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1、1Protected Planet Report 20242 ii 2024 United Nations Environment ProgrammeCitation:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN(2024).Protected Planet Report 2024.UNEP-WCMC and IUCN:Cambridge,United Kingdom;Gland,Switzerland.Published:October 2024 Editors:Emily Howland,Heather C.Bingham,Kelly Malsch,Matt Kaplan and Neil D.B

2、urgess(UNEP-WCMC);Marine Deguignet,Thierry Lefebvre and James Hardcastle(IUCN);Stephen Woodley,Nigel Dudley and Madhu Rao(IUCN WCPA).Authors:Emily Howland,Heather C.Bingham,Lewis Kramer,Joe Gosling,Helen Klimmek,Jasmin Upton,Alanah Lewis,Janeth Lessmann,Elise Belle,Benjamin Lucas,Andrew Szopa-Comley

3、,Frances Davis,Osgur McDermott-Long,Saloni Basrur,Sarah Beard,Roberto Correa,Katherine Despot-Belmonte,Carrie Faessler,Sol Fernandez,Marina Huertas Garcia,Vignesh Kamath,Jerry Harrison,Jack Sutton,Valeriia Vakhitova,Arnout van Soesbergen,Brett Wilson and Kelly Malsch.Digital report construction and

4、design:Daniyal Akhlaq,Ruan du Toit,Charlotte Field,Yue-Long He,Jacinta Jackson,Osgur McDermott-Long,Ifeanyi Nwabekwu,Iman Osman,Jennifer Preston and Stacy Richardson.Acknowledgements:The Protected Planet Report 2024 is the result of a collaborative effort involving many institutions from around the

5、world.UNEP-WCMC and IUCN are grateful to the government agencies,Convention on Biological Diversity Focal Points,including Programme of Work on Protected Areas(PoWPA)Focal Points,international convention secretariats,regional entities and other stakeholders that have provided the data on protected a

6、nd conserved areas for this report.This report was made possible by the generous financial contributions of the Arcadia Fund.We are grateful to the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity,Secretariat for the High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People,Regional Centre for Mapping of R

7、esources for Development(RCMRD),Observatory for Biodiversity and Protected Areas in West Africa(OBAPAO),Central African Forest Commission(COMIFAC),Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme(SPREP),Caribbean Protected Areas Gateway(CPAG)and the European Environment Agency for their sup

8、port in facilitating data collection.We are also thankful for the ongoing support of members of IUCNs World Commission on Protected Areas(WCPA).The analysis and results displayed throughout this report would not have been possible without the support and contributions of the following individuals an

9、d organizations:Gnther Grill(Confluvio Consulting Inc),Robin Abell,Tara Moberg,Suman Jumani(TNC).Stuart Butchart,Megan Eldred,Tom Scott(BirdLife International).Esri,and John Wilshire,Tamara Rudic,Walter Jetz,and other members of the Map of Life team at Yale University.Map of Life were supported by t

10、he E.O.Wilson Biodiversity Foundation in furtherance of the Half-Earth Project.Giacomo Delli(Arcadia SIT S.r.l.)and Grgoire Dubois(European Commission,Joint Research Centre),with funding support from DG INTPA.Simon Ferrier,Chris Ware and Karel Mokany(CSIRO).David Theobald(Conservation Planning Techn

11、ologies,USA).Angela Brennan(Save The Elephants)and Robin Naidoo(WWF US).Rachel Golden Kroner,Katie Zdilla,Megan Chinn(WWF USA).LandMark,International Indigenous Forum on Biodiversity and the ICCA Consortium.UNEP-WCMC and IUCN would also like to express their sincere thanks to the following individua

12、ls for their contributions to boxes throughout the report:Elizabeth Munro,Jessie Nicholson,Hayley Weeks(Cook Islands National Environment Service);Robin Abell,Tara Moberg,Suman Jumani(The Nature Conservancy);Irene Llabrs Pohl(UNEP-WCMC);Marcos Valderrbano and Red List of Ecosystems Thematic Group in

13、 Commission on Ecosystem Management of IUCN;Simon Ferrier(CSIRO);Aaron Laur,Gabriel Oppler,Rafael Antelo,Annika Keeley(Center for Large Landscape Conservation);Jenna Sullivan-Stack,Kirsten Grorud-Colvert(Oregon State University in collaboration with Marine Conservation Institutes MPAtlas);Phil Frank

14、s(IIED);Sue Stolton(Equilibrium Research);James Fitzsimons(TNC);Miquel Rafa(IUCN WCPA Specialist Group on Privately Protected Areas and Nature Stewardship);Viviana Figueroa(International Indigenous Forum on Biodiversity);Cindy Julianty,Kasmita Widodo(Working Group ICCAs Indonesia-WGII);Cristina Eghe

15、nter,(WWF International and Honorary Member of ICCA Consortium);Red Ticca Colombia-Territorios de vida;and Di Zhang,Anne Virnig(UNDP).Layout:Alan J.TaitFront and back cover photo:Laguna Colorada de Uyuni,Reserva Eduardo Avaroa,Bolivia#206762613 By Mark|Adobe Stock Protected Planet Report 2024The UN

16、Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC)is a global Centre of excellence on biodiversity.The Centre operates as a collaboration between the UN Environment Programme and the UK-registered charity WCMC.Together we are confronting the global crisis facing nature.IUCN is a m

17、embership union that brings government and civil society organizations together.It is the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,harnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and 16,000 experts.This diversity and expertise makes IUCN the global a

18、uthority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.IUCNs World Commission on Protected Areas(WCPA)is the premier network of protected and conserved area expertise,with over 3,000 members in 140 countries.Through these experts,WCPA provides scientific,technical and po

19、licy advice,and advocates for systems of marine,freshwater and terrestrial protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)that result in positive outcomes for biodiversity conservation.WCPA helps governments,Indigenous peoples and local community networks and other agenci

20、es to plan protected and conserved areas and integrate them into all sectors by strengthening capacity and investment;and by convening diverse stakeholders to address challenging issues.For over 60 years,IUCN and WCPA have been driving global action on protected and conserved areas.This publication

21、may be reproduced for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission,provided acknowledgement to the source is made.Reuse of any figures is subject to permission from the original rights holders.No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose without

22、permission in writing from the UN Environment Programme.Applications for permission,with a statement of purpose and extent of reproduction,should be sent to the Director,UNEP-WCMC,219 Huntingdon Road,Cambridge,CB3 0DL,UK.The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of

23、 the UN Environment Programme,contributory organisations or editors.The designations employed and the presentations of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UN Environment Programme or contributory organisations,editors or publishers concern

24、ing the legal status of any country,territory,city area or its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries or the designation of its name,frontiers or boundaries.The mention of a commercial entity or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by the UN Envir

25、onment Programme.UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC)219 Huntingdon Road,Cambridge CB3 0DL,UK Tel:+44 1223 277314 www.unep-wcmc.orgUNEP promotes environmentally sound practices globally and in its own activities.Our distribution policy aims to reduce UNEPs carbon

26、footprint.1ForewordPantanal in Corumba,Mato Grosso do Sul,Brazil#334295739 By Leonardo|Adobe stock 2This decade marks the make-or-break moment for the health of the planet.In December 2022,Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity reached a historic agreement to halt and reverse the unpreced

27、ented loss of biodiversity through the adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.It calls upon governments,businesses and society to take urgent action by 2030 to end the biodiversity crisis.Two years on,the Protected Planet Report 2024 provides the first official global evaluat

28、ion of progress towards one of the Frameworks 23 targets Target 3.This target is best known for the global commitment to protect and conserve 30 per cent of the Earths lands and waters by 2030.Importantly,Target 3 goes well beyond coverage.It requires that protected and conserved areas are effective

29、ly managed,equitably governed and recognized with respect for the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities.It also commits governments to conserve the most important natural spaces and to ensure that these areas are connected to each other.In short,the elements of the target call for in si

30、tu conservation to be scaled up in ways that benefit both nature and people.Around the world,we are seeing progress.From our vantage point as the directors of IUCN and UNEP-WCMC,it is clear that coverage of protected and conserved areas has increased in all regions in recent years.These results are

31、promising.Indeed,a third of countries and territories have expanded their networks since 2020.While 30%is a global target,there are 51 countries and territories that already have networks of protected and conserved areas that exceed this level of coverage on land and 31 that exceed it at sea.Reassur

32、ingly,more than two-thirds of the areas that have been identified as the most important places on Earth for biodiversity are either partially or fully covered by protected and conserved areas.These are positive signs that countries are making headway with identifying and strategically protecting pri

33、ority areas.However,we are still seeing many gaps that are holding the world back from turning the tide.Global coverage has only just passed 17%on land and 8%in the marine realm.More work is needed to scale up coverage and to place protected and conserved areas where they are most needed.This must b

34、e done while ensuring that human rights,particularly for Indigenous Peoples and local communities,are respected and upheld.Simultaneously,there is a pressing need to improve and better track the quality of management,governance and conservation outcomes in protected and conserved areas.Data on these

35、 core components of Target 3 are currently minimal,profoundly limiting our ability to discern progress.There are still many ecosystems that are not well represented by conservation networks and a third of the areas most important for biodiversity are not yet protected.If we are to succeed in halting

36、 and reversing biodiversity loss,the speed of progress must be accelerated.Global ambitions will need to translate into urgent national and local action.All countries around the world will need to contribute in every way that they can.It is a huge challenge,but it is not an insurmountable one.The pa

37、th that we must take is clearly laid out in the Global Biodiversity Framework,and the Protected Planet Report 2024 functions as a status report that candidly tells us where we are on our journey.It is essential reading for all of us striving to support the world to deliver on Target 3.With six years

38、 remaining until 2030,the UN Biodiversity Conference(COP16)provides a crucial opportunity for governments to strengthen their actions and bring about critically important changes to meet their commitments to implementing the Global Biodiversity Framework,including on all aspects of Target 3.We know

39、what is needed.Let us rise to the challenge together and act for nature.Neville Ash Director,UNEP-WCMCGrethel Aguilar Director General,IUCNForewordiv3 viForewordExecutive summary 1.Introduction2.Protected and conserved areas3.Coverage4.Areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem fu

40、nctions and services5.Ecologically representative6.Well-connected systems7.Effectively conserved and managed8.Equitable Governance9.Indigenous and traditional territories10.Integration and sustainable use 11.ConclusionsReferencesAnnex:Methodologyiii1491320 253241475359626670Contents1Executive summar

41、yLac Blanc and Mont Blanc,France#220407397 By Andrew Mayovskyy|Adobe Stock 2The Protected Planet Report 2024 is the first report to fully assess the global status of protected and conserved areas in the context of Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.The report brings toget

42、her the latest official data reported by governments and other stakeholders to the Protected Planet Initiative.The aim of Target 3 is to expand the global network of protected and conserved areas to 30%coverage in a way that is equitable and that respects the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local c

43、ommunities.The aim is also to ensure that these areas are effective,well-connected and strategically located in the places that are most important for biodiversity and ecosystem services.Each chapter in the report is dedicated to a separate element of Target 3.In this way,the document assesses progr

44、ess not just towards 30%coverage but also the full scope of other important elements of the target,including towards improving the quality of protected and conserved areas around the world.The key findings from the report are:Overarching1.Based on official data,the global coverage of protected and c

45、onserved areas has now reached 17.6%of terrestrial and inland waters and 8.4%of marine and coastal areas.While progress has been made in increasing the coverage of protected and conserved areas,this progress must be accelerated considerably if the target is to be fully met by 2030.Acceleration in pr

46、ogress on coverage must be matched by even greater efforts to meet the targets other elements,which are intended to ensure the quality of systems of protected and conserved areas.Importantly,the expansion of protected and conserved areas must include honoring the targets commitments to human rights,

47、equitable governance and recognition of Indigenous and traditional territories.Coverage2.Globally,networks of protected and conserved areas are expanding.Since 2020,an additional 629,000 km2 in the terrestrial and inland waters realm and 1.77 million km2 in the marine and coastal realm has been offi

48、cially protected.While 30%coverage is a global target,there are 51 countries and territories that already have networks of protected and conserved areas that exceed 30%coverage on land and 31 that exceed 30%at sea,highlighting the efforts being made at the national level.3.With six years remaining t

49、o reach the 30%coverage target in each realm,a further 16.7 million km2(12.4%)of terrestrial and inland waters,and 78.3 million km2(21.6%)of marine and coastal areas are needed to be secured in networks of protected and conserved areas.This will require a substantial increase in the rate of expansio

50、n of protected and conserved areas seen since 2020.Location4.Over two thirds of Key Biodiversity Areas(KBAs)are now partially or fully covered by protected and conserved areas.However,the remaining one third(32%)of KBAs fall entirely outside these areas and lack formal protection.This reveals a need

51、 for efforts to be increased to better conserve areas of particular importance for biodiversity.5.A quarter of ecoregions already have more than 30%protection.However,many ecoregions are not currently well represented by the protected area network.Work is needed to ensure systems of protected and co

52、nserved areas are ecologically representative.6.Based on an assessment of five global ecosystem services,the majority of areas important for ecosystem functions and services(also known as critical natural assets)are unprotected.Less than one-fifth of these critical areas are currently protected.Conn

53、ectivity7.The global system of protected and conserved areas is not yet well-connected,according to all metrics used in this report.Based upon indicators described in this report,only 8.52%of land is both protected and connected.Effectiveness8.To date,177 countries and territories have completed and

54、 reported protected area management effectiveness assessments for at least one protected area.However,more data on the quality of governance,management,and the achievement of conservation outcomes are needed to assess and understand progress towards the“effectiveness”aspects of Target 3.Executive su

55、mmary 39.In the marine realm,analysis using the MPA Guide reveals that only 5.7%of the ocean is in marine protected areas that are either implemented(operational with plans for management in place)and/or actively managed.Only 2.8%of the ocean is in fully or highly protected MPAs(i.e.,areas where no

56、or only light extractive activities are allowed that have low total impact).Equitable governance10.Data are limited on the extent to which protected and conserved areas are equitably governed.Governance assessments have only been reported for 0.22%of the area covered on land and 0.001%of the area at

57、 sea.Such assessments are important for ensuring that Indigenous Peoples and local communities,particularly Indigenous and local women,are engaged in decision-making,have fair access to benefits arising from conservation and are not unfairly impacted by its costs.11.The vast majority of protected an

58、d conserved areas are governed by national governments and other state actors.Recognition of non-state governance remains limited,with only 3.95%of the area covered by protected and conserved areas reported as governed by Indigenous Peoples and local communities,and 11.84%under shared governance.12.

59、Beyond protected and conserved areas,Indigenous and traditional territories cover at least 13.6%of global terrestrial areas.Integrated into the wider landscapes13.To ensure the long-term success of biodiversity conservation,protected and conserved areas must be integrated into wider landscapes,seasc

60、apes,and the ocean,while promoting sustainable use that is fully consistent with conservation outcomes.This requires a commitment to integrated spatial planning,strong governance and collaborative management,ensuring both biodiversity protection and the enhancement of local livelihoods.Fully impleme

61、nting all aspects of Target 3 is a challenge for all countries.It is one that must be overcome for the sake of all life on Earth.Whale shark(Rhincodon typus)#311392344 By Ollie|Adobe Stock4Chapter 1IntroductionPlitvice National Park,Croatia#444682688 By zgphotography|Adobe Stock5Urgent action is nee

62、ded at all scales to halt the biodiversity and climate crises.Despite ongoing efforts to protect and restore biodiversity,competing human activities and resulting alterations to the Earths natural landscapes and seascapes continue to drive biodiversity loss at rates unprecedented in human history(IP

63、BES 2019;WWF 2024).This poses an enormous threat to both nature and the well-being of people.Humans are dependent on biodiversity for food,materials,and the regulation of all natural systems(Mace,Norris and Fitter 2012;IPBES 2019).Nature can also be a source of significant cultural and spiritual ins

64、piration(e.g.,Verschuuren et al.2021).A transformation is now needed to protect and recognize the value of biodiversity and the vital services it provides.In recognition of this,Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)adopted an ambitious plan at the 15th Conference of the Parties:the

65、Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(KMGBF;CBD 2022a).Contained within a package of actions agreed by the Parties,the KMGBF presents four long-term goals and 23 targets for 2030 to halt and reverse biodiversity loss.The Framework emphasizes the need to uphold human rights across all aspect

66、s of implementation,including protecting the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities.It builds on the former Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020,complements the UN Sustainable Development Goals and has important links to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other multil

67、ateral environmental agreements.The Protected Planet Report 2024 provides the first review of global progress towards one commitment of the KMGBF:Target 3.This Target aims to safeguard the worlds biodiversity in situ through protected and conserved areas.If met,this Target will have determined the w

68、ays in which 30%of the worlds surface is managed by 2030.In full,Target 3 urges Parties and other governments,with the support of intergovernmental and other organizations,to:Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas,and of marine and coastal areas,esp

69、ecially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services,are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative,well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures,recognizing Ind

70、igenous and traditional territories,where applicable,and integrated into wider landscapes,seascapes and the ocean,while ensuring that any sustainable use,where appropriate in such areas,is fully consistent with conservation outcomes,recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and loc

71、al communities,including over their traditional territories(CBD 2022b).In comparison to Target 3s predecessor,Aichi Biodiversity Target 11,Parties to the CBD have greatly scaled up their ambitions for global coverage.On land,the goal has increased from 17%to 30%coverage by protected and conserved ar

72、eas.In the marine realm,it has increased from 10%to 30%.While this 30%coverage aspect of the target often receives the most attention,all the elements of Target 3 must be achieved for its implementation to be truly successful in delivering conservation outcomes(Figure 1).Most of these elements focus

73、 on the quality of protected and conserved area networks.They include the effectiveness of their management,the prioritization of places where conservation measures are most needed,and the integration of protected and conserved areas into wider landscapes and seascapes.Crucially,Target 3 also introd

74、uces several new elements that were not present in the wording of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11.Their focus on effective conservation and on providing additional safeguards for people may prove integral to the targets success.These elements are interpreted in the following ways for this report:Effect

75、ive conservation:Target 3 supplements Aichi Biodiversity Target 11s call for effective management by specifying that protected and conserved areas must be“effectively conserved and managed”.While the need for effective management is retained,this shifts the emphasis to also include measurable outcom

76、es for biodiversity.Equitable governance:Protected and conserved areas must be governed in an equitable manner for local people,meaning the processes underlying management decisions must be just and fair for Indigenous Peoples and local communities,including women and girls.While Aichi Biodiversity

77、Target 11 referred to equitable management,Target 3 explicitly acknowledges that governance(decision-making processes)must be equitable.IntroductionEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesIm

78、portant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage6 Sustainable use consistent with conservation outcomes:Permitted sustainable use of natural resources will often occur in some types of protected and conserved areas.Where such activities do occur,they need to be aligned with conservation

79、outcomes.The explicit acknowledgement that uses of resources,where truly sustainable,will occur within some protected and conserved areas is particularly important for areas that are home to Indigenous Peoples and local communities.The rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities:1 Acknowledge

80、s that Indigenous and traditional territories should be recognized,and that the Target should be implemented with respect for the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities.From a human rights perspective,this is an essential aspect of Target 3.These evolutions from the wording of Aichi Biod

81、iversity Target 11 reflect shifts in perceptions of area-based conservation that have occurred since 2010.While equitable governance,sustainable use and recognition of Indigenous Peoples and local communities have long been included in global standards and guidelines,this has not always translated i

82、nto practice.Target 3 enshrines them into global policy.The Protected Planet Report 2024 presents the first official assessment of the global status of protected and conserved areas in the context of Target 3.By 2030 at least 30%BiodiversityEffectively managedIntegrated into wider landscapes,seascap

83、es and the oceanSustainable use is fully consistent with conservation outcomesRecognizing and respecting the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities including over their traditional territoriesWell connectedSystems of protected areas and OECMsEcologically representativeEquitably governedE

84、cosystem functions and servicesEspecially areas of particular importance for:TerrestrialInland waterCoastal&marineWhatWhereHowWhile ensuringFigure 1.The elements of Target 3.Based on WWF and IUCN WCPA 2023.Ensure&enable Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustaina

85、ble useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage1 Indigenous Peoples and local communities are considered together within the context of the CBD,under Article 8(j)(Decision V/16,COP 5,2023)and in the preamble to the

86、Convention(www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf),“recognizing the close and traditional dependence of many Indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources,and the desirability of sharing equitably benefits arising from the use of traditional knowledge,innovation

87、s and practices relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components”.However,it is acknowledged that Indigenous Peoples and local communities have distinct and differentiated rights under international law.7Each chapter covers a specific element of the Targ

88、et(Figure 1)and outlines global progress towards that element based on indicators included in the monitoring framework(CBD 2022b;see Box 1.1 and Methodology).National-level results are also displayed in the reports figures and in the downloadable results.This breakdown of data,alongside regional fin

89、dings presented in the Protected Planet 2024 Digital Report,is provided to aid implementation over the next six years.However,it is important to note that Target 3 provides a global ambition that depends on the collective efforts of all countries,and that Parties will define their own national targe

90、ts as individual contributions towards the global ambition.With only six years remaining for the successful implementation of Target 3,this report reveals the extent of progress made to date.It also identifies gaps where renewed and accelerated efforts are needed.Box 1.1.Measuring global progress to

91、wards Target 3The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework is the first agreement of the CBD to be accompanied by a monitoring framework comprising indicators adopted for use by Parties to assess global progress in a consistent and standardized way.This includes headline indicators covering th

92、e overall scope of each goal or target,alongside component and complementary indicators designed to capture and expand understanding of key elements.Where possible,the headline,component,and complementary indicators for Target 3 have been calculated.The report also draws on the revised list of indic

93、ators and guidance that will be considered at the UN Biodiversity Conference 2024(CBD COP16;CBD 2024a;CBD 2024b).For elements where multiple indicators have been adopted,each is presented separately,with insights into the implications of the different results.Detailed information on the indicators u

94、sed and approach taken can be found in the Methodology(see Annex).Several indicators for Target 3 were adopted within the monitoring framework at COP15(CBD 2022b).Many of these continue to be refined and will be further negotiated at COP16.For this Protected Planet Report,18 indicators are presented

95、(Table 1).This includes four analyses not adopted or proposed as Target 3 indicators.These provide further valuable insights into select elements of Target 3 and are marked as“additional indicators”.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Wel

96、l-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageKeel-billed Toucans(Ramphastos sulfuratus),Costa Rica#243675911 By ondrejprosicky|Adobe Stock81 For clarity,the wording of these indicators has been slightly changed from that of the releva

97、nt CBD document.2 The monitoring framework is composed of the following groups of indicators:headline,binary,component and complementary indicators.3 Indicator group derived from the list of indicators in the monitoring framework as adopted at COP 15(CBD/COP/DEC/15/5;CBD 2022b).4 Indicator group der

98、ived from the proposed changes to the list of indicators for the monitoring framework in SBSTTA recommendation 26/1(CBD/SBSTTA/REC/26/1;CBD 2024b).5 Indicators not listed in the monitoring framework but included in this report for additional insight.Coverage of inland waters is included here as a me

99、thod for calculating the indicator has not yet been proposed(see CBD,2024a).6 For Indigenous and traditional territories,this report uses an adapted version of the proposed headline indicator for Target 22.7 Also expected to be included in the disaggregation of the headline indicator by level of eff

100、ectiveness(see Box 7.1).Table 1.Overview of indicators calculated within this Protected Planet Report,including those listed under Target 3 in the monitoring framework for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted at COP15(CBD 2022b)and SBSTTA Recommendation(CBD 2024b).Indicators in

101、cluded in these documents but not calculated for this report are excluded from the table.Report Chapter Indicator nameIndicator group in COP Decision 15/53 SBSTTA Recommendation 26/14 3-Coverage Coverage of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures by terrestrial(including

102、 inland waters)and marine realms1 Headline Headline/optional headline indicator disaggregationCoverage of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures by inland waters realm1,5 Headline Headline/optional headline indicator disaggregation4-Areas of particular importance for bi

103、odiversity and ecosystem functions and servicesThe mean percentage coverage of areas of particular importance for biodiversity(KBAs)covered by protected areas and OECMs1Component Optional headline indicator disaggregation Protected and conserved area coverage of natures contributions to people5-Spec

104、ies Protection Index(SPI)Component,Complementary Component 5-Ecologically representative Species Protection Index(SPI)Component,Complementary Component Proportion of terrestrial,freshwater and marine ecological regions which are conserved by protected areas or other effective area-based conservation

105、 measures Complementary Optional headline indicator disaggregation Red List of Ecosystems Component,Complementary -PARC-Representativeness5-6-Well-Connected Systems ProtConn Component Component Protected Area Connectedness Index(PARC-Connectedness)Component Component Protected Area Isolation Index(P

106、AI)Complementary Complementary Protected Area Network metric(ProNet)Complementary Complementary 7-Effectively Conserved and Managed Protected Area Management Effectiveness(PAME)Component Optional headline indicator disaggregation Rate of protected area downgrading,downsizing and degazettement(PADDD)

107、events Complementary Complementary IUCN Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas Complementary Complementary 8 Equitable Governance The number of protected areas that have completed a site-level assessment of governance and equity(SAGE)Component Complementary7 The percentage area under the govern

108、ance of each of:government,private organizations,Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities,or shared.1 Complementary Optional headline indicator disaggregation 9 Indigenous and Traditional Territories Land-use change and land tenure in the traditional territories of Indigenous Peoples and local commu

109、nities1,6 -10 Integrated into wider systems and sustainable use No adopted indicators-Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage9P

110、rotected and conserved areasChapter 2Mount Huangshan,China#184970678 By 昊 周|Adobe Stock10To assess global progress towards Target 3,it is essential to understand which area-based conservation measures need to be counted.Target 3 calls for“systems of protected areas and other effective area-based con

111、servation measures”(OECMs)while also“recognizing Indigenous and traditional territories,where applicable”(ITTs;see Chapter 9 for further details).Protected areas and OECMs are referred to collectively as protected and conserved areas throughout this report.While Target 3 has brought renewed attentio

112、n to protected areas,they are already a well-established conservation tool that often provides the core of national biodiversity management strategies and policies.Taking many forms,these areas have enabled the conservation of species and habitats for centuries(Brodie et al.2023;Nowakowski et al.202

113、3),enhanced ecosystem services(Zeng et al.2022)and improved the resilience of land and seascapes to climate change(Duncanson et al.2022;Cannizzo et al.2023).What are protected areas?Globally,there are two widely accepted definitions of a protected area that are considered equivalent(Lopoukhine and d

114、e Souza Dias 2012).The CBD defines a protected area as“a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives”,and the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN)describes a protected area as“a clearly defined geographical spac

115、e,recognised,dedicated and managed,through legal or other effective means,to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.”(Dudley and Stolton 2008).Countries often also have national definitions,policies or legislation that determine what is co

116、nsidered protected.Most formally protected areas are designated legally at the national level.However,the global definitions also encompass areas established through effective,non-legislative means,such as customary law or the policies of non-governmental organizations(NGOs).In addition,areas with c

117、haracteristics of regional or international importance can also be recognized as protected under multilateral environmental agreements and other intergovernmental processes.These include UNESCO World Heritage sites(areas of cultural and natural heritage considered to be of outstanding value to human

118、ity),Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance and UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserves.As a result,what counts as a protected area can be extremely diverse.This diversity is reflected in the names used to describe types of protected area at the national level,which number in the hundreds.However

119、,based on the series of principles that accompany the IUCN definition,“only those areas where the main objective is conserving nature can be considered protected areas;this can include many areas with other goals as well,at the same level,but in the case of conflict,nature conservation will be the p

120、riority”.This qualifier helps set these areas aside from other area-based conservation measures.While protected areas are the main area-based conservation tool formally recognized by governments,other areas can provide important contributions to conservation when effectively managed.In recognition o

121、f this,Parties to the CBD introduced a new term in the text of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 in 2010 “other effective area-based conservation measures”,or OECMs.What are other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)?In 2018,OECMs were formally defined by the Parties to the CBD as:“a geograp

122、hically defined area other than a Protected Area,which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in-situ conservation of biodiversity,with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable,cultural,socio-economic,and other locally r

123、elevant values.”(CBD Decision 14/8).Unlike protected areas,where biodiversity conservation must be a primary objective,OECMs might not have biodiversity as their primary objective,but they must have identified ecological values(biodiversity and/or ecosystem functions and services)and deliver long-te

124、rm,sustained conservation of those values,regardless of their primary focus.To date,OECMs have only been recognized by a handful of countries(e.g.,Box 2.1),but they are already making substantial contributions to Target 3(e.g.,see Chapter 3).As OECMs are still a relatively new concept,the recognitio

125、n of these areas by Parties is an evolving process.Several countries are working to develop or adapt processes and criteria for identification of OECMs.In some Protected and conserved areasEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connecte

126、dIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage11cases,these include legal and policy frameworks for the recognition of such sites.However,many countries have not yet started this process.Both protected areas and OECMs can vary enormously in the

127、characteristics of their governance and management(Figure 2).The IUCN management category and governance type frameworks,and OECM categories based on objectives,provide a way to group and understand protected and conserved areas across different contexts.A protected areas management category describ

128、es,in broad terms,the approach taken to setting conservation objectives and managing its biodiversity.The governance type(see Chapter 8)indicates who is responsible and accountable for how an area is managed.The governance framework includes four governance types for protected areas and OECMs:govern

129、ment,private,Indigenous Peoples and local communities,and shared governance.Many protected areas,and some OECMs,have been reported under the governance of Indigenous Peoples and local communities,albeit in a limited number of countries(see Chapter 8).However,in cases where such an approach may not b

130、e appropriate,consideration could be given to recognizing the contribution of Indigenous and traditional territories(ITTs)outside of protected areas and OECMs.The role that Indigenous and traditional territories could play in the implementation of Target 3 is discussed further in Chapter 9.To monito

131、r progress towards Target 3,and guide successful implementation by 2030,it is essential to have an accurate and comprehensive picture of the global network of protected areas and OECMs.The World Database on Protected Areas(WDPA)and World Database on Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures(W

132、D-OECM),collectively made available via the Protected Planet website,are the largest repositories of information on protected areas and OECMs and provide the official data used to track progress towards various aspects of Target 3.Both databases are components of the Protected Planet Initiative and

133、are managed by the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC)as joint products of UNEP and IUCN.Category la:strict protection,visits controlled1.Ancillary conservation:areas delivering in situ conservation as a by-product of managementCategory Il:protect ecosystems and

134、facilitate ecotourism3.Primary conservation:areas where biodiversity outcomes are a primary management objective but where the governance authority does not wish the area to be reported as a protected areaCategory IV:protect habitat and species,often need regular management interventionsCategory Ib:

135、wilderness area,large areas with low human use2.Secondary conservation:where biodiversity outcomes are a secondary management objectiveCategory III:natural monuments e.g.sea mount,marine cavern,etcCategory V:cultural landscapes with high nature valueCategory VI:sustainable use areas,natural habitats

136、 with sustainable offtakeProtected areasOECMsIUCN protected area management categoriesIUCN governance typesOECM management objectivesGovernmentsFederal or national ministry or agencySub-national ministry or agencyGovernment-delegated managementSharedCollaborative governanceJoint governanceTransbound

137、ary governancePrivateIndividual landownersNon-profit organisationsFor-profit organisationsIndigenous Peoples and local communitiesIndigenous PeoplesLocal communitiesFigure 2.IUCN management categories,governance types and categories of OECMs based on management objectives.Equitably governedProtected

138、 and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage12The data in the WDPA are compiled directly from governments,regional entities,secretariats of intergovernmental a

139、greements and processes,and other stakeholders.Data providers are asked to adhere to the IUCN or the CBD definition of a protected area,or CBD definition of an OECM,and to meet a set of additional data standards.To ensure that the Protected Planet Report 2024 is based on the most up to date informat

140、ion,all CBD Parties were invited to update or contribute new data in 2024.In response,14,386 records have been added or updated since January 2024.In August alone,89 countries updated their records(or verified their data to be correct)representing the largest ever monthly update of the databases.Rea

141、ders should nevertheless note that very recent designations may not yet be reflected in Protected Planet,and bear this in mind when interpreting the time series results shared here.The findings in this report are based on data provided to the WDPA and WD-OECM as of August 2024 in conjunction with ot

142、her biodiversity datasets.Box 2.1.Oceanias first designated OECM Elizabeth Munro,Jessie Nicholson,Hayley Weeks,Cook Islands National Environment ServiceTakitumu Conservation Area(TCA),or Ngai Taporoporo o Takitumu,was declared on 22 May 2024 as the first other effective area-based conservation measu

143、re(OECM)in the Cook Islands,and the first designated OECM in Oceania.It covers 1.55 km2 of lowland forest landscape on the Island of Rarotonga.Since 1996,TCA has been conserved by three land-owning tribes(Ngti Kainuku,Ngti Karika and Ngti Manavaroa).It is managed to protect the endemic kkerri bird(R

144、arotonga flycatcher,Pomarea dimidiata)and to conserve other important,endangered and native species.Management is overseen by the Takitumu Conservation Area Trust,which collaborates with the Cook Islands government,local landowners and the three communities to ensure the long-term protection of biod

145、iversity and sustainable use of resources.At a national workshop in 2023,TCA was identified as a potential OECM based on its biodiversity values and the plans set out by the communities to ensure the longevity of these values.A subsequent review process,led by the landowning tribes in collaboration

146、with the Cook Islands government,confirmed that TCA met the OECM criteria.This review included a series of community consultations,and the establishment of a dedicated working group to lead the process.Free,prior and informed consent(FPIC)was obtained and signed by the Ariki(chief)and Mataiapo(sub-c

147、hief)of the three tribes to uphold their rights.This also ensured transparency in the recognition process and reporting of data to the WD-OECM.To demonstrate and celebrate this success,TCA was awarded a certificate of recognition by the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme(SPREP

148、)and a letter of record for the WD-OECM from UNEP-WCMC.TCA sets a strong example of both collaborative governance and a thorough,inclusive OECM assessment process.This OECM was assessed using the IUCN WCPA site-level tool.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustai

149、nable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage Jessie Nicholson,The Cook Islands National Environment Service13Chapter 3CoverageBryce Canyon National Park,Utah,USA#131027272 By FreebillyPhotography|Adobe Stock14T

150、his chapter presents a summary of the Target 3 headline indicator,“coverage of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures”.This relates to the quantitative element of the Target“at least 30 per cent coverage of terrestrial and inland waters,and of marine and coastal areas”b

151、y 2030.Since 2020,there has been a global increase of 629,262 km2 coverage by protected and conserved areas in the terrestrial and inland waters realm and a 1.77 million km2 increase in the marine and coastal realm.With six years remaining,global progress towards the 30%coverage element of Target 3

152、is 17.58%of terrestrial and inland waters and 8.44%of marine and coastal areas(Figure 3).Globally,302,934 protected areas and 6,464 OECMs have been reported to the Protected Planet Initiative in total,covering 54.29 million km2 of the Earths surface(Figure 4).Most are found in the terrestrial and in

153、land water realms,where 284,242 protected areas cover a total of 22.06 million km2 and 6,253 OECMs cover an additional 1.59 million km2.In the marine realm,there are fewer protected areas(18,692 sites)and OECMs(211 sites)by number,but these sites collectively cover a greater surface area of 30.24 mi

154、llion km2 and 403,605 km2,respectively.This reflects the tendency for larger protected areas to be established in the marine environment,while also highlighting the slower progress towards identifying marine OECMs.At present,1.12%of marine sites are OECMs compared to 2.15%of terrestrial sites.Althou

155、gh coverage of inland waters is combined with terrestrial areas in these figures,Box 3.1 describes an innovative approach towards understanding inland water coverage specifically.To meet the 30%coverage target,a further 16.71 million km2(12.42%)of terrestrial and inland waters,and 78.26 million km2(

156、21.56%)of marine and coastal areas need to be established and/or recognized.Importantly,new protected and conserved areas must also be reported to Protected Planet to ensure that they are counted in official assessments of progress.Importantly,Target 3 is a global target.To meet it,countries will ne

157、ed to contribute in different ways.Ambitions for increasing coverage will vary based on countries national priorities,biodiversity values and their status,and the available space for protected and conserved areas.The ability of all countries to make meaningful contributions will also be impacted by

158、progress on other KMGBF targets,for example relating to the mobilization of financial resources.While not all countries will be aiming for 30%domestic coverage,many will need to meet or exceed it for the global target to be achieved.Based on data reported to Protected Planet,35%of countries and terr

159、itories have expanded their networks of protected and conserved areas since 2020.This means that approximately 65%of countries and territories have either not expanded their networks since 2020 or have not reported updates.Currently,51 countries and territories have over 30%coverage by protected and

160、 conserved areas in the terrestrial realm,and 31 countries and territories have over 30%coverage in the marine realm(Figure 5).To follow progress after the publication of the Protected Planet Report,readers should consult the national and global coverage statistics that are available and updated mon

161、thly at Protected Planet.CoverageTerrestrial and inland watersMarine and coastal areas17.6%8.4%Current ProgressCurrent ProgressTarget(30%)Target(30%)Figure 3.Progress towards the 30%coverage target in the terrestrial and inland waters realm and in the marine realm.Equitably governedProtected and con

162、served areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage15Figure 5.Per cent coverage of countries and sub-regions by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation me

163、asures(OECMs),August 2024.Coverage is shown for the terrestrial and inland waters realm and for the marine realm.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImport

164、ant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageFigure 4.Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)of the world,August 2024.Terrestrial protected areas are shown in green,marine protected areas in blue and OECMs in orange.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024.Note:F

165、or all maps throughout the report,the following map disclaimer applies:The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territor

166、y,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan.The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.Final b

167、oundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.Final status of the Abyei area is not yet determined.A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Fa

168、lkland Islands(Malvinas).1615Figure 6.The global area(km2)covered by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs),for the terrestrial and inland waters realm and for the marine realm,between 2000 and 2024.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN,2024.30.64 million km223.65 million km

169、2Terrestrial and Inland WatersArea(Million km2)Marine and Coastal Areas200001020305152535201220062018200220142008202020042016201020222024While the number and extent of protected and conserved areas constantly fluctuates as areas are created and expanded or,more rarely,degazetted(stripped of their le

170、gal protection)or downsized(see Chapter 7),the overall trend over the past two decades has been one of growth(Figure 6).The previous area target of 17%has now been met,with the time series calculated for this report confirming that this milestone was reached by 2020(UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2021).While te

171、rrestrial percentage coverage is higher,marine coverage has increased more rapidly,by 650.46%since 2000.This rate is over 10 times greater than the 62%increase observed in the terrestrial realm during the same time period.Much of the increase in the marine realm occurred between 2010 and 2020,as cou

172、ntries worked to meet the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.This progress was heavily impacted by the establishment of several large marine protected areas(UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2021).While growth has remained faster in the marine realm,it has substantially slowed since 2020,likely due in part to delayed repo

173、rting.Coverage also remains unevenly distributed,with most marine protected and conserved areas(18,903 sites covering 27.42 million km2)established and reported in areas under national jurisdiction(i.e.,territorial seas and Exclusive Economic Zones).In comparison,there are just 10 protected areas(co

174、vering 3.22 million km2)in“areas beyond national jurisdiction”(ABNJ,200 nautical miles from the coast),otherwise known as the high seas.This is despite the latter covering 61%of the ocean.The adoption of the new Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction(BBNJ)Agreement provides an opportunity to addr

175、ess this through the establishment and expansion of the marine protected area network in the high seas(Box 3.2).In both terrestrial and marine areas,global increases in coverage are partly due to continued efforts to designate new protected areas.However,the current coverage statistics are also infl

176、uenced by recent efforts to recognize pre-existing conservation measures that were not previously counted within formal conservation networks(e.g.,as OECMs).Although OECMs have only been reported at the global scale since 2019,recognition of these areas is increasing and is already accelerating glob

177、al progress towards Target 3.OECMs currently contribute 1.18 percentage points of terrestrial coverage.These contributions are significant considering that only 15 countries and territories have reported OECMs to the WD-OECM.As efforts to recognize and report on OECMs proliferate across countries an

178、d territories worldwide,it is highly likely that the contribution of OECMs to Target 3 progress will become increasingly significant(see also Jonas et al.2024).While the headline indicator captures the core quantitative element of Target 3,increases in coverage alone will not be sufficient for prote

179、cted and conserved areas to play their part in addressing the biodiversity crisis.Success in achieving Target 3 will also depend on where protected and conserved areas are located and ensuring their quality.The disaggregation of the headline indicator,as proposed for negotiation at COP16(CBD 2024b;s

180、ee Chapter 1,Box 1.1),can provide insights into global progress towards several of these quality elements(see Chapters 4,5,7,8).Using additional biodiversity datasets,component indicators and complementary indicators,global progress towards each quality element of Target 3 is addressed in the follow

181、ing chapters.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage17Box 3.1.Global protection of inland waters:a tool to capture inland water

182、s in Target 3 monitoring Robin Abell,Tara Moberg,Suman Jumani,The Nature ConservancyFor the first time,this Protected Planet Report presents additional statistics on the coverage of inland waters by protected and conserved areas,complementing the combined statistics on coverage of terrestrial and in

183、land water areas.Inland waters such as wetlands,rivers and streams,lakes,and peatlands cover a small percentage of the planet but provide essential habitats for biodiversity alongside vital ecosystem services.These ecosystems are under threat.Monitored freshwater species are declining at a higher ra

184、te than that found in terrestrial and marine environments,falling by 85%over the past 50 years(WWF 2024).Dedicated reporting on Target 3 progress in inland waters is needed to highlight the current gaps and potential priority areas for future conservation of this important realm.Preliminary analyses

185、 find that coverage of the inland waters realm by protected and conserved areas is at 16.45%(for wetlands),which is similar to that of the terrestrial realm(16.36%for exclusively terrestrial areas).This suggests that inland waters have neither been intentionally excluded nor intentionally considered

186、 in the designation of terrestrial protected and conserved areas.The situation is more nuanced,however,at the level of different inland water biomes and ecosystems.This section focuses on rivers,for which standard methods of assessing coverage are insufficient.Globally,18%of rivers and streams,measu

187、red by length,are within protected and conserved areas.This leaves a further 12%required to meet the 30%of Target 3.When looking across river size classes,there are even starker differences.Almost one third(31%)of the smallest headwater streams are protected or conserved,but all larger classes are l

188、ess than 18%covered.Less than 1%of the worlds largest rivers are within protected and conserved areas(Figure 7).This reflects a tendency for protected areas to be disproportionately placed in remote,higher elevation locations that are characterized by headwaters.In contrast,human settlements are con

189、centrated along larger streams and rivers.Although headwater stream coverage is an important success that bears highlighting,the discrepancy with all larger streams and rivers is a reminder that the full implementation of Target 3 will depend upon representative coverage of ecosystems.Beyond coverag

190、e,additional river metrics can be used to assess attributes of effectiveness and connectivity.For example,levels of upstream protection(Abell et al.2017)and gaps in coverage of free-flowing rivers.Free-flowing rivers are increasingly rare and imperiled and so warrant special attention(Grill et al.20

191、19),although there has been recent momentum in efforts to restore free-flowing rivers in some parts of the world(e.g.,European Commission,Directorate-General for Environment 2022).This collection of findings highlights the importance of assessing global coverage of inland waters separately to terres

192、trial areas.Tracking this is an essential first step towards elevating the importance of inland waters and their protection,though there is room to strengthen reporting and measurement systems in the future.Improvements could encompass finer-resolution measures of ecological and biogeographic repres

193、entation,more comprehensive assessments of areas of importance for inland water biodiversity and ecosystem services,hydrologically defined measures of connectivity,and measures of management effectiveness that consider external threats transmitted through inland water systems(Moberg et al.in press).

194、While they lack these refinements,the currently available indicators identify a clear need to address the gaps in coverage and representation of inland water systems.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditi

195、onal territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage18Figure 7.Global per cent coverage of inland water ecosystems by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs).Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024.Calculated by Confluvio Consulting Inc.Coverage b

196、y protected areasCoverage by OECMs0%10%20%30%40%Smallest headwater/intermittent streamsVery small streamsSmall streamsIntermediate riversLarge riversVery large riversEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditi

197、onal territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageBrown bear fishing in Katmai National Park,Alaska Jennifer Webber/TNC Photo Contest 202219Box 3.2.The BBNJ Agreement:a major boost for marine protection in areas beyond national jurisdiction Irene Llabrs Pohl,UNEP-WCMCThe

198、year 2023 marked an important milestone for global marine biodiversity policy.With the adoption of a new international and legally binding agreement,governments addressed a longstanding need to coordinate the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdicti

199、on(ABNJ).2 These remote and largely unexplored regions of the worlds oceans are beyond the control of individual countries.They also make up 61%of marine area or nearly half of the Earths surface and are home to unique species and ecosystems(Figure 8).The“Agreement under the United Nations Conventio

200、ns on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of areas beyond national jurisdiction”,also known as the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement or simply the“BBNJ Agreement”,establishes a highly co-operative framework for accessing and safeguarding marine biodiversity i

201、n the high seas.The BBNJ Agreement provides a pathway towards improving conservation in ABNJ and towards increasing the historically limited coverage of ABNJ by marine protected and conserved areas.Among the various measures to be implemented,a central objective of the Agreement is to establish a co

202、mprehensive system of area-based management tools(ABMTs),including ecologically representative and well-connected networks of marine protected areas.These are intended to protect,preserve,restore and maintain biodiversity and ecosystems.It is also expected that they will strengthen the resilience of

203、 ecosystems in ABNJ to stressors like climate change,ocean acidification and marine pollution while simultaneously supporting food security and other socioeconomic benefits such as the protection of cultural values.As of October 2024,the BBNJ Agreement had 105 signatories and 13 Parties.It will ente

204、r into force 120 days after a total of 60 Parties have fully ratified the Agreement.After this,Parties will be able to,individually or collectively,propose marine protected areas and other ABMTs.They will be supported in doing so through scientific guidance and criteria developed by a dedicated Scie

205、ntific and Technical Body and through consultation with relevant stakeholders.A formal review and public consultation will then inform a decision by the Conference of the Parties on the establishment of new conservation measures.The existing low coverage of marine protected areas in ABNJ,as reported

206、 in Chapter 3,highlights the immense task ahead.The BBNJ Agreement presents a genuine opportunity to turn the tide.2 As defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea“areas beyond national jurisdiction”refers to all parts of the sea that are not included in an Exclusive Economic Zone

207、,territorial sea,or internal or archipelagic waters of a state(i.e.,“high seas”);and the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof,beyond the limits of national jurisdiction(i.e.,the“Area”).Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connec

208、tedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageFigure 8.The scale of the global oceans and the areas beyond national jurisdiction(ABNJ)within them.20Areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and servicesChapter 4Ba

209、nda Islands,Indonesia#236594114 By fabio lamanna|Adobe stock 21Protected and conserved areas will only be fully effective in addressing biodiversity loss globally if established in the right places.Target 3 emphasizes that protected and conserved areas should especially include“areas of particular i

210、mportance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services”(CBD 2022b).Historically,protected areas have often been established in places where there is no immediate conflict with other human needs(Pressey et al.2015).Target 3 commits governments to focusing more attention on strategically prot

211、ecting and conserving the most optimal places for biodiversity and ecosystem functions(CBD 2022b).Areas of particular importance for biodiversityAreas of particular importance for biodiversity can be considered in the context of the KMGBF to be“sites that contain significant populations/extents of t

212、hreatened or geographically restricted species or ecosystems,or that have significant ecological integrity or irreplaceability,are significant for the maintenance of biological processes,or provide significant ecological connectivity to maintain populations of species”(Plumptre et al.2024).Categorie

213、s of“areas of importance”include Ecologically and Biologically Sensitive Areas(EBSAs),Important Marine Mammal Areas,and Important Shark and Ray Areas(IUCN WCPA 2024),among others.Key Biodiversity Areas(KBAs)represent the most comprehensive dataset of areas of importance.KBAs have been identified in

214、all countries worldwide and in terrestrial,freshwater and marine realms.They are“sites contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity”and are identified nationally using globally standardized scientific criteria(described in the Global KBA Standard;IUCN 2016).KBAs aim to bring

215、together the various site-scale approaches to comprehensively identify areas of particular importance for biodiversity,including sites of significance for threatened or geographically restricted species or ecosystems,ecological integrity,biological processes or irreplaceability.These include sites c

216、ritical for the conservation of the worlds birds,known as Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas(IBAs),the last remaining refuges for Endangered or Critically Endangered species,known as Alliance for Zero Extinction(AZE)sites,and other sites of international significance for the conservation of one o

217、r more taxonomic groups in terrestrial,marine,or freshwater systems(IUCN 2016).Data on national KBA networks are brought together in the World Database of KBAs.The mean percentage coverage of KBAs by protected and conserved areas has been adopted as a component indicator for Target 3(CBD 2022b)and i

218、s a proposed disaggregation of the headline indicator(CBD 2024a).This aligns with official indicators adopted by the UN for assessing progress towards Sustainable Development Goals 14(Life Below Water)and 15(Life on Land),which assess coverage of marine,terrestrial and mountain KBAs by protected and

219、 conserved areas(UNGA 2017;UN 2024).Globally,over 16,500 KBAs have been identified,covering more than 22 million km2 and representing 4.3%of the worlds surface.Among the 16,227 KBAs with boundaries recorded in the World Database of KBAs,the mean percentage of each individual KBA within protected and

220、 conserved areas is 47.72%(including 0.54%by OECMs),an increase of 18.64 percentage points since 2000.This means that,on average,approximately half of each KBA is covered by one or more protected area or OECM.The mean percentage of each KBA covered by protected and conserved areas is 48.50%for terre

221、strial KBAs,48.16%for freshwater KBAs,and 46.11%for marine KBAs within national waters.While mean coverage of KBAs by protected and conserved areas has substantially improved since 2000,progress has slowed over the past decade(Figure 9).In total,approximately two-thirds of global KBAs(67.97%)are eit

222、her fully or partially covered by protected and conserved areas(Figure 10).Just over one fifth(22.02%)of all KBAs are fully covered by protected and conserved areas.The proportion of sites that are completely covered is comparable across the three realms,with 23.29%,21.88%and 20.16%of freshwater,ter

223、restrial and marine KBAs fully covered by protected and conserved areas,respectively.Across all realms combined,a further 45.95%of KBAs are partially covered.Of these areas,74 terrestrial,44 marine,and three freshwater KBAs have partial or full coverage from OECMs,but no coverage from protected area

224、s.Meanwhile,almost one third(32.03%)of KBAs lack protection entirely,with 33.36%of all freshwater KBAs,30.35%of marine KBAs and 30.04%of terrestrial KBAs remaining fully unprotected.Information on areas of particular importance for biodiversity in each country can readily be accessed using the KBA w

225、ebsite.The identification of unprotected sites that are important for the global persistence of biodiversity supports countries to plan,prioritize and make decisions on these sites.Prioritizing locations in this way can bolster progress toward Target 3 and the goals of the KMGBF more broadly.In addi

226、tion,further work is necessary to ensure that national networks of KBAs are as up to date and comprehensive as possible,to Areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and servicesEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclu

227、sion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage22ensure that all areas of importance for biodiversity are included and appropriately documented and monitored.Priorities include the further identification of sites important for i

228、nvertebrates,plants,and less charismatic vertebrate groups,as well as for threatened or geographically restricted ecosystems,and sites of high ecological integrity.The Species Protection Index(SPI;The Map of Life Indicators;Jetz et al.2022)is a component indicator for Target 3 that directly and quan

229、titatively addresses the extent to which protected and conserved areas conserve species.The SPI measures the relative importance of all locations worldwide in safeguarding species and delivers detailed global maps of biodiversity importance.For any region,the index measures how well existing protect

230、ed and conserved areas cover these areas and contribute to species survival.For full SPI results see Chapter 5 in the context of the”ecologically representative”component of the target.Areas of particular importance for ecosystem functions and servicesIn the case of ecosystem functions and services,

231、important areas are interpreted for this report as referring to sites critical to human well-being,such as those sequestering and storing carbon,or containing important freshwater sources(Watson et al.2023).Historically,the ability to assess coverage of areas important for ecosystem services has bee

232、n impeded by limited data and methodologies designed to capture and map the benefits people derive from nature(CBD 2024a).As a result,there is currently no agreed indicator in the monitoring framework to assess coverage of these vital areas by protected and conserved areas.However,recent progress ha

233、s been made to map key ecosystem services,or Natures Contributions to People(NCPs),and to identify the areas most important for providing these services areas that can also be referred to as critical natural assets(Chaplin-Kramer et al.2022).3 Progress on Figure 9.Mean per cent coverage of Key Biodi

234、versity Areas(KBAs)by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)between 2000 and 2024.Coverage is shown for terrestrial,marine and freshwater KBAs.Sources:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024;BirdLife International 2024.Calculated by BirdLife International.Marine KBAs:46.11%Terre

235、strial KBAs:48.50%Freshwater KBAs:48.16%01020304050602000200220042006200820102012201420162018202020222024Mean Percentage Coverage of KBAs3 Following Chaplin Kramer et al.,(2022),Critical Natural Assets were defined in this report as the areas underpinning the supply of 90%of values of either the pot

236、ential or realized natures contributions to people considered in this study.Terrestrial KBAsFreshwater KBAsMarine KBAsEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcolo

237、gically representativeCoverage23mapping NCPs and critical natural assets provides an opportunity to further develop a suitable indicator for this element of Target 3(Dudley and Stolton 2022).For this Report,four locally relevant NCPs were considered,relating to water quality regulation(two NCPs:sedi

238、ment retention and nitrogen retention),flood regulation and coastal risk reduction.In addition,vulnerable carbon was included as a global NCP.The analysis looked at both potential NCPs(services that are supplied but not currently used by beneficiaries)and realized NCPs(services that are actively use

239、d).“Areas of particular importance for.ecosystem functions and services”,or critical natural assets,were defined for this analysis as those that collectively provide 90%of the NCPs that were assessed.These important areas were found to cover a significant portion of the worlds land.The critical natu

240、ral assets needed for potential NCPs cover 62.69%of the worlds land surface.For realized NCPs,the figure is 53.38%.Overlaying these areas with data on protected and conserved areas suggests that just under one fifth of critical natural assets are protected or conserved(19.07%of the total area for po

241、tential NCPs and 17.88%for realized NCPs).Since 2020,these figures have increased by 0.41 and 0.28 percentage points,respectively.These findings indicate that most areas important for ecosystem functions and services(critical natural assets)are unprotected and have seen limited improvement since 202

242、0.Covering all critical natural assets through the establishment of protected and conserved areas is clearly unrealistic,but their vast extent highlights the importance of considering Target 3 within the context of the broader Global Biodiversity Framework.Protected and conserved areas will not alwa

243、ys be the most suitable tools for maintaining NCPs,particularly those being actively used by local people.Sustainable management is therefore needed across wider landscapes and seascapes if these areas are to continue to support human life and wellbeing.The fact that all critical natural assets cann

244、ot be protected within the scope of the 30%target also makes clear the need to prioritize areas that will support the implementation of multiple elements of the target simultaneously.Critical natural assets for which protected and conserved areas are appropriate management tools might often be those

245、 with other values that would benefit from conservation,such as areas that also have high biodiversity value or promote connectivity.Global studies suggest prioritizing areas that can contribute to several Target 3 elements is a viable approach,as they demonstrate that many areas of the world are im

246、portant for both ecosystem services and biodiversity.This suggests that progress on Target 3 could be bolstered by the prioritization of these locations for new protected and conserved areas(Neugarten et al.2020).Given the intrinsic benefits Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIn

247、tegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageFigure 10.Extent to which Key Biodiversity Areas(KBAs)are covered by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs),s

248、hown as full,partial and no coverage.Sources:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024;BirdLife International 2024.Calculated by BirdLife International.24Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant area

249、sIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageFigure 11.Per cent coverage of critical natural assets by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)at the national level.Coverage is shown for critical natural assets for potential ecosystem services and realized ecosy

250、stem services.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024,Chaplin-Kramer et al.2023 and Noon et al.2022.of such areas to local people,the types of protected and conserved areas needed in these locations will often be those that support sustainable use.In many cases,these will be those with governance led by,or e

251、ffectively engaging,Indigenous Peoples and local communities.Diverse data,methodologies,and tools are readily available to assist countries in identifying and prioritizing these areas(Dudley and Stolton 2022;Watson et al.2023).Of equal importance will be the full implementation of KMGBF Target 1 on

252、spatial planning,and Target 10 on sustainability of production systems,ensuring that critical natural assets falling outside protected and conserved areas are still sustainably managed.25Ecologically representativeChapter 5Soft corals in Ras Mohammed,Egypt#334283346 By Christian Horras|Adobe Stock26

253、To protect the diversity of life on Earth,it is necessary to establish systems of protected and conserved areas that cover representative areas for the worlds species,ecosystems,and biogeographic regions.Doing so is important because each biogeographic region4(ranging from tropical rainforests to ar

254、id deserts to freshwater environments and marine regions)differs in the biodiversity it supports and the benefits it provides to people.This is reflected in the wording of Target 3,which calls for systems of protected and conserved areas to be“ecologically representative”.To assess this element of T

255、arget 3,the coverage of biogeographic regions by protected and conserved areas is proposed as a disaggregation of the headline indicator(CBD 2024a).Here,biogeographic regions are assessed,following the approach proposed in CBD 2024a,at the ecoregion5 level(data sources:Spalding et al.2007;Abell et a

256、l.,2008;Dinerstein et al.2017)and at the biome6 level using the newly developed IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology7(Keith et al.2020).Further insights are provided in Boxes 5.1 and 5.2.In total,coverage of 1,528 ecoregions and 23 biomes was assessed across terrestrial,marine,inland water and transitiona

257、l(overlapping)realms.This approach assumes a 30%coverage target across all biogeographic regions.In reality,the extent of coverage needed for each biogeographic region will depend on many factors,including its relative importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services.Importantly,however,a system o

258、f protected and conserved areas with extreme variation in coverage of biogeographic regions(i.e.,where some have only low levels of coverage)is unlikely to be fully delivering on the“ecologically representative”aspect of Target 3.Methods that look at both total coverage and how equally biogeographic

259、 regions are covered(Chauvenet et al.2017)may provide useful additional insights on improving ecological representation.At present,biogeographic regions are globally unevenly protected.However,a substantial number have already reached 30%coverage.In the terrestrial realm,233 out of 847(27.51%)ecoreg

260、ions are more than 30%covered by protected areas.This number rises by 14 ecoregions with the inclusion of OECMs(taking the proportion of terrestrial ecoregions with 30%coverage to 29.16%).The figures are lower for marine and freshwater ecoregions,where approximately one quarter(57 out of 232,or 25.5

261、7%)of marine and one fifth(97 out of 449,or 21.60%)of freshwater ecoregions are 30%covered by protected and conserved areas(Figure 12;Figure 13a).Since 2020,a further six terrestrial ecoregions,two marine ecoregions(Cocos-Keeling/Christmas Island and Western Arabian Sea)and three freshwater ecoregio

262、ns have met the 30%coverage target.While this is an encouraging finding,46(5.43%)terrestrial ecoregions and 42(18.10%)marine ecoregions still lack any protection(i.e.,they have coverage of less than 1%).The picture is,however,slightly more positive in the freshwater realm where most ecoregions are a

263、t least partially protected or conserved,with only 13(2.90%)entirely lacking protection.Marine provinces have reached 30%coverage in 14 of 62(22.58%)cases,and pelagic provinces in only one out of 37(2.70%;Figure 13b).While this is not unexpected given that pelagic provinces are typically very large,

264、the results also highlight the lack of protection in areas beyond national jurisdiction,where pelagic provinces largely occur.There has been no significant improvement in coverage of these provinces since 2020.One notable exception is the Somali Current,a large province of 2.60 million km2,which is

265、now 1.42%covered.In terms of biomes,only one of the seven terrestrial biomes meets the 30%coverage target(the tropical-subtropical forests biome).While this is an encouraging finding,the tropical-subtropical forests biome is one where greater than 30%coverage may be warranted given its very high imp

266、ortance for biodiversity and climate regulation(Ometto et al.2022).The other terrestrial biomes have an average of 15.17%coverage.None of the four marine,three freshwater or nine transitional biomes meets the 30%coverage target,with average coverage of 11.20%,16.16%and 18.90%respectively.Ecologicall

267、y representative4 Area of similar character in terms of the biota(fauna and flora)present in it.Each biogeographic region is based on similarity of composition in terms of the systematics(and hence evolutionary history)of the biota(biogeographical region European Environment Agency;europa.eu).5 Ecol

268、ogical units of land,freshwater,or ocean that contain similar and geographically-distinct assemblages of biodiversity(Olson et al.2001;Spalding et al.2007;Dinerstein et al.2017)6 Biome as defined in the IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology:A component of a realm(e.g.,terrestrial,freshwater,marine)united b

269、y broad features of ecosystem structure and one or a few common major ecological drivers that regulate major ecological functions,derived from the top-down subdivision of realms.7 The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology includes six hierarchical levels:realms,functional biomes,ecosystem functional groups

270、,biogeographic ecotypes,global ecosystem types,and sub-global ecosystem types.Definitions of each can be found here:https:/global-ecosystems.org/.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImpo

271、rtant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage27Figure 12.Per cent coverage of terrestrial,marine and freshwater ecoregions,marine provinces and pelagic provinces by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs).Sources:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024;Spalding et al

272、.2012;Spalding et al.2007;Abell et al.,2008;Dinerstein et al.2017.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage28Figure 13b.Per cent

273、of marine provinces and pelagic provinces reaching 30%coverage by protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs).Sources:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024;Spalding et al.2012.Figure 13a.Per cent of terrestrial,marine and freshwater ecoregions reaching 30%coverage by protected area

274、s and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs).Sources:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024;Spalding et al.2007;Abell et al.,2008;Dinerstein et al.2017.0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%PelagicMarine and coastal areasProtected areasOECMsEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration an

275、d sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageWhile progress has been made in some realms,many ecoregions and biomes still lack sufficient(or any)protection.More focus is needed on increasing the represen

276、tativeness of different biogeographic regions,especially in the open ocean.In addition to assessing representation of biogeographic regions,it is also important to consider the representation of species diversity.Representing this species diversity within systems of protected and conserved areas is

277、central to several targets of the KMGBF.The Species Protection Index(SPI)is the only component indicator for Target 3 to directly and quantitatively measure how well species are represented within networks of protected and conserved areas(Map of Life-Indicators;Jetz et al.2022;Powers and Jetz 2019).

278、It can be used to assess both coverage of areas of importance for biodiversity(see Chapter 4)and ecological representativeness.For tens of thousands of species worldwide,the indicator measures the portion of protected or conserved habitat that is suitable in comparison to the total area needed for t

279、hat species to survive(providing a Species Protection Score,SPS,for each species).The aggregate average of these scores for a region is the SPI.This indicates how well systems of protected and conserved areas capture the total area of suitable habitat required for all assessed species found in a cou

280、ntry,region or worldwide.On land,only half(SPI=50.13%)of the habitat-suitable ranges necessary to sufficiently safeguard assessed species are covered by protected and conserved areas(for 33,131 assessed terrestrial species).In the marine realm,a higher percentage(SPI=61.65%)of the required ranges of

281、 assessed marine species are within protected or conserved areas(for 12,904 assessed species).Most of this protection is provided 0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%FreshwaterMarine and coastal areasTerrestrial and inland waters Protected areasOECMs29Figure 14.Species Protection Index(SPI)at the national leve

282、l.The index is shown as a percentage of the habitat-suitable ranges necessary to safeguard assessed species that is within protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs).SPI is shown for the terrestrial and inland waters realm and for the marine realm.Source:UNEP-WCMC an

283、d IUCN 2024.Calculated by Map of Life(mol.org)in association with the GEO Biodiversity Observation Network and the Half-Earth Project.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasI

284、ntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageby protected areas rather than reported OECMs(the figures are 49.45%and 60.72%without OECMs for the terrestrial and marine realms,respectively).In marine areas beyond national jurisdiction(ABNJ),around one quarter(26.90%)of the total area of habitat-suit

285、able species ranges is covered by protected areas(OECMs do not add to this coverage).However,the habitat-suitable ranges of only 3,302 species occurring within ABNJ were assessed.Since the coverage of protected and conserved areas in ABNJ is,in general,very low,these results should be interpreted wi

286、th caution.National-level results are shown in Figure 14.Phang Nga,Thailand#619698628 By Jitti|Adobe Stock30Box 5.1.The IUCN Red List of EcosystemsMarcos Valderrbano and Red List of Ecosystems Thematic Group in Commission on Ecosystem Management of IUCNIUCNs Red List of Ecosystems(RLE)has been adopt

287、ed as a component indicator of Target 3.While the RLE does not have global coverage,countries with RLE can assess whether protected and conserved areas are providing sufficient coverage to at-risk ecosystems.The RLE is an innovative tool for assessing the risk of ecosystem collapse,and the resulting

288、 loss of biodiversity.It promotes sustainable environmental management by identifying ecosystem types most at risk and the management pathways that will most effectively reduce those risks.The tool can be applied to any ecosystem across marine,terrestrial and inland water realms.It has been applied

289、to more than 500 ecosystems across more than 100 countries.Mangroves became the first ecosystem to be globally assessed in 2024(IUCN 2024b).Red List of Ecosystems assessments are based on the application of five standard criteria,and results are expressed in categories indicating the risk of collaps

290、e(Figure 15).The criteria assess:a)changes in ecosystem distribution;b)the restricted distribution of ecosystems;c)the degradation of the abiotic environment;d)the disruption of biotic processes;and e)the probability of ecosystem collapse estimated using a quantitative model.In the context of protec

291、ted and conserved areas,the RLE is most frequently used to:Define spatial priorities for protection based on ecosystem risk and ecosystem integrity(see mapping biodiversity priorities)Support restoration plans,actions and monitoring Design conservation actions and strategies based on ecological proc

292、esses critical to ecosystem sustainability or managing the threats that may ultimately cause ecosystem collapse Ensure impact mitigation and compensatory measures including application of the mitigation hierarchy.For more information,see the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems website(https:/iucnrle.org/).E

293、quitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageFigure 15.IUCN Red List of Ecosystems criteria and risk of ecosystem collapse categories.

294、31Box 5.2.PARC-Representativeness Simon Ferrier,CSIROThe Protected Area Representativeness and Connectedness(PARC)-representativeness index developed by CSIRO(Australias National Science Agency)measures the degree to which a system of terrestrial protected and conserved areas is ecologically represe

295、ntative.It does this using mapping of fine-scaled spatial variation in the composition of species assemblages across the entire land surface of the planet,based on modelling that links observations for more than 400,000 species of plants,invertebrates and vertebrates to 1 km-resolution gridded clima

296、te,terrain,soil and vegetation attributes.This modelling allows representativeness to be assessed at a much finer and more meaningful ecological resolution than approaches reporting representation only in terms of coverage of relatively broad ecosystem types or biomes.The PARC-representativeness val

297、ue for any specified spatial unit(e.g.,a country,a region or the entire planet)is calculated as a geometric mean of the percentage protected of all ecologically distinct environments within that unit.If protection is evenly spread across these environments,then the percentage score obtained for PARC

298、-representativeness will be close to the units overall percentage of protection.However,if protection is biased towards particular environments,leaving other environments and associated species assemblages poorly represented,the PARC-representativeness score for the unit will be lower than the overa

299、ll percentage protected.The magnitude of this discrepancy indicates the level of ecological bias inherent in the distribution of protection.The following chart presents PARC-representativeness results for 2020 and 2024,both at an aggregate global level and disaggregated by subregions,and contrasts t

300、hese with the overall percentage of protection(by both protected areas and OECMs)for these same spatial units.These results indicate that the overall coverage of existing protected areas and OECMs is not evenly spread across fine-scaled environments and their associated species assemblages.This mean

301、s that coverage is not ecologically representative at these scales.This is particularly apparent at the global level where,for 2024,the mean percentage of the area of ecologically distinct environments protected(10.00%),as reported by the PARC-representativeness index,is only just over half of the p

302、ercentage of overall land area protected(17.58%).In other words,many of the worlds ecologically distinct terrestrial environments still have less than 10%of their area covered by protected areas and OECMs.Most subregions also exhibit PARC-representativeness values markedly lower than the overall per

303、centage of these subregions protected,most notably for subregions achieving the highest levels of overall protection.Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcolog

304、ically representativeCoverageFigure 16.Mean representativeness score(PARC-representativeness)from 0%(unrepresentative)to 100%(complete and uninterrupted protection of environmental diversity)at the sub-regional level and per cent protected and conserved area coverage between 2020 and 2024.Subregion0

305、%10%20%30%32Well-connected systemsChapter 6Salar de Atacama,Chile#277521009 By Delphotostock|Adobe stock33Target 3 calls for“well-connected systems”of protected and conserved areas that are“integrated into the wider landscapes,seascapes,and the ocean”(see Chapter 10),and similar themes occur through

306、out the Global Biodiversity Framework(Box 6.1).Ecological connectivity can be defined as“the unimpeded movement of species,connection of habitats without hinderance and the flow of natural processes that sustain life on Earth”(CMS 2024).Retaining ecological connectivity is essential to maintaining r

307、esilient ecological networks that mitigate drivers of biodiversity loss(Hilty et al.2019).Individual protected and conserved areas can preserve locations that are important for biodiversity(Chapters 4-5;Watson et al.2014;Hockings et al.2019).When linked together in well-connected systems,they can fa

308、cilitate species movement and migration,while also maintaining overall ecosystem functions.This is increasingly important in the face of climate change.Measuring and monitoring connectivity is,however,complex because the ecological processes that underpin it vary enormously across spatial and tempor

309、al scales and between environments(Beger et al.2022).There are two broad approaches to measuring connectivity:structural and functional.Structural connectivity8 reflects the spatial arrangement of habitats and other physical features,while functional connectivity9 goes further by looking at the ease

310、 with which organisms can move through land-or seascapes(Tischendorf and Fahrig 2000;Auffret,Plue and Cousins 2015).A well-connected system of protected and conserved areas will be both functionally and structurally connected.However,functional connectivity is substantially harder to measure,particu

311、larly over large spatial scales(Keeley,Beier and Jenness 2021).There are several metrics available to measure elements of functional and structural connectivity in the terrestrial realm.This includes four indicators that have been adopted within the monitoring framework for Target 3.There are two co

312、mponent indicators,Protected Connected(ProtConn;Saura et al.2018)and Protected Area Representativeness and Connectedness(PARC)-connectedness(BIP 2024a),and two complementary indicators,Protected Area Isolation Index(PAI;Brennan et al.2022)and Protected Areas Network metric(ProNet;Theobald et al.2022

313、).All four indicators focus on the linkages between terrestrial protected and conserved areas.While ProtConn,PARC-connectedness and ProNet focus on physical habitat links,the PAI also incorporates aspects of functional connectivity.It is important to note that measures of connectivity are not curren

314、tly available for inland waters or the marine realm.Well-connected systems8 Structural connectivity for species:A measure of habitat permeability based on the physical features and arrangements of patches,disturbances and other land,freshwater or seascape elements presumed to be important for organi

315、sms to move through their environment.Structural connectivity is used in efforts to restore or estimate functional connectivity where measures of it are lacking(Hilty et al.,2019).9 Functional connectivity for species:A description of how well genes,gametes,propagules or individuals move through lan

316、d,freshwater and seascape(Rudnick et al.,2012;Weeks,2017).Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverageMonarch butterflies in the Mon

317、arch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Michoacn,Mexico#111664605 By Noradoa|Adobe Stock34ProtConn estimates the degree to which protected and conserved areas are linked,providing a straightforward indicator of structural connectivity that can be used at local to global scales.It reflects the percentage of

318、 the landscape that is both protected and structurally connected,increasing as more land becomes reachable through connections among protected and conserved areas(Saura et al.2018;BIP 2024b).ProtConn indicates that 8.52%of the worlds terrestrial surface is protected and connected.This is an improvem

319、ent on the figure of 7.84%reported in the previous Protected Planet Report(UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2021),but still indicates that a further 21.48%is needed to reach Target 3 by 2030.OECMs add to the global ProtConn score,with the proportion of the worlds terrestrial surface protected and connected reduci

320、ng to 7.54%when OECMs are not considered.National ProtConn scores are displayed in Figure 17.Figure 17.The per cent of land that is protected and connected(ProtConn)through protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)at the national level.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024

321、.Calculated by the European Commission,Joint Research Centre.PARC-connectednessPAIProtConnProNetEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representative

322、Coverage35PARC-connectedness assesses the extent to which protected and conserved areas are connected,not only to one another but also to unprotected areas of intact natural vegetation.When PARC-connectedness values are high,this suggests greater levels of integration into the wider landscape.PARC-c

323、onnectedness also incorporates remotely-sensed data on land cover change that makes it possible to track the loss of connectivity that occurs when unprotected intact vegetation is lost(BIP 2024a).This indicator provides a connectivity score from zero(unconnected)to 1(continuous and uninterrupted con

324、nectivity).The global PARC-connectedness score is 0.71(0.69 with protected areas only,rising by 0.01 with OECMs).This indicates that,on average,each grid cell(1 km2)on land within a protected or conserved area is 71%connected to grid cells containing intact natural vegetation and/or other protected

325、or conserved grid cells.Therefore,locations within protected and conserved areas are somewhat well-connected to intact areas within broader ecological networks or to other locations within protected and conserved areas themselves.However,connectivity gaps remain that need to be addressed(see Figure

326、18 for national scores).Importantly,the areas of intact natural vegetation that contribute to this score are not necessarily protected themselves.Ensuring the sustainable management of these areas is necessary to ensure they continue to facilitate connectivity within systems of protected and conserv

327、ed areas into the future.Since 2020,the average global PARC-connectedness score has increased marginally by 0.20 percentage points.Figure 18.Connectivity score(PARC-connectedness)from zero(unconnected)to 1(continuous and uninterrupted connectivity)at the national level.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024

328、.Calculated by CSIRO.PARC-connectednessPAIProtConnProNetEquitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedIndigenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage36PARC-connectednessPAIProtConnP

329、roNetFigure 19.ProNet values from 0(unconnected)to 1(100%connected)at national level.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024.Calculated with support from Conservation Planning Technologies.The ProNet metric measures the structural connectivity of a protected and conserved area system.It is not sensitive to t

330、he surrounding environment,but instead is solely based on whether an individual protected or conserved area is located within 10 km of another area.ProNet provides values from 0(unconnected)to 1(fully connected;Theobald et al.2022).The global connectivity score for protected and conserved areas base

331、d on ProNet is 0.29.This indicates that 28.90%of protected and conserved area extent is connected but that most(71.10%)are not.When only connectivity between protected areas was considered,the global ProNet value decreased slightly to 0.26(or 25.6%connected),meaning OECMs account for 3.30%of global

332、connectivity.At the national level,11 countries and territories with terrestrial protected and conserved area coverage greater than 30%were also highly connected(ProNet 0.99;Figure 19).Equitably governedProtected and conserved areasEffectiveIntegration and sustainable useConclusion Well-connectedInd

333、igenous and traditional territoriesImportant areasIntroductionEcologically representativeCoverage37PARC-connectednessPAIProtConnProNetFigure 20.Median Protected Area Isolation(PAI)scores at the national level.Low PAI scores represent less isolated,and therefore more connected,protected and conserved areas.High scores represent high isolation and low connectivity.Source:UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024.The