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1、 Arias-Navarro C.,Baritz R.,Jones A.(Eds)2024Fully evidenced,spatially organised assessment of the pressures driving soil degradation.ISSN 1831-9424 EUR 40054This document is a publication by the Joint Research Centre(JRC),the European Commissions science and knowledge service and the European Envir

2、onment Agency(EEA).It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process.The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Commission.Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commissio

3、n is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication.For information on the methodology and quality underlying the data used in this publication for which the source is neither Eu-rostat nor other Commission services,users should contact the referenced source.The designations employed

4、 and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Contact informat

5、ionName:Arwyn JonesAddress:European Commission Joint Research Centre,Sustainable Resources Directorate Land Resources and Supply Chain Assessments Unit(D3)Unit,Via Fermi 2749,21027 Ispra(VA),ItalyEmail:Arwyn.JONESec.europa.euTel.:+390332 78 9162EU Science Hubhttps:/joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu

6、 European Environment Agencyhttps:/eea.europa.eu JRC137600EUR 40054Print ISBN 978-92-68-20817-5 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2760/5897030 KJ-01-24-055-EN-CPDF ISBN 978-92-68-20816-8 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/7007291 KJ-01-24-055-EN-NLuxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2024 European Union,

7、2024 European Environment Agency,2024 The reuse policy of the European Commission documents is implemented by the Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents(OJ L 330,14.12.2011,p.39).Unless otherwise noted,the reuse of this document is authorised under t

8、he Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Inter-national(CC BY 4.0)licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated.For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the Europ

9、ean Union and the Euro-pean Environment Agency(EEA),permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.-Cover page illustration,Christopher HavengaHow to cite this report:Arias-Navarro,C.,Baritz,R.and Jones,A.editor(s),2024.The state of soils in Europe.Publications Office of the European

10、Union.https:/data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/7007291,JRC137600.The State of Soils in Europe-202401Contents Abstract .05Foreword .06Acknowledgements .07Executive summary .10Introduction .12 01 Regional overview .15 02 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services .18 03 Drivers of changes in

11、soil health .213.1 Climate change .213.2 Land use and land cover change .213.3 Socioeconomic drivers .223.4 Soil water .223.5 Disturbances(wildfires,droughts and windstorms).24 04 Regional status and trend of soil degradation .264.1 Excess and deficiencies in soil nutrients .264.1.1 Status and trend

12、s .264.1.2 Drivers .294.1.3 Impacts .30 he State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-2024024.2 Soil acidification .314.2.1 Status and trends .314.2.2 Drivers .324.2.3 Impacts .334.3 Soil carbon change(in mineral soils,organic soils and inorganic carbon).344.3.1 Mineral soils .344.3.2 Orga

13、nic soils .374.3.3 Inorganic carbon .414.4 Soil erosion .434.4.1 Status and trends .444.4.2 Drivers .494.4.3 Impacts .514.5 Soil compaction .534.5.1 Status and trends .534.5.2 Drivers .554.5.3 Impacts .554.6 Soil pollution .564.6.1 Status and trends .574.6.2 Drivers .604.7 Soil salinisation and sodi

14、fication .634.7.1 Status and trends .644.7.2 Drivers .664.7.3 Impacts .67The State of Soils in Europe-2024034.8 Soil biodiversity change .684.8.1 Status and trends .694.8.2 Drivers .704.8.3 Impacts .704.9 Soil sealing and land take .714.9.1 Soil sealing .724.9.2 Land take .734.9.3 Landscape fragment

15、ation .754.9.4 Land recycling rate .764.9.5 Conclusions .76 05 Convergence of evidence for soil degradation in Europe .785.1 Monitoring .785.1.1 National Soil Monitoring programs .795.1.2 International co-operative programme on assessment and monitoring of air pollution effects on forests .815.2 EU

16、Soil Observatory Soil Degradation Dashboard .85 06 Understanding the interplay between drivers and impacts of soil degradation.886.1 Interconnections between soil degradation factors:Understanding complexities in European soil health .886.2 Assessing the impacts of soil degradation on Ecosystems,Agr

17、iculture,and Society in Europe .89 07 The role of citizen science in assessing soil conditions .927.1 Current citizen science activities .937.2 Outlook .94The State of Soils in Europe-202404 08 Towards sustainable soil governance:Policy pathways for preserving soil health in Europe .968.1 From the s

18、oil thematic strategy to the Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law:Advancing soil protection policies in the EU .968.2 Soil conservation policies beyond the EU.97 09 Ensuring soil health and ecosystem resilience amid diverse land use demands in Europe .99Conclusions .101References .102List of abbreviat

19、ions and definitions .141Glossary .142List of boxes .146List of figures .146List of tables .147Authors affiliations(alphabetic order).148Getting in touch with the EU .154Finding information about the EU .154The State of Soils in Europe-202405AbstractThis report investigates the intricate interplay b

20、etween drivers of changes in soil health and pressures and impacts on soil in the 32 European Environment Agency(EEA)member countries,along with six cooperating countries from the West Balkans,Ukraine and UK,shedding light on the multifaceted challenges facing soil conservation efforts.Our analysis

21、shows the complex interactions among various factors,both anthropogenic and natural,shaping soil degradation processes and their subsequent consequences.We highlight key findings,including the significant impacts of soil degradation on agriculture,ecosystem resilience,water quality,biodiversity,and

22、human health,underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive soil management strategies.Moreover,our examination of citizen science initiatives underlines the importance of engaging the public in soil monitoring and conservation efforts.This work emphasises the policy relevance of promoting sustainab

23、le soil governance frameworks,supported by research,innovation,and robust soil monitoring schemes,to safeguard soil health and ensure the long-term resilience of ecosystems.he State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-202406The sustainable management of soils is a formidable challenge,but

24、 crucial if we are to truly meet the aspirations and objectives of a European green transition.Healthy soils,and the diverse lifeforms that live within them,provide us with food,biomass and raw materials,while regulating climate,water and nutrient cycles.Soil is a unique habitat in its own right,hos

25、ting almost 60%of all biodiversity on terrestrial land;it also underpins aboveground ecosystems.Unfortunately,Europes soils are deteriorating.Taking centuries or millennia to form,they can be destroyed or damaged in minutes.According to the analysis of the Joint Research Centres EU Soil Observatory,

26、degradation processes affect at least 63%of soils in the European Union.Together with the European Environment Agency,the Joint Research Centre has assembled a rich scientific community to assess soil degradation and communicate the need to protect soils to the wider society.This is in line with the

27、 vision and objectives of the European Unions Soil Strategy 2030 and Horizon Europes Mission“A Soil Deal for Europe”to enhance soil literacy.Building on a previous JRC and EEA assessment on the state of soils from 2012,this updated report provides new insights and highlights a number of key issues.A

28、mong the main findings in the report,it is worth mentioning that many soils are experiencing carbon loss this could pose a threat to the EUs climate targets if left unaddressed.About 1 billion tonnes of soil are washed away by erosion every year with concerns of increasing losses of erosion as a res

29、ult of more extreme weather events.Between 2012 and 2018,more than 400km of land was lost per year to soil sealing in the European Union(EU).Worryingly,about 74%of agricultural land in the EU+UK faces excessive nitrogen inputs,while extensive areas exhibit phosphorus surpluses.Moreover,pesticide res

30、idues and other pollutants are prevalent in agricultural soils,further exacerbating environmental concerns.However,many countries still lack comprehensive data on soil health,especially on diffuse pollution.The proposed Soil Monitoring Law,supported by research and innovation initiatives such as the

31、 Horizon Europe mission,A soil deal for Europe,aims to address this gap while supporting the transition towards a more sustainable future.Future versions of this report will be able to benefit from the increased volume of data from the Law in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of the stat

32、e of soils.This publication marks an important milestone towards a better understanding of the role of soil in Europe and beyond.We encourage readers to share and promote this rich knowledge base.ForewordLeena Yl-Mononen Executive Director European Environment AgencyBernard Magenhann(Acting)Director

33、 General Joint Research Centre European CommissionThe State of Soils in Europe-202407This report was made possible by the com-mitment and voluntary work of Europes leading soil scientists and the institutions they are affiliated with.These include experts from the European Environment Information an

34、d Observation Network(EIONET),as well as stake-holders of the European Soil Observatory(EUSO).We would like to express our gratitude to all the lead authors and contributing authors.The Joint Research Centre and European Environ-mental Agencys editorial staff are also credited with assisting in the

35、production of the report,along with reviewers Carolina Puerta Pinero and Hakki Erdogan.The reports production was facilitated by PUBSY,the corporate management system for the centres outputs.Acknowledgements Soil assessments in the EU are made possible thanks to Europes Land Use/Cover Area Frame Sur

36、vey(LUCAS),and we therefore express our gratitude to all involved in its implementation.The coordination of LUCAS is facilitated by Unit E4 of Eurostat,the statistical office of the EU.In addition,soil sample collection and laboratory analyses are supported by the Directorate-Gen-eral for Environmen

37、t,the Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development and the Directorate-General for Climate Action.While the related work is currently in the very early stages,we hope that future revisions of this report will be underpinned by the EU soil moni-toring and resilience directive and the adv

38、ances in understanding and monitoring techniques brought about by the Horizon Europe mission A soil deal for Europe.he State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-202408Chapter Lead author(s)Co-author(s)AbstractCristina Arias-Navarro;Arwyn Jones;Rainer Baritz(Eds)Executive summary Cristina

39、Arias-Navarro;Arwyn Jones;Rainer Baritz(Eds)Introduction Cristina Arias-Navarro;Arwyn Jones;Rainer Baritz(Eds)Chapter 1Regional overviewCristina Arias-Navarro;Elise Van Eynde;Diana VieiraChapter 2The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem servicesCristina Arias-Navarro;Elise Van Eynde;Diana V

40、ieiraStefano Salata;Ottone Scammacca;Michele Munafo;Silvia Ronchi;Andrea ArcidiaconoChapter 3 Drivers of changes in soil healthRainer Baritz;Diana Vieira;Cristina Arias-Navarro;Elise Van Eynde;Arwyn JonesChapter 4 Regional status of and trends in soil degradation 4.1 Soil nutrients excess and defici

41、enciesElise Van EyndePhilippe Hinsinger;Dalila Serpa;Frederik Be;Gerard Ros;Eduardo Moreno Jimenez;Felipe Yunta4.2 Soil acidification Felipe Yunta;Elise Van EyndePhilippe Hinsinger;Dalila Serpa;Frederik Be;Gerard Ros;Eduardo Moreno Jimenez4.3 Soil carbon change(in mineral soils,organic soils,and ino

42、rganic carbon)Cristina Arias-Navarro;Daniele De Rosa;Iigo Virto Christopher Poeplau;Gabriele Buttafuoco;Panos Panagos;Arwyn Jones;Cristiano Ballabio;Emanuele Lugato;Stefan Frank;Tiphaine Chevallier;Rosa M Poch4.4 Soil erosion Panos Panagos Pasquale Borrelli;Francis Matthews;Diana Vieira;Matthias Van

43、maercke;Jean Poesen;Gunay Erpul;Velibor Spalevic;Snezana Dragovic;Yuriy Dmytruk;Anita Bernatek-Jakiel;Philipp Saggau;Leonidas Liakos;Christine Alewell4.5 Soil compaction Panos Panagos;Felipe YuntaCristina Arias-Navarro;Mathieu Lamand;Cristiano Ballabio4.6 Soil pollutionDiana VieiraFelipe Yunta;Diego

44、 Baragao;Olivier Evrard;Tanja Reiff;Vera Silva;Ana De La Torre;Chaosheng Zhang;Panos Panagos;Arwyn Jones;Piort Wojda4.7 Soil salinisation and sodification Calogero Schillaci;Felipe YuntaChiara Piccini;Claudia Cagnarini;Zoka Melpomeni;Fuat Kaya;Kitti Balog;Noelia Garca Franco;Simone Scarpa4.8 Soil bi

45、odiversity changeAlberto OrgiazziTimo Breure;Maria J.I.Briones;Julia Kninger;Marcel Van Der Heijden;Nikolaos Monokrousos;Mava Labouyrie;Davorka K.Hackenberger4.9 Soil sealing and land takeStefano Salata Ottone Scammacca;Michele Munaf;Silvia Ronchi;Andrea ArcidiaconoThe State of Soils in Europe-20240

46、9Chapter 5Convergence of evidence on soil degradation in EuropeCristina Arias-NavarroElise Van Eynde;Diana Vieira;Nils BroothaerstChapter 6 Understanding the interplay between drivers and impacts of soil degradationCristina Arias-NavarroElise Van Eynde;Diana VieiraChapter 7 The Role of Citizen Scien

47、ce in Soil Health AssessmentTaru SandnEloise Mason;Timo Breure;Chantal Gascuel;Apolline Auclerc;Erlisiana Anzalone;Victoria J Burton;Froukje Rienks;Sara Di Lonardo;Alba Peiro;Francisco Sanz;Ulrike Aldrian;Tanja MimmoChapter 8 Towards sustainable soil governance:Policy pathways for preserving Soil He

48、alth in EuropeCristina Arias-Navarro;Diana Vieira;Elise Van EyndeArwyn Jones;Rainer BaritzChapter 9 Ensuring Soil Health and ecosystem resilience amidst diverse land use demands in EuropeCristina Arias-Navarro;Diana Vieira;Elise Van EyndeArwyn Jones;Rainer BaritzConclusionsCristina Arias-Navarro;Arw

49、yn Jones;Rainer Baritz(Eds)Transversal contributionWestern BalkansDragana Vidojevi;Pandi Zdruli;Snezana Dragovic;Vesna ZupancUkraineYuriy Dmytruk;Vasyl Cherlinka;Svitlana RomanovaTrkiye Sevinc Madenoglu;Bulent Sonmez;Philipp Maurischat;Fuat Kaya;Sait Gezgin;Ibrahin Ortas;Erhan Akca;Taskin Oztas;Hasa

50、n Sabri Ozturk;Koksal Aydinsakir;Hesna Ozcan;Atilla PolatGeographic Information System,mapping,graphic formulation,data curationLeonidas Liakos;Daniela De Medici;Simone Scarpa;Juan Martin Jimenez;Christopher Havenga;Daniele Beltrandi;Marc Van-LiedekerkeThe State of Soils in Europe-202410Policy conte

51、xtHealthy soils need to be at the heart of the European Green Deal.In this respect,this report is aligned with several key EU policy initiatives,such as the EUs soil strategy for 2030,part of the EU biodiversity strategy for 2030;the zero pollution action plan;and the European Climate Law.With over

52、90 authors,it offers diverse expertise,reflecting the latest scientific insights on the topic of soil degradation in Europe.With over 60%of soils in the EU undergoing degradation processes,the stakes are high,with impacts on food security,ecosystem services and human health.This report synthesises c

53、urrent research and highlights the issues that need to be addressed through sustainable soil management.Offering comprehensive analyses and recommendations,the report aims to increase understanding of this crucial area.Its relevance is critical amid ongoing debates on environmental sustainability an

54、d agricultural policies.Moreover,its findings extend beyond soil health,potentially influencing policies on biodiversity conservation,climate change mitigation and land use planning,and stressing the need for multistakeholder cooperation to ensure environmental,social and economic sustainability in

55、Europe.Key conclusionsThe report confirms the magnitude of soil degradation in Europe and highlights the challenges arising from the impact of warfare on soils,particularly in conflict-affected regions such as Ukraine.New policy measures may need to be considered to address these emerging issues and

56、 ensure the resilience of European soils.Despite significant progress,knowledge gaps persist,particularly regarding diffuse pollution,the social impacts of soil degradation and the effects of warfare on soil health.Bridging these gaps will require further research and greater public engagement to ra

57、ise awareness and foster collective action.The findings presented in the report highlight several key policy-relevant consequences of soil degradation and recommendations for addressing this issue in Europe.Firstly,it is evident that existing policy frameworks need to be strengthened to effectively

58、monitor and mitigate soil degradation processes.This will involve,for example,implementing legislative mechanisms such as the proposed soil monitoring and resilience directive,which would provide a framework for comprehensive soil health assessments that could in turn support targeted interventions.

59、In addition,there is a clear need for cross-sectoral coordination and collaboration to tackle soil degradation comprehensively.Policy measures already in place could be strengthened to incentivise farmers to adopt soil-friendly agricultural practices(e.g.reducing tillage and planting cover crops)and

60、 to promote sustainable land management practices through support schemes and capacity-building initiatives.Overall,the findings of the report emphasise the urgency of addressing soil degradation in Europe through targeted policy interventions,collaborative approaches and continued investment in res

61、earch and innovation.Main findingsThis assessment offers a comprehensive examination of soil degradation in the 32 European Environment Agency member countries and in 6 collaborating nations in the western Balkans,Ukraine and the United Kingdom.With contributions from over 90 authors,the report draw

62、s on the latest research,case studies and soil monitoring data,providing a thorough analysis of soil threats and their implications.Executive summary The State of Soils in Europe-202411Europes soils serve as the foundation for a multitude of ecosystem services that are crucial for human well-being a

63、nd environmental sustainability.However,nutrient imbalances,acidification,organic carbon loss,peatland degradation,erosion,compaction,pollution and salinisation jeopardise their essential functions.Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated effort to understand the underlying drivers and imp

64、lement effective management strategies.Soil monitoring programmes,such as the Land Use/Cover Area Frame Survey,that provide data to the EU Soil Observatorys Soil Degradation Dashboard play pivotal roles in making it possible to assess soil condition,guiding policy formulation and promoting sustainab

65、le land management practices.In addition,they provide valuable insights into trends in soil condition and help in identifying areas in which intervention is needed.There is a lack of comprehensive soil data in the EUs neighbouring countries and regions affected by conflict,such as Ukraine.This highl

66、ights the need for international collaboration and data-sharing initiatives.To effectively address soil degradation,policy frameworks need to be strengthened,neighbouring countries need to be supported in transitioning to sustainable practices and incentives for soil-friendly agriculture need to be

67、provided.Furthermore,improving soil restoration techniques and making soil more resilient to climate change will require investment in research and innovation and in cross-sectoral cooperation.By implementing these recommendations and prioritising soil health,policymakers can safeguard the long-term

68、 productivity and sustainability of Europes soils,ensuring their ability to continue providing essential ecosystem services for generations to come.Related and future JRC workThe Joint Research Centre provides scientific support to the European Commission in the development and implementation of pol

69、icies aimed at protecting soil resources.Future efforts of the centre will include supporting the implementation of the soil monitoring and resilience directive by providing scientific evidence and recommendations for soil health assessments.The Joint Research Centre remains dedicated to incorporati

70、ng soil-related considerations into wider environmental policies and partnerships,in line with the objectives of the Science for the Global Gateway and International Green Deal initiative.Quick guideThe report offers a comprehensive assessment of soil degradation across Europe,focusing on key challe

71、nges and policy recommendations.Chapter 1 provides a regional overview,highlighting the diversity of Europes soils and the specific challenges faced in different regions.Chapter 2 discusses the vital role soils play in providing ecosystem services,such as climate regulation,water filtration,and biod

72、iversity support.Chapter 3 identifies the main drivers of soil degradation,including climate change,land use practices,and pollution.The core of the report,Chapter 4,presents the status and trends of soil degradation across Europe,with detailed insights at regional and national levels.Chapter 5 synt

73、hesises evidence from national soil monitoring programs and the EU Soil Observatory to provide a comprehensive view of soil degradation across Europe.Chapter 6 explores the interplay between different drivers and impacts of soil health,emphasising the complex nature of soil degradation processes.Cha

74、pter 7 highlights the role of citizen science in soil monitoring,showcasing how public participation can complement scientific efforts.Chapter 8 reviews current soil policies and suggests pathways for strengthening soil governance and protection.Chapter 9 addresses the challenge of balancing land us

75、e demands with the need to protect soil health and ensure ecosystem resilience.The State of Soils in Europe-202412Soil health is the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants,animals and humans.While traditional assessments of soil have primarily focused

76、 on crop productivity,contemporary perspectives on soil health encompass its impact on water quality,contributions to climate change dynamics and implications for human health(Lehmann et al.,2020).The health of soil ecosystems,covering their physical,chemical and biological condition,determines thei

77、r capacity to function as vital living systems and provide essential ecosystem services.In recent years,concerns about the status of soil health in Europe have escalated due to various anthropogenic pressures such as intensification of agriculture,urbanisation,industrial activities and climate chang

78、e.Recognising the urgency of addressing these challenges,policymakers have increasingly turned their attention to understanding the current state of soils and implementing measures to ensure their long-term viability.The primary purpose of this report is to assess the state of soil in Europe,by exam

79、ining key indicators,trends and drivers of change.The geographical scope of the assessment covers the 32 European Environment Agency(EEA)countries,along with 6 cooperating countries in the western Balkans(1),Ukraine and the United Kingdom.Drawing on existing and recent evidence from research,case st

80、udies and soil monitoring,the report discusses various soil threats in its core chapters.By synthesising existing research and data,the report aims to provide policymakers,stakeholders and the public with a comprehensive overview of the current state of soil degradation in the region.In addition,it

81、seeks to identify gaps in knowledge and propose recommendations for 1The 32 member countries are the 27 European Union Member States,together with Iceland,Liechtenstein,Norway,Switzerland and Trkiye.The six cooperating countries are Albania,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Kosovo*,Montenegro,North Macedonia a

82、nd Serbia.enhancing soil management practices and on policy interventions.The central policy problem addressed in this report is soil degradation in Europe,which has implications for agricultural productivity,environmental sustainability and human well-being.As soil degradation continues to accelera

83、te due to human activities,policymakers are confronted with the challenge of developing effective strategies to conserve and restore soil ecosystems.The overarching issue is determining how to reconcile competing demands for land use while safeguarding soil health and ensuring the long-term resilien

84、ce of European agriculture and ecosystems.The importance of prioritising soil health cannot be overstated.Healthy soils are fundamental to sustaining agricultural productivity,supporting biodiversity,regulating water resources,mitigating and adapting to climate change,and preserving cultural heritag

85、e.Furthermore,soil degradation poses significant economic costs,including reduced crop yields,increased input costs and the loss of ecosystem services.By prioritising soil health,policymakers can promote sustainable land management practices,enhance resilience to environmental stresses and safeguard

86、 the well-being of current and future generations.The main objectives of this report are multifaceted.Firstly,it aims to assess the current state of soils in Europe,including using key indicators such as carbon level,pollution,nutrient availability,compaction,erosion,salinisation and biodiversity.Se

87、condly,the report seeks to identify the drivers of soil degradation and pressures on soil health,ranging from land use changes and agricultural intensification to urbanisation and climate variability.Thirdly,the research aims to evaluate Introduction The State of Soils in Europe-202413existing polic

88、ies and initiatives focused on soil conservation and sustainable land management practices.Finally,the report aims to propose evidence-based recommendations on enhancing soil monitoring and on policy development and implementation at the European and national levels.Ultimately,the report is designed

89、 to inform decision-making processes and support the development of holistic and integrated approaches to soil management and conservation.In summary,this report provides a comprehensive overview of the state of soils in Europe,highlighting its significance for agriculture,the environment and societ

90、y.By addressing key policy questions and objectives,the report aims to inform evidence-based policymaking and promote sustainable soil management practices across the region.he State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-202414#01Regional overviewhe State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soil

91、s in Europe-20241501 Regional overviewAregional overview of soils in Europe(European Commission,2005;Tth et al.,2011)reveals a diverse landscape characterised by more than 20 soil types,according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classification system.Across the continent,soils exhibit

92、a wide range of features,including in terms of texture,structure and chemical properties.These are influenced by factors such as parent material,climate,topography and vegetation cover(Figure1).In northern Europe,soils are predominantly Histosols,which are soils formed from organic material,and Podz

93、ols,which are soils typical of boreal and temperate zones,with cool summers and cold winters.Podzols are characterised Source:European Commission,2005.by an acidic pH,a low level of moisture and a low nutrient content.These soils are therefore often found in forested areas and have limited agricultu

94、ral potential.Moving towards western Europe,soils vary widely depending on the local parent material and climate.The dominant soil types are Cambisols,Luvisols and Albeluvisols.Luvisols are soils typical of(sub)humid temperate climates and are generally productive soils suitable for a wide range of

95、agricultural uses.Cambisols are relatively young soils,often being highly suitable for agricultural land use.In southern Europe,typical soils are Calcisols,Cambisols and Leptosols.The Mediterranean Figure 1.Major soil types in Europe,based on the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classificatio

96、n.The State of Soils in Europe-202416climate,with hot and dry summers and mild winters with short periods of rain,favours the development of Calcisols,with a high pH and low organic matter content,and the poorly developed Cambisols.The steep topography in mountainous areas gives rise to very shallow

97、 Leptosols.Regosols are typical of the mountain areas in Albania,Greece,Italy,Spain and Trkiye.These soils are poorly developed mineral soils,and often occur in eroded land,for example in mismanaged orchards and vineyards.Eastern Europe exhibits a mix of soil types,influenced by both continental and

98、 maritime climates.Chernozems,Phaeozems,and Kastanozems are typical soil types in the steppic region.These soils are characterised by moderate to high soil organic carbon content and are highly suitable for arable cropping.The climate varies from temperate continental in the north to more continenta

99、l and semi-arid in the south-east,which explains the sequence of Phaeozem-Chernozem Kastanozem,characterised by the high accumulation of organic matter in the superficial mineral horizon,with dark colors,and high base saturation.Azonal soils,not confined to any specific European region,are Fluvisols

100、,Stagnosols and Gleysols.Fluvisols are stratified soils found along rivers and lakes,having developed in alluvial deposits.While Gleysols develop mainly in a low landscape position,under the influence of excess water at depth,Stagnosols form in areas prone to surface waterlogging.Despite the diversi

101、ty of European soils,they face common threats,such as erosion,compaction,contamination and loss of organic matter(Jones et al.,2012;FAO and ITPS,2015;EEA,2019a;IPCC,2019;European Commission,2021).In light of the ongoing changes in soil health and ecosystem dynamics,it is important to incorporate new

102、 findings and insights into the existing knowledge base in order to develop effective strategies for soil conservation and management tailored to diverse European contexts.The State of Soils in Europe-202417#02 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem serviceshe State of Soils in EuropeThe

103、State of Soils in Europe-20241802 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services Europes diverse landscapes are home to a rich tapestry of soils,each playing a vital role in supporting ecosystems and providing a myriad of essential services.Ecosystem Services(ES)are“the benefits people o

104、btain from ecosystems”or the direct and indirect benefits that human societies receive from Natural Capital(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,2005).Soil health(2)encompasses the overall condition and functionality of a soil ecosystem,reflecting its ability to support plant growth,maintain ecosystem bi

105、odiversity,regulate nutrient cycles,and provide other essential ecosystem services.Healthy soils exhibit attributes such as adequate nutrient availability,balanced soil structure,diverse microbial and faunal activity,good water retention capacity,and resilience to environmental stresses(Lehmann et a

106、l.,2020).Nevertheless,it is crucial to acknowledge that certain soils,such as Podzols that are characterised by low nutrient availability,may naturally lack some of these attributes.This absence,however,does not necessarily imply an unhealthy soil condition.European soils contribute significantly to

107、 biodiversity by providing a habitat for a vast array of organisms(Orgiazzi et al.,2022;Labouyrie et al.,2023).From microorganisms to fauna,soils 2 Soil health means the physical,chemical and biological condition of the soil determining its capacity to function as a vital living system and to provid

108、e ecosystem services.support a complex web of life.The diverse soil types and climates across the continent(Figure 1)fosters a wide range of plant species(Deharveng et al.,2019).This biodiversity,in turn,supports ecosystem resilience,making it more adaptable to environmental changes and disturbances

109、.Soils play a crucial role in regulating the climate by acting as a carbon sink(Lal et al.,2021).European soils store vast amounts of carbon,helping to mitigate climate change by reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO2)levels.However,unsustainable land use practices,such as deforestation and intensi

110、ve agriculture,lead to soil degradation and the release of stored carbon,exacerbating climate change(Cotrufo et al.,2019;Poeplau and Dechow,2023).Soils act as natural filters,purifying water as it passes through them.This process helps to maintain water quality by removing impurities and pollutants,

111、reducing the contamination of groundwater and surface water bodies.In addition,soils play a vital role in water regulation,influencing the balance of water availability in ecosystems.Well-managed soils contribute to flood prevention and sustainable water supply(Erdogan et al.,2021;Keesstra et al.,20

112、21).Soils are key to sustaining life,as they provide the foundations for food and biomass production,essential for agriculture and forestry.Europes agricultural success is closely tied to its diverse Europes diverse soils form the bedrock of ecosystems,providing a myriad of essential services vital

113、for human well-being and environmental sustainability.From supporting biodiversity and regulating climate to purifying water and sustaining agriculture,soils play a multifaceted role in maintaining the balance of our planet.Recognising the intrinsic value of soils,including their cultural heritage,i

114、s imperative for safeguarding these vital resources and fostering a resilient and inclusive society,in alignment with the UN sustainable development goals.The State of Soils in Europe-202419soils.Different regions support different crops due to variations in soil properties,texture and fertility(Tth

115、 et al.,2020;Fendrich et al.,2023).As the global population continues to grow,the role of soils in ensuring food security becomes increasingly critical(Pozza and Field,2020).Beyond sustaining crops and forests,soils serve as a vital source of raw materials necessary for various industries and proces

116、ses(Tth et al.,2013).In light of historical and ongoing urbanisation dynamics,natural ecosystems,including soils,have undergone substantial modifications.With approximately 38%of the European population residing in urban areas as of 2021(Eurostat,2023),the significance of ecosystem services derived

117、from urban landscapes cannot be overstated.Urban soils present many challenges and opportunities for human populations in cities(Rate,2022).Protecting soil cultural heritage is crucial for enhancing soil security,as it strengthens the connection between soil and society(Montanarella and Panagos,2021

118、).The EUs soil strategy for 2030 acknowledges the diverse range of services offered by soils,going beyond traditional agricultural,forestry and environmental perspectives to include social and cultural dimensions,notably soil cultural heritage.This recognition aligns with the perspectives of various

119、 researchers(Morgan and McBratney,2020;Friedrichsen et al.,2021;Costantini,2023),who advocate for a comprehensive evaluation of soil health.They emphasise the importance of assessing not only the material value of soil but also its non-commercial value,which encompasses cultural ecosystem services s

120、uch as spiritual significance,heritage and recreation.These non-commercial values of soils contribute to human well-being,supporting the achievement of targets included in the UNs sustainable development goals by promoting health,education,environmental conservation and inclusive societies(Keesstra

121、et al.,2016).Recognising the importance of soils social value in influencing physical and mental health,education,diversity and cultural identity,underscores the significance of the cultural and natural heritage services it provides(Field,2017;Friedrichsen et al.,2021).As Europe faces ongoing enviro

122、nmental challenges(EEA,2019b),such as air and water pollution,biodiversity loss,climate change impacts and habitat destruction,the wise stewardship of its soils will be key to maintaining the health and resilience of its ecosystems.Source:Created through the Joint Research Centre art and science pro

123、gramme by artists in residence Sonja Stummerer and Martin Hablesreiter to highlight the importance of a fair,healthy and environmentally friendly food system fulfilling the UN sustainable development goals as part of the European Green Deal.Photo 1.Food and Futures.The State of Soils in Europe-20242

124、0#03 Drivers of changes in soil healthhe State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-20242103 Drivers of changes in soil healthDrivers of changes in soil health are the various factors and processes that influence the condition,quality and functionality of soil ecosystems over time(Berhe,20

125、19).These drivers can originate from natural processes,such as climate variability and geological dynamics,and from human activities,including land use practices,industrial activities and urbanisation(Berhe,2019).Drivers of change exert pressure on soils,leading to alterations in their properties,bi

126、ological composition and functions.This can have significant implications for agricultural productivity,environmental sustainability and ecosystem resilience(Smith et al.,2016).Understanding the key drivers of soil change is essential for identifying threats to ecosystems and assessing their impacts

127、,and implementing strategies to mitigate soil degradation and promote sustainable soil management practices.3.1 Climate changeClimate change is one of the primary drivers of soil degradation(Banerjee and van der Heijden,2023),exerting significant influence through various mechanisms.Prolonged period

128、s of drought and rising temperatures exert significant pressure on soil resources such as water and nutrients.Rising temperatures affect soil condition by altering heterotrophic activity,organic matter decomposition rates and nutrient cycling processes.Warmer temperatures can accelerate soil organic

129、 matter decomposition,leading to carbon loss and reduced soil fertility(Wang et al.,2021).In addition,extreme temperature fluctuations can affect soil structure and stability,increasing the risk of soil erosion,compaction and salinisation(Daliakopoulos et al.,2016;Kelishadi et al.,2018;Panagos et al

130、.,2021;Kaushal et al.,2023).Changes in precipitation patterns,including the frequency,intensity and distribution of rainfall events,can have a profound impact on soil(Meng et al.,2021).Excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion,nutrient leaching and waterlogging,while drought can lead to soil moistur

131、e depletion,increasing susceptibility to erosion and desertification(Ferreira et al.,2022).The EUs ambitious climate targets hinge on preserving vegetation and soils to prevent further carbon losses,especially in organic soils,and to foster carbon sequestration.However,gains from prolonged growing s

132、easons may be offset by soil organic carbon(SOC)losses due to climate-related hazards such as temperature extremes,heavy precipitation and droughts(Searchinger et al.,2022).Between 2000 and 2022,an average of 4.2%of the EUs land area(approximately 167000km2)was affected annually by droughts,attribut

133、ed to low precipitation,high evaporation and heatwaves driven by climate change(EEA,2023a).In high-latitude regions,climate-change-induced permafrost thaw can release stored carbon and methane,leading to soil subsidence,land instability and altered hydrological regimes,hence exacerbating climate cha

134、nge feedback loops(Jin et al.,2021).3.2 Land use and land cover changeBetween 2011 and 2021,the proportion of protected land in the 32 EEA member countries and 6 cooperating countries increased from 24%to 26%(EEA,2023).However,this is juxtaposed with forecasts predicting a significant rise,of 15%,in

135、 global demand for agricultural products by 2028(OECD/FAO,2023).This surge in demand is poised to impact natural resources such as land and water,and biodiversity,underscoring the importance of sustainable land management practices.The management of cropland,pasture and agroforestry is particularly

136、critical in this context.Concurrently,forest and tree plantation management,grazing land management and The State of Soils in Europe-202422extractive industry development influence land use dynamics.In the last few years,we have started to observe that the mountains of Europe are being re-explored b

137、y the mining industry,with the expansion of open pit and underground mines(Eurostat,2018;del Mrmol and Vaccaro,2020).Urbanisation and infrastructure development have also left a tangible mark on land use patterns.Between 2012 and 2018,land take in the EU-27 and the United Kingdom expanded by 3581km2

138、.In addition,soil sealing increased by 1467km2,representing 23%of the territory and affecting 75%of the population,mainly at the expense of croplands and pastures(EEA,2021).Notably,nearly 80%of land take occurred in commuting zones,which,unlike city centres,provide valuable wildlife habitats,support

139、 carbon sequestration,offer flood protection and serve as sources of food and fibres(EEA,2021).Despite these trends,land recycling,including constructing in or rehabilitating previously built-up areas,only accounted for 13.5%of urban development in the EU between 2006 and 2012(Nicolau and Condessa,2

140、022).This signals the need for more sustainable land use practices to mitigate adverse impacts on soils and ecosystems.3.3 Socioeconomic driversSocioeconomic factors play a crucial role in driving soil degradation,reflecting complex interactions between human activities and environmental dynamics(Ga

141、mbella et al.,2021).Rapid population growth and urbanisation exert pressure on agricultural land,leading to intensified farming practices and expansion into marginal areas(Beckers et al.,2020).Intensive agriculture,driven by the demand for food and commodities,often involves the excessive use of che

142、mical inputs,extensive tillage and monoculture cropping,which degrade soil and reduce biodiversity(Emmerson et al.,2016).Land use changes,driven by economic incentives and policies,such as deforestation for agriculture or infrastructure development,further exacerbate soil degradation by disrupting n

143、atural ecosystems and increasing erosion rates(Olsson et al.,2019).In addition,socioeconomic inequalities and lack of access to resources and knowledge can limit sustainable land management practices,leading to land degradation and loss of livelihoods(Schuh et al.,2022).In 2020,according to The Thir

144、d Clean Air Outlook,produced by the European Commission(2022),75%of the total area of the EU-27 exceeded critical loads for nitrogen(N)deposition.The Po Valley in Italy,the DutchGermanDanish border areas and north-eastern Spain were characterised by significant exceedances,affecting the ecological q

145、uality of natural areas(Zhang et al.,2021).N deposition decreased by 12%between 2005 and 2020.The zero pollution action plan aims for a 25%reduction from 2005 levels by 2030.Forest ecosystem properties in Europe,such as soil pH buffer potential and plant biodiversity,are expected to respond with var

146、ying delays to the current trend of decreasing N deposition(Gilliam et al.,2019;Schmitz et al.,2019).3.4 Soil waterOwing to the recognition of the interconnectivity between water,energy,food security and ecosystems,whereby any limitation in one of the inputs will disturb the availability of the othe

147、rs,it is important to understand water as a key element in soil degradation(FAO,2014;Carmona-Moreno et al.,2019).Almost all chemical and biological activities in soil are dependent on its water content,which ultimately influences plant growth(Sharma and Kumar,2023).Soil water balance determines soil

148、 health,irrigation needs and crop productivity,and is intimately connected with degradation processes such as drought,Source:A.Jones.Photo 2.Soil sealing through urban expansion.The State of Soils in Europe-202423salinisation and flooding.Water scarcity(drought stress)is an important driver of soil

149、degradation,as it inhibits the biological functioning of soil and soil organic matter development(Vdre et al.,2022),which impacts other ecosystem services.While water excess due to poor drainage conditions can induce oxygen deficiency in soils(Vdre et al.,2022;Sharma and Kumar,2023),it can also incr

150、ease soil erosion due to saturation-excess run-off(Landemaine et al.,2023)or flooding(Merz et al.,2021).It is crucial to note that changes in the water content of soil also have profound implications for the greenhouse effect,particularly in sensitive ecosystems such as peatlands and rice crops,and

151、in many natural or semi-natural humid ecosystems.These environments play critical roles in global carbon cycles and biodiversity conservation,making them particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in water availability(Vereecken et al.,2022).Despite the importance of climate in controlling the water co

152、ntent of soil,the implementation of appropriate soil management practices(Ferreira et al.,2022),combined with the boosting of soil organic matter and soil biodiversity(Philippot et al.,2023),has been shown to improve soil water conditions,such as water-holding capacity and water infiltration,and ove

153、rall to improve the soils resilience to changes in water content(Falkenmark and Wang-Erlandsson,2021).War-induced soil degradation.The effects of the First World War on soils are still evident today(Williams and Rin-toul-Hynes,2022).The ongoing war in Europe has resulted in much more significant im-

154、pacts on soil.Scientists at Ukraines Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research have estimated that the war has degraded more 10million hectares of agricultural land across Ukraine so far.Military actions have led to a wide array of soil degradation issues,including pollution,compaction,l

155、oss of organic matter and nutrients,reduced biodiversi-ty,soil sealing and other,less well understood,issues(Dmytruk et al.,2023).The ongoing conflict in Ukraine involves the utilisation of state-of-the-art military weaponry,including aircraft bombs weighing between 1500kg and 3000kg,ballistic missi

156、les,massive fire and toxic chemicals.Consequently,the environmental impact of the military activities is set to be significantly more severe than ever witnessed in history.Experiences in other con-flict-affected areas indicate that soils in areas where there are intense hostilities,such as Bakhmut a

157、nd Avdiivka,will take decades(or even centuries)to be restored.While conduct-ing a thorough survey of soils impacted by military activities remains unfeasible at present,it is evident that addressing the repercussions of the war will pose a substantial challenge in tackling global issues.box 1 Photo

158、s box 1:Soil desgradation caused by the war in Ukraine.Source:Y.Dmytruk.The State of Soils in Europe-2024243.5 Disturbances(wildfires,droughts and windstorms)Fire activity in Europe has undergone significant changes in recent decades(19802020),which have been marked by the emergence of summers with

159、unprecedented fire-facilitating weather conditions(Jolly et al.,2015;Abatzoglou et al.,2018;Carnicer et al.,2022).To understand the extent of the damage,in 2022 nearly 900000ha of natural land were affected by fires,and 43%of the total burned land was within Natura2000 sites(San-Miguel-Ayanz et al.,

160、2023).Climate change is expected to further disrupt fire patterns,increasing fire season duration and risks globally,especially in Europe.Southern Europe,already a hotspot for climate-related risks such as fires,droughts and heatwaves,faces heightened challenges(Andela et al.,2017;Dupuy et al.,2020)

161、.Europes record-breaking summer of 2022,the second-warmest year on record,resulted in the largest drought-affected area ever recorded:over 630000km2,far exceeding the annual average of 167000km2 between 2000 and 2022.This trend is alarming,given projections of increased heatwave frequency and intens

162、ity by 2030,along with decreased summer precipitation in continental and Mediterranean regions.Soil degradation can significantly influence fire activity.Degraded soils are often less able to retain moisture,leading to drier conditions that can contribute to the flammability of vegetation(O et al.,2

163、020).Conversely,fires themselves can Source:D.Vieira.exacerbate soil degradation by reducing organic matter,altering soil structure and increasing erosion risk(McGuire et al.,2024).In doing so,they create a feedback loop originating from multiple disturbances,leading to further soil degradation,limi

164、ted ecosystem recovery and eventually desertification(Neary,2009).To mitigate these impacts,adjusting land management practices is crucial.Therefore,the implementation of effective adaptation strategies by the EU and its Member States is vital.The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Pan

165、el on Climate Change(IPCC),published in 2021(Ranasinghe et al.,2021),states that northern and central Europe are likely to experience an increased frequency and intensity of storms,including strong winds and extra-tropical storms.In southern Europe,the intensity of storms is predicted to rise,while

166、their frequency may decrease.Agricultural soils,especially bare surfaces,face severe threats from heavy rainfall and accompanying winds(Marzen et al.,2017).In summary,disturbances such as wildfires,droughts and windstorms are key factors to consider in assessing soil degradation in Europe.These even

167、ts can greatly influence soil properties and functions,underscoring the need for effective strategies to manage these impacts and protect soils from them.Addressing these challenges is therefore essential for maintaining good soil condition and ensuring the long-term sustainability of European ecosy

168、stems.Photo 3.Impacts of fire on the landscape in Serra da Estrela,Portugal.The State of Soils in Europe-202425#04Regional status and trend of soil degradation he State of Soils in EuropeThe State of Soils in Europe-202426Assessing soil condition involves evaluating a range of physical,chemical and

169、biological indicators.Soil degradation is defined as a change in soil health resulting in the diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries(FAO,2024).Drawing from existing and recent evidence,including research findings,case studies and soil monitoring data

170、,our assessment focuses on various soil degradation indicators.These include:nutrient excess and deficiencies soil acidification soil carbon change soil erosion soil compaction soil pollution soil salinisation and sodification soil biodiversity change soil sealing and land take.4.1 Excess and defici

171、encies in soil nutrientsSoil nutrients are essential for plant biomass production and quality,and other ecosystem services(Li et al.,2016;Ros et al.,2022).These other services includes the major biogeochemical cycles and related soil functions,notably carbon sequestration(Van Groenigen et al.,2017).

172、Nutrient management is therefore essential to maintain soils in good chemical,biological and physical conditions.Nutrients are managed to achieve agronomic and economic objectives(i.e.yields and yields versus costs)while minimising environmental impacts(avoiding losses to air and water and the intro

173、duction of contaminants)(Beegle et al.,2000;Hou et al.,2023).4.1.1 Status and trendsSoil N content ranges mostly from 1g and 2g kg-1 in EU topsoils(Ballabio et al.,2019).Due to the high mobility of nitrate,N losses from the soil are highly correlated with N surpluses(input minus crop uptake).There i

174、s a large variation in N sur-pluses across the EU and the United Kingdom(Figure2),from nearly 0kgNha-1yr-1 to more than 150kgNha1yr-1.A high N surplus mostly occurs in areas with high N inputs,especially in intensive livestock areas,except for some regions with low(Poland)or high(Massif Central in F

175、rance,Ireland and the United Kingdom)N use efficiency(De Vries et al.,2021).04 Regional status and trend of soil degradation Soil nutrient status in Europe,particularly regarding nitrogen(N)and phosphorus(P),exhibits significant spatial variations,influenced by factors such as agricultural practices

176、,climate,and soil properties.Despite efforts to manage nutrient inputs,high N and P surpluses persist in many regions,posing risks to soil and water quality.Addressing the drivers of nutrient excesses and deficiencies,including fertilizer application,land use practices,soil erosion,and climate patte

177、rns,is crucial for mitigating environmental pollution,soil acidification,and economic costs,while safeguarding human health and agricultural productivity.Effective soil management strategies are essential to balance nutrient inputs and outputs,ensuring sustainable land use and ecosystem resilience i

178、n the face of ongoing environmental challenges.The State of Soils in Europe-202427About 74%,66%and 18%of all agricultural land in the EU and the United Kingdom has excessively high N inputs when considering the regional vari-ation in ecosystem sensitivity for N loss by run-off to surface water,ammon

179、ia(NH3)emissions and N loss through leaching to groundwater,respectively(De Vries et al.,2021).Between 1930 and 1990,N surplus increased by a factor of 23(Batool et al.,2022),reaching its highest value around 1990 because of a peak in N inputs.The surplus declined in subsequent years.Since 1990,tota

180、l N inputs in cropland have been relatively stable,with a slight increase from 138kgNha1yr1 to 145kgNha1yr-1 in 2021(Ein-arsson et al.,2021).Available phosphorus(P)concentrations in topsoils vary considerably across the EU and the United Kingdom,with most areas having concentrations around 2025mgkg-

181、1(based on P-Olsen).Higher levels occur in northern Germany,northern France and northern Italy,and in Belgium,Denmark,Ireland,the Netherlands,Poland and the United Kingdom.Despite these high soil P levels,balance calculations have shown an average surplus of P in the EU and United Kingdom of 0.110.8

182、0kg Pha1yr1(Panagos et al.,2022b;Muntwyler et al.,2024)or higher(De Vries et al.,2014;Einarsson et al.,2020).However,there is considerable variation among countries,and extensive areas in the EU and the United Kingdom are currently experi-encing surpluses of more than 10kg Pha1yr1,despite the genera

183、lly high soil P concentrations in these regions.The current P management practices were evalu-ated by comparing the P balance with the available concentration of P in the soil(P-Olsen)(Ballabio et al.,2019).The P balance is defined as organic and mineral fertilizer inputs minus outputs due to re-mov

184、al by crops and loss by erosion(Muntwyler et al.,2024).When the P-Olsen concentration is less than 30 mg kg-1,negative P balances increase the potential risk of P deficiency for agricultural pro-duction(Jordan-Meille et al.,2012;Steinfurth et al.,2022).This occurs in 13%of EU and UK agricultur-al la

185、nd.When P-Olsen concentrations are greater than 30 mg kg-1(Jordan-Meille et al.,2012;Stein-furth et al.,2022),positive P balances increase the Figure 2.The N surpluses(inputs minus offtake by crops)for agricultural land across the EU and the United Kingdom.Source:De Vries et al.(2021)The State of So

186、ils in Europe-202428risk of P environmental losses which is the case in 33%of EU and UK agricultural land(Figure 3).Many Member States have experienced much more imbalanced P management in recent decades:P inputs peaked above 30 kg ha1 in around 1980(Sattari et al.,2012),while P inputs are nowadays,

187、on average,16 kg ha1 in the EU and the United Kingdom(Panagos et al.,2022b).Due to the low mobility and high retention of P in soils,the positive P balance of the past have resulted in high soil P legacy(Sattari et al.,2012).When 30 mg kg-1 of P-Olsen is used as thresh-old values for excess(Jordan-M

188、eille et al.,2012;Steinfurth et al.,2022),about 60%of agricultural soils in the EU and the UK can be defined as P-rich soils,with possible adverse impacts on wa-ter quality.The threshold of 30 mg kg-1 is the low-est value of the range proposed by the European Commission in the proposed Soil Monitori

189、ng Law to define P excess in soils(European Commission,2023b).When taking the upper range value of 50 mg kg-1,10%of agricultural soils in the EU and UK has excess of P.In non-EU countries such as Norway,P surpluses reduced from 1985 to 1990,and have remained relatively stable since(OECD,2024).The P

190、surplus-es in Norway are similar to those in the United Kingdom,contributing to the eutrophication of water bodies in the region(Uln et al.,2007).P sur-pluses reduced in Switzerland between 1990 and 2000,and have since fluctuated between 2kgha1 and 5kgha1(OECD,2024).The N and P budgets in Iceland ar

191、e generally low and have been stable over the years(OECD,2024).Ukraine has seen the largest decrease in N and P budgets since 1990 of all non-EU coun-tries considered(OECD,2024),with a P budget of 2.4kgha1yr-1 in 2020.This drastic reduction in fertiliser input after the 1990s can be attribut-ed to t

192、he political transformations in post-Soviet countries.Political changes have also affected the nutrient balances in the western Balkans(Zdruli et al.,2022).In this region,about 5.2%of total agri-cultural land could have relatively large N surplus-es,as this area consists of greenhouses and open Sour

193、ce:EUSO,based on Ballabio et al.,(2019)and Muntwyler et al.,(2024).Figure 3.Current P inputs for a P-Olsen threshold of 30mg kg-1.The State of Soils in Europe-202429field horticulture crops,which receive the largest N fertiliser doses.However,generally fertiliser application in these countries happe

194、ns to be far below the average EU level;they therefore have a higher chance of having negative N and P budgets(as found in Ukraine(OECD,2024),contributing to nutrient mining and a decrease in soil fertility(Zdruli et al.,2022).In Trkiye,both the N balance and the P balance have increased in the last

195、 5 years(OECD,2024).N fertiliser use on crops fluctuated between approx-imately 46kg Nha1yr-1 and 89kgNha1yr1 from 2004 to 2022;the application of P fertiliserfluctu-ated between 6kg Pha1yr1 and 15kg Pha1yr1;and the application of potassium(K)in agricultural production varied from approximately 2kgh

196、a1 to 6kgha1 from 2004 to 2022(MoAF,2022).Available K concentrations,determined using ammonium acetate,vary across the EU and the United Kingdom depending on parent materi-al,soil clay content and manuring history,with higher concentrations in clay-rich soils(Ballabio et al.,2019).K inputs are usual

197、ly higher in coun-tries or regions with intensive animal husband-ry.For example,in France,the exchangeable K thresholds(ARVALIS,2020)defining the risk of K deficiency vary from 49mgkg-1 to 247mgkg-1(with an average of 123mgkg-1)depending on soil type(Comifer,2019).Using these threshold values,16%and

198、 68%of EU and UK agricultural soils have exchangeable K concentrations of below 123mgkg-1 and 247mgkg-1,respectively.They can therefore be considered soils with low K levels for biomass production.Secondary macronutrients(e.g.sulphur(S),calci-um and magnesium)and micronutrients(e.g.iron,zinc(Zn),cop

199、per(Cu),manganese(Mn),molybde-num,boron and cobalt)have a fundamental role in sustaining terrestrial ecosystems,which is partly related to their contribution to sustaining biomass development.In addition,these elements are divalent cations,which control aggregate stabili-ty,soil water retention and

200、supply,resistance to wind erosion,topsoil sealing,subsoil compaction,and drought and wetness stresses(Ros et al.,2022).However,at the EU level,there is limited information on the levels of these nutrients in soil and their input to correct deficiencies.In the EU,there is information on the total amo

201、unts of some micronutrients in soils(Ballabio et al.,2018;Van Eynde et al.,2023),but these have low agro-en-vironmental relevance(Alloway,2009).Micronu-trients are typically applied in the form of salts and chelates,but there is no spatial information regarding the quantity of micronutrient fertilis

202、ers used in the EU to correct deficiencies.Soils at risk of micronutrient deficiencies are generally those characterised by a high pH and low organic matter content(Moreno-Jimnez et al.,2022),while intense cropping can exacerbate micronutrient de-pletion in specific soils(Jones et al.,2013).Budget c

203、alculations underscore the significance of manure as a source of Cu and Zn for agricultural soils in the EU(De Vries et al.,2014),alongside sewage sludge(Yunta et al.,2024)and fungicides(El Hadri et al.,2012).4.1.2 Drivers The main drivers of soil nutrient excesses and de-ficiencies are multifaceted

204、 and can vary depending on the specific context.However,some common drivers include the following.Fertiliser and manure application.Since the 1950s,the increased use of fertilisers has boosted crop and forest production,but their excessive and inefficient use has led to nutrient excesses and losses(

205、Townsend et al.,2003).Gaseous emissions from industry and agricul-ture,as well as natural processes,also lead to the deposition of nutrients in terrestrial ecosys-tems.Land use and management practices.Agricultur-al systems have become specialised,resulting in the decoupling of crop and livestock pr

206、oduction.On the one hand,there are systems relying on both internally and externally produced feed,resulting in significant amounts of nutrient-rich waste such as manure.Applying this nutrient source inappropriately often leads to substantial losses.On the other hand,some arable fields de-pend on ex

207、ternal fertiliser inputs to manage their nutrient needs.In addition,agricultural practices such as tillage,irrigation and pesticide use can impact soil nutrient levels(Edlinger et al.,2022).Soil erosion and leaching.Erosion results in the loss of nutrients such as P to lower areas and to surface wat

208、er(Alewell et al.,2020),while leach-The State of Soils in Europe-202430ing can result in the loss of nutrients such as N and S to groundwater(De Vries et al.,2021).The loss of nutrients leads to a decline in soil fertility,while sedimentation and leaching can result in an excess of nutrients elsewhe

209、re.Soil properties.Soil types and related charac-teristics,such as mineralogy(e.g.clays,carbon-ates,oxides)control the release and retention of carbon and nutrients such as K and P in soils(e.g.van Doorn et al.,2023).Furthermore,soil pH influences the solubility,concentration in soil solution,ionic

210、form,and adsorption and mobility of many elements(Moreno-Jimnez et al.,2022;Hartemink and Barrow,2023).Organic matter affects nutrient content,retention and release in soils(Moreno-Jimnez et al.,2022).Climate and weather patterns.Weather events such as heavy rainfall can accelerate nutrient leaching

211、 and nitrous oxide(N2O)emission to the atmosphere,while drought conditions can concentrate salts in the soil,potentially lead-ing to nutrient imbalances.In addition,climatic conditions control crop yield and nutrient use efficiencies(Young et al.,2021).4.1.3 ImpactsSoil nutrient excesses and deficie

212、ncies can greatly influence agricultural productivity,and environ-mental,ecosystem and human health.Some of the key consequences are as follows.Environmental pollution.Excess nutrients,par-ticularly N and P,can leach into groundwater or move to surface water bodies in run-off and by erosion.This res

213、ults in eutrophication,with the loss of biodiversity,the depletion of subaquatic vegetation,a decline in coral reef health,the occurrence of algal blooms and the creation of oxygen-depleted or hypoxic waters(Carpenter et al.,1998;Smith,2003;Smith and Schindler,2009;Lundin and Nilsson,2021).An excess

214、 of N can also result in increased N losses into the at-mosphere.The subsequent deposition of N is a major driver of plant biodiversity loss through N enrichment and soil acidification in natural areas(Bobbink et al.,2010).Climate change.Excess N in soil can lead to the increased emission of N2O,a p

215、otent greenhouse gas(GHG).N2O is released from soils through denitrification,whose rate increases with N input(Butterbach-Bahl et al.,2013;Arias-Navarro et al.,2017;McDonald et al.,2022;Pan et al.,2022).Soil acidification and salinisation.Excessive nitrate in soils due to N fertilisation causes acid

216、ification due to the release of hydrogen ions during the process of nitrification,affecting the availability of other nutrients,and contaminants(Zhang et al.,2023).Finally,excess N fertilisation in dry and sub-dry regions can lead to soil salini-sation(Han et al.,2015).Soil pollution.The excessive u

217、se of P fertilisers(Nziguheba and Smolders,2008),as well as or-ganic fertilisers and amendments,may introduce heavy metals and other soil pollutants(Mantovi et al.,2003;Pan and Chu,2017).The application of synthetic chelates to correct micronutrient de-ficiencies in Mediterranean soils may also lead

218、 to the introduction of recalcitrant products,with neg-ative environmental impacts(Yunta et al.,2013).Economic costs.Soil nutrient deficiencies can lead to reduced crop yields(Schils et al.,2018)and crop nutritional quality(Dimkpa and Bindraban,2016),and increase the susceptibility of plants to dise

219、ase(Dordas et al.,2000).These impacts reduce farmers incomes,and increase the costs of inputs.Excess nutrients can also lead to serious losses to the environment,requiring environmen-tal mitigation measures,with associated costs.Human health risks.Gaseous N emission contributes to the formation of a

220、erosol and particulate matter air pollutants,affecting human health(Pozzer et al.,2017).Nutrient losses to aquatic ecosystems also affect human health,as they can compromise the safety of drinking water(Lundin and Nilsson,2021).Finally,nu-trient deficiencies or imbalances reduce crop nutritional qua

221、lity,compromising livestock pro-duction,as well as food security and food quality for humans(Ishfaq et al.,2023).For instance,a deficiency of Zn in semi-arid and arid regions is very common and is a growing concern,as this nutritional disorder causes almost 116000 deaths per year worldwide(Galetti,2

222、018).The State of Soils in Europe-2024314.2 Soil acidificationSoil acidification,defined as a decrease in the acid neutralisation capacity of the soil(De Vries and Breeuwsma,1987;Guo et al.,2010)is a major issue all around the world.In calcareous soils with a high natural buffer capacity,there is li

223、ttle concern,as the pH remains stable and slightly alkaline until all carbonates are depleted.This depletion depends on their dissolution rate.However,in non-calcareous soils,with a low buffer capacity,especially sandy soils with low organic matter content,soil acidification may cause a relatively f

224、ast decline in soil pH and base saturation.Soil pH is an important indicator of soil health,as it affects the availability and mobility of nutrients and toxic elements(e.g.aluminium,cadmium and other heavy metals).As a consequence,it affects primary productivity(Bolan et al.,2003;Pagani and Mallarin

225、o,2012;Hartemink and Barrow,2023),the quality of surrounding water bodies(Haynes and Swift,1986;Dijkstra et al.,2004),and the functioning of soil as a habitat for organisms and hence biodiversity(Siciliano et al.,2014).4.2.1 Status and trends Soil pH differs across the EU(Figure 4).The differ-ences

226、mainly reflect the soil type,which is a result of climatic conditions(Ballabio et al.,2019),parent material,vegetation and past management practic-es,such as liming.Soils with a relative low pH(2tha1yr1)(Panagos et al.,2015a).It is important to note that this rate only considers the loss of topsoil

227、through sheet and rill erosion and does not include other water-related process-es such as gully or piping erosion or landslides,which cause soil loss at lower depths.Neverthe-less,this value exceeds estimated average soil formation rates(Panagos et al.,2020).These rates vary quite significantly,wit

228、h some studies report-ing 0.050.5mmyr1(11.4tha1yr1)(Verheijen et al.,2009).To give spatially continuous estima-tions of soil erosion by water in Europe in 2000,2010 and 2016,a modified(hybrid)version of the revised universal soil loss equation(RUSLE)was applied(Panagos et al.,2020).The mean soil los

229、s by water erosion in the EU was estimated to be around 2.4tha1yr1.This value is well above the aforementioned soil formation rates,and there is high variability between rates for different land uses.An area twice the size of Belgium is estimat-ed to experience a 1cm yearly displacement of soil thro

230、ughout the EU and the United Kingdom.A major benefit of the approach adopted compared with past models implemented is that it incorpo-rates the effects of policy scenarios based on land use changes and support(Panagos et al.,2015a,2015b;Borrelli and Panagos,2020).These inputs to the model are linked

231、 to the Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions requirements of the CAP and the EUs guidelines for soil protection,which can be grouped into the areas of land man-agement(with methods including reduced/no-till farming,and the use of plant residues and cover crops),enhanced conditionality(thro

232、ugh crop rota-tion and the designation of ecological focus areas)and supporting practices(contour farming,the maintenance of stone walls and the use of grass margins).Wind erosion primarily occurs in dry conditions when the soil is exposed to strong winds.The finest particles,in particular,are remov

233、ed and potentially transported over long distances before being redeposited(Webb et al.,2006).To gain a better understanding of the wind erosion situa-tion in Europe,the European Commissions Joint Research Centre(JRC)carried out the first assess-ment of land susceptibility to wind erosion in the EU(

234、Borrelli et al.,2014,2016)using the revised wind erosion equation(Fryrear et al.,2000).The results of the application of the equation suggest that wind erosion in croplands may have a mean rate of 0.53tha1yr1,with the second and fourth quantiles placed at 0.3tha1yr1 and 1.9tha1yr1,respectively(Borre

235、lli et al.,2017b).Tillage erosion occurs in cultivated fields through the net downhill movement of soil due to tillage operations(Lindstrom et al.,1992).While tillage is a soil degradation process in its own right,it also makes the soil more sensitive to other forms of erosion(Govers et al.,1994).In

236、 specific locations,such as hillslope convexities and land parcel bor-ders,tillage erosion can result in greatly decreased soil depths,with direct negative impacts such as reduced crop yields.Soil erosion due to tillage has been modelled at the pan-EU scale as a function of the erosivity of tillage

237、operations and the erod-ibility of the cultivated landscape(Van Oost et al.,The State of Soils in Europe-2024452009).The basis for this assessment is a modified version of the tillage erosion model constructed by Lobb and Gary Kachanoski(1999).The estimates derived show that the gross total erosion

238、rate is 7.2tha1yr1 for the EU and the United Kingdom,corresponding to a total soil mobilisation rate of 0.76Pgyr1(Van Oost et al.,2009).SLCH is defined as the removal of topsoil from arable land during the harvesting of root and tuber crops,such as potatoes,sugar beets,carrots and chicory roots(Poes

239、en et al.,2001;Kuhwald et al.,2022).During a harvest(be it done manually or by machinery),loose soil,soil clods and rock fragments that are attached to crop components are uplifted from the soil.While a small amount of the soil is redistributed on the surface of the field,most of the adhering soil i

240、s completely removed from the field with the crop(Ruysschaert et al.,2004;Parlak and Blanco-Canqui,2015).In 2019,8.4%of all global arable land was cultivated with root and tuber crops and therefore affected by SLCH(Kuhwald et al.,2022).In Europe,sugar beets and potatoes hold particular significance

241、for SLCH due to their high annual cultivation volumes.This is especially true in central Europe(e.g.Belgium,Germany and France),where production rates are high and harvest is frequently conducted under unfavourable soil conditions(high soil mois-ture content).In such cases,SLCH can be up to 30.1tha1

242、 per harvest(Ruysschaert et al.,2007;Kuhwald et al.,2022).During 20002016,SLCH as-sociated with sugar beet and potato harvesting in the EU was estimated to be around 0.13tha1yr1,equal to 14.7million tons of soil per year(Panagos et al.,2020).Gully erosion occurs when concentrated water flowing at th

243、e soil surface has enough energy to incise a larger channel into the soil.A typically accepted minimum threshold for defining a chan-nel as a gully is a cross-sectional area of 900cm2(Poesen et al.,2003).However,many gullies are several metres wide and deep and lead to enor-mous soil losses.Gully er

244、osion,leading to ephem-eral or permanent erosion channels,typically only occurs in specific landscapes and climate condi-tions(e.g.steep hillslopes with sparse vegetation and heavy rainfall,causing water to accumulate to a sufficient level to form a gully).Reported erosion rates often vary around 41

245、5tha1yr1(Poesen et al.,2003),but extreme rainfall events have result-ed in erosion rates of more than 500tha1yr1 in Spain(Hayas et al.,2017).Overall,gully erosion is a process that depends on a complex combination of natural and anthropogenic factors(topography,land use and management,soil propertie

246、s,mete-orology)operating at various spatial and temporal scales.This makes predictions at the European scale difficult(Vanmaercke et al.,2021).Nonethe-less,the most susceptible areas to gully erosion in the EU are in the Mediterranean region,and in particular in southern Spain(Borrelli et al.,2022,2

247、023).Other regions,such as central Belgium,parts of France and eastern Romania,can also be sensitive to this process(Vanmaercke et al.,2021).Climate change,and in particular longer periods of drought(damaging the protective vegetation cover),in combination with more intense rainfall during extreme e

248、vents,aggravate the problem(Vanmaercke et al.,2016).Piping erosion is the removal of soil particles by concentrated subsurface flows,leading to the for-mation of underground channels called pipes(Ber-Source:EUSO,based on Panagos et al.(2019,2020)and Borrelli et al.(2017,2023).WaterTillageWindSLCHFig

249、ure 7.Assessment of different types of erosion pro-cesses(water erosion,wind erosion,tillage erosion,soil loss by crop harvesting)occurring in agricultural lands in the EU and United Kingdom.The State of Soils in Europe-202446natek-Jakiel and Poesen,2018).The occurrence of this process becomes visib

250、le at the surface when the roof of a pipe collapses and thus transforms the pipe into a gully.As such,piping erosion may accelerate gully erosion by stimulating the forma-tion of new gullies and intensifying gully headcut retreating rates.Piping erosion leads to soil losses with significant variabil

251、ity;in affected areas of Europe,they have been estimated to range from 1.3tha1yr1 to 15tha1yr1 in grasslands(Verach-tert et al.,2011;Bernatek-Jakiel and Poesen,2018),and they can even reach 120tha1yr1 in Spanish farmlands(Daz and Sinoga,2015).It is estimated that the area threatened by piping erosio

252、n in the EU exceeds 260000km2(Faulkner,2006).Geography and co-occurrence of soil erosion in Europe:Recently,Borrelli et al.(2023)proposed a multi-model approach to estimate gross soil dis-placement by water,wind,tillage and crop harvest-ing based on a 100100m grid for arable land in the EU and Unite

253、d Kingdom(around 110million hectares)(Figure7).Across the region simulated,these four erosion processes are expected to move Tg(million tonnes)of soil yearly,which translates to an average area-specific soil displacement of tha-1 y-1.This figure ex-ceeds the average soil displacement resulting from

254、sheet and interrill processes,which are usually the only processes considered,by 95%.Large areas of the region are predicted to have soil displacement rates ranging from moderate(class3,25tha1yr1)to severe(class5,10tha1yr1).The co-occur-rence assessments of several processes revealed that 43million

255、hectares of land were vulnerable to a single driver of erosion(about twice the land area of the United Kingdom),15.6million hectares to two drivers and 0.81million hectares to three or more drivers.The results of this modelling exer-cise show that unsustainable soil erosion rates(2tha-1yr-1)occur ac

256、ross over half of the EUs arable land(i.e.53.7%or around 55Mha).With regard to the specific processes,soil displacement due to water erosion predominates both spatially(57%of the total area)and quantitatively(51%of total displacement).At an estimated 36%,tillage erosion is the second-biggest cause o

257、f soil dis-placement,behind crop harvesting at 2.7%and wind erosion at 10%.Even though water erosion is geographically and statistically predominant,till-age,wind or crop harvesting in arable landscapes account for around an estimated 40%of soil displacement in the EU and United Kingdom.That said,it

258、 should be noted that these numbers do not include the contribution of landslides,piping and gully erosion,which currently cannot be modelled quantitatively at the European scale.Trkiyes soils are very sensitive to erosion due to a combination of environmental factors,such as climate,topographical s

259、tructure,soil properties and land use.The amount of soil lost by erosion in Trkiye is approximately five times the world average(Erpul and Oztas,2022).A water erosion Map of Trkiye was produced using the dynamic erosion model and monitoring system developed by the General Directorate of Combating De

260、sert-ification and Erosion of the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.The system indicates that land with severe erosion damage occupies 12.7%of the countrys surface area.In Trkiye,642mil-lion tons of soil are lost every year as a result of water erosion.The amount of soil displaced by wate

261、r erosion is 248.6Mt in agricultural areas,344.6Mt in pastures and 26.8Mt in forests(Erpul et al.,2018).Even though Switzerland boasts extensive legal provisions to prevent soil erosion(Prasuhn et al.,2013),40%of the arable land in the country is affected by erosion,largely due to farming prac-tices

262、 ill-suited to the sloping terrain(Prasuhn and Blaser,2018).Depending on slope steepness and/or agricultural practice used,erosion rates may in-crease dramatically,up to 400tha1yr1 on slopes between 10 and 18(Ledermann et al.,2010).In Switzerland,70%of the agricultural area utilised is grassland for

263、 which soil erosion had been largely underestimated in the past,as most large-scale modelling studies assume nearly zero soil loss on grasslands.The soil erosion rate estimated using the RUSLE,which accounted for these grasslands having largely low or damaged vegetation cover(Meusburger et al.,2010)

264、,was 4.6tha1yr1 at the national scale(Schmidt et al.,2019),aligning well with measured erosion rates.Hotspots of soil loss in degraded Alpine grasslands were indicated by rates between 16tha1yr1 and 30tha1yr1(Alewell et al.,2014).In contrast to other European geographical re-gions,there is a lack of

265、 official data and erosion monitoring systems for most western Balkan The State of Soils in Europe-202447countries.Estimates suggest that approximately 30%of agricultural land in the region suffers from water-erosion-induced failure,with soil erosion impacting about 45%of the total land area(Zdruli

266、et al.,2022).Recently,North Macedonia produced a new soil erosion map,using the erosion poten-tial method for the entire country and the RUSLE model for agricultural zones.Results revealed that nearly one third of the countrys territory is affect-ed by soil erosion(Gavrilovic et al.,2008),with an av

267、erage annual soil loss of 4.1tha-1yr-1 from agri-cultural land.In Albania,the countrywide average soil loss stands at about 30tha-1yr-1.Some 22%of the area experiences a soil loss rate exceeding Use of remote sensing and 137Cs for gully erosion research in Malanska River Basin,Eastern Serbia.The are

268、a consists of hilly terrain,with elevations ranging from 590m to 650m.Factors influencing erosion include topography,soil type,geology,climate and vegetation.Human activities play a crucial role in altering vegetation cover and,consequently,erosion intensity.The study aimed to assess gully morpholog

269、y and soil erosion using 137Cs,small-scale ero-sion variability within gullies and variability between gullies to evaluate control measures effectiveness.Methods included unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial photogrammetry,soil sampling,high purity germanium gamma-ray spectrometry,and the creatio

270、n of a pro-file distribution model for soil erosion rate estimation from 137Cs inventories.The results found that dense canopies hindered unmanned aerial vehicle remote sensing and photogrammetry,but 360 camera terrestrial photogrammetry successfully captured gully morphology,producing detailed terr

271、ain models.The use of 137Cs revealed erosion pre-dominantly in the gullies,with low soil deposition in some areas.Estimated average annual soil loss ranged from 0.1tha-1yr-1 to 34.3tha-1yr-1.The use of 360 camera photogrammet-ric modelling proved effective in identifying sampling locations and monit

272、oring gully changes over time,emphasising its importance in erosion research and management.Figure box 2:Digital elevation models of gullies with sampling points.Source:oki et al.,(2023)box 2The State of Soils in Europe-202448100tha-1yr-1,accounting for 93%of soil erosion.Serbia faces erosion issues

273、 on 80%of its agricul-tural land,with water erosion prevalent in central and hilly/mountainous regions and wind erosion predominant in Vojvodina,affecting approximately 85%of agricultural land.Water erosion in Mon-tenegro affects about 13135km2,or 95%,of its total area(Spalevic,2024).The intensity o

274、f erosion varies significantly across the regions of Montene-gro,with the coastal area being the most vulnera-ble.Of the coastal river basins,estimates suggest that 13%,25%and 35%of areas experience ex-cessive,high and moderate erosion,respectively.In general,a high proportion of this region experi-

275、ences high and excessive erosion,meaning actual soil losses are in the range of 20tha1yr-1 to 23tha1yr-1(Spalevic,2024).In Ukraine,expert assessments indicate that 10.5million hectares of soil are eroded,with sheet and rill erosion impacting 17%of arable land,gully erosion affecting 3%and wind erosi

276、on affecting 11%.Intensive cultivation practices,including ex-cessive planting of row crops and insufficient con-tour farming,alongside poor land management practices such as deforestation,overgrazing and cultivation on steep slopes,contribute to erosion processes.More than 6million hectares of arab

277、le land are systematically affected by wind erosion,and up to 20million hectares in years with dust storms.Experts estimate that between 300Mt and 600Mt of soil are lost annually due to erosion(Baliuk et al.,2021).Projection of future trends in soil erosion in Europe Soil erosion is unlikely to rema

278、in stable in Europe due to several evolving factors,which will determine its future trends.By 2050,soil erosion rates are projected to increase by 1322.5%in the agricultural lands of the EU and the United Kingdom(Panagos et al.,2021).Changes in soil erosion rates are driven by changes in climatic co

279、nditions and land use patterns,socioeconomic development,farmers choices and,importantly,changes to agro-environmental policies.The consideration of all these factors is required to meaningfully predict future soil erosion rates in Europe(Panagos et al.,2021;Borrelli et al.,2023).Compared with curre

280、nt baselines,future model projections identify the Atlantic and the continental climate zones as the locations most vulnerable to water erosion,with Source:EUSO,based on Panagos et al.,(2021)and Borrelli et al.,(2023).ABFigure 8.Future trends in water and wind erosion across agricultural landscapes

281、in the EU and United Kingdom.The State of Soils in Europe-202449a higher risk of experiencing extreme weather during the wettest quarter.During the driest quarter,vulnerability to water erosion is predicted to increase in an expansive region covering most of central eastern Europe.In contrast,notewo

282、rthy decreases in water erosion are predicted in Bulgaria,Greece,Spain,western France,southern Italy and Portugal.Given that soil erosion involves a mix of concurrent processes,predictions need to account for the uniquely changing spatial and temporal characteristics of each process.For example,conc

283、erning wind erosion,Mediterranean regions include the most vulnerable areas due to longer periods of drought during the driest quarter(Borrelli et al.,2023).Identifying and understanding areas that are more susceptible to specific erosion processes can help in the delineation of strata to allow the

284、definition of(quasi-)homogenous regions for targeted mitigation strategies(Figure8).The predictions suggest that monitoring programmes need to be adopted not only to address water erosion but also to determine strategies to mitigate tillage and wind erosion.For example,areas affected by both wind an

285、d water erosion may benefit from monitoring activities that aim to detect dust emissions from fields or landscapes.Post-wildfire erosion also makes a critical contribution to total soil loss in the EU,which can cause a twelve-fold increase in erosion rates compared with pre-fire conditions(Vieira et

286、 al.,2023a).Furthermore,the predicted trends of post-fire soil erosion in the EU indicate a potential increase compared with current rates,driven by projected increases in the total burned area due to prolonged periods of drought(Dupuy et al.,2020)combined with increasing rainfall erosivity during t

287、orrential events(Panagos et al.,2022).Globally,post-fire debris-flow activity is expected to increase by 68%in regions that have previously experienced wildfires in the past and to decrease by less than 2%by the late 21st century.While some researchers have shown that approximately 85%of post-fire d

288、ebris flow occurs within the first 2years following a fire(McGuire et al.,2024),others conclude that in the Mediterranean regions,where wildfires are most common in Europe,their total impact is shown to be enduring(Vieira et al.,2023a).The latter emphasises the critical temporal aspect of post-fire

289、soil erosion in the EU.4.4.2 DriversThe drivers of soil erosion are numerous and vary depending on the erosion process,specific geo-graphical location and land use practices employed.In the first part of this section,we summarise the main characteristics of each erosion process.The processes of wate

290、r erosion include splash ero-sion,sheetwash,rill erosion,piping erosion(or tun-nel erosion)and(ephemeral or permanent)gully erosion.Soil erosion by water is driven by hydro-mechanical forces and is one of the major threats to soils in the EU(Panagos et al.,2015b,2021).Water erosion is caused in Euro

291、pe by natural fac-tors such as steep topography,landscape position(i.e.causing areas to experience a high degree of water accumulation),soil properties and climatic conditions(i.e.heavy rainstorms),but primarily by inappropriate land management in areas suscepti-ble to erosion(owing to deforestation

292、,tillage,etc.).Wind erosion occurs in dry conditions when the soil is exposed to wind(Webb et al.,2006).Wind erosion is the wind-forced(aeolian)movement of soil(Shao,2008).In recent times,intensive farming has increased the frequency and magnitude of this geomorphic process,with consequences especia

293、l-ly for sensitive lands that are important for food production(Dostl et al.,2006).While wind erosion mainly affects soils with low vegetation cover,land management practices such as intensive crop cultivation,increased mechanisation,enlargement of field sizes,removal of hedges,the intensive ex-ploi

294、tation of residues/biomass of vegetation and allowing consecutive bare fallow years in cultivated lands exacerbate both the environmental and eco-nomic effects of wind erosion(Colazo and Buschi-azzo,2015).SLCH depends to a significant degree on soil disturbance during harvesting in croplands(Arnhold

295、 et al.,2014).Several key factors control the magnitude of SLCH,namely(a)soil properties(e.g.moisture,texture,organic matter and structure),(b)crop characteris-tics(e.g.type,size and morphology),(c)agronomic practices(e.g.the frequency of root/tuber crops in the crop succession,plant density and cro

296、p yield)and(d)harvest techniques(e.g.technology,the effectiveness of cleaning devices and the velocity of the harvester)(Ruysschaert et al.,2004,2005;Kuhwald et al.,2022).The State of Soils in Europe-202450Tillage erosion occurs in cultivated fields due to tillage operations that result in the downh

297、ill displacement of soil.The variation in soil displace-ment rates due to tillage erosion may be rather large,depending primarily on topographic charac-teristics,tillage depth and tillage direction,and to a lesser extent on the tillage velocity and imple-mentation characteristics(Van Oost et al.,200

298、6).Tillage erosion displaces soil over small areas,but it may cause the significant movement of soil over multiple years(Van Oost et al.,2009).Involved in each of the aforementioned erosion processes are specific driving forces,typically deriving from interactions between anthropogenic and natural p

299、henomena.The most prominent fac-tor is scarce or no vegetation cover,which can be caused by one factor or a combination of multiple factors.These factors include the following.Poor land management practices.Unsustain-able land management practices such as over-grazing,inappropriate tillage methods,m

300、onocul-ture farming and improper irrigation practices can accelerate soil erosion(Evans et al.,2022).These practices can disturb soil structure,de-crease vegetation cover and increase soils vul-nerability to erosion.In land management cycles,the removal of vegetation cover during periods when the ri

301、sk of erosion is high greatly increases the overall vulnerability of soil to water and wind erosion(Boardman and Favis-Mortlock,2014;Matthews et al.,2023).In addition to increasing susceptibility to other erosion processes,tillage erosion in cultivated fields causes a significant net downhill moveme

302、nt of soil(Lindstrom et al.,1992).Deforestation and mining.Deforestation,driven by agricultural expansion,urban development and logging activities,removes the protective vegetation cover crucial for stabilising soil.With this protective layer gone,soil becomes suscepti-ble to erosion by water and wi

303、nd(Vanwalleghem et al.,2017).In addition,mining and quarrying ac-tivities disrupt soil integrity through excavation,Estimating sediment removal costs from the reservoirs of the EU.A key off-site impact of the erosion of soil and rock is the infilling of reservoirs with sedi-ment,limiting their water

304、 storage and energy production capacities.The cost of removing an estimated 135million cubic metres of accu-mulated sediment due to water erosion only is estimated at roughly EUR2.3(0.9)billion per year in the EU and United Kingdom,with large regional differences between countries.When applying a me

305、thod that considers all types of soil loss processes,a simple extrapo-lation puts the sediment input at an order of magnitude higher(1billion cubic metres),but lumped extrapolations do not consider that the removal cost(per cubic metre)may be less due to the application of less costly techniques in

306、silted dams across different countries.With a conservative estimation that accounts for all erosion processes,the removal of sedi-ment from EU dams is predicted to cost at least EUR58billion per year.box 3 Photo box 3:Sediment build up in Val Formaza,Italy.Source:A.JonesThe State of Soils in Europe-

307、202451vegetation removal and waste disposal,acceler-ating erosion rates in affected areas(Pacetti et al.,2020).Land levelling.When the local topography does not allow particular agricultural operations(e.g.tillage,irrigation,harvesting),land is often reshaped by levelling.Such land levelling leads l

308、ocally to very large soil losses,resulting in highly truncated soil profiles and a drastic lowering of soil quality(Poesen,2018).Land that is levelled also becomes more prone to other soil erosion processes such as piping and gully erosion,and landslides(Borselli et al.,2006).Climate change.Climate

309、change further exac-erbates soil erosion by altering precipitation patterns,increasing the frequency and inten-sity of extreme weather events and disrupt-ing temperature regimes(Fowler et al.,2021).Depending on the spatial and temporal patterns of the change(Panagos et al.,2021;Borrelli et al.,2023)

310、,it can intensify erosion processes and jeopardise soil stability(Pruski and Nearing,2002).In Europe,regional and local studies have projected the impact of climate change on soil erosion(e.g.Klik and Eitzinger,2010;Mullan et al.,2012;Routschek et al.,2014;Grillakis et al.,2020;Luetzenburg et al.,20

311、20;Eekhout and de Vente,2022).Fire.Anthropogenic or naturally induced wild-fires can lead to a significant(approximately twelve-fold)increase in soil erosion in recently burned areas compared with pre-fire conditions.Outcomes are highly variable between geo-graphical regions,for example depending on

312、 burn severity(Vieira et al.,2015,2023).Wildfires also trigger the occurrence of extreme erosion events,debris flows and landslides,all affect-ing downstream the integrity of water bodies and other essential infrastructures(Moody et al.,2013).In the most recent assessment con-ducted at the EU scale,

313、additional soil losses of 19.4million megagrams were estimated for the first post-fire year.Over a 5-year period,that same affected area may cause 44million mega-grams of additional soil losses,since a significant portion(46%)of the burned area presented no signs of full recovery(Vieira et al.,2023a

314、).4.4.3 ImpactsSoil erosion in Europe can have significant impacts on both the environment and human activities.These impacts can be divided into on-site(associated with the eroded area at its source)and off-site(associated with the downstream transport and deposition of eroded soil)impacts,and the

315、consequential monetary losses.Some of the main impacts include the following.Loss of soil fertility and soil biodiversity.Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of soil,which contains the nutrients necessary for plant growth.In addition to a reduction in soil fertility,important soil functions a

316、re impacted,such as the soils ability to store carbon,nutrients and water,and provide habitats for organisms(Lal,1998).For rill and interrill erosion,the thinning of the soil profile is progressive over long periods,while gully and piping erosion,which may affect entire soil profiles(both topsoils a

317、nd subsoils),can render areas of land uncultivatable(Van-maercke et al.,2021).Erosion events resulting in sediment inundation in fields can cause crop damage in addition to reducing the lands natu-ral fertility for crop cultivation(Verstraeten and Poesen,1999;Bielders et al.,2003).Food security.Soil

318、 erosion can have significant effects on food security by reducing agricultur-al productivity and undermining soils capacity to produce enough food to meet the needs of growing populations(Bakker et al.,2004,2007;Garca-Ruiz et al.,2017).The loss of P due to soil erosion,in particular,can be consider

319、ed a seri-ous threat to future food and feed production,as globally between 15%and 85%of P losses from agricultural systems can be attributed to soil erosion by water only(Alewell et al.,2020).In a recent study,integrating economical and biophysical models,Sartori et al.(2019)report-ed losses of USD

320、8billion annually to the global economy as a result of soil erosion.The accom-panying impact on food security is a reduction in global agri-food production by 33.7million tonnes,with accompanying rises in agri-food world prices of 0.43.5%,depending on the food product category.Under pressure to use

321、more marginal land due to the loss of fertile land through erosion,abstracted water volumes increase by an estimated 48billion cubic me-The State of Soils in Europe-202452tres.Finally,there is tentative evidence that soil erosion is accelerating the competitive shifts in comparative advantage on wor

322、ld agri-food mar-kets(Sartori et al.,2019).Sedimentation.Eroded soil particles are often transported by run-off into water bodies such as rivers,lakes and streams,or deposited in fields or urbanised areas(Verstraeten and Poesen,1999;Patault et al.,2021).This sedimentation can degrade water quality,d

323、isrupt aquatic ecosystems and harm aquatic organisms by smothering habitats and reducing light penetra-tion(Boardman et al.,2003;Owens et al.,2005).In addition to the damage caused by the mineral components of soils,considerable ecological damage can occur because particle-bound nutrients,heavy meta

324、ls and pesticides are transported into neighbouring aquatic habitats where damage to biotic communities is caused(Rickson,2014).Decline in terrestrial biodiversity.Soil erosion can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation,which can reduce biodiversity.Many plant and animal species depend on stable soi

325、l ecosystems for survival.Erosion can disrupt the equilibrium in these ecosystems,leading to declines in bio-diversity and ecosystem services(Pimentel et al.,1995;Guerra et al.,2020;Rendon et al.,2020).Moreover,soil erosion and soil biodiversity inter-act bi-directionally:below-ground organisms af-f

326、ect soil loss through their mixing activities,while intensive erosive events shape the soil-occupy-ing organisms and the functions and services that they provide(Orgiazzi and Panagos,2018).Increased flooding and landslides.Soil ero-sion can contribute to increased flooding and landslides,especially

327、in areas with steep slopes,heavy rainfall and low vegetation cover.Soil deg-radation reduces the infiltration capacity of soils,increasing the likelihood of run-off and flooding(de la Paix et al.,2013).Furthermore,eroded soil can clog waterways,increasing the risk of flooding,inhibiting navigability

328、,damaging flood prevention infrastructure(Boardman,2021)and leading to the negative effects on aquatic biodi-versity discussed above.The destabilisation of slopes by water and wind erosion can also result in landslides,which directly endanger human lives and property(Ionita et al.,2015).Economic cos

329、ts.Soil erosion imposes economic costs on agriculture,forestry and infrastructure.The current estimate of agricultural productiv-ity loss in the EU due to the on-site impacts of water erosion is about EUR1.25billion per year(Panagos et al.,2018).This includes the impact of severe soil erosion by wat

330、er on crop produc-tivity.While the on-site effects are mostly paid by the farmer,the off-site effects of soil erosion are often paid by society(Boardman,2021;Patault et al.,2021).A major off-site impact with significant monetary cost is the removal of sediments from reservoirs,which may cost between

331、 EUR2.5bil-lion and EUR8billion per year(Panagos et al.,2024a).Climate change.Soil erosion reduces soils stability,alters its structure,impedes its biologi-cal activities,reduces its water-holding capacity,causes soil nutrient loss and can reduce SOC pools(Kuhn et al.,2009),therefore,impairing all m

332、ajor functions of soil,and not only its pro-ductivity.Soil erosion may exacerbate climate change by releasing carbon stored in soil organic matter into the atmosphere from displaced sed-iment(Jacinthe et al.,2002).However,numerous complex interactions between soil erosion and biogeochemical cycling

333、mean that the net effects of soil erosion on the carbon cycle remain,which is a topic of high interest(Quinton and Fiener,2024).With regard to the hydrological cycle,eroded soils also have reduced water-holding ca-pacity,which can exacerbate drought conditions and contribute to desertification,further amplify-ing the impacts of climate change(Lal,2012).Impact on cultural heritage.Soil erosion can