benefit from the sectors windfall,creating high income inequality by Australian standards.Also,given the citys remoteness and the general underinvestment in internet connectivity infrastructure in Australia as a whole,Perth suffers from relatively poor levels of internet

313、speed.Its geographic isolation also implies that Perth does not provide the same access to cultural life as some of its Australian east coast peers.However,being remote does come with perks.Indeed,Perth scores highly when it comes to environmental quality,as the city has high levels of air quality a

314、nd low emissions intensity.This might seem surprising for a city with a mining sector as large as Perths,but this can be explained by the mining activities being extraction-focused and involving few air polluting transformation activities.Furthermore,these activities tend to be located away from the

315、 citys living quarters.Perths fortunes have been closely linked to the mining sector,which should continue to support the economy.Meanwhile,the citys growing services industry will likely also ensure that growth in the city will be more diverse in the future.A key challenge for Perth,then,will be to

316、 continue to attract talent to sustain its current growth path.ECONOMICS 57thHUMAN CAPITAL 22ndENVIRONMENT 34thQUALITY OF LIFE 135thGOVERNANCE 18thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$223 billionGDP per person:US$96,600Population:2.3 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh GDP growthLess economic diversityGood air qual

317、ityLarger temperature anomaliesHigh GDP per personSlower internet speedRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20244124 Denver|United StatesWith an overall ranking of 24,Denver,Colorado sits just east of the Rocky Mountains and just north of the top 50 in our index.While not as economically div

318、erse as other leading cities,Denvers sectoral concentration has led it to be a financial powerhouse in the western US.Denvers highest scoring category is Economics,owing that feat to both high levels of GDP per person and GDP size,courtesy of the many information and professional services companies

319、that have made the Mile High City their home.These high-paying,information-centred jobs are the root cause of higher scores in the other categories.For example,of the top 50 cities in the Human Capital category,the only American city that ranks higher in educational attainment than Denver is Washing

320、ton,DC.It is clear that these types of jobs attract highly educated,skilled labour from around the country.Additionally,the businesses that host these jobs do not just have branches in Denver,but have put down roots in the Rockies,as the city hosts several global corporate headquarters,further boost

321、ing its Human Capital ranking.Although Denver doesnt score in the top 100 for Quality of Life measures as its weighed down by high housing expenditure,the city impressively boasts the 6th-highest income per person the world.Credit for this score can again be given to high paying information sector j

322、obs in tandem with a demographic dominated by a young,skilled workforce.The environment is also very important to Denverites,with the mountains and gorges providing ample opportunities for skiing,hiking,and rafting,as well as serving as a major pull for tourism.However,it also presents hurdles in th

323、e Environment category,with the famously arid climate bringing strong anomalies in temperature and rainfall.In combination with the dry air,Denver is situated in a valley,making it uniquely exposed to natural disasters such as wildfires and flooding.On a brighter note,Denver does see very limited ai

324、r pollution,which is owed to a low carbon-intensive industry mix and a lack of heavy manufacturing.Additionally,with recent efforts made to promote alternative methods of transportation,Denver has made significant improvements to its cycling infrastructure,and residents can also enjoy easy access to

325、 a well-connected light rail.Denver has positioned itself as a city at the forefront of the professional and information sectors.This centralised focus has attracted top talent from other parts of the country and has allowed these workers to be well compensated for their performance.Looking forward,

326、those in Denver can endeavour to diversify the broader economy and enjoy their 300 days of sunshine.ECONOMICS 23rdHUMAN CAPITAL 31stENVIRONMENT 243rdQUALITY OF LIFE 113thGOVERNANCE 184thKEY FIGURES IN 2023GDP:US$305 billionGDP per person:US$101,300Population:3.0 millionSTRENGTHSWEAKNESSESHigh income

327、 per personLarger temperature anomaliesHigh educational attainmentLarger rainfall anomaliesGood air qualityLess economic diversityRANKINGSOxford Economics|Global Cities Index 20244225 Houston|United StatesHouston ranks 25th overall in our Global Cities Index.Its position as an international and vert

328、ically integrated hub for the oil and gas sector makes it an economic powerhouse.Most aspects of the industrydownstream,midstream,and upstreamare managed from here,including the major fuel refining and petrochemicals sectors.This makes Houston the 12th largest city in the world by GDP size,with a hi

329、gh ranking for GDP per person as well.Major employers located in the city include Schlumberger,Shell Oil Company,and ExxonMobil.And although the city has notable aerospace and logistics sectors and has diversified into other areas such as biomedical research and tech,its fortunes remain very much ti

330、ed to oil and gas.As such,its economic stability and growth lag other leading cities in the index.Houston ranks highly in the Human Capital category due to the large number of corporate headquarters present in the city.In addition to energy sector giants,major companies such as Hewlett Packard and S

331、ysco also have head offices in the city.Houstons leading educational institutions include Rice University,the University of Houston,and the multiple medical schools linked to the Texas Medical Center,the largest medical complex in the world.Despite this,it lacks the number of world-leading universit

332、ies that other cities have,and only performs moderately in terms of the educational attainment of its residents.Slower expected population growth and an ageing population also slightly weaken its score in this category.Although Houston has high incomes per person due to its significant energy,aerosp

333、ace,and medical research sectors,its Quality of Life score is hurt by having high income inequality and a life expectancy that is lower than nearly half of the 1,000 cities.Although Houston does not have as many recreation and cultural sites as other top cities in the index,residents still enjoy a variety of arts,cultural,and recreational activities,including the citys Museum District and NASAs Sp