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1、 Understanding the Global Supply of Emerald,Ruby and Sapphire Market Research LAURIAN E PINSAULT,GEOGEMS,F EB RUARY 2025 UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|2 Table of Contents I.Scope of this paper.4 II.Collaborative work and acknowledgements.5 I

2、II.Challenges.6 Note on trade flows and UN Comtrade data.7 IV.Global supply of rubies.11 1.Introduction.11 2.Kenya.12 3.Madagascar.14 4.Mozambique.17 5.Myanmar.21 6.Tanzania.26 7.Thailand.29 8.Other countries.34 9.Compiled data.40 V.Global supply of emeralds.43 1.Introduction.43 2.Brazil.44 3.Colomb

3、ia.47 4.Russia.53 5.Zambia.56 6.Zimbabwe.59 7.Other countries.63 8.Compiled data.67 VI.Global supply of sapphires.70 1.Introduction.70 2.Australia.71 3.Kenya.74 4.Madagascar.76 5.Myanmar.79 6.Sri Lanka.82 7.Thailand.89 9.USA.91 10.Other African Countries.92 11.Other Asian Regions.95 UNDERSTANDING TH

4、E GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|3 12.Compiled Data.99 VII.References.101 1.Literature.101 2.Websites.108 VIII.NOTES TO EDITORS.112 UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|4 I.Scope of this paper This paper foll

5、ows on from the report Global Emerald&Ruby Supply:Analysing Market Data,written for and published by Gemfields in March 2022.The first report used different sources of data(notably UN Comtrade and USGS)and compared these with miners direct information(notably from Gemfields,Grizzly and Fedesmeraldas

6、).This research indicated that online data related to coloured gemstone supply is unreliable,often missing,and values are underdeclared.This new research has three objectives:1.Restructure and update data from the previous report 2.Add market analysis of sapphire 3.Find new sources of information,wo

7、rking in collaboration with other miners,associations,cooperatives and consultants,to provide stronger statistics on the supply.It should be noted that this report does not aim to provide an exhaustive list of all the emerald,ruby and sapphire deposits in the world,but rather focuses on the countrie

8、s that have been and/or are still important sources for these gemstones.In the same way,the report does not aim to provide details of the mining operations(such information can already be found in the literature),but rather provides the names of the main deposits,their discovery,period of activity a

9、nd a description of their production wherever possible.The main objective is to provide an overview of coloured gemstone supply,its evolution across the past 40 years,and its current status,in the most accurate way possible.The paper is written in a way that allows the reader to go directly to secti

10、ons that may be of interest(per country and/or gemstone),therefore some information may be duplicated.Production data is presented in volume terms(kilograms),and the trade flows are presented in value terms(US dollars).The main sources of information are:-The United States Geological Survey(USGS),th

11、e largest agency collecting data on mineral production from all countries in the world,since the 1970s.The information collected is from the mineral yearbooks of the different countries analysed.-Miners,mining associations and consultants who have participated in the report as collaborators.Some hav

12、e decided to remain anonymous,while others are mentioned.The collaborators have shared information in the form of data,data ranges and expert opinions.-When available,minerals statistics from the countrys governmental entities,which are usually under the Ministries of Mines.-The Extractive Industry

13、Transparency Initiative(EITI)reports,for the countries that participate in the programme.-Bibliographic research,notably from industry specialised publications like the magazines Gems&Gemology,Journal of Gemmology and InColor.The collaborative approach to this research allowed production and trade d

14、ata to be sourced directly from reporters,whether miners,associates,mining cooperatives or consultants.Data sourced directly from actors in the industry ensured greater reliability and challenged the other existing data sources in order to support or disprove reported figures.Of course,the limitatio

15、n of this principle of collaboration is that it can only work if actors are willing to share their information.Therefore,the information provided in this report will be compiled from data provided by actors,as well as freely available data from USGS and UN Comtrade.In order to preserve the confident

16、iality of each collaborators information,the report presents total production and trade flow statistics per country,not per operation or deposit.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|5 Another new objective compared to the previous report is to incl

17、ude information about the Artisanal and Small-scale Mining(ASM)sector.This is especially challenging as artisanal and small-scale mining is often informal,without any formal record of production or sales.Some ASM producers have figures,but do not want to share information to avoid governments access

18、ing their data.Some ASM data are officially reported to the government,but most usually remains undeclared.Collaborating with associations,consultants and miners of all scales has enabled this research to provide a better estimate of the share of global supply attributable to ASM.Therefore,the repor

19、t attempts to give an estimate of the undeclared portion of production.II.Collaborative work and acknowledgements As mentioned above,this report aimed to collect information from various types of collaborators.Approximately 100 people and companies have been contacted for this report.We wish to than

20、k all of those who have agreed to participate.Some collaborators have decided to remain anonymous,and their names will not be disclosed here.Others have agreed to be quoted,namely:-Gemfields Group Limited-Alpha Ntayomba of the Population Development Initiative(PDI)of Tanzania-Gabriel Angarita&FEDESM

21、ERALDAS-Harimala Tsiverisoa Herizo,consultant,Madagascar ASM specialist.Although many have been contacted,there has been a notable resistance to collaborate and share information.There are multiple reasons for this,notably:-Data confidentiality:it should be stressed that this research was done by an

22、 independent consultancy company,and all discussions and data sharing were carried out under NDAs.Data is presented at a country level only,so no personal or company details are presented,and no reader can trace the information back to its source.Nevertheless,this procedure was not sufficient to rea

23、ssure some of the people contacted.-Fear of providing information to governments:although governments are already aware of smuggling and under-declaration in their countries,contacted parties were often concerned about the impact the report could have on their governments.-Fear of devaluing the prod

24、uct by talking about quantity:because the volume of coloured gemstones produced is never clearly disclosed,this contributes to the rarity and desirability of the gemstones.However,for other precious commodities,like diamonds and gold,volumes are very-well known,and this knowledge does not impact the

25、ir value.In fact,the findings of this report actually reinforce the rarity of fine-quality gemstones.-As coloured gemstone data is highly unreliable,many did not see any value in attempting to compile it,leading to a classic vicious circle.The lack of data and scarcity of information about productio

26、n are factors that make it more difficult to increase the scale of the industry.This has a direct impact on development and investment in the sector,and therefore on the strength of the supply chain.Companies who want to promote both minerals and responsible practices,but who do not wish to share th

27、eir data,even under conditions of confidentiality,are failing in their pledges of transparency,engagement and more sustainable practices.The aim of such a collaborative work is to promote coloured gemstones globally and allow individuals,companies and organisation to have access to reliable informat

28、ion.This is summed up in a quote from a UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|6 high-quality report by the consultancy Levin Sources:An industry that is organised,harmonious and speaks with one voice is better able to influence government and commun

29、icate its development needs0F1 III.Challenges Before drawing conclusions from the data presented herein,readers are alerted to the significant challenges involved in obtaining data and information about coloured gemstone supply and the downstream market.The major challenge when trying to assess glob

30、al coloured gemstone production is the lack of available data.The previous report highlighted that available online data usually reflects exports,rather than production,and is mostly reported in value terms rather than volume.Furthermore,export numbers could be re-exports and exports of gemstones pr

31、oduced much earlier in time.Also,these data are almost always reported for total emeralds,rubies and sapphires,rather than for each individual gemstone.A further complication arises in that export data is often published for worked gemstones(those that have been cut and polished),instead of for roug

32、h gemstones.These challenges in data availability result from various factors:-Large scale miners do not always disclose their production figures,as there is no obligation to do so,and this is considered to be sensitive information.-Artisanal and small-scale miners are normally informal and do not h

33、ave reporting standards in place.-Gemstone mining occurs in many less-economically-developed countries,which do not have strong reporting standards in place.-In more-economically-developed countries,like Australia,the reporting of gemstone production is not that important to authorities,as the gemst

34、one industry is fairly insignificant compared to the rest of the mining sector.Readers should also be aware that,within the gemstone sector,quality is key.Any quantities reported cannot directly indicate market share or size,without specifying the quality of the gemstones in question.Similarly,value

35、s will not reflect volumes,either for production or trade flows,because two gem parcels of the same weight can be worth wildly differing amounts depending upon the quality of the gemstones contained within each parcel.Production information is typically declared either in terms of quantity or of val

36、ue,but very rarely with both sets of data together.This is a major obstacle when trying to see the full supply-side picture,because providing quantity with value gives a clearer picture of gemstone quality and pricing.Unlike with many commodities,gemstone pricing is enormously sensitive to subtle ch

37、anges in colour and quality.For example,it is difficult to talk about the ruby market as a whole,as the market covers quality and price ranges ranging from red corundum to fine exceptional rubies reserved for high jewellery,and the price per carat can vary by a factor of 30 million!This feature of c

38、oloured gemstones also has profound implications for deposit-hosting nations:allowing the price to be set at the point of export from the host country inevitably leads to acute under-pricing,as the value is so subjective.This,in turn,highlights the fact that official export data is likely to serious

39、ly understate the true value of the gemstones.Another important challenge when trying to assess supply-side developments is the lack of consistent reporting following the history of a discovery,deposit or mine.Usually,when a discovery is made,and a mine or a rush happens,there will be several report

40、s on the subject issued within the next three years.Then,no follow-up reports are issued,sometimes leaving gaps of decades with no information on the status of 1 Kyngdon-McKay,Y.,Jorns,A.,Wheat,B.,Cushman,T.,&Nemomissa,S.(2016).An Analysis of the Commercial Potential of Ethiopias Coloured Gemstone I

41、ndustry.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|7 production.While researching information for this report,the author clearly noticed that older reports those issued before the 1990s almost always presented sections on mining and production,giving som

42、e estimated figures of recovery.At the time,these data often came from interviews or field work.Conversely,in more recent years,production estimates have disappeared from gemmological reports,and it is notable that talking about production,or traded volumes,is perceived as intrusive and sensitive no

43、wadays.This contrast in information disclosure between periods is particularly striking,as most of the current suppliers,whether miners or traders,are now seeking higher transparency and responsibility in the trade.Considering the above challenges,it should be kept in mind that the data collected an

44、d used in this report are,unfortunately,often inconsistent and far from robust.Yet,these are the only data sources readily available for analysis and interpretation,and they allow a useful,if somewhat fuzzy,picture to be formed.Note on trade flows and UN Comtrade data UN Comtrade data is widely used

45、 in this report to reflect all of the trade flows,exports and imports for each country of interest.It is important to properly understand what these numbers are and how they are captured.UN Comtrade is the shorter name for United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database.It is the largest database

46、 for trade flows,exports and imports,covering a period from 1962 to date1F2.Information is provided by more than 170 countries.The reliability and quality of the data depends on the reporting country.All information is reported per country and per commodity type,and the traded values are all in US d

47、ollars.Commodities are classified as per the Harmonised System(HS).The HS is a standardised numerical system,which classifies products traded between countries.During an export,the seller must choose the appropriate code to describe the product being exported.Customs authorities around the world use

48、 this code to charges duties and taxes.The HS code information can be used to calculate industry statistics on trade flows.For the purpose of this study,two HS codes will be looked at:-710310-Stones;precious(other than diamonds)and semi-precious stones,unworked or simply sawn or roughly shaped,not s

49、trung,mounted or set Can be interpreted as rough gemstones -710391-Stones;rubies,sapphires and emeralds,worked(other than simply sawn or roughly shaped),not strung,mounted or set Can be interpreted as pre-formed,cut and polished rubies,sapphires and emeralds These codes are not specific to any one v

50、ariety of gemstone;however,knowing which gemstones are produced in a given country,they can still be helpful in estimating the flows of specific gemstones.Also,the definitions are not very clear,and it should be noted that there are some inconsistencies between reporters in the choice of which HS co

51、de to use for the same product.For example,some countries do not have significant processing factories and are known to export mostly rough gemstones,but nevertheless the majority of exports from these countries may be reported under HS code 710391,which should be used for worked gemstones instead o

52、f rough.The HS code is a six-digit code,but countries can use extra levels by adding digits,to be more specific about which products they are importing and exporting.In the gemstone industry,Thailand has implemented two 2 https:/unstats.un.org/wiki/UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND

53、 SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|8 extra digits on the HS codes 710391 and 710310,to give information regarding the gemstone variety,allowing more precision and analysis.In-depth analysis of Thai trade flows is presented in chapter 7.When capturing and reporting trade data,the United Nations St

54、atistics Division recommends using the country of origin for an import,and the last known destination for an export.Ideally,imports and exports mirror each other,meaning that if country A is importing something from country B,the same export movement should be reported by country B.In reality,this i

55、s not always the case due to2F3:-The difference in trade values between imports and exports:imports are reported CIF(including insurance and freight costs),whereas exports are reported FOB(free on board).This means that imports are usually higher in value than exports.-Imports are often more accurat

56、ely recorded as this information is used to generate revenues from taxes and customs fees.-Different HS codes can be used by importers and exporters.As an example of this,for the HS 710391,Mozambique reported a total export to Thailand of$97.8M for the ten-year period from 2012 to 2021.Conversely,Th

57、ailand only reported a total import from Mozambique of$30.2M.This is a significant difference,which can also be explained by the fact that Thailand uses a Special Trade System,while most other countries are using the General Trade System.With the Special Trade System,when a country is importing from

58、 a freezone,the country of origin before the transit via a freezone can be lost,and the importing country is then importing from itself.This is why the main importer for commodity HS 710391 to Thailand is actually Thailand itself.For each country of interest in this study,the data from UN Comtrade w

59、ill be presented as the graph below,showing both HS commodity codes,for exports and imports.It is good to keep in mind that the scale of value will vary greatly per country.The overall trend for trade flows for the world,from 1995 to 2023,presented in the graph below(Figure 1),is very similar to the

60、 ones from Thailand,the USA,Hong Kong and Switzerland.Indeed,these four countries alone account for 57%of all the export and import values,explaining how these countries can greatly impact the general health of the trade(Figure 2).3 wits.worldbank.org/wits/wits/witshelp/Content/Data_Retrieval/T/Intr

61、o/B2.Imports_Exports_and_Mirror.htm UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|9 Figure 1:Global precious gemstones imports and exports values UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|10 Figure 2:Precious g

62、emstones imports and exports values:four prevailing countries.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|11 IV.Global supply of rubies 1.Introduction Ruby is the most important coloured gemstone in the trade,in terms of value.The landscape of ruby mining

63、 and trading has greatly evolved over the last 20 years with the discovery of many new deposits,the depletion of ancient ones,and the start of large-scale mining in African countries.This chapter compiles research on the volume of rubies produced yearly since 1980,for fourteen countries which have b

64、een,or still are,important source of rubies.Production numbers are difficult to find,as there is little reporting from both mining companies and governments.Exports can sometimes provide a good picture of the production dynamics;however,exports are very often only reported in value terms,with volume

65、s not being captured.Production volumes presented in this report come from various sources including:USGS(United States Geological Survey)yearly mineral industry reports;declared miners production and sales data;annual surveys of national economic statistics;and EITI(Extractive Industries Transparen

66、cy Initiative)reports.Due to delays in the publication of these reports,production volumes are only presented up to 2020.After looking at each individual country,the final section compiles production data from the fourteen countries to attempt a visualisation of global supply dynamics.A quality fact

67、or has been applied,to allow a clearer view of the supply of facet-quality rubies.Overall,the report highlights the positive impact of new discoveries on supply.Prior to the 1990s,production figures are highly unreliable,but it can be safely assumed that global production volume has increased over t

68、he past 40 years,especially for fine-quality rubies with the rise of Mozambique.Thanks to these new discoveries and mines,supply has been fairly consistent,with production from long-term deposits(like the ones in Myanmar,Mozambique and Tanzania),coupled with deposits being exploited more sporadicall

69、y(like the ones in Malawi,Madagascar and in Central Asia).For each country,export and import figures,mostly from the UN Comtrade database,have also been presented.It is worth noting that some countries,such as Thailand,provide more detailed information on this market segment,which permits their trad

70、e to be analysed in greater detail.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|12 2.Kenya a)Ruby Production Ruby production in Kenya comes mainly from one deposit,discovered in 1973 in the Taita-Taveta district,in the area of Mangare.The deposit was first

71、 named for one of its discoverers:the John Saul mine.However,geologists lost control of the site;mining was sporadic and completely ceased in 1989.Operations started again in 1995,after the acquisition of the rights and permits by Rockland Kenya3F4.Production from the John Saul mine has been reporte

72、d to be between 100kg and 500kg per month33,4F5.A more recent deposit was found in the Baringo district.Michelou reported in 2006 that operations there were about to start5F6.However,no production data for this deposit were found.In Kenya,only a small proportion of the production from the John Saul

73、mine yields facet-quality rubies6F7.In 1999,John Emmett reported that top-quality material represented between 5%and 10%of production33.Gemdat notes that only 1%of the production is facetable7F8,and during its mine visit in 2008,Laurs did not witness any facet-quality gemstones34.The history of prod

74、uction presented in the graph(Figure 4)has been drawn by collecting data from various sources,including bibliography,USGS,the economic survey of the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics8F9 and the Mining Annual Review9F10.Several reports estimate that about 60%of gemstone production comes from artisa

75、nal and small-scale mining10F11,11F12.However,rubies are found in one main deposit,which is exploited by a mechanised operation,therefore the estimated undeclared ruby production has been reduced to 20%.b)Ruby Trade Flows Kenya produces a variety of gemstones,which makes interpretation of the UN Com

76、trade data more difficult.Moreover,Kenya does not take part in the Extractive Industry Transparent Initiative(EITI),often a good source for official production and export data.However,it is clear that Kenya exports mainly unworked gemstones,rather than cut and polished ones(Figure 3).This means that

77、 the country does not benefit from the full value of its resources,as is the case in most gemstone-producing countries in Africa.4 Emmett,J.L.,Prairie,B.,(1999).An update on the John Saul ruby mine.Gem News.Gems&Gemology.Winter 1999 5 Laurs,B.M.(2008)An update on the John Saul ruby mine,Kenya.Gem Ne

78、ws International.Gems&Gemology.Fall 2008 6 Michelou J.C.,Ed.(2006)ICA 2006 World Gemstone Mining Report.InColor,Spring.7 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distribution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259.8 https:/www.gemdat.org/loc-26484.html 9 https:/

79、www.knbs.or.ke/publications/10 Opiyo-Akech,N.(2000).Mining in Kenya:Mining annual review 2000.11 Barreto,M.L.,Schein,P.,Hinton,J.,&Hruschka,F.(2018).Economic contributions of artisanal and small-scale mining in Kenya:Gold and gemstones.Pact&ARM.12 https:/sustainable- THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUB

80、Y AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|13 Kenyas government has started to create value-addition centres,notably in Voi in Taita-Taveta district,in order to cut and polish gemstones before they are exported12F13.13 Anyona,S.,&Rop,B.K.(2022,March).The Proposed Gemstone Centre and its Likely Impac

81、ts on Small Scale Mining Industry in Taita Taveta County.In Proceedings of the Sustainable Research and Innovation Conference(pp.98-108).Figure 4:Ruby production from Kenya,in kg Figure 3:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Kenya UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAP

82、PHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|14 3.Madagascar a)Ruby production Madagascar is a land of gemstones,where almost every coloured gemstone can be found.Mining activities here have been ongoing since 1900.However,the history of gem-corundum mining is much more recent,with the main sapphire discoverie

83、s occurring only at the end of the last century.Rubies have been known to be present since the 1950s(at the Gogogogo deposit),but their production only started to have a significant market impact in the early 2000s13F14,with the discovery of the Vatomandry and Andilamena deposits14F15.It is worth me

84、ntioning that the mining conditions in Madagascar are linked to serious environmental and social challenges.Indeed,gemstone discoveries have led to massive rushes and boomtowns.This recurring dynamic has encouraged large numbers of independent miners and their families sometimes tens of thousands of

85、 people to move across the country,which has been conducive to the development of criminal networks and an increase in violence and corruption.It has also negatively impacted public health,notably due to water pollution and prostitution15F16.Moreover,the deposits are often located within natural res

86、erves,bringing some harmful environmental impacts,especially given that Madagascar has a very unique and endemic flora and fauna16F17.The mines location in the jungle can be difficult to access and to control.This dynamic of rushes has also meant that mining usually comes and goes relatively quickly

87、,with the government trying to control and regulate the activity.The vast majority of production is smuggled out of the country,which makes it difficult to estimate.Madagascar has enormous potential in terms of its sapphire resources,and it is now thought to be supplying up to 60%of the worlds sapph

88、ires17F18.Ilakaka would have produced up to 40%of the market supply during the peak of production in the early 2000s18F19.However,these numbers are impossible to prove,and the lack of governance,with bans on rough exports occurring,means that Madagascar can,unfortunately,still not be considered as a

89、 reliable and consistent source of supply.The first significant ruby mine was Vatomandry,discovered in September 2000,which led to a rush of artisanal miners.The mining area was shortly closed by the government,and by 2005 the mining activity was nearly non-existent42.This discovery was important be

90、cause the quality of the rubies recovered was very 14 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distribution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259 15 Schwarz,D.,Schmetzer,K.(2001).Rubies from the Vatomandry area,eastern Madagascar.The Journal of Gemmology,Volume

91、 27 No.7 16 Duffy,R.(2007).Gemstone mining in Madagascar:transnational networks,criminalisation and global integration.The Journal of Modern African Studies,45(2),185-206.17 Ralimanana,H.,Perrigo,A.L.,Smith,R.J.,Borrell,J.S.,Faurby,S.,Rajaonah,M.T.,.&Antonelli,A.(2022).Madagascars extraordinary biod

92、iversity:Threats and opportunities.Science,378(6623),eadf1466.18 Experts interview,Harimalala Tsiverisoa Herizo,ASM country specialist for gemstones.7 October 2022.19 Kyngdon-McKay,Y.,Jorns,A.,Wheat,B.,Cushman,T.,&Nemomissa,S.(2016).An Analysis of the Commercial Potential of Ethiopias Coloured Gemst

93、one Industry.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|15 fine,with about 30%of the gemstones not requiring any heat treatment.Leuenberger estimated in 2001 that more than 70kg of gemstones had been produced in less than a year of mining activity19F20.A

94、t almost the same time,a second promising deposit was discovered near Andilamena,in a remote location within the rainforest.Quantities were much higher than those at Vatomandry.Leuenberger estimated that two tonnes could have been produced in less than a year48,but the quality was much lower.In 2004

95、,a new rush in the region occurred,at the Moramanga mine,and large quantities of rubies started to arrive on the market.The rubies were also of poor quality,but suitable for the lead-glass filled treatment.The treated rubies are not very durable,because the lead glass is brittle,unstable at high tem

96、peratures and sensitive to chemicals20F21.Other deposits were mined in the region,but the next major rush was in 2012,with the discovery of the Didy deposit,found in the jungle21F22.The mine produced rubies and blue sapphires.Finally,a rush occurred in 2015 in the Zahamena National Park.As mentioned

97、,a significant portion of the rubies are exported illegally to Thailand and Sri Lanka.The below production profile(Figure 5)is compiled from USGS data and bibliography,taking into account the history of the discoveries,rushes and closures of mines.Considering the substantial illegal trade,the estima

98、ted undeclared production is based on a ratio of 70%of gemstones being smuggled,which is a relatively low threshold.b)Ruby Trade Flows Madagascar is also an important producer of gemstones other than rubies and sapphires,like amethysts,tourmalines and garnets.The vast majority of its gemstone export

99、s fall under the category of precious stone unworked,and therefore no direct correlation with rubies and sapphires can be made.Overall,the total value exported for unworked gemstones has increased over the years and is at a yearly average of$15.6M since 2011,with the exception of a massive increase

100、reported in 2022.In 2001,the total exports of all gemstones other than diamonds,unworked and worked,was$9.4M22F23.However,the annual production was 20 Leuenberger,A.(2001).The new ruby deposits in eastern Madagascar:Mining and production.Gems&Gemology,37,147-149.21 Pardieu,V.,Lomthong,P.,&Sturman,N.

101、(2010).Lead glass-filled star rubies reportedly from Madagascar.22 Pardieu,V.,&Rakotosaona,N.(2012).Ruby and sapphire rush near Didy,Madagascar(April-June 2012).GIA Research News.23 UN Comtrade Figure 5:Ruby production from Madagascar,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIR

102、E 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|16 estimated to be$400M,meaning that only 2%of the production value was declared23F24.The drop in exports in 2008 and 2009(Figure 6)is related the ban on rough exports that was declared by the government in February 2008 and lifted in July 2009.This ban was declared by

103、the president at the time in response to the export of a 536kg emerald named Heavens Gift Emerald,which he claimed was illegal24F25.24 Van der Wal,S.,&Haan,E.D.(2010).Rough Cut:Sustainability Issues in the Coloured Gemstone Industry.Available at SSRN 1557705.25 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2010).An Era of Swe

104、eping Change in Diamond and Colored Stone Production and Markets.Gems&Gemology,46(3).Figure 6:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Madagascar UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|17 4.Mozambique a)Ruby Production Rubies have been pres

105、ent in Cabo Delgado province since 199125F26,when ruby mining was reported in Ruambeze,with an increase in production recorded in 200526F27.However,the history of ruby mining in Mozambique really started and grew with the discovery of the Msawize deposit,in the Niassa province,in 2008,but due to its

106、 remote location,in a natural reserve,and the authorities clamping down on illegal mining,it was rapidly abandoned.This is correlated with the discovery of a new deposit in 2009 near Montepuez.It is reported that by 2010,rubies from the Montepuez area were already traded in Bangkok6.Yet,no official

107、production data was reported before 2012,which corresponds to the first year of production from Montepuez Ruby Mining.This is easily explained,as most rubies at the time of discovery were mined by unlicensed miners who could not legally export the gemstones.Foreign buyers in Montepuez bought the gem

108、stones from citizen-mining(also locally called garimpeiros),and smuggled them out of the country,most likely to Thailand and Sri Lanka.This illegal practice is still common,as it is in other gemstone-producing countries where artisanal and small-scale mining takes place.All of the rubies from Ruambe

109、ze and Msawize were extracted by artisanal mining.No reported quantities can be found,as the entire production was illegally removed from the country.It is believed that most of these gemstones left through Tanzania7.Nowadays,rubies from Mozambique come from three main sources:Montepuez Ruby Mining(

110、MRM),operated by Gemfields27F28;the ruby licences owned by Fura Gems28F29;and artisanal mining.In the past three years,a new actor,GemRock,has also started exploration and sampling with the aim of operating their licence in an industrial way within the coming years.The production profile presented(F

111、igure 7)is a compilation of data from different sources,including bibliography,USGS and miners.The estimated undeclared production,from illegal mining activities,is based on experts opinions and the history of the rushes,notably the number of miners reported in Msawize and Montepuez.The production d

112、ecrease observed after 2017 can be related to a shift in the areas of production of one of the main suppliers,MRM.MRM produces rubies from two types of deposit within their concession:one primary deposit,referred to as Maninge Nice,and one secondary deposit,referred to as Mashamba,or Mugloto.Maninge

113、 Nice was the first area exploited and produces large quantities of low-quality rubies.Conversely,Mugloto has a lower incidence of rubies in ct/t,but the average quality of the rubies there is much higher,which makes it a more profitable area to mine.It is worth noting that at MRM,and the other mine

114、s in the area,sapphires(mostly pink)actually account for 40%to 60%of production.This sapphire element has been removed from the production profile above.26 Vertriest,W.,&Saeseaw,S.(2019).A decade of ruby from Mozambique:a review.Gems&Gemology,55(2).27 Pardieu,V.,Jacquat,S.,Bryl,L.P.,&Senoble,J.B.(20

115、09).Rubies from northern Mozambique.InColor,12,32-36.28 https:/ https:/ UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|18 b)Ruby Trade Flows As Mozambique is not a producer of emeralds or blue sapphires,the UN Comtrade data(HS 710391)can be considered to ref

116、lect the exports of rubies and pink sapphires from northern Mozambique only(Figure 9).Imports of gemstones into Mozambique is almost non-existent,and therefore negligible.Mozambique does not have a strong beneficiation industry within the country,meaning that the vast majority of the gemstones produ

117、ced in Mozambique would be exported as rough gemstones.However,when looking at the exports of precious gemstones from Mozambique,99%of the value comes from the exports of worked rubies,emeralds and sapphires(HS 710391),whereas total rough precious gemstones represent only 1%of export values.Also,whe

118、n looking at the evolution of the export values,it is clear that the exports started in 2014,which corresponds to the first auction sales of rubies by Montepuez Ruby Mining.The drop in exports value in 2020 can be explained by the Covid-19 crisis.Figure 7:Ruby production from Mozambique,in kg Figure

119、 8:Importing countries of rubies from Mozambique UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|19 Mozambique does not export gemstones to many countries.In fact,just four countries account for 94%of the total value of Mozambiques gemstone exports:these are

120、Hong Kong,Singapore,Thailand and India(Figure 8).Hong Kong,Thailand and India are major trading centres,where rubies are going to be cut,polished and,if necessary,treated,before being sold.Gemfields auction system explains why these countries account for almost all of the exports:MRM initially held

121、its auctions in Singapore;the increase in Thailands share of exports in 2021 and 2022 is directly related to Gemfields auctions taking place in Bangkok,rather than Singapore,in those years.When comparing total export values from UN Comtrade with total export values from Montepuez Ruby Mining,who hav

122、e collaborated with this study,the results follow the same trend and range(Figure 10).In some years,the figures reported by the miner are above the ones from UN Comtrade,which can be explained by a delay in payments and exports following the sales via auctions,especially for end-of-year auctions.Thi

123、s graph highlights the importance of MRM on the export of rubies from Mozambique,with this source representing 88%of the total export value since 2014.Figure 9:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Mozambique UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LI

124、MITED Page|20 Figure 10:UN Comtrade exports data compared to MRM exports UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|21 5.Myanmar a)Ruby Production Myanmar(Burma)is the most historical and sought-after source of fine-quality rubies.For centuries,Rubies ha

125、ve been known and exploited in the region of Mogok in Myanmar.Mogok is a land of many gemstones,but its reputation primarily comes from its production and trade of very high-quality rubies.A good indicator of the popularity of Burmese rubies is the record sales they have achieved at auction houses:a

126、s of 2009,more than 90%of the rubies with a price above 50kUS$/ct auctioned at Christies were from Mogok29F30.Production of rubies from Myanmar has come from two main areas:Mogok and Mong Hsu.As with other gemstone-producing countries,illegal and citizen mining has been significant and difficult to

127、control.It is a particularly sensitive topic in Mogok,because the citys history is intrinsically linked to the gemstones produced in the area(referred to as the Mogok Stone Tract),and people have been exploiting this land for centuries.All families in Mogok have a history with gemstones,and the enti

128、re dynamic and culture of the region revolves around this trade.In order to control illegal mining,Mogoks gemstone mines were nationalised in 1963,and in 1990 joint-venture mining leases with the Myanmar Gems Enterprise(MGE)were authorised for citizens30F31.However,MGE has ceded operation to private

129、 and military-controlled companies31F32,and as of 2016,98%of production permits were held by private companies32F33.After the nationalisation of the mines,mining operations increased and methods evolved,thus,all types of mining operations have occurred in Mogok,from small-scale mining in alluvial de

130、posits in rivers,to large,mechanised operations.Informal citizen miners,known as Kanase,are also allowed to collect gemstones from the waste of larger companies.The Mong Hsu deposit was discovered in 1992 and quickly provided large volumes of gemstones.Their quality was notably lower than the rubies

131、 from Mogok,but the development of treatments enabled these gemstones to reach the market.Mong Hsu was considered to be the worlds largest supplier of rubies in the mid-1990s,but production since 2004 has dropped considerably 86.It is believed that Myanmar has supplied up to 90%of the worlds rubies

132、in some periods33F34.Thanks to its renown,the Mogok Stone Track(named for the mining district of Mogok)has a well-documented history.However,volumes of production,both historic and current,remain a challenge to assess,because the area 30 Newman,M.(2018).Multifaceted:Governance and Conflict Risks in

133、Myanmars Ruby Industry.Natural Resource Governance Institute 31 Kane,R.E.,&Kammerling,R.C.(1992).Status of ruby and sapphire mining in the Mogok Stone Tract.Gems and Gemology,28(15),274.32 Shortell,P.,&Irwin,E.(2017).Governing the gemstone sector:Lessons from global experience.Natural Resource Gover

134、nance Institute.UK Department of International Development and Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.33 Kyaw Thu.(2019).Gem Mining and Sustainability in Myanmar.Myanmar Gems Forum 2019 at Yangon International Gems&Jewellery Fair.34 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production a

135、nd distribution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|22 is restricted and official reports are hard to come by.The Natural Resource Governance Institute(NGRI)report of 2018 estimates that

136、60%to 80%of Myanmars gemstones are undeclared15.Some think that the joint-venture system implemented in 1990 has drastically reduced smuggling;prior to this,the country had control of only about 5%of production34F35.Indeed,data prior to 1990 was more sporadic and harder to come by.The below producti

137、on profile(Figure 11)is a compilation from bibliography,USGS mineral yearbooks,statistics from Myanmar35F36,36F37 and other sources like Pala Gems37F38.Based on bibliography and experts opinion,the estimated undeclared production is considered to be:95%up to 1995;25%between 1995 and 2014;and 60%afte

138、r 2014.The decrease in production observed since 2010 can be explained by the depletion of the deposits,as well as by the increase of privately owned mines,which do not have the obligation to report production38F39.It is worth mentioning that Myanmar uses a fiscal year running from April to March,th

139、e figures used are allocated to the end of the fiscal year(for example,figures from the fiscal year 2007-08 are reported under the year 2008).Once again,Myanmar produces many other gemstones besides rubies,notably sapphires,spinels and peridots.Data from the Myanmar Statistical Information Service21

140、,from 2005 to 2016,shows the share of production per gemstones type(excluding jade).Over these 12 years,rubies represented 7%of the total volume of gemstone production(Figure 12).However,it is likely that rubies had the highest share in terms of value,although no data can support this assumption.35

141、Kammerling,R.C.,Scarratt,K.,Bosshart,G.,Jobbins,E.A.,Kane,R.E.,Gbelin,E.J.,&Levinson,A.A.(1994).Myanmar and its gemsan update.Journal of Gemmology,24(1),3-40.36 http:/mmsis.gov.mm/37 https:/myanmareiti.org/en/publication-category/meiti-reports 38 http:/ 39 Newman,M.(2018).Multifaceted:Governance and

142、 Conflict Risks in Myanmars Ruby Industry.Natural Resource Governance Institute Figure 11:Ruby production from Myanmar,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|23 b)Ruby Trade Flows One cannot discuss the gemstone trade flows from Myanmar without

143、 mentioning the related political issues.The implication of the military in the gemstone sector,and the documented human rights abuses have given a bad name to Burmese gemstones,leading to international actions.In 2003,the USA declared a ban on the import of all gemstones from Myanmar.In 2008,this s

144、anction was extended to ruby and jadeite originating from Burma,regardless of the export country.The ban was officially lifted in 2016,but sanctions were imposed again,after the military coup in 2021,on three Myanmar-based gem-producing companies.Considering that it is still difficult to assess the

145、country of origin of a gemstone(laboratories only provide opinions,rather than proof),such sanctions are hard to implement,and some will argue that it encourages smuggling,and disadvantages the population who rely on this sector for a living,rather than effectively punishing the countrys political d

146、ecisions.Another important dimension of the gemstone trade in Myanmar is the place of the Myanmar Gems Enterprise(MGE)in the sector.MGE is a state-owned company involved in many steps of the trade:it is in charge of the issuance of mining and trading licences and tax collection,as well as sales via

147、the annual Gems Emporiums.It is also worth mentioning that several military-affiliated companies are dominating ruby extraction,notably the Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings Limited(UMEHL)and Myanmar Economic Corporation(MEC).Irwin explains that the gemstone-producers can sell their gems via three

148、channels39F40:1.Formally through the Gems Emporium.2.Formally through direct sales to buyers.3.Informally through direct sales to buyers.The formal declaration involves the payment of royalties and taxes,and Irwin estimates that these channels represent 20 to 40%of sales,as opposed to the informal t

149、rade which represents 60 to 80%of the trade.40 Irwin E.(2016).In support of Myanmar EITI,Gemstone Sector review:Summary Version.Figure 12:Myanmar gemstone production per type of gemstones UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|24 Myanmar became a mem

150、ber of the EITI in 2014,however the companies selected for the report on production and sales were the ones selling through the Gems Emporiums only,which is not the main channel for gemstones sales,meaning that there is still a clear lack of transparency25.The sale of gemstones from the Emporium was

151、 about US$5.3 million per year between 2015 and 2018,at an average of 4 US$/ct.This is indeed a very low number when considering the gemstone production and high value of Burmese rubies and sapphires.If we consider that the Gems Emporium sales represent 10 to 20%of the total sales,the real value of

152、the gemstone trade would be between US$53 and 27 million per year.UN Comtrade data for exports only starts in 2010(Figure 13),and it is believed that the figures reflect more of the jade trade than the gemstone trade(Figure 14).The jade industry in Myanmar is much bigger than the gemstone trade,as M

153、yanmar supplies about 90%of the worlds jade40F41.In 2016,85%of the active mining permits were for jade.41 Lin,Y.N.,Park,E.,Wang,Y.,Quek,Y.P.,Lim,J.,Alcantara,E.,&Loc,H.H.(2021).The 2020 Hpakant Jade Mine Disaster,Myanmar:A multi-sensor investigation for slope failure.ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry

154、and Remote Sensing,177,291-305.Figure 13:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Myanmar UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|25 Figure 14:UN Comtrade exports compared to declared jade sales from the Gems Emporium UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBA

155、L SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|26 6.Tanzania a)Ruby Production Tanzania is now a major producer of rubies and sapphires.Deposits there have been recorded since the beginning of the 20th century41F42,although mining activities only really developed in the 1960s42F43

156、.In response to the increase in people and private companies involved in gemstone mining,the Tanzanian government nationalised the mines in 1971.This seriously impacted production,and several mines were closed until the mid-1980s43 as a result.Overall,the mines in Tanzania have been active only spor

157、adically43F44,depending on new discoveries and rushes.Ruby mining in Tanzania started at the deposit of Longido,which was discovered in the early 1900s in the north of the country.Longido is the oldest ruby mine known in Africa,and its rubies are easily recognised,as they are typically found in a gr

158、een rock named anyolite.The vast majority of production is low-quality,cabochon-grade at best,but some facet-grade material,requiring heat treatment with borax,has been reported more recently,in 201644F45.The Longido mine was closed between 1971 and 1988,and when it reopened production was estimated

159、 to be around 12 tonnes per year55.The second ruby discovery in Tanzania was in the Umba valley in the 1950s45F46.This area is best known for its sapphire production,with large quantities of the gemstone present in an extensive palette of colours46F47.The Kalalani area of the Umba valley has been pa

160、rticularly exploited,with major sapphire discoveries in 1989 and 1990.In 1999,the total overall production for the area was estimated to be 400kg.The rubies were of cabochon quality47F48,with less than 1%of them facet-grade.This data suggests that the annual production of rubies from the area must n

161、ot have exceeded 1kg.The third main producing area for rubies is the Morogoro region in the centre of Tanzania.This region is vast with many deposits,the most famous ones being Kitonga,Lukande,Matombo and Mahenge.Rubies from Morogoro have been known to exist since the 1970s55,but the gemstone only c

162、ame to the market in the 1980s48F49,with the peak of production happening between the mid-1980 and mid-1990s49F50.Production in 42 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distribution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259 43 Dirlam,D.M.,Misiorowski,E.B.,Tozer,

163、R.,Stark,K.B.,Bassett,A.M.(1992).Gem Wealth of Tanzania.Gems&Gemology,Summer 1992,Volume 28,No.2 44 Michelou J.C.,Ed.(2006)ICA 2006 World Gemstone Mining Report.InColor,Spring.45 Pardieu,V.(2019).Thailand:The undisputed ruby trading kingdom:A brief history.InColor.Spring,42,14-22.46 Pardieu,V.,Vertr

164、iest,W.,(2016).Update on colored gemstone mining in Tanzania.Gems News.Gems&Gemology.Fall 2016 47 Hnni,H.A.(1987).On corundum from Umba Valley,Tanzania.Journal of Gemmology,20(5),278-284.48 Seifert,A.V.,&Hyrsl,J.(1999).Sapphire and garnet from Kalalani,Tanga province,Tanzania.Gems Gemol,35,108-120.4

165、9 Hnni,H.A.,&Schmetzer,K.(1991).New rubies from the Morogoro area,Tanzania.Gems&Gemology,27(3),156-167.50 Hughes,R.(2008)Gem Hunting in Mahenge&Tunduru.https:/www.ruby- UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|27 1992 was estimated to be around 200kg p

166、er month,with quality being,again,mostly cabochon and carving grade55,50F51.In 1992,a major sapphire deposit was discovered in Songea,followed,in 1994,by the Tunduru deposit,both in the south of Tanzania51F52.Rubies are rarely found in these areas52F53.The last major discovery of rubies in Tanzania

167、was made in 2007 in Winza.Unlike the other Tanzanian deposits,Winza produces rubies of the fine quality,which do not require treatment.New deposits continue to be discovered in the country,like the one reported in 2016 in the Kilindi area(between Winza and Umba)64,underlining the importance of Tanza

168、nia to the international gem-corundum market.Quantities produced are difficult to estimate,and reported data is sometimes very contradictory.For example,the early 1990s is estimated to have been a high-production period in Longido and Morogoro,with as much as 14 tonnes a year produced.However,the re

169、ported production figure from USGS for 1995 is only 3.5 tonnes53F54,which seems quite low,even taking into account the reduction of activity in these two areas at this time.The Tanzania EITI report for 2019 provides production figures of 52 tonnes of rubies and 5 tonnes of sapphire.In the EITI repor

170、t for 2020,the production figure for rubies is 2.8 tonnes,with 270 tonnes of sapphires,which is a completely different range and ratio from the previous year.The attempted production profile below compiles data from different sources and adds an undeclared portion of production up to 45%.This ratio

171、is based on the smuggled production estimated by the US Agency for International Development in 200154F55,but the undeclared volumes are,of course,impossible to know and bound to have varied over time.51 Schwarz,D.,Pardieu,V.,Saul,J.M.,Schmetzer,K.,Laurs,B.M.,Giuliani,G.,.&Ohnenstetter,D.(2008).Rubi

172、es and sapphires from Winza,central Tanzania.Gems&Gemology,44(4).52 Pardieu,V.,Vertriest,W.,(2016).Update on colored gemstone mining in Tanzania.Gems News.Gems&Gemology.Fall 2016 53 Chitty,W.(2009).A study of sapphires and rubies from Tanzanias Tunduru district(Doctoral dissertation,Kingston Univers

173、ity,London).54 Yager,T.R.,Menzie,W.D.,&Olson,D.W.(2008).Weight of production of emeralds,rubies,sapphires,and tanzanite from 1995 through 2005.US Geological Survey.55 https:/www.gemstones-and- 15:Ruby production from Tanzania,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GE

174、MFIELDS LIMITED Page|28 The Tanzanian Mining Commission reports a drastic increased of the volumes of gemstones produced in 2020,which is reflected in the production profile(Figure 15),however there is no apparent reason nor explanation for it55F56.b)Ruby Trade Flows Tanzania is also an important pr

175、oducer of other gemstones besides rubies and sapphires,like garnets and tanzanites.The vast majority of its gemstone exports fall into the category of precious stone unworked,and therefore no direct correlation with rubies and sapphires can be made.Overall,there was an increase in exports between 19

176、97 and 2013,and a slowdown since then(Figure 16).The decrease in exports could be related to the ban of exports on rough tanzanite above 1ct.56 https:/madini.untsolutions- 16:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Tanzania UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025

177、 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|29 7.Thailand a)Ruby Production Thailand has been an important source of rubies since the 19th century.The main deposits are in the Chanthaburi-Trat area,close to the Cambodian border.Following the drop in ruby production in Burma,related to the nationalisation of the Burmese

178、 deposits in 1963,Thailand became the worlds main supplier in the 1970s.It is reported that Thailand provided up to 70%of high-quality rubies in early 1980s.The same article reports that,in 1980,production of rubies and sapphires was estimated at 8 tonnes56F57.Considering that about 10%of the countr

179、ys production of gem-corundum is accounted for by rubies(an observed ratio from the USGS data59),then the estimated production for the early 1980s is about 800kg.However,Thailands leading-producer position changed quickly with the depletion of its deposits57F58.By the 1990s,its production was only a

180、 hundredth of what it had been a decade before58F59.As per the USGS reports,rubies represented about 10%of Thailands total gemstone production.This ratio was used to extrapolate and estimate ruby production from the 1990s to 2021(Figure 17).It is believed that there is currently no production of rub

181、ies in Thailand.57 Keller,P.C.(1982).The Chanthaburi-Trat gem field,Thailand.58 Pardieu,V.(2019).Thailand:The undisputed ruby trading kingdom:A brief history.InColor.Spring,42,14-22.59 Yager,T.R.,Menzie,W.D.,&Olson,D.W.(2008).Weight of production of emeralds,rubies,sapphires,and tanzanite from 1995

182、through 2005.US Geological Survey.Figure 17:Ruby production from Thailand,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|30 b)Ruby Trade Flows Although the direct production of rubies from Thailand diminished and near to non-existent,Thailand has remai

183、ned one of the worlds most important marketplaces for rubies since the 1970s.This is due to the knowledge acquired by Thai traders regarding heat treatments.Thais are also renowned for their cutting skills.Thanks to these value addition processes,rubies and sapphires from all the major deposits in t

184、he world(Australia,Madagascar,Mozambique,Burma,etc.),still flow through Thailand.The graphs below(Figure 18)show that rough,precious stones(HS 710310)represent about 10%of the export and imports value,whereas worked rubies,emeralds and sapphires(HS 710391)represent 90%of the total value.Both imports

185、 and exports have consistently increased since the years 2006-2008.This can be correlated with the discovery of several ruby and sapphire deposits in Africa(cf.Mozambique and Tanzania sections).In 2020,the massive drop in traded values is related to the Covid-19 crisis.Although imports(reported as C

186、IF)are usually higher in value than exports(reported as FO),in UN Comtrade,it is clear that Thailands import values for precious gemstones are much lower than its export values.On average,over the past ten years,the export values for rubies,emeralds and sapphires are almost twice as high as their im

187、port value.As explained,Thailand has not been a significative producer since the early 1990s,so this difference in value should not be interpreted as a difference in volume.More likely,this value gap is related to the beneficiation processes happening in Thailand.Figure 18:Precious gemstones imports

188、 and exports values from Thailand UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|31 Thailand has gone one step further in their recording systems for imports and exports of gemstones.They not only use the standard six-digits HS codes,they have also created t

189、wo extra digits to capture information per variety of precious gemstone.The data is available online via the Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand(GIT)database system59F60,for the period 2012 to 2023.This enables the country to have high-level detailed analysis of trade flows,which they report month

190、ly on infographics via the GIT infocenter60F61.However,their reports cater to the entire gem and jewellery sector,and therefore show statistics for commodities from gold to gemstones,with polished precious stones as a whole category.For the purpose of this report,two infographics presented in the fo

191、llowing pages have been created with the data from the GIT database.The first one(Figure 19)presents trade flows,imports and exports for the HS code 710391(rubies,sapphires and emeralds otherwise worked),clearly showing the share of traded values of rubies,emeralds and sapphires.Over the past twelve

192、 years,ruby and sapphire export values have been very similar,both more than twice as high as emerald export values.This can be explained by two facts:1.Thailand is not a main trading centre for emeralds,compared to India,Israel or Hong Kong;2.The average value of emeralds is below the average value

193、 of rubies.When looking at the destination of exports,three countries are responsible for about 70%of the total traded value:Hong Kong,the USA and Switzerland.Hong Kong is the main recipient,representing 46%of all exports.On the import side,the total value is evenly split between the three gemstones

194、,and this trend has been consistent over the years.Three countries import more than half of the total traded value.Interestingly,the major partner is Thailand itself.This can be explained by the fact that Thailand used the special trade system(cf.chapter V,Note on trade flows and UN Comtrade data),m

195、eaning that a country can import to itself if the product arrives at a Free Zone,hence the information on the country of origin has been lost.Hong Kong being the second major importer is easily explained as many Thai traders and cutters have operations in Hong Kong.India is the third main importer,m

196、ostly for emeralds.The second infographic(Figure 20)displays imports of unworked gemstones,under the HS code 710310.As Thailand is a major beneficiation centre for coloured gemstones,it is interesting to look at the countrys rough imports in detail.However,it should be noted that it is likely that a

197、 lot of rough material has in fact been reported under HS code 710391.The import of rough material shows a drastic increase,with a significant increase in ruby imports in 2022,followed by an increased in emerald imports in 2023.The main country of import is Mozambique,representing 47%of total ruby i

198、mports.Moreover,the second two import countries for rubies are Singapore and Hong Kong,neither of which are producer countries.This suggests that the share of rubies originating from Mozambique could be much higher,with many of them transiting through Singapore and Hong Kong.Regarding sapphires,Sri

199、Lanka and Australia are the main sources of rough sapphires coming into Thailand.This highlights the negligible share from Madagascar,which accounts for less than 2%of the value imported.Finally,most of the rough emeralds imported to Thailand are from Colombia,however almost all these imports happen

200、ed between 2022 and 2023.Previously,Zambia and Hong Kong were the most important sources of emerald,whereas imports from Colombia were negligible.As the volumes of production from Colombia are not known to have increased,and nor have Colombian export figures,this must reflect a change in the trade h

201、abits:either Thailand is becoming a more important value addition centre for emeralds,and/or value declarations have improved.60 https:/www.git.or.th/infocenter-stat/?Lang=EN 61 https:/infocenter.git.or.th/en/infographic/marketing UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEM

202、FIELDS LIMITED Page|32 70%Figure 19:Thailand infographic 1 UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|33 Figure 20:Thailand infographic 2 UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|34 8.Other countries a)Mala

203、wi Gem-quality corundum was discovered in Malawi in 1958,at Chimwadzulu Hill,located in the Ncheu district 61F62.Exploitation of rubies and sapphires at Chimwadzulu started quickly,and the mine has been operating since the 1960s,although the history of its ownership has been complex.Malawi has a sma

204、ll mining sector,and most of the gemstones there are extracted by artisanal and small-scale miners,with the exception of the Chimwadzulu mine.Chimwadzulu,which is mechanised,is one of the most important mines in Malawi62F63,63F64.Since 2008,Columbia Gem House,a USA-based gemstone manufacturer and se

205、ller,has had an exclusive agreement with the mine owner(at the time Nyala Mines Ltd),to treat,cut,market and sell rubies and sapphires from the Chimwadzulu mine.The gemstones are sold in the USA,under the trade name Nyala rubies64F65,with the designation of Fair Trade Gemstones65F66.In October 2017,

206、the Malawian Minister of Natural Resources rejected the renewal of Nyala Mines mining licence66F67.In 2018,the mining licence was given to a new operator,Mwalawanga Mining Limited;however,Columbia Gem House expressed their desire to continue the fully-integrated supply chain67F68.It is not clear whe

207、ther production from the Chimwadzulu mine has been consistent since its discovery.Sources mentioned that the deposit is of low-grade,and that gem-quality gemstones are rare,only accounting for about 10%of production69.Rubies represent 30%of gem production,with the rest categorised as sapphires(inclu

208、ding padparadscha,pink,orange and lavender)69F70.Regarding quantities,reports between 2006 and 2009 mentioned an annual production between 4kg and 5kg67,69.However,this does not match the USGS data,nor the latest EITI reports70F71,71F72,which report yearly production of 180kg in 2005,309kg in 2015 a

209、nd 400 tonnes in 2017.There could have been an increase in production due to the installation of a new washing plant around the year 2004-200773,74.Another possibility for this difference in reported production could be that the average of 4.5kg per year represents only the gem-quality portion of th

210、e production(about 10%of production),whereas the figures from EITI are representative of the total production of the mine.The production profile below(Figure 21)comes from USGS mineral yearbook,EITI reports,data and estimated figures.62 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distr

211、ibution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259.63 Paling,S.(2007)TI-UP Enquiry:The Gemstone Sector in Malawi 64 Michelou J.C.,Ed.(2006)ICA 2006 World Gemstone Mining Report.InColor,Spring.65 https:/ Craig,D.(2017)Gems&Jewellery Spring 2017.Volume 26 No.1 67 Malawi extractive Ind

212、ustries Transparency Initiative(MWEITI)Reports.(2020 to 2021)68 https:/ Paling,S.(2007)TI-UP Enquiry:The Gemstone Sector in Malawi 70 Vermiculite,C.,Ore,I.,&Sulphide,I.(2009).Mineral potential of Malawi.71 Yager,T.R.,Menzie,W.D.,&Olson,D.W.(2008).Weight of production of emeralds,rubies,sapphires,and

213、 tanzanite from 1995 through 2005.US Geological Survey.72 Malawi extractive Industries Transparency Initiative(MWEITI)Reports.(2017&2019)UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|35 b)India India has been the source of many gemstones,and rubies have bee

214、n found in different regions of the country,notably the Karur region72F73.However,no official production has been reported since 1999,neither in the USGS mineral yearbook nor in the official reports from the Indian Bureau of Mines73F74.The production profile below(Figure 22)is based only on the USGS

215、 data from 1995 to 1999,with historical values being averaged out.73 Shirole,P.,Mookherjee,A.,Marathe,T.,Makki,M.F.(2014)Indian Ruby Mining.Gems&Gemology,Spring 2014,Vol.50,No.1 74 https:/ibm.gov.in/Figure 21:Ruby production from Malawi,in kg Figure 22:Ruby production from India,in kg UNDERSTANDING

216、THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|36 c)Vietnam High-quality rubies were discovered in Vietnam in 1987,in the Luc Yen district of the Yen Bai region,in the north of the country74F75.Organised mining operations started there in 198975F76,but these rapidly slowe

217、d down,with some mechanised operations closing in 1994,because the deposits were no longer economic76F77.In Yen Bai,another major discovery was made in 1990 in Tan Huong(about 80 km south of Luc Yen).Together,Luc Yen(also referred as Truc Lau area)and Tan Huong make Yen Bai the most important source

218、 of rubies and sapphires from Vietnam,although gem-quality corundums are found in many other regions of the country77F78.The peak of mining activity is believed to have occurred in the 1990s(Figure 23),with hundreds of kilogrammes of gems being produced80,81,78F79.In 2011,Khoi reported that ongoing

219、production was about 10kg per month79F80.Another deposit that produced significant quantities in the 1990s is Quy Chau.This area attracted thousands of artisanal miners,and a few mechanised operations were installed in 1992.The largest company reported a monthly average of 4.5kg of rubies and sapphi

220、res extracted in 199280.Rubies in Vietnam are found in both primary and secondary deposits,although the vast majority of mining takes place in secondary gravels.Mining from other areas in the country is sporadic and small-scale82.75 Van Long,P.,Pardieu,V.,Giuliani,G.(2013)Update on Gemstone Mining i

221、n Luc Yen,Vietnam.Gems&Gemology,Winter 2013,Vol.49,No.4 76 Kammerling,R.C.,Keller,A.S.,Scarratt,K.V.,Rapetto,S.(1994)Update on Mining Rubies and Fancy Sapphires in Northern Vietnam.Gems&Gemology Summer 1994 77 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distribution:A quarter century o

222、f change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259.78 Huong,L.T.T.,Hger,T.,Hofmeister,W.,Hauzenberger,C.,Schwarz,D.,Van Long,P.,.&Nhung,N.T.(2012).Gemstones from Vietnam:An Update.Gems&Gemology,48(3).79 Van Long,P.,Quang Vinh,H.,Garnier,V.,Giuliani,G.,Ohnenstetter,D.,Lhomme,T.,.&Trong Trinh,P.(2004).Gem corun

223、dum deposits in Vietnam.Journal of Gemmology,29(3),129-147.80 Khoi,N.N.,Sutthirat,C.,Tuan,D.A.,Van Nam,N.,Thuyet,N.T.M.,&Nhung,N.T.(2011).Ruby and Sapphire from the Tan Huong-Truc Lau Area,Yen Bai Province,Northern Vietnam.Gems&Gemology,47(3).Figure 23:Ruby production from Vietnam,in kg UNDERSTANDIN

224、G THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|37 d)Central Asian deposits(Afghanistan,Pakistan,Tajikistan,Nepal)Rubies have been extracted from deposits in Central Asia for hundreds of years.The mines are located in mountains between 2,000 and 4,500 metres above sea le

225、vel.Their elevations mean they are difficult to access and big mining equipment cannot be brought on site.The rubies are mostly found in their host rocks,which are marbles.For these reasons,operations can only be conducted on a small scale.In Afghanistan,the Jegdalek region is the only known produci

226、ng area for rubies,with mines there operated by local people.Sapphires account for the majority of production sapphires,with 15%of production being ruby.It is also reported that only 3%of the production is facet-quality80F81.Rubies from Afghanistan are extremely hard to obtain and,although it is bel

227、ieved that mining has been ongoing for several hundred years,it has probably been affected by the political situation there.In Pakistan,rubies originate from the Nangimali mountain,as well as from the Hunza Valley.The Nangimali deposit was discovered in 1979,but actual production only began in the 1

228、990s.Production in Hunza Valley is reported to be small81F82.The gemstone industry in Pakistan is promising,as mentioned by various sources over the past 40 years82F83,83F84,84F85,but this potential does not seem to result in real growth,probably due to the complex political situation in the country

229、,the location of the mines,which are difficult to access,and the lack of investment.The Pakistan Bureau of Statistics has not reported any gemstone production since 200585F86.Rubies have been reported to be present in Tajikistan since the 1930s,but the main deposit,Snezhnoe,was only discovered in 19

230、80.It was exploited until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991,when all formal mining activity ceased for 15 years86F87.Tajik rubies became more available to the market in 2006,as reported by Pardieu in 200787F88,but official production figures are not available.In Nepal,rubies and sapphires wer

231、e discovered at Chumar and Ruyil,in Dhading district,around 1981.Official mining activity started in 1985 but was quickly abandoned.Most mining is unofficial and sporadic,so production data is difficult to find or to estimate88F89.81 Bowersox,G.W.,Foord,E.E.,Laurs,B.M.,Shigley,J.E.,&Smith,C.P.(2000)

232、.Ruby and sapphire from Jegdalek,Afghanistan.Gems and Gemology,36(2),110-126.82 Shor,R.,&Weldon,R.(2009).Ruby and sapphire production and distribution:A quarter century of change.Gems and Gemology,45(4),236-259.83 https:/.pk/28-Feb-2022/pakistan-s-potential-in-gemstones-vital-for-prosperity 84 https

233、:/phys.org/news/2017-10-rubies-treasures-pakistani-kashmir.html 85 Gbelin,E.J.(1982).Gemstones of Pakistan:emerald,ruby,and spinel.Gems Gemol.,18(3),123-139.86 https:/www.pbs.gov.pk/energy-and-mining-tables 87 Sorokina,E.S.,Litvinenko,A.K.,Hofmeister,W.,Hger,T.,Jacob,D.E.,&Nasriddinov,Z.Z.(2015).Rub

234、ies and sapphires from Snezhnoe,Tajikistan.Gems and Gemology,15,160-175.88 Pardieu,V.(2007).Tajikistan:Gems of the roof of the world.InColor Spring 2007.89 Smith,C.P.,Gbelin,E.J.,Bassett,A.M.,&Manandhar,M.N.(1997).Rubies and fancy-color sapphires from Nepal.Gems&Gemology,33(1),24-41.UNDERSTANDING TH

235、E GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|38 The production profile below(Figure 24)is largely based on USGS data between 1995 and 200589F90,with extended averages.It also takes into account production figures and the reported history of mining activity from the biblio

236、graphy.e)Greenland Gem-corundum rubies and pink sapphires were discovered in Greenland in the 1960s,although it took decades,until 2014,for mine construction work to begin.In the meantime,small-scale activity by independent miners took place90F91,but the gems never reached the global market.The depo

237、sit,in the southwest of Greenland,is now referred to as Aappaluttoq,meaning red in Greenlandic.True North Gems Inc.(a Canadian junior exploration company)was the first company to obtain a mining licence and permit in 2014,after several years of exploration work.The mine changed ownership in 2016 and

238、 it was operated by LNS Greenland,part of the Leonhard Nilsen&Sonner group,a Norwegian company.The rubies and sapphires had then been marketed under the brand Greenland Ruby.Production officially started in May 201791F92.However,the mine closed in mid-2023,due to financial difficulties92F93 The mini

239、ng conditions in Greenland are challenging,mainly due to the weather and the remote location93F94,94F95.The gem-corundum crystals are 90 Yager,T.R.,Menzie,W.D.,&Olson,D.W.(2008).Weight of production of emeralds,rubies,sapphires,and tanzanite from 1995 through 2005.US Geological Survey.91 Smith,C.P.,

240、Fagan,A.J.,&Clark,B.(2016).Ruby and Pink Sapphire from Aappaluttoq,Greenland.Journal of Gemmology,35(4).92https:/www.greenlandruby.gl/press-releases/greenland-ruby-announces-the-official-opening-of-its-ruby-and-pink-sapphire-mining-operation-at-aappalutoq-greenland/93 https:/ 94 Vertriest,W.(2019).G

241、reenland ruby update.Gem News International.Gems&Gemology 95 https:/www.greenlandruby.gl/about-us/Figure 24:Ruby production from Central Asia,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|39 found trapped within their host rock,which has been protecte

242、d from weathering by the icecap.Extraction from the host rock is complicated:it requires blasting in the open-pit and various steps of processing at a highly mechanised plant,designed to maximise production.Although production started in 2017,some recovery was made during the exploration and testing

243、 phase by True North Gems.They reported sending several kilogrammes of material for trial cutting and polishing.Previous production numbers from ASM are not available but are believed to be minimal considering the location and the geological context.The pre-feasibility technical report of the mine,m

244、ade in 2015,estimated the total resources(indicated and inferred)at 81 tonnes of corundum(about 405 million carats),giving the mine a life of about ten years,with a yearly production between 4 and 12 tonnes95F96.It was reported that about 5%of this total production would be gem,20%near-gem and the r

245、emaining 75%non-gem(commercial grade)corundum,96F97.Rubies represent 20%of the gem production,with the vast majority of the balance being pink sapphires.Blue,lavender and colourless sapphires are also found in small quantities.All of the gemstones produced by Greenland ruby were heat-treated with bo

246、rax,an industry standard.Treatment and sorting were done in Thailand,while much of the commercial material was cut and polished in India and Sri Lanka.Production numbers were not disclosed and,considering the low quality of the production,no production from Greenland was added to the final global es

247、timation of ruby supply.96 Reggin L.and Horan M.(2015).An Updated Pre-Feasibility Report on the Aappaluttoq Ruby Project,Greenland National Instrument 43-101 Technical Report.True North Gems,Vancouver,British Columbia,Canada,170 pp., http:/promin.no/en/project/lns-greenland-commissioning-start-up-an

248、d-optimization/UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|40 9.Compiled data a)Global Ruby Production The following graph represents the production of gem-corundum ruby from all of the aforementioned locations,but it does not take quality into account,me

249、aning that the figures encompass facet,cabochon,carving and commercial grades.It should be kept in mind that this profile does not aim to be a perfect representation of the reality;it is acknowledged by the author that there is not enough reliable recorded data to do so.Earlier years(1980 to 1990)ar

250、e particularly challenging when it comes to collecting data.Records show that Thailand was one of the main suppliers during this period,which is confirmed by the literature97F98,but it is likely that there were more rubies coming from other countries,notably Burma and Tanzania,than are shown on this

251、 graph.Moreover,total production volumes before 1990 seem extremely low.Between 1990 and 1995,the graph presents Tanzania as the main supplier of rubies.This jump in production from Tanzania is partly due to the reopening of Longido in 1989 The mines in the Morogoro region were also at their peak be

252、tween the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s.Information on the quantities produced from these 98 Keller,P.C.(1982).The Chanthaburi-Trat gem field,Thailand.Figure 25:World production of rubies,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|41 areas was mentio

253、ned in a paper from 199298F99 but,since then,no information on volumes per area has been reportedThe lack of follow-up information on mining activity is a major issue when trying to track the history of ruby supply,especially when many deposits are used only sporadically.Nevertheless,this profile(Fi

254、gure 25)provides useful insights into production dynamics:1.The supply of rubies has shifted between different countries over the years,with the discovery of new deposits and the depletion of others.Moreover,there have been significant fluctuations in the volumes of production.These two parameters,t

255、aken together,highlight the difficulty of ensuring a constant supply of gemstones of consistent quality from one year to the next.2.The volumes produced from deposits in Central Asia,Vietnam,India and Malawi are anecdotal,with a high percentage of undeclared material.3.The profile includes an estima

256、te of the undeclared volumes of production for almost all the countries.The average yearly volume across the 39 years presented is eleven tonnes,with a minimum of 1 tonne and a maximum of 31 tonnes.These numbers should not be taken as exact figures,but we can safely say that the yearly world product

257、ion of rubies must rarely exceed 20 tonnes,even with all of the varying qualities taken together;4.Tanzania and Kenya are the main producers of rubies in terms of volume,but these gemstones are mainly cabochon and carving grades.b)Quality Considerations As mentioned above,the graph does not take qua

258、lity factors into account,which is why Tanzania and Kenya appear so dominant.A quality factor coefficient has been applied in order to assess the history of fine-quality ruby supply.In this document,fine-quality is taken to mean faceted grade,either un-treated or only traditionally heated without fl

259、ux.The coefficients used vary depending on both the country and the deposit.For example,the percentage of fine rubies from Longido is not the same as for Morogoro or other Tanzanian regions.The same logic applies to Mogok and Mong Hsu in Myanmar,and to Vatomandry and Andilamena in Madagascar.In Moza

260、mbique,data and expert observations have established that the recovery of fine-quality rubies is much higher in a mechanised operation than in an artisanal one;the percentages applied to MRM and the neighbouring,undeclared artisanal and small-scale(ASM)operations are therefore different.The factors

261、used are presented in the table below.The new production profile(Figure 26)is considered to be much more representative of the reality of the market,with Myanmar being the main producer up until the discovery of Montepuez rubies in Mozambique.According to this profile,approximately 270kg of fine-qua

262、lity rubies were formerly produced every year on average,significantly increasing in recent years due to the introduction of rubies from Mozambique.99 Dirlam,D.M.,Misiorowski,E.B.,Tozer,R.,Stark,K.B.,Bassett,A.M.(1992).Gem Wealth of Tanzania.Gems&Gemology,Summer 1992,Volume 28,No.2 UNDERSTANDING THE

263、 GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|42 Although figures are not exact,it appears that less than 1 tonne of fine-quality rubies is produced every year,which is less than 5%of the total volume of rubies.This highlights the rarity of these fine-quality gemstones.Comp

264、aring these results,the coloured gemstone market report presented by Guild Gem Laboratories during the ICA congress of 2023 mentioned the share of Burmese rubies to be 45%,and Mozambican rubies to be 42%in 202199F100.This highlights the fact that the gemstones transiting through the laboratories are

265、 not always representative of the total production,as only those of a high quality,and from certain locations,will be sent to a laboratory for grading.The report mentions that the Mozambican market share is more likely to be 60%to 70%,confirming the results of this study.100 Lucas,A.,Lui,R.(2023)Gui

266、ld 2022 China Colored Gemstone Market Report.Special edition for 2023 ICA congress Dubai.Guild Gem Laboratories Figure 26:World production of high-quality rubies,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|43 V.Global supply of emeralds 1.Introducti

267、on Emerald is the second most important coloured gemstones in the trade,in terms of value.The history of the global emerald market has been heavily influenced by important historical deposits that are still being actively exploited nowadays,such as the mines in Colombia.This chapter presents the com

268、pilation of research on yearly production volumes since 1980,for eleven countries which have been(or still are)important sources of emeralds.Production numbers are difficult to find,as there is little reporting from either mining companies or governments.Exports can sometimes provide a good picture

269、of production dynamics.However,exports are very often reported solely in value terms,with volume figures not being captured.Production volumes presented in this report came from various sources including:USGS(United States Geological Survey)yearly mineral industry reports;miners declared production

270、and sales data;national annual economic and statistical surveys;EITI(Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative)reports.Due to the delay in the publication of these reports,production volumes are only provided up to 2020.After looking at each individual country,the final section compiles the prod

271、uction data from the eleven countries to attempt a visualisation of the global supply dynamic.A quality factor has been applied to allow a clearer view of facet-quality emerald supply.Overall,the report highlights that the supply of emeralds has been fairly consistent over the past 40 years.The thre

272、e main producing countries are Brazil,Colombia and Zambia,with extensive,long-lasting deposits.One main highlight of the report is the dominant position of Zambia in the global supply of emeralds,especially those of high quality.Although production data are always difficult to obtain,the figures for

273、 Zambia and Colombia are considered more accurate because they are provided by mining companies,as well as well important industry bodies like Fedesmeraldas.Although a portion of production is always undeclared,the order of magnitude is correct,positioning Zambia far above Colombia in volume terms.U

274、NDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|44 2.Brazil a)Emerald Production Brazil is a land of gemstones,and emeralds were discovered here in the early 1910s100F101.However,large-scale exploitation only started in the 1960s,in Bahia state.Brazil then bec

275、ame a significant emerald producer in the 1980s101F102.Emeralds are found and exploited mainly in three Brazilian states:Bahia,in the deposits of Carnaba and Socot;Minas Gerais,in the Itabira/Nova Era belt(Belmont,Piteiras and Capoeirana deposits);Gois,in the Santa Terezinha deposit.Each of these st

276、ates produces very different qualities and volumes of emeralds.In volume,Bahia is probably the main producer.In 1990,Guiliani reported that Carnaba accounted for 135 tonnes of emerald production in 16 years102F103,between 1970 and 1986,an average of 8.4 tonnes per year.22 years later,in 2012,Lucas r

277、eported that Bahia state produced between 500kg and 1000kg per month,averaging 9 tonnes per year103F104.However,the quality of the emeralds is lower than at the other deposits,and these emeralds are mainly used for lower-quality cabochons and carvings.Although gemstone mining in general is often spo

278、radic and discontinuous,it seems that Bahia has consistently produced several tonnes of low-quality emeralds per year for an extended period.Interestingly,when looking at the emerald production numbers from the USGS and the Departamento Nacional de Produo Mineral(DNPM)of Brazil,they do not seem to r

279、ecord Bahias emerald production,as their numbers are far too low.Incidentally,the DNPM reports that more than 90%of emerald production comes from Itabira(Minas Gerais),and often specifies that the production comes from the Belmont mine104F105.In Minas Gerais,the Belmont Mine has been the most docume

280、nted active mine since the early 1980s.Different sources report different production quantities,varying from 40kg to 360kg annually.100,101,105F106,106F107 The mine has also evolved over time due to mechanisation and the development of an underground operation107F108.101 Lynch,E.P.,Costanzo,A.,Feely

281、,M.,Blamey,N.J.F.,Pironon,J.,&Lavin,P.(2014).The Piteiras emerald mine,Minas Gerais,Brazil:fluid-inclusion and gemmological perspectives.Mineralogical Magazine,78(7),1571-1587.102 Groat,L.A.,Giuliani,G.,Marshall,D.D.,&Turner,D.(2008).Emerald deposits and occurrences:A review.Ore Geology Reviews,34(1

282、-2),87-112.103 Giuliani,G.,Silva,L.J.H.D.,&Couto,P.(1990).Origin of emerald deposits of Brazil.Mineralium Deposita,25(1),57-64.104 Lucas,A.Brazils emerald industry.Gems&Gemology,Spring 2012,Volume 48,No.1.2012 105 Departamento Nacional de Produo Mineral(DNPM),sumario mineral 2010 to 2018 106 Hanni,H

283、.A.,Schwarz,D.,&Fischer,M.(1987).The emeralds of the Belmont Mine,Minas Gerais,Brazil.107 Puppim De Oliveira,J.A.P.,&Ali,S.H.(2011).Gemstone mining as a development cluster:a study of Brazils emerald mines.Resources Policy,36(2),132-141.108 Lucas,A.,Pay,D.,McClure,S.,Ribeiro,M.,Hsu,T.,Padua,P.(2015)

284、.The Belmont Mine and an Emeralds Journey from Mine to Market.GIA UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|45 The Piteiras mine is also known to be a source of good quality emeralds in Minas Gerais,with production here starting around 2001.Production q

285、uantities are unclear,with some sources mentioning that it was sporadic108F109,and others stating that production was consistent109F110.Overall,it can be assumed that Piteiras produced emeralds in the range of 80kg to 200kg a year,between 2001 and 2008,when operations ceased110F111.In Minas Gerais,t

286、he Capoeirana and Montebello mines are also important producers,but production data for these is extremely hard to find.The last important producing area is Santa Terezinha,in Gois.In 1984,this area was reported to be the centre of Brazils emerald production,with an average yield about 50 times high

287、er than the Belmont Mine111F112.Interviews conducted by Puppim de Oliviera in 2011 suggest that the region produced 44 tonnes of emeralds in 2003112F113,but no other source corroborates this quantity.Conversely,Lucas reports little production from this area since the 1990s 113F114.The production pro

288、file below(Figure 27)compiles information from the different sources quoted above,as well as estimated figures for informal mining.The scale starts at 8 tonnes.It is estimated that production from Bahia is 9 tonnes per year for the entire period.b)Emerald Trade Flows Coloured gemstone exports from B

289、razil are difficult to interpret because of the wide variety of gems produced in this country.However,as Brazil is not a large producer of rubies and sapphires,HS code 710391 can be assumed to represent exports of cut emeralds only(Figure 28).These worked emerald exports increased in the early 2000s

290、,which could correspond to the Piteiras production period.From 2003,they dropped to an average of US$10M per year,only to increase again in the 2010s to a yearly average of US$20M,which could be linked to the development of cutting facilities at Belmont.Over the period 1995 to 2023,the USA has been

291、the main importer of Brazilian emeralds,accounting for 42%of the countrys 109 Rondeau,B.,Notari,F.,Giuliani,G.,Michelou,J.C.,Martins,S.,Fritsch,E.,&Respinger,A.(2003).La mine de Piteiras,Minas Gerais,nouvelle source dmeraude de belle qualit au Brsil.Reveu de Gemmologie,147,1-18.110 https:/emrlibrary

292、.gov.yk.ca/minerals/review-of-the-emerald-industry-2004.pdf 111 Lynch,E.P.,Costanzo,A.,Feely,M.,Blamey,N.J.F.,Pironon,J.,&Lavin,P.(2014).The Piteiras emerald mine,Minas Gerais,Brazil:fluid-inclusion and gemmological perspectives.Mineralogical Magazine,78(7),1571-1587.112 Cassedanna,J.P.,Sauer,A.The

293、Santa Terezinha de Goias Emerald Deposit.Gems&Gemology,Spring 1984,Vol.20,No.1.1984 113 De Oliveira,J.A.P.,&Ali,S.H.(2011).Gemstone mining as a development cluster:a study of Brazils emerald mines.Resources Policy,36(2),132-141.114 Lucas,A.Brazils emerald industry.Gems&Gemology,Spring 2012,Volume 48

294、,No.1.2012 Figure 27:Emerald production from Brazil,in kg UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|46 exports.Hong Kong was the second-largest importer.However,it is important to note that,between 1995 and 2002,Japan was Brazils most important partner

295、for exports of worked emeralds.When looking at rough exports,HS code 710310,the export value has increased over the years,and in 2021 the total export value was 2.3 times higher than it had been 20 years before,in 2001.The main importer over the period was Hong Kong,which accounted for 27%of total e

296、xport value.However,in the last ten years,the USA and China have been increasing their imports and,since 2021,they both imported twice as many unworked gemstones as Hong Kong.Figure 28:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Brazil UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPH

297、IRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|47 3.Colombia a)Emerald Production Emeralds have been produced in Colombia for centuries,with mining efforts dating back to 1000 BC,long before the Spanish colonisation in the 16th century114F115.The countrys emerald deposits are located in the Boyac region,particular

298、ly in two districts on the western and eastern side of the Andean Cordillera Oriental.There are more than 200 emerald deposits within these two districts,the most notable being:The western district(also referred as the Vsquez-Yacop115F116,or Coscuez-Muzo-Yacop116F117,district),which includes,amongst

299、 others,the Coscuez,Muzo,Marip,Peas Blancas and Yacop mines;The eastern district(also referred as the Guavio-Guateque112,or Chivor-Gachal113,district),which includes,amongst others,the Chivor,Gachal and Macanal mines.After colonisation,the mines remained Spanish royal property until independence in

300、1810,when they came under the control of the Colombian government.The privatisation of the mines started only in the late 1970s.Between 1960 and 1990,the situation in the country was very tense due to the Green War,a conflict between the main emerald-mining families,who often used paramilitary force

301、s to defend their territories against guerrillas and drug traffickers118.Victor Carranza,also known as the Emerald Czar,was a big figure in this mafia-like trade:he controlled up to 40%of Colombias emerald production until his death in 2013118F119.The Green War caused thousands of deaths;it ended in

302、 the 1990s with the signing of a peace deal,brokered with the help of Carranza and the Catholic Church119F120.This peace deal,as well as bringing in new mining regulations,promoted the privatisation of the sector.However,allegations against owners of emerald mines continued:for example,the prosecuti

303、on of Carranza in 2012120F121 over the financing of paramilitary groups,or the accusations against the company Esmeracol for drug-money laundering in 2010115.Instability and violence in the country continued,and another peace agreement was signed in 2016 between the Colombian government and the FARC

304、 guerrilla group122.It is worth mentioning that none of these political and social issues have affected the reputation of Colombian emeralds over the years:they are still considered to be the worlds most sought-after emeralds.However,mining activities were affected,and Colombia lost its world-leadin

305、g producer position in the 2000s.This context of violence and instability,as well as the mafia-like organisations within the mining sector,prevented foreign investment for many years,and operations 115 Fortalech,D.,Lucas,A.,Muyal,J.,Hsu,T.,&Padua,P.(2017).The Colombian Emerald Industry:Winds Of Chan

306、ge.The Quarterly Journal Of The Gemological Institute Of America,53(3),332-358.116 Groat,L.A.,Giuliani,G.,Marshall,D.D.,&Turner,D.(2008).Emerald deposits and occurrences:A review.Ore Geology Reviews,34(1-2),87-112.117 Branquet,Y.,Giuliani,G.(2022)Gologie et exploration de lmeraude colombienne.meraud

307、es,tout un monde!118 https:/ https:/ https:/ https:/www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-16882779 122 https:/www.iss.europa.eu/content/implementing-peace-agreement-colombia UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|48 remained very manual and labour-i

308、ntensive,although the vast majority of mining is done underground122F123.Over time,factors such as the peace agreement,a new generation of miners,and the growing global expectation of sustainability and transparency in mining operations have encouraged the Colombian emerald sector to evolve and remo

309、ve barriers to investment123F124.The three most historical and famous mining areas are Chivor,Coscuez and Muzo,considered to be responsible for most of the production volumes124F125.More recent mines,including La Pita(where mining started in 1999),Consorcio(where mining started in 1999)and Cunas(whe

310、re mining started in 2001),are also important deposits nowadays,especially in terms of quantities produced119.Coscuez has been a historical source of very fine-quality emeralds,as well as large crystals.Some reports mention Coscuez as the source of about 70%of Colombias emeralds in the 1970s125F126.

311、Its exploitation remained very artisanal until international mining companies became interested.Gemfields PLC engaged in the acquisition of 70%of the Coscuez mine in 2015,after geological studies performed between 2013 and 2014126F127.Gemfields withdrew from the deal in May 2017,and Fura Gems acquir

312、ed 76%of the mine in late 2017127F128.Fura has operated the mine since 2018,launching their first emerald auction in 2021128F129.The Muzo mine is the other most renowned source of fine-quality emeralds from Colombia.In 2009,The Muzo Companies was founded as a vehicle to invest in modern mining pract

313、ices and promote Colombia as a source of sustainable and responsible emeralds.The Muzo mines have a mine-to-market business model,offering mining operations,cutting and polishing,gemstone treatment,laboratory grading,and trading via partnership with designers129F130.Despite the growing interest of m

314、ultinational companies and the investment in formalisation and mechanised operations,the Colombian government estimates that about 63%of Colombian mining activities are still informal115.The production profile below(Figure 29)is a compilation of information from the Sistema de Informacin Minero Colo

315、mbiano(Simco)130F131,data provided by the National Federation of Emeralds of Colombia(FEDESMERALDAS)and USGS.The Simco is the official online portal for mineral statistics,under the Colombian Ministry of Mines.FEDESMERALDAS is a trade body founded in 1988 with the aim of developing,representing and

316、guiding the Colombian emerald industry.FEDESMERALDAS links a large number of formal actors in the Colombian emerald production chain and administers the National Emerald Fund,which collects by law a paraphysical tax of 1%of the value of all emerald exports.The USGS data reported in the mineral yearb

317、ooks is equivalent to the Simco production data.Data from FEDESMERALDAS,between 2009 and 2021,is closely aligned to the two other sources.123 Michelou J.C.,Ed.(2006)ICA 2006 World Gemstone Mining Report.InColor,Spring.124 Inestroza,J.(2022).The Mineral Industry of Colombia.2017-2018 Minerals Yearboo

318、k.USGS 125 Shigley,J.E.,Dirlam,D.M.,Laurs,B.M.,Boehm,E.W.,Bosshart,G.,&Larson,W.F.(2000).Gem localities of the 1990s.Gems&Gemology,36(4),292-335.126 https:/www.emeraude.info/la-renaissance-de-coscuez-la-plus-emblematique-mine-demeraudes-de-colombie/127https:/ 128 https:/ 129 https:/ 130 https:/muzo.

319、co/pages/the-mine 131 https:/www1.upme.gov.co/simco/Cifras-Sectoriales/Paginas/esmeraldas.aspx UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|49 b)Emerald Trade Flows Colombia is a major producer of emeralds,and does not produce very much of any other gemsto

320、ne.This makes it possible to approximate the export data from UN Comtrade as emerald exports only(Figure 31).This is also confirmed by the available emerald export data from Simco,which is 99%similar to the UN Comtrade export data.FEDESMERALDAS also provided export data for both rough and worked eme

321、ralds,which align very well with the UN Comtrade statistics,as presented in the graph below(Figure 30).In terms of value,Colombia exports many more worked emeralds(cut and polished)than rough.This is entirely related to the difference in unit prices between rough and worked emeralds.Between 2009 and

322、 2021,Colombia exported more than 5 tonnes of rough emeralds,at an average price of US$5.6/ct,and about 880kg of cut and polished emeralds at an average price of US$340/ct131F132.Although the unit prices have fluctuated over the years,there has been a net increase in the past decade for both rough a

323、nd worked emeralds(Figure 32).132 FEDESMERALDAS data Figure 29:Emerald production from Colombia,in kg Figure 30:UN Comtrade exports compared to FEDESMERALDA exports UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|50 Most of Colombias emerald production is exp

324、orted.In 2001,USGS estimated that 10%of emeralds were sold in the country,a percentage that dropped to just 2%in 2005132F133.Colombia has a good beneficiation industry,with several companies cutting and polishing emeralds in Bogot.Some factories are established in the Bogot free trade zone,explainin

325、g why most of the rough exports since 2010 are going to Colombia.133 Torres,I.(2005).The Mineral Industry of Colombia.2005 Minerals Yearbook.USGS Figure 31:Precious gemstones imports and exports values from Colombia Figure 32:Rough and cut emeralds exports unit prices UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY

326、 OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|51 This is presented in the infographic on the next page(Figure 33).Another striking insight from this analysis is the very low export value of rough between 1995 and 2010:an unstable period,as mentioned earlier.Rough exports started to incre

327、ase in 2010,which correlates with the development of more mechanised operations(like Muzo and Coscuez),as well as exports for cutting and polishing into the Bogot Free Trade Zone.In terms of total worked emerald exports,the value has been stable for the past 20 years,with an annual average of US$107

328、 billion.Japans share of worked emerald import values has decreased over the past 27 years,while Hong Kongs imports have increased significantly.The USA remains the major importer of worked emeralds from Colombia.UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Pag

329、e|52 Figure 33:Colombia infographic UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL SUPPLY OF EMERALD,RUBY AND SAPPHIRE 2025 GEMFIELDS LIMITED Page|53 4.Russia a)Emerald Production Emeralds were discovered in Russia in the early 1890s,in the Izumrudny Kopi district within the Ural Mountains.Several mines were opened,of wh

330、ich Malysheva(also called Mariinski),was the most important(accounting for 80%of reserves)111.It is estimated that this district was the worlds largest producer of emeralds from 1918133F134 until the 1930s.It provided up to 2.5 million carats annually,more than Colombia134F135.Between the 1940s and

331、the 1970s,the mines were primarily operated for the extraction of beryllium ore,and emeralds became a by-product(3-4 million carats per year).Emeralds became the main product again in the 1970s when newer,more profitable deposits for beryllium were discovered.In 1995,Laskovenkov112 reported that,aft

332、er this shift in focus,production was as high as 8 to 10 million carats annually.However,its more likely that the estimated capacity of yearly emerald production was around 3 million carats.This figure correlates with the number reported by Richard Hughes in an article he wrote following his mine vi

333、sit in 2006135F136,which states that between 1987 and 1993 yearly production was 3.35 million carats.Mining operations stopped in 1995,after the collapse of the Soviet economic system.Since this period,the mine has changed owners multiple times.USGS reports that the mine was reopened in 2001 and produced a total of 3,844kg of emeralds between 2001 and 2006136F137.However,multiple sources argue tha