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1、A JUST ENERGY TRANSITION FOR COMMUNITIESLARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA IRENA 2025 Unless otherwise stated,material in this publication may be freely used,shared,copied,reproduced,printed and/or stored,provided that appropriate acknowledgement is given of IRENA as the sourc

2、e and copyright holder.Material in this publication that is attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions,and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material.ISBN 978-92-9260-643-5Citation:IRENA(2025),A ju

3、st energy transition for communities:Large-scale wind and solar projects in Sub-Saharan Africa,International Renewable Energy Agency,Abu Dhabi.Acknowledgements Under the guidance of Michael Renner and Gondia Seck(IRENA),and Divyam Nagpal(ex-IRENA),this report was authored by Holle Wlokas,Andy Spitz,

4、Lelethu Buso,Yaowen Deng and Ed OKeefe(Synergy Global Consulting),drawing on research contributed by Sarah Stands.The report was initiated under Rabia Ferroukhi(ex-IRENA)and finalised under Raul Alfaro-Pelico(Director,IRENA Knowledge,Policy and Finance Centre).The report benefited from the review an

5、d inputs of IRENA colleagues Babucarr Bittaye,Mirjam Reiner,Ntsebo Sephelane and Elizabeth Njoki Wanjiru,as well as IRENA Technical Reviewer Paul Komor.Publication and editorial support were provided by Francis Field and Stephanie Clarke.The report was edited by Fayre Makeig,with design by Nacho San

6、z.IRENA would like to thank the Government of Denmark for supporting the work that formed the basis of this report.For further information or to provide feedback:publicationsirena.orgThis report is available at:www.irena.org/publicationsDisclaimerThis publication and the material herein are provided

7、“as is”.All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material.However,neither IRENA nor any of its officials,agents,data providers or other third-party content providers provide a warranty of any kind,either expressed or implied,and they accept no responsibili

8、ty or liability for any consequence of use of the publication.The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of the Members of IRENA.The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in preferenc

9、e to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region,country,territory,city or area,or the authorities thereof,or concerning t

10、he delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.Cover photos:Kirsz Marcin S,Oni Abimbola S,Hryshchyshen Serhii S,kevin ouma S,SofikoS S,Sebastian Noethlichs S,JLwarehouse S,Dudarev Mikhail S,Alejandro_Molina S,Arnold.Petersen S,and Fabian Plock SAbout IRENA The International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA

11、)is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future,and serves as the principal platform for international co-operation,a centre of excellence,and a repository of policy,technology,resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy.IRENA

12、 promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,including bioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solar and wind energy in the pursuit of sustainable development,energy access,energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.www.irena.org3CONTENTSFig

13、ures,tables and boxes .4Abbreviations .5 1 Introduction .61.1Context.61.2Initiatives and projects to drive renewable energy growth .101.3 Social justice and community engagement in renewable energy projects.121.4Objectives and scope.132 Large-scale wind and solar in Sub-Saharan Africa Benefits for l

14、ocal communities .152.1Siting.182.2Ownership.212.3Community development investments.252.4Skill development and employment.272.5Local business development.322.6Community energy and gender aspects.34 3 Discussion of good practices for community benefits .373.1Human rights.373.2Gender equality.393.3Ind

15、igenous peoples.423.4Stakeholder engagement.44 4 Conclusion and recommendations .474.1Conclusion.474.2Recommendations.48References .504BOXESBox 1 Contributions to community development through compliance with the REIPPPP(South Africa).22Box 2 Community trusts as vehicles to implement community share

16、holding and investments.25TABLESTable 1 Local community employment at selected independent power producers.30FIGURESFigure 1 Cumulative carbon dioxide emissions by region,1850-2020.7Figure 2 Investment in renewable energy by region of destination,2013-2022.9Figure 3 Locations of benefit examples.17F

17、igure 4 Potential owners of renewable energy IPP projects.21Figure 5 Weighting of economic development criteria for the evaluation of REIPPPP bids,2011-2022.22Figure 6 Factors influencing local,national and expat employment.285ABBREVIATIONSAfDB African Development BankAfSeM African Single Electricit

18、y MarketASYV Agahozo Shalom Youth VillageCSP concentrated solar powerCSR corporate social responsibility DEI diversity equity and inclusion DFI development finance institution ECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesESIA environmental and social impact assessmentFiT feed-in tariffGDP gross d

19、omestic productGHG greenhouse gasGt gigatonnesGW gigawattIFC International Finance CorporationILO International Labour Organization IPP independent power producerIRENA International Renewable Energy AgencyINSPIRE Initiative for Social Performance in Renewable EnergyKES Kenyan shillingKGRTC Kafue Gor

20、ge Regional Training Centre M&E monitoring and evaluation MW megawattn.d.not datedNGO non-governmental organisationO&M operations and maintenance PV photovoltaicPPA power purchase agreementREIPPPP Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement ProgrammeREMP Rural Energy Master PlanSDG Susta

21、inable Development GoalSEforALL Sustainability Energy for AllSME small and medium enterprisetCO2eq tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalentUSD US dollarZAR South African randUSD figures provided,unless otherwise stated,are 2020 USD values,as referenced in source reports.6 1 INTRODUCTION1.1 ContextThe peo

22、ple of Sub-Saharan Africa find themselves at a crossroads characterised by significant challenges and unique opportunities:an escalating climate crisis,a global push for sustainable development,the rapid evolution of energy systems,geopolitical instability,and continued social injustice and vulnerab

23、ility.Accessible,reliable and affordable energy plays an essential role in human and economic development,especially in improving livelihoods and access to opportunities.As IRENA and the African Development Bank have observed,renewables are crucial to“overcoming energy poverty,providing energy servi

24、ces without damaging human health or ecosystems,and enabling sustainable socio-economic development”(IRENA and AfDB,2022).Furthermore,when considering equitable development,“a transition to a renewables-based energy system in Africa promises substantial gains in gross domestic product(GDP),employmen

25、t and human welfare in each of the continents constitutive regions”(IRENA and AfDB,2022).The challenge of translating renewables potential into tangible gains for people is immense.In 2022,around 83.3%of the global population without access to electricity(571 million people)lived in Sub-Saharan Afri

26、ca(IEA etal.,2024).Low electrification rates hamper the climate resilience of communities by limiting their adaptive capacities and increasing their reliance on environmentally harmful energy sources like fossil-based fuels.Reaching universal electricity access by 2030,as laid out in the Sustainable

27、 Development Goals(SDGs),requires significant effort.As the global shift towards low-carbon energy progresses,it is vital that it does not hinder the development goals of Africa,which contributes just 2.7%of global greehnouse gas(GHG)emissions(Figure 1).It is also important to ensure that the contin

28、ent can harness renewable energy to inclusively address its energy needs in a people-centred,just energy transition(AfDB,2022).To achieve SDG 7(ensuring universal access to clean and affordable energy),Africa must connect around 75millionpeople to electricity each year to 2030.At the same time,about

29、 124million people a year must transition from using unsustainable and inefficient cooking fuels and technologies to efficient options(IEA etal.,2024).11 A lack of access to clean cooking,which affects around 70%of Africas population,contributes to 3.7 million premature deaths annually and dispropor

30、tionately affects women and children(IEA and AfDB,2023a).IntroductIon7Many donor countries and international development finance institutions(DFIs)have adopted a policy approach centred on reforming the electricity sector;creating stable,transparent and predictable environments to attract investment

31、;and establishing norms,standards and frameworks for energy efficiency(AU,n.d.).Addressing these objectives will likely bolster the confidence with which private investors and international DFIs consider investing in large-scale renewable energy projects in Sub-Saharan Africa.However,it has been ack

32、nowledged for several years that the creation of enabling environments could trigger a range of risks for the host communities of large-scale renewable energy projects(IRENA,2017).Many affected communities are geographically and socio-economically marginalised;they exist on the peripheries of develo

33、pment,excluded from reliable energy access and,frequently,from broader development planning and state service delivery(Nzo,2021;Walker,2023).Many of the most promising locations for large-scale solar and wind projects in Sub-Saharan Africa are in rural areas.Meanwhile,many rural residents livelihood

34、s rely on the use of land and other natural resources already vulnerable to the impacts of climate change(World Bank,2022).Based on:Global Carbon Budget,with major processing by Our World in Data(Andrew and Peters,2024).Notes:The United States had the highest share(25%)of cumulative global emissions

35、 between 1850 and 2020.It was followed by the EU27+the United Kingdom,at 22.5%,and China,at 14%.Africas cumulative share is just 2.7%.Further,the average American had a carbon footprint of 14 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(tCO2eq)in 2020,while the average African had a footprint of 0.95 tCO2eq.

36、The required global per capita average to achieve the 1.5C target is 2.0 tCO2eq(AfDB,2022).EU27=27 Member States of the European Union;Gt=gigatonnes.185019001950200020200EU27+United KingdomChinaIndiaAfricaUnited StatesRussian FederationRest of the worldJapan2 0001 5001 000500Cumulative CO2eq emissio

37、ns(Gt)FIGURE 1 Cumulative carbon dioxide emissions by region,1850-2020A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA8An accelerated roll-out of climate and energy solutions with land-intensive requirements would increase competition for land(Sachs

38、 et al.,2023),exacerbating the vulnerabilities of communities living on or around prime renewable energy sites.2 Careful analysis of land use and project siting,focusing on the needs of local populations and the environment,could avoid further marginalisation due to the uneven distribution of benefi

39、ts and costs that have historically been associated with large energy projects(Dolton-Zborowski and Szoke-Burke,2022).In addition,an integrated approach to climate change and land use would recognise the overlapping and disproportionate effects on women,indigenous peoples,and rural and marginalised

40、communities.Thus,the participation,experiences and voices of groups affected by renewable energy development would offer critical knowledge and insights in Sub-Saharan regions with low access to energy and high reliance on land(IRENA,2022).The overlapping global climate and energy crises are driving

41、 accelerated investment in cleaner energy sources worldwide.Between 2010 and 2020,75%of renewable energy investment in Africa went to just four countries whose access to electricity was already significantly higher than others on the continent(Egypt,Kenya,Morocco and South Africa)(IRENA and AfDB,202

42、2).These countries have more established policy and institutional environments and regulations,and provide greater access to finance and markets(IRENA and CPI,2023).They are thus considered to be less risky for investors.Meanwhile,the region as a whole attracted only 1.5%of global renewable energy i

43、nvestment,or some USD41billion,in the same decade(IRENA and CPI,2023).This is even though the continents renewable technical potential is among the greatest of any region.For instance,IRENA and the AfDB estimated its technical potential for solar and wind power at 7 900gigawatts(GW)and 461GW,respect

44、ively,based on a 1%land utilisation factor(IRENA and AfDB,2022).By comparison,in 2023,installed solar capacity in Africa was about 13.5GW,and installed wind capacity about 8.7GW both below 1%of global capacity(IRENA,2024a).Figure 2 shows a declining trend in renewables investments in Sub-Saharan Afr

45、ica,from USD5.3billion in 2019 to less than USD3.6billion in 2022.The gap in global renewable energy investment per capita starkly underlines this situation.In 2021,investment per capita in Europe was 41 times higher than in Sub-Saharan Africa,while it was 57 times higher in North America(IRENA and

46、CPI,2023).The tendency of investments to disproportionately favour established technologies and specific markets underscores a core attribute of mainstream private capital:a preference for low-risk opportunities and a primary focus on financial returns,often at the expense of social,environmental an

47、d climate-related benefits(IRENA and CPI,2023).In so doing,it furthers the energy marginalisation of African countries with less established and less developed regulatory environments.2 It is interesting to note that the land area required to provide a given amount of electricity is higher for solar

48、 photovoltaic(PV)than hydropower and wind power(IEA and IFC,2023).IntroductIon9Where renewable projects have been proposed or developed in Sub-Saharan Africa,a shift in focus towards transmission and distribution systems is evident,to balance energy supply and demand within and across neighbouring c

49、ountries(African Energy,2020).Constraints result predominantly from unreliable and weak electricity grids,high system losses,low access and consumption,and expensive power(African Energy,2020).There has also been a shift from state-led enterprises to private sector investments.The low credit ratings

50、 of many Sub-Saharan African utilities may render them likely to default on debt obligations and less likely to receive new debt from investors(ESMAP,n.d.).Between 2013 and 2020,the cumulative domestic and international investment in renewables was divided 50:50(IRENA and CPI,2023).As anticipated by

51、 the Africa Energy Atlas,covering 2020/2021,by 2022,over half of new renewables capacity would be privately funded(African Energy,2020).Reinforcing this perspective,IRENA and the AfDB estimate that by 2030,private sector financing of renewable power could account for just under 75%,DFI investment co

52、uld account for about 15%and public funding for about 10%(IEA and AfDB,2023b).Source:(IRENA and CPI,2023).20132014201520162017201820192021*2022*20200%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%EuropeEast Asia and PacificNorth America(excluding Mexico)EurasiaSouth AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaOthersLatin America and th

53、e Caribbean40%43%46%41%41%29%42%49%56%66%14%14%13%19%16%23%21%15%15%12%21%20%21%20%14%21%16%19%18%12%8%3%2%10%3%11%2%1%1%2%2%1%2%1%1%2%2%1%0.2%0.2%0.2%0.2%7%8%4%5%2%5%6%7%6%5%15%6%5%3%13%6%5%2%7%5%4%4%5%3%2%4%3%3%FIGURE 2 Investment in renewable energy by region of destination,2013-2022A JUST ENERGY

54、 TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA101.2 Initiatives and projects to drive renewable energy growthMultilateral development banks,DFIs and Sub-Saharan African policy makers have been making efforts specifically to improve Africas policy environment i

55、n order to reverse the“flagging investment”trend discussed above(IRENA and AfDB,2022),making investment in renewable energy projects easier to finance than most other types.Renewables-based projects have increased since 2020 as a result,with solar photovoltaic(PV)in the lead(IRENA,2024a).Importantly

56、,in 2021,the African Union launched the new African Single Electricity Market(AfSEM),touted as the largest single electricity market and serving a population of 1.3billion.By linking the continents various energy strategies and action plans,the AfSEM intends to cultivate a consistent regulatory fram

57、ework and integrate national generation,transmission and distribution master plans(IRENA and AfDB,2022).Several Sub-Saharan utility-scale solar and wind projects are already under development or in operation.On balance,these projects are clustered in southern Africa,and the most significant number o

58、f operational projects is in a single country South Africa since the inception of South Africas Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme(REIPPPP)in 2011,13 422 megawatts(MW)of renewable energy have been procured from independent power producers(IPPs)in six bid rounds3(IPPO,2

59、024).As of March 2024,95 IPP projects were operational,providing 7 335MW of electricity capacity for integration into South Africas national power grid(IPPO,2024).There are far fewer utility-scale wind and solar PV facilities elsewhere in the region.Existing energy sources like oil,gas and hydropowe

60、r pose health and environmental risks,while utility-scale wind and solar PV development is hindered because electricity utilities do not have investment-grade credit ratings amid other investment disincentives,mentioned above(IRENA and AfDB,2022).Also,feed-in tariff(FiT)mechanisms have failed to gen

61、erate substantial investments.Furthermore,unsolicited and negotiated power purchase agreements(PPAs),which lacked transparency and were often initiated under emergency supply contexts,have resulted in high-cost systems with overcapacity.4 The increased structured procurement processes,particularly a

62、uctions and,to a lesser and declining degree,FiTs,may have contributed to a more transparent and predictable investment environment as their implementation coincides with increased renewables investment in Sub-Saharan Africa(IRENA and AfDB,2022).3 BWR 1-6 of the REIPPPP itself,not counting battery s

63、torage procurement(IPPO,2024).4 Ghana has placed a moratorium on PPAs until more sustainable contracting mechanisms are developed(IRENA and AfDB,2022).IntroductIon11To encourage,facilitate and manage the anticipated surge in renewable energy development in Sub-Saharan Africa,international agencies,d

64、onors and other partners or national governments have provided their support to relevant initiatives and projects.The International Finance Corporations(IFCs)Scaling Solar programme has been a driver of some large-scale projects in the region;tenders for and projects in Zambia,Senegal,Madagas car an

65、d Ethiopia have been announced.The AfDB is investing USD20billion in the Desert to Power Programme,which will provide 10 000MW of solar power to 250million people across 11 countries in the Sahel and East Africa region,which will in turn become the worlds largest solar zone(IEA and AfDB,2023b).The A

66、fDB has also funded the Lake Turkana wind project in Kenya,the largest wind farm in Sub-Saharan Africa with a capacity of 310MW(IEA and AfDB,2023b).Germanys development bank,KfW,has provided support for setting up auctions and solar PV grid integration through its“GET FiT”programme in countries like

67、 Uganda and Zambia.The West Africa Clean Energy Corridor was initiated in 2017 as a regional initiative to support the development and integration of utility-scale power from renewable energy resources into West Africas power systems.The African Union launched the AfSEM on 3 June 2021.The implementa

68、tion of the AfSEM will be supported by the completion of the Continental Power System Masterplan by the African Union Development Agency,NEPAD.Following the launch of the AfSEM,in September 2023,Kenya,Ethiopia,Namibia,Rwanda,Sierra Leone and Zimbabwe,with support from Denmark,Germany,the United Arab

69、 Emirates and IRENA,launched the Accelerated Partnership for Renewables in Africa(APRA)to accelerate the energy transition in these countries.These and other national and regional initiatives for renewable energy deployment span activities utilising various project development approaches.The activit

70、ies include government auctions inviting the private sector into project development,projects developed by the private sector for state or other off-takers,and government-led and-owned projects.Since 2010,25 countries have announced auctions,5 totalling 22GW of capacity,of which over 13GW have been

71、awarded,predominantly for solar projects(IRENA and AfDB,2022).6 Most of the procured capacity has been in southern Africa,weighted by South Africas extensive power system and economy and its REIPPPP.IRENA has highlighted that the long-term success of auctions increases with the implementation of a p

72、rocess that aligns with policy objectives and creates a balance among objectives that sometimes diverge(IRENA,2018).In this context,more than technical and economic considerations matter.Crucially,auction design can support environmental and socio-economic development goals(IRENA and AfDB,2022).5Amo

73、ng these countries are Ethiopia,Ghana,Malawi,Mauritius,Namibia,South Africa,Uganda and Zambia.6 It must be highlighted,though,that the volume of cancelled or delayed auction capacity in Africa is almost 40%(IRENA and AfDB,2022).A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PRO

74、JECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA121.3 Social justice and community engagement in renewable energy projectsMary Robinson,former President of Ireland and Chair of The Elders,cautions in her introduction to Renewable Energy and Human Rights Benchmark:Key Findings for the Wind and Solar Sectors,that although

75、 the climate crisis cannot be averted without a rapid expansion of the renewable energy industry,a“net-zero carbon future can and must go hand in hand with sustainable development,poverty reduction and reducing inequality”(BHRRC,2021).Meeting the requirements of SDG 7 to ensure“affordable,reliable,s

76、ustainable and modern energy for all”and the African Unions Aspiration Goals 1 and 7 are challenges rendered more urgent and simultaneously more difficult by the impacts of climate change,to which Sub-Saharan Africa is particularly vulnerable despite being the least responsible(RES4Africa,2023).Larg

77、e-scale wind and solar projects hold great promise for poorer countries and communities historically lacking access to affordable and reliable power and the associated development opportunities(IFC,2019).However,it is also necessary to acknowledge that the implementation of renewable energy projects

78、can create fresh social injustices,much as they may be intended to address the fundamental and urgentcrisis of climate change(Baker,2023).Emerging social injustices may touch on a variety of critical areas,including community dynamics,economic inequalities and political governance.In communities,for

79、ced displacements and expropriations,ownership,job opportunities,and revenues are often distributed disproportionately;while certain groups enjoy favour,others are marginalised.A lack of genuine consultation and participation can hamper effective community engagement and buy-in.Economic inequalities

80、 may be exacerbated as nations incur more debt to build infrastructure,leading to further financial distress.When political and governance injustices persist,they can undermine equitable development.Therefore,the concept of energy justice in renewable energy projects goes beyond simply mitigating th

81、e adverse impacts of projects,as required by national legislation and international standards,and recognises the rights of affected communities to benefit from such projects.How these projects are designed and implemented will shape the legacy of renewable energy.They could evoke the negative experi

82、ences often associated with the extractive mining industry if not executed well.Conversely,they could earn lasting acceptance from local communities,securing a social licence to operate.The key here is meaningful community engagement throughout project design and development.By including local knowl

83、edge and considering local circumstances,these projects could secure a positive legacy and deliver numerous benefits for communities(AEIC,n.d.;Norton Rose Fullbright,2020).There is a growing focus on the social justice and social performance aspects of renewables-based projects along the entire supp

84、ly chain,especially from the perspectives of human rights,gender,indigenous peoples and vulnerability(BHRRC,2023;Timperley,2022).In addition,according to IRENA and the International Labour Organizations Renewable Energy and Jobs publication(IRENA and ILO,2022),“governments,civil society groups and a

85、cademics are increasingly scrutinising industry practices in the commodity sector with regard to environmental and labour standards,consequences for local communities,and impacts on jobs and job quality”.IntroductIon13In the context of an equitable and just energy transition,social justice goes far

86、beyond the basic provision of energy it calls for an equitable distribution of resources and opportunities,ensuring that the most vulnerable sections of society are not left behind.At the heart of this lies the emerging practice of“social performance”,which refers to“the outcome of a companys engage

87、ment,activities and commitments that can,directly and indirectly,impact stakeholders or affect the quality of its relationships with them”(ICMM,2022).This professional approach to corporate-community relationships promotes an inclusive approach to project implementation by ensuring that the developm

88、ent needs of local communities are thoroughly addressed(Mbungu and Helgenberger,2021).As the renewable energy sector endeavours to leave a lasting positive legacy for community stakeholders,it becomes imperative to view every initiative,project or intervention through this lens of social performance

89、(IASS,2022).Prevailing evidence indicates that,amid its dynamic growth,there is room for the renewable energy sector to advance in terms of social performance(Funder etal.,2021;TENTRANS,2021;Wlokas etal.,2017).Organisations such as the Business&Human Rights Resource Centre and the Initiative for Soc

90、ial Performance in Renewable Energy(INSPIRE),along with numerous think tanks and intermediary bodies active in the field,are advocating for the development of more robust capacity within the sector(INSPIRE,2021;JustRE Alliance,2024).1.4 Objectives and scopeThe prospect of harnessing the community be

91、nefits of renewable energy projects is receiving more attention across multiple countries.However,as the amplified energy crisis pressures governments for urgent solutions,some of the requirements for meaningful community participation,often a time-consuming process,are at risk of going unmet.There

92、is a crucial need for a more focused study of this topic,especially in Sub-Saharan African countries,where the social impacts and justice implications of large-scale renewable energy infrastructure projects remain under-researched.Large-scale wind and solar projects appear particularly viable since

93、the energy needs in the region are very high,the electrification rate is low,the region is rich in renewable resources and the potential for economic and social windfall is considerable.These projects could be sources of employment,local economic diversification and increased access to energy key de

94、velopment imperatives.Their realisation would also be crucial in the global transition to a renewable-energy-based energy system to mitigate climate change.Yet,little comprehensive work has been done to research the social impacts and justice implications of these projects in Sub-Saharan Africa(Bish

95、oge,Kombe and Mvile,2020;Farghali etal.,2023;IRENA,2024b;KfW etal.,2021;Sokona etal.,2023).This report contributes to this critical yet under-studied area.Adopting a qualitative approach,it explores the spectrum of community benefits from implementing large-scale on-shore solar and wind energy proje

96、cts,and identifies good practices.The study aims to contribute to a growing knowledge base informing policy design for a just energy transition.The research highlights practices and principles that can lead to greater justice through shared benefits.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SC

97、ALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA14Data from various projects across five Sub-Saharan African countries(South Africa,Kenya,Namibia,Senegal and Zambia)were initially collected through site visits and semi-structured interviews with stakeholders in 2017.More information was compiled in

98、 2023 after an extensive review of relevant literature,and nine further expert and industry interviews,7,8 with additional project examples from Cabo Verde,Rwanda and the Republic of Tanzania.The key objectives of this report are to:Explore current approaches to community participation in,benefits f

99、rom,and ownership of large-scale wind and solar projects aiming for social justice and sustainability.Examine the potential for integrating improved practices into policy making,considering the specific contexts of various Sub-Saharan African countries.Deepen knowledge and understanding of stakehold

100、er experiences in large-scale renewable energy projects.Explore and highlight reasons for failures to create enduring local benefits where possible.Inform policy development considerations based on the research outcomes.This report is structured to explore community benefits from large-scale renewab

101、le energy in Sub-Saharan Africa.Section 2 offers practical examples of a broad spectrum of benefit-sharing activities from projects across the region and highlights examples of applicable good practices.Section 3 shares considerations relevant to implementing sustainable and transformative community

102、 benefits.Section 4 consolidates findings from the literature and practice examples to present actionable recommendations,ensuring the report serves as a concise guide for stakeholders in the renewable energy sector.7 All interviews were followed up with email correspondence for deeper discussions.T

103、he authors kept minutes of the interviews and records of exchanges.Respondents names,companies and projects were anonymised for this study,to allow the report to focus on relevant insights and practices.8 Unless otherwise noted and cited,the information and analysis in this report draw on project si

104、te visits in the following countries:South Africa(with by far the most projects),Kenya,Namibia,Senegal and Zambia.159 To obtain a so-called social licence,a project or company secures long-term support and co-operation through respect for local values and sustainable practices.In other words,it gain

105、s the ongoing acceptance and approval of local communities and stakeholders through trust and transparency,active community engagement in project-related decision making and equitable distribution of project benefits.2 LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA BENEFITS FOR LOCAL COMMUNITIES T

106、he practical response to the need for social justice and transformation is for renewable energy projects to ensure they are designed and implemented to maximise regional,national and local development outcomes.Local community engagement should be promoted in all project-related decisions,benefit-sha

107、ring mechanisms,local capacity developed through training,and environmental and social safeguards implemented and integrated with wider economic development plans.Without this effort,projects risk adversely impacting the industrys reputation and local stakeholders,and communities may reject them.Pro

108、jects need to benefit communities in order to secure and maintain a social licence9 to operate;projects are likely to obtain that licence if they sustain approval from the local community and other stakeholders(SociaLicense,n.d.).While renewable energy projects should have the ability to secure and

109、maintain a social licence to operate,for them to generate a flow of shared community benefits,they typically need to comply with legal/regulatory and financier requirements,have the ability to access land and resources,have the ability to secure the needed approvals,comply with industry standards/be

110、nchmarks and maintain reputational benefits,which can help developers gain a competitive advantage(IFC,2019).A few examples illustrate the costs of renewables projects not being able to secure or maintain a social licence to operate.Kenyas Kinangop-based 60MW,USD144million wind project reached finan

111、cial close in 2013 but failed to advance to the construction phase because conflicts with the local community created material delays and depleted project funding(Reuters,2016).More recent examples of delayed and stopped renewable energy projects in developing and emerging countries reinforce this f

112、inding(Timperley,2022).Establishing a social licence to operate is mission-critical not only for a given project but also for the industry at large,and,by extension,for the success of the energy transition globally.Renewable energy is gaining prominence at a time when societys expectations of natura

113、l-resource-based industries are increasingly articulate.Free,prior and informed consent,and appropriate compensation in case of economic displacement or resettlement are key markers of successful projects.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AF

114、RICA16The social performance of companies is guided by existing frameworks related to practices,and by public policies and regulations(e.g.IFCs Performance Standards,REIPPPP requirements in South Africa).International bodies like the Social Practice Forum10 are developing new frameworks and approach

115、es.One of the current work streams of the Social Practice Forum is rethinking social impact assessments.As per the current practice,such assessments to ascertain project-related risks and impacts are conducted once the project design is confirmed.From a more transformation-oriented social performanc

116、e perspective,assessments would instead lead the design process,guided by data on local socio-economic conditions,which will aid in tailoring projects to suit and support a specific social context.Legislation could enable the comprehensive appraisal of social and environment impacts through mandator

117、y environmental impact assessments(EIAs)and environmental and social impact assessments(ESIAs)of projects.The purpose of these assessments is to identify and mitigate probable detrimental effects,promote sustainable development and build community trust.As the outcomes from the Social Practice Forum

118、 gather momentum,they could influence industry practices and policies that emphasise the upfront integration of environmental and social factors.However,current practices that surfaced in the interviews conducted for this report contrast with the points outlined above.There is an assumption that lim

119、ited impact assessments,with a superficial understanding of the social environment,are adequate for renewable energy projects based on the presumption that social impacts are known,contained or manageable.Assessments commonly only involve stakeholders passively and peripherally rather than consideri

120、ng the value of community participation or engagement at the project design stage.As outlined previously,this approach constitutes a significant risk for the renewable energy industrys reputation and its prospects as it perpetrates existing unjust power dynamics.Nonetheless,some wind and solar proje

121、cts in Sub-Saharan Africa are already creating promising and transformative approaches to ensure the inclusion and participation of communities.As presented in the following“benefit insights”,the projects display noteworthy examples of how to partner with communities in ownership arrangements(Kenya

122、and South Africa),and with non-typical landowners,including not-for-profit organisations and local authorities(Namibia and Rwanda);the incorporation of local and regional skill development strategies into a project(Zambia);internship and employment opportunities creating access to the industry among

123、 local communities(Kenya,Namibia,Senegal,South Africa,the United Republic of Tanzania,and Uganda);community-inclusive procurement of services(South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania);and community access to modern,clean and safe energy services(Senegal,South Africa,the United Republic of Ta

124、nzania,and Zambia).This chapter,which presents insights from specific projects(see Figure 3 for locations),discusses key benefits in terms of project siting(2.1),ownership(2.2),community development investments(2.3),skill development and employment(2.4),local procurement(2.5)and community energy(2.6

125、).10 The Social Practice Forum is a global membership-based organisation of social performance practitioners,most from advanced economies.For more information,see https:/socialpracticeforum.org.Large-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes17Disclaimer:This map is pr

126、ovided for illustration purposes only.Boundaries and names shown do not imply any endorsement or acceptance by IRENA.SitingOwnershipCommunity development investmentSkills development and employmentLocal procurementCommunity energyWind projectSolar PV project1967531315144210111216192017188SenegalCabo

127、VerdeKenyaUnited Republicof TanzaniaZambiaNamibiaRwandaSouth Africa FIGURE 3 Locations of benefit examplesA JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA182.1 SitingLand acquisition strategies determine where projects are sited.In Sub-Saharan Afric

128、a,projects are generally either located on land owned and prepared for them by the national government,or on land accessed via negotiations with communal stakeholders or land leased from commercial farmers.Especially in South Africa,where the countrys colonial and Apartheid history heavily influence

129、 land ownership arrangements,projects are sited on land leased from commercial farmers.On the other hand,across the majority of Sub-Saharan Africa,land is predominantly owned by respective states but is managed under communal governance,a system under which land is collectively held and managed base

130、d on traditional customs and rules(Slavchevska etal.,2020).Depending on the renewable energy technology deployed,land for renewable energy projects can be used for diverse activities during development and operations.Wind farms occupy land across potentially vast areas and mostly allow for mixed use

131、,including livestock grazing and agricultural activities,during operations.However,solar PV and concentrated solar power(CSP)projects typically require more exclusive land use rights(though agrivoltaics may offer greater flexibility)(IRENA and FAO,2021).While renewable energy project development is

132、increasingly picking up pace in the region,several challenges related to land ownership have emerged.In some cases,land use for large-scale renewable energy development requires resettling people and leads to pre-existing economic activities getting displaced(SMRI,2022;USAID,2018).The issue of custo

133、mary land ownership and the absence of land titles in such cases introduces complications(Nolte etal.,2022;Zimmerer,2013).Complex socio-cultural and political milieus not only pose a challenge for project developers to navigate,they can also eventually hinder the success of projects.Project-induced

134、resettlement triggers several human rights and socio-economic risks and impacts,including the disintegration of social support systems;disruption of womens economic activities;loss of dwellings,agricultural lands,trees,wells,shops and commercial buildings;and loss of businesses,jobs and income(CCSI,

135、2022;UNOHCHR,2022).Therefore,not only should land use and acquisition by public and private sector developers be approached with great care,but significant support through government policies and agencies is also required to enable good results for all relevant stakeholders.Inclusive land acquisitio

136、n strategies offer better prospects for local communities,for example,direct financial participation and land share rights,and a greater ability to co-determine project outcomes.However,these engagement processes are complex and sensitive.Few companies have the required in-house skills,and,as a resu

137、lt,most rely on specialised external firms.At the same time,communities and even local authorities in Sub-Saharan Africa also typically need more experience and skills to negotiate outcomes effectively or understand the ownership structures,legal implications and opportunities of different options.T

138、hey often do not have the economic resources to secure professional support.Large-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes19Various land use arrangements are seen operating within these types of restrictions in Sub-Saharan Africa.When such arrangements succeed,it app

139、ears to be due to focused engagement with local stakeholders to identify and foster fruitful partnerships.Projects must include strategic stakeholder engagement and long-term commitment and vision from the beginning and throughout their life cycle.Examples exist of land partnerships involving divers

140、e actors,including local governments,farmer co-operatives and non-governmental organisations(NGOs),resulting in projects involving a wider variety of landowners securing benefits for them through land lease income.The discussion below offers a sketch of five cases:two solar and three wind projects.1

141、Rwanda:Solar project on NGO landAgahozo Shalom Youth Village(ASYV)is an NGO established in a Rwandan village by Ms.Anne Heyman,a South Africanborn lawyer who gave up her legal career in New York and devoted herself to philanthropy.The idea of the youth village,which was established for orphaned teen

142、agers,was inspired by an example from Israel of residential communities for children whom the Holocaust had orphaned in the late 1940s.The ASYV has shelters,through which it serves vulnerable children and young adults who were orphaned during or after the 1994 genocide in Rwanda.About 500 young Rwan

143、dans live,study and play in the 144 acre residential community.In February 2014,Dutch solar developer Gigawatt Global developed an 8.5MW solar PV plant on a portion of ASYVs unused land.Scatec is the project contractor responsible for engineering,procurement and construction.The plant now generates

144、rental income for the NGO to support its core operations through the land lease payments.The construction of the solar plant has also created jobs.All unskilled labour for the project has been hired locally,and over 350 workers have received training to work on-site during construction.2South Africa

145、:Wind developer leases land from a farming co-operativeThe Wesley-Ciskei Wind Farm leases land from a 28-member farmer co-operative,which was established to serve as a contractual partner in the wind project.As part of the process,the developer financially and legally supported the farmers on commun

146、al land to acquire land title deeds.This was made possible through the corporate culture of a project development team that prioritised the potential socio-economic benefits to the landowners and made the required resources available(e.g.access to a relevant network of professionals to support the p

147、rocess).3Namibia:Wind farm on Town Council land The Namibia-based Ombepo Wind Farm was constructed in 2016 and began commercial operation in December 2018.Ombepo Energy(Pty)Ltd,a wind farm company with 95%and 5%ownership,respectively,by InnoSun Energy Holding(Pty)Ltd and the Lderitz Town Council(ECC

148、,2020),operates a 10MW-rated wind power facility in the town of Lderitz.This wind farm was developed in a unique partnership with the local authority,the Town Council.The three wind turbines of this wind farm are located on land owned by the Town Council.The council benefits through extra income fro

149、m the lease,which helps it to strengthen its budget to fund essential community services.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA4Namibia:Solar project reuses former mining landThe Oranemund Solar Project was developed on land formerly used

150、for mining.Though challenging to reuse for productive purposes,such land is typically already connected to infrastructure such as roads or transmission lines.Utilisation of unproductive land,as in this case,can,depending on customary land rights and national legislation,ease land access processes an

151、d minimise the displacement of people or economic activities.5Kenya:Wind farm shares ownership with Maasai landownersThe 100MW Kipeto Wind Farm,located within a Maasai community,has set up a partnership with local landowners.The projects multiple landowners receive a rental per wind turbine on their

152、 land.The rental is calculated on 1.4%of the revenue generated by a turbine and is paid at agreed intervals.Andrew Linscott S,Colin N.Perkel S,Yaroslav Astakhov S and Irede SLarge-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes212.2 OwnershipLarge-scale wind and solar proje

153、cts in Sub-Saharan Africa are mostly privately owned based on an IPP model,but ownership structures are sometimes more diverse and may include national,provincial and local authorities.Communities,depending on their level of involvement,can be represented through individuals,households or community-

154、based organisations(Figure 4).Experience in Europe suggests that community ownership presents an exceptional opportunity for IPPs to stimulate local economic development.In some countries,communities drive project development themselves,either with direct government support(e.g.in Denmark,Germany an

155、d the United Kingdom)or independently(e.g.in Australia,Canada and New Zealand).Namibia and South Africa are the only known countries in Sub-Saharan Africa to have implemented renewable energy procurement rules that require IPPs to share some ownership with disadvantaged groups or host communities.Bo

156、x 1 provides more details on South Africas REIPPPP.COMMUNITYIndividualsHouseholdsCommunity organisationsSTATENational governmentProvincial/county governmentLocal government/authoritiesCOMPANYMultinational companyNational companyInvestors/banks FIGURE 4 Potential owners of renewable energy IPP projec

157、tskevin ouma S and Douw de Jager SA JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA22Box 1 Contributions to community development through compliance with the REIPPPP(South Africa)The Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme(R

158、EIPPPP)is unique in the world for its commitment to energy security and economic development objectives.It sets a powerful example on the continent for what can be expected of large-scale energy infrastructure.Under the programme,independent power producers are mandated to comply with an economic de

159、velopment scorecard,which specifies expectations in terms of national and local benefits across seven areas:job creation,local content,ownership,management control,preferential procurement,enterprise development and socio-economic development.Bidders are required to make contractual commitments towa

160、rds these criteria(see Figure 5 for details,as mandated between 2011 and 2022).Project bid evaluation rules initially assigned the economic development commitments a weight of 30%,while the price offered for electricity counted for 70%.Later,this was amended to a 10:90 ratio.Since 2023,however,econo

161、mic development commitments are no longer mandatory(Engineering News,2023).This change contrasts with the ongoing negotiations of the South African government in the Just Energy Transition Partnership with international collaborators,where there is an emphasis on community and social ownership of re

162、newable energy projects.Moreover,this change poses new challenges for project developers,as the public expects the REIPPPP to continue delivering related benefits.The economic development criteria did have a significant impact,as the discussion below indicates.Source:(Eberhard et al.,2014;Eberhard a

163、nd Naude,2017;WWF,2015).PreferentialprocurementManagementcontrolEnterprisedevelopmentJob creation15%25%Local content25%OwnershipSocio-economicdevelopment15%10%5%5%FIGURE 5 Weighting of economic development criteria for the evaluation of REIPPPP bids,2011-2022Large-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan

164、 afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes23Ownership of project shares and/or project land are two important economic levers in renewable energy projects.If organised well,and depending on the size and profitability of an IPP project,shareholding-related dividend flows can be substantial,especially for

165、 community organisations in rural,sparsely populated and economically depressed areas.However,addressing the risks and challenges inherent in the process requires designing community ownership through appropriate structures.Often,for instance,community shareholding does not include voting rights in

166、the project company and thus represents a passive form of ownership that does not adequately confer required legitimacy and decision-making authority to communities.In some instances,such ownership is locked in for a specific time.The REIPPPP,for example,was quickly criticised for stipulating a thre

167、e-year lock-in following the start of commercial operations of the power plants(Baker etal.,2015).Preferential procurement is a strategy designed to give preference to specific types of suppliers,including those that comply with the broad-based Black economic empowerment(BBBEE)policy,qualifying smal

168、l enterprises,exempted micro enterprises and women-owned vendors.As of the end of March 2024,83%of the total procurement of ZAR90.2billion was spent on BBBEE-compliant enterprises,of which 77%were under construction and the remainder in operation(IPPO,2024).Black shareholding seeks to ensure that So

169、uth Africans,especially those classified as beneficiaries of Black economic empowerment,have a significant share in IPP projects.The procurement conditions require at least 40%of each project to be owned by South African entities.In practice,this requirement has been exceeded;54%of the total equity(

170、ZAR34.8billion)is held by South Africans.On average,Black South Africans own 38%of these projects,which is 8%higher than the target.Additionally,Black South Africans hold a 22%share in engineering,procurement and construction contractors and a 31%share in operating companies both above the respectiv

171、e targets.Job creationIPPs in South Africa have created a cumulative total of 78 075 job years for South African citizens during construction and operation.To date,13 315 employment opportunities have been created for women and 38 728 job years for youth(IPPO,2024).Across the nine provinces of South

172、 Africa,45 378employment opportunities have been created for local communities,although 63%of these jobs were generated in a single province,the Northern Cape,where the majority of renewable energy projects have been built.Community investmentsAs of March 2023,IPPs collectively invested ZAR3billion(

173、USD162million)in socio-economic and enterprise development(three-quarters of this sum went to socio-economic development and the rest to enterprise development).Community ownershipCommunity shareholding is allocated to entities representing local communities residing in a 50-kilometre radius around

174、project sites or living within the district municipal boundaries(IPPO,2024).Local communities own an average of 9%of the overall project shareholding,exceeding the 5%target.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAThe following are two exampl

175、es of the participation of non-corporate shareholders in project ownership structures.6Namibia:Wind farm shares ownership with Town Council The Lderitz Town Council holds a 5%share in the local wind farm,financed through a land provision(ECC,2020).An annual lease payment benefits the councils budget

176、.Various other town councils have followed suit.They benefit from this additional funding stream,which helps improve their financial capacity to deliver services and foster local economic development.7Zambia:Renewable energy training centre builds and owns a wind projectThe Kafue Gorge Regional Trai

177、ning Centre(KGRTC)is a registered non-profit trust in Zambia,controlled by a regional board of trustees from the centre itself as well as from Eswatini,Malawi,the United Republic of Tanzania,Uganda,Zambia and Zimbabwe.The centre,which was established in 1989 and presently has a staff of 63,was estab

178、lished to focus on capacity building in the hydropower sector.It is now developing wind and solar projects sited on land owned by ZESCO,a state-owned power company.The two projects are in different phases of development;the 7.5MW wind project is in a more mature stage(an environmental and social imp

179、act assessment ESIA for it will be conducted next to identify potential gaps and secure financing to advance to construction).Jez Bennett S,Riccardo Mayer S,kavram S and Marieke Peche SLarge-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes252.3 Community development investme

180、ntsWhether motivated by their own commitments,driven by stakeholder expectations or mandated by regulations and policy requirements,private-sector-owned projects in the region are sharing benefits through community development investments.Less evidence exists of government-owned projects doing so.In

181、vestments range from donations and sponsorship,to support for the establishment of new community development organisations.Increasingly,project companies establish new community trusts or foundations,as ownership-sharing entities and often also to make community investments(see Box 2 for a brief des

182、cription).Box 2 Community trusts as vehicles to implement community shareholding and investmentsGlobally and in other natural-resource-based sectors,trusts or foundations are a common vehicle for the implementation of community development investments(IFC,2015).Community trusts serve as a vehicle fo

183、r community development,and,in South Africa,also function as vehicles for community ownership,ensuring that communities have a direct stake.Trusts are non-profit organisations commonly governed by boards of trustees,which include members elected by communities,company representatives and an independ

184、ent trustee.The inclusion of community-elected members allows communities to have a direct say in how benefits are distributed.Good practice aspires for at least 50%female representation in the board of trustees,which in turn facilitates the incorporation of gender sensitivity while prioritising ben

185、efit needs.A good practice is to involve trustees in capacity development activities to promote the broad range of skills needed to govern and operate impactful community trusts.The board of trustees of the community trust of the Kenya-based Kipeto wind project controls the income received from the

186、ownership of 5%of the diluted equity in Kipeto Energy Limited to support the wider community surrounding the proposed wind farm development at Kipeto.In South Africa,all but one independent power producer(IPP)partnered with a trust in response to the governments requirement for a community sharehold

187、ing entity.South Africas unique procurement programme requirements,which mandate allocating a minimum of 2.5%of the overall project shares to an entity representing local communities,have led to the establishment of over 100 new IPP-related community trusts since 2011.Shareholding is predominantly f

188、inanced through loans from local development finance institutions.Geoff Sperring SA JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA26Examples of community investments include the following.8Kenya:Wind farm invests in community capacity for developmen

189、tThe wind farm developer supported the establishment of a community trust for local development initiatives.It pledged KES20million during construction and an annual 5%of the net revenue during operations.The establishment of the trust has been a complex process,involving negotiations with the ident

190、ified beneficiaries.Inclusive and culturally respectful consultations,formalised through a Community Implementation Committee,ensure all stakeholder groups are represented.Initial project assumptions defining the area of influence where benefits to be shared have been reviewed thanks to robust stake

191、holder engagement.Further,a new baseline study is being undertaken in recognition of the need for strategic planning.The baseline study will inform the existing Community Investment Plan,which determines the spending of the trusts funds.Thanks to a pre-construction vocational skill training programm

192、e for approximately 200 local youth,about 150 such youth,including women,found jobs in construction.Careful legal agreements,dispute resolution mechanisms and house-building initiatives were implemented to strengthen community ties.Further,the projects commitment to biodiversity conservation,especia

193、lly vulture protection,has not only benefitted the environment but has included training people,in turn generating ongoing employment,and has raised environmental awareness across local community groups.As part of its short-term budget,the developer also refurbished the Olyankalani Clinic in Kipeto,

194、benefitting over 5 000 residents across multiple areas.During the recent drought,which severely affected peoples access to food and livelihoods and devastated their livestock,the project provided food parcels on an ad hoc basis.9Cabo Verde:Wind farms investment in developing environmental education

195、and skillsThe Cabeolica Wind Farm was established in 2009 and began generating power in September 2011.The project feeds electricity into the power grids of the four islands on which it has installations:Sao Vicente,Santiago,Sal and Boa Vista.The electricity supply into the power grids reduces power

196、 cuts and helps generate significant savings in fuel costs.Local communities around the farms are guided by a detailed and unique social and environmental plan.For instance,after the construction of the Santiago-based wind farm,small farmers whose cattle previously grazed on the land purchased by th

197、e wind farm were allowed to return under agreed safety conditions.In addition to these benefits,since 2013,the project has invested in an environmental education programme in schools and local communities that aspires to promote awareness of the need to conserve local species and the importance of r

198、enewable energy.This initiative aligns with efforts to promote the recovery of bird species populations on Boa Vista and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.The environmental programme has a different theme each year to cultivate interest among the students and address concerns related to the islands bi

199、rdlife.Large-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes2710South Africa:Solar project invests in strategic community developmentThe 36MW Touwsrivier Concentrated PV Solar Project is located 13kilometres outside the town of Touwsrivier in the Western Cape.The project is

200、 owned by Soitec,the South African governments employee pension fund,Pele Energy Group and the local community,which holds a 5%share.While the projects ongoing maintenance and security operations provide jobs for approximately 35 people,it also strategically invests in community development.In line

201、with government regulation,the project invests a percentage of its revenue quarterly into the community.These funds helped establish a hydroponics farm that hired 30 individuals,while at the same time supporting improvements to the local primary school.The community investments and the community tru

202、st also fund the Touwsriviers Socio-Economic and Enterprise Development programme to improve residents lives through education,skill development and enterprise development support.Bursaries assist with academic studies,offer enterprise development support for local businesses and showcase local prod

203、ucts and services through an annual career fair.The implementing company,Knowledge Pele,hosts an annual Investment Summit to raise further capital to support community development programmes.2.4 Skill development and employmentGlobally,the renewable energy sector employed 13.7million people in 2022(

204、IRENA and ILO,2023).Of these,only an estimated 320 000 are in Africa 2.3%of the global number.Solar PV provided 4.9million,or one-third,of all renewables-related jobs.In an energy transition aligned with the Paris Agreement(the 1.5C Scenario),renewable energy employment could grow significantly,to 4

205、0million by 2050,of which solar would represent about 45%.Sub-Saharan Africa would have 3.5million,or 9%,of global renewable energy jobs(solar representing one-third)(IRENA,2023).Sustainable energy production could be a significant source of employment in Africa,thus playing an important role in pov

206、erty eradication.Regarding gender inequality,renewables are also expected to improve the female labour force participation rate,especially in the solar energy sector.Currently,women working in solar energy hold 40%of the total jobs available for both men and women;this is double the percentage for t

207、he wind industry(21%),and the oil and gas sector(22%)(IRENA,2022).The availability of skilled personnel and the depth of local supply chains in a country strongly influence the degree to which it can leverage employment opportunities from renewable energy projects.Most Sub-Saharan IPPs interviewed f

208、or this report rely heavily on imported equipment,components and specialised services.Domestically manufactured inputs remain limited,notwithstanding efforts such as local content targets in South Africa(as discussed in the previous section)or Ugandan IPPs quantitative targets for local procurement.

209、A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAThis is partly because the local renewable energy market is too small and growth projections remain uncertain,making it difficult to justify long-term investments in such capacity building.The scale of

210、 a project,and thus employment opportunities,can offer leverage for building local capacity as well.The balance between local,national and expatriate employment varies considerably across projects,technologies and countries,and depends primarily on the cost and availability of skills near the IPP.Fi

211、gure 6 shows key overall drivers that influence decisions to hire locals versus expats.The procurement frameworks and the transition policy have been the most effective drivers to incentivise large-scale local and citizen employment,particularly in South Africa.POLICYRenewable energyprogrammes and p

212、olicyTransformation,employmentand labour policyCorporate policyInternational standards Financial loan termsTECHNOLOGYTechnical expertise requiredand availability within thecompany and countryConcentration anddistribution of projectsHUMAN RESOURCE COSTSRelocation and lifestyleTraining and recruitment

213、Management decisionsGeographical attractionOpportunity for growthLOCAL COMMUNITYCONTEXTLocal demographicsand skill levelCommunity expectationsPower dynamics of culturaland social practiceWork ethicSHAREHOLDING ANDCORPORATE STRUCTURESRisk mitigationProject pipeline andregional footprintFactorsinfuenc

214、ing local,national and expatemployment FIGURE 6 Factors influencing local,national and expat employmentpixdeluxe ,Miaron Billy S and Chokniti-Studio SLarge-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes29Some anecdotal insights are available from IPPs in the countries stud

215、ied for this report:In Uganda,the picture is mixed.The entirety of the operations and maintenance(O&M)workforce is composed of Ugandan nationals,including skilled and unskilled individuals,whereas the construction teams are mainly expats.In other segments of the value chain,the more specialised the

216、skill requirements,the less likely that workers can be sourced locally.However,there is potential for skill transfer within the region,since many companies and individuals previously engaged in contracts in South Africa can bring relevant expertise.In Namibia,a considerable South African presence re

217、flects the expertise gained under the REIPPPP.Many senior construction company managers were expats from South Africa.However,construction teams and subcontractors were largely Namibian,due to excellent engineering capacities in the construction industry.In Senegal,as in Uganda,skilled construction

218、activities were mostly carried out by expats,whereas the local community mostly held unskilled positions.However,a shift occurs in operations:more local citizens were employed for security and ground maintenance.Yet,the fact that plants could be monitored remotely,and panels washed mechanically,crea

219、ted fewer unskilled jobs during operations compared with other PV projects.Typically,local labour dominates unskilled positions.While training offerings for renewable-energy-specific skills are increasingly available,the limited availability of the skills needed for positions such as technician,plan

220、t manager,and health and safety professional,or for legal or financial management roles,continues to make it challenging to boost local employment.Despite intentions to hire entirely local O&M teams,IPPs in Uganda and Rwanda,for instance,have struggled to find skilled individuals in the surrounding

221、host communities.A long-term concern is that a lack of proper skill training and transfer strategies continues to limit local knowledge generation,perpetuating reliance on international companies.A shift towards local companies and individuals can only be expected when a sufficiently large number of

222、 projects are expected to be developed(as in the case of South Africa),so companies can justify investments in training and upskilling workers.A distinction needs to be made between workers who hail directly from communities near a renewable energy project and others who are residents of the country

223、 at large.Projects in the United Republic of Tanzania reportedly have a clear“locals first”recruitment strategy,which prioritises work opportunities for local community members.Several IPPs,from Kenya,Senegal,South Africa,the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda,disclosed local community employmen

224、t ratios(Table 1).The majority of the positions held by individuals from adjacent communities are unskilled,reflecting the low skill levels in these communities.The wide variation in the results can be attributed to the low maturity of the sector and the varying socio-economic conditions for labour

225、in the different countries.However,enhanced data collection and monitoring for community employment can produce a more comprehensive sample size with consistent data points,one that could help formulate strategies for addressing the skill gap more effectively.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIE

226、S:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA30Maximising short-term construction positions involving unskilled labour does not necessarily result in decent,meaningful or long-term employment.The ILO defines“decent work”as work that is“productive and delivers a fair income,security in

227、the workplace and social protection for families,better prospects for personal development and social integration,freedom for people to express their concerns,organise and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men”(ILO,2019).

228、The qualitative aspects of jobs are equally,if not more,important for successful outcomes.Yet they are more difficult to measure,and generating desirable outcomes may require enhancing local leadership,providing mentorship support to employees and community leaders,instilling hope and aspiration in

229、youth,providing social and gender-sensitive workplaces,and incentivising people to move back to local communities and creating more robust community structures.Source:Research interviews.Note:CSP=concentrated solar power;O&M=operations and maintenance;PV=photovoltaic;n.a.=not available.Renewable ene

230、rgy technology/segmentLocal community employmentNumber of jobsPercent(%)Uganda Case 1PVConstruction:O&M:180 of 250-300 n.a.60-72 n.a.Uganda Case 2PVConstruction:O&M:87 of 150-250 1 of 1035-5810KenyaWindConstruction:O&M:624 of 1 500 112 of 1504275SenegalPVConstruction:O&M:150 of 350n.a.43n.a.South Af

231、ricaCSPConstruction:O&M:n.a.n.a.30-40n.a.United Republic of TanzaniaWindConstruction:O&M:n.a.n.a.9095 TABLE 1 Local community employment at selected independent power producersLarge-scaLe wInd and soLar In sub-saharan afrIca:benefIts for LocaL communItIes31Planning the roll-out of projects over time

232、 is essential to create a steady labour market.South Africas REIPPPP was designed to stagger bid rounds to facilitate continuous demand for construction services over many years.However,delays and project timelines forced many workers to look to other industries as they waited for renewable energy p

233、rojects to be finalised(Stands etal.2014;Fyvie 2017).But sometimes,unintended positive outcomes emerge.In Uganda,for instance,project delays unintentionally extended the length of employment for many individuals.Instead of two projects proceeding simultaneously,staggering them resulted in unintended

234、 positive outcomes for project developers and employees since the contractors for the second project could rely on the same set of experienced workers from the first project.Despite the delay,staggering reduced the time and resources required for human resource management,lowered costs and led to an

235、 extension of the duration of work contracts for employees.Although the outcome involved employing some of the same individuals as in the previous project,there were opportunities for more meaningful work,increased labour productivity and the further honing of skills.Local employment opportunities a

236、re also generated by investments outside core project-related activities.Whether mandated through policy or to boost community engagement in projects,IPPs investing in adjacent communities to improve quality of life and expand access to basic services are also known to create local job opportunities

237、.The following are examples of job opportunities outside core project-related activities from the projects analysed:In Kenya,electricians were trained to maintain and operate off-grid solar PV systems installed in surrounding communities and on site.In Rwanda,five full-time jobs were created to mana

238、ge landscaping and gardens and a small fruit orchard to supply a community-run agri-farm business during the O&M phase.In Senegal,additional jobs were created in the construction of a new maternity ward,the upgrade of schools and the improvement of service infrastructure in a local community.In Sout

239、h Africa,local temporary jobs for more than ten persons were created during the installation of more than 200 water points and a water treatment plant.In South Africa,IPPs aspired to boost local livelihoods,using funds to train local home care providers and nurses who provide community health care s

240、ervices.11Zambia:Renewable energy training centre teaches wind farm skills on campusThe Kafue Gorge Regional Training Centre(KGRTC,referenced previously in this report)provides training to the energy sector.The training focuses on skill development and offers on-site learning in all technical skill

241、areas relevant to the operations of the state-owned power company,ZESCO.The KGRTC has two key departments:training and research,and consultancy.The consultancy department offers services from feasibility to construction.The centres interest in owning and operating renewable energy projects(see examp

242、le under ownership)is to generate income and provide opportunities to learn about and teach renewable energy deployment.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA3212South Africa:IPPs collaborate on a biodiversity internship programmeSix coast

243、al wind farms located near one another in South Africas Eastern Cape province are developing their capacity for collaboration.One of the related initiatives is the Greater Kromme Stewardship(GKS)Internship Programme,under which the six wind farms,also called“the Coastal 6”,jointly fund the placement

244、 of interns in the programme.The internship programme empowers young conservation professionals to contribute to various projects,in turn yielding multiple benefits for local communities.First,interns play a pivotal role in supporting landowners in declaring their properties as protected areas,there

245、by safeguarding crucial habitats and endangered biodiversity.Additionally,the programme focuses on community engagement and education;interns actively promote awareness of the significance of conservation and biodiversity,especially among the younger generation.The programme also benefits the local

246、community in that the interns identify and nurture green economy opportunities aligned with the programmes conservation objectives.2.5 Local business developmentLocal economic inclusion requires developing local businesses into viable suppliers for surrounding IPPs.This can be facilitated by operati

247、onal business support and skill transfer.However,given that the vast majority of IPPs are in rural areas,many local businesses are not set up to supply large-scale power production infrastructure or to provide the backup for the warranties and service-level agreements required by original equipment

248、manufacturers,shareholders,banks and other actors.Therefore,most technical component procurement occurs in metropolitan areas.Supplier development and value chain capacity development are required far in advance to prepare local rural businesses for the requirements.This is especially the case durin

249、g construction,when the majority of materials and expertise are required,and timelines are short.Developing local suppliers is the most effective where there are multiple IPPs to diversify business opportunities and demand.It will not be feasible to develop local businesses for one-off transactions,

250、or such businesses will only be created superficially.Therefore,support for local suppliers needs to be strategic and integrated into a larger economic activity or be supported across a long implementation horizon(the South African REIPPPP was designed this way to avoid booms and busts in economic a

251、ctivity).Regarding replicability,developing local small and medium enterprises(SMEs)takes time and relies on the local economic conditions of individual projects.Nevertheless,asset management and the 20-25 year O&M phase provide a significant opportunity for business activities.3.Key consIderatIons

252、for poLIcy maKers33Discussed below are two efforts at SME development:one in South Africa and one in the United Republic of Tanzania.13South Africa:Concentrated solar project plans for local supplier developmentA South Africabased CSP plant has a supplier development initiative to develop local SMEs

253、 and transfer business management and technical skills.It is partially funded by REIPPPP-mandated enterprise development funds.While the quantitative impact of local procurement is small relative to the full value chain,it can represent significant opportunities for local businesses.This IPP utilise

254、s joint venture partnerships between established businesses and community-based entrepreneurs(owned and operated by previously disadvantaged Black citizens)to increase the inclusion of local contractors in their operations.Local companies are contracted to provide seven types of goods and services:o

255、ffice and facility cleaning;industrial and solar cleaning;on-site horticulture;project site security;catering for project staff;scaffolding during construction and provision of bottled water for on-site consumption.An associated business plan forecasts that community-based entrepreneurs would be abl

256、e to operate independently after three years.14South Africa:Wind farm helps create community-based bird monitoring businessThis wind IPP supports previously disadvantaged individuals from the project host community to develop businesses that provide professional bird monitoring services.Five unemplo

257、yed youth received training by a joint venture partner an environmental specialist firm throughout the construction of the IPP and into the operations phase.The bird monitoring focused on endangered species such as eagles and vultures.Two rotating teams monitored birds migration paths and documented

258、 the presence of species as well as deaths,and injuries to species within the wind farms vicinity.Each week,the teams searched the vicinity of 40 turbines on foot for carcasses.Reporting included eagle collision risk and QGIS tracking data.The uniquely proactive approach to bird monitoring allows te

259、ams to stop the operation of turbines until an endangered bird has left the area.This joint venture eventually gave way to a community-based bird monitoring firm wholly owned by its employees.The firm contracts directly with the wind farm for the 20-year duration of the PPA.The wind IPP invested som

260、e of its REIPPP-mandated socio-economic development funds to boost the teams skills in business management and handling occupational health and safety issues,including the handling of snakes.The company is looking to extend its business to other wind farms in the future.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR

261、 COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA3415 United Republic of Tanzania:Solar project created new business opportunities for local businesses run by womenThe 5MW solar project in Kigoma,United Republic of Tanzania,is supported by Power Africa.NextGen Solar,the project

262、owner,has committed to stimulating the local economy through project-related employment and procurement opportunities.Over 170 people from the local community were employed during construction,a 14-person team is securing the project site and about a dozen panel cleaners are on site daily during ope

263、ration.Those opportunities were filled mainly by men.The project therefore identified and fostered opportunities in its supply chain for women.For example,a small,woman-owned catering business delivers three meals daily to the on-site workers.Also,land maintenance,which involves regular grass cuttin

264、g,is done by an all-women team.The project partnered with a local university and is taking,on an annual basis,four students enrolled in courses related to renewable energy for work on site.2.6 Community energy and gender aspectsIntegrating renewable energy in the wider discourse on poverty eradicati

265、on can boost social progress,resilience,economic growth and environmental sustainability(Ezeanya and Kennedy,2017).With adequate deployment policies,renewable energy can eventually fulfil large,unmet energy demand and serve as a major job creator and a major contributor to socio-economic development

266、.Access to modern,clean and safe energy,as recognised in SDG7,also helps mitigate adverse health impacts that disproportionately affect women and children.By reducing the use of cooking fuels that cause hazardous indoor air pollution,clean energy could improve human health and reduce the high number

267、 of premature deaths occurring annually.Large-scale renewable energy projects are designed to feed electricity into high-voltage grids,usually national grids.They are unable to connect to and service residential and other consumers directly.Meanwhile,large renewable energy projects in Africa,and spe

268、cifically Sub-Saharan Africa,are often located in areas not connected to an electricity grid.Investing in large electricity infrastructure in areas without electricity access raises questions about local energy service provision,whether through either grid extension or available options for off-grid

269、 service provision.In the absence of an opportunity to extend the grid,some IPPs are embracing this dilemma in their benefit-sharing approaches.Projects utilise their technical competencies to advise and support local energy solutions,provide energy and electricity-related appliances,provide trainin

270、g and business support,and,in rare instances,build grid infrastructure to support entire regions with electricity.3.Key consIderatIons for poLIcy maKers3516 Zambia:Solar project community development programme helping local farmers increase their income and resilience to climate changeThe Bangweulu

271、Solar Power Station project,a 54MW solar power plant operating in Kafue District,Lusaka Province,includes a programme that provides farmers with small livestock,such as goats and chickens,and supports them in fruit and tree cultivation.One farmer receiving support from the programme increased his in

272、come by 50%.The programme also promotes low-carbon and energy-efficient technologies,such as solar cookstoves,which reduce reliance on fossil fuels and deforestation,reduce GHG emissions and improve air quality.The programme has distributed over 1 000 cookstoves to local households.While the IPP is

273、feeding electricity to the national grid,the project is working to address a community priority for energy services through the community programme.17 Senegal:IPP programme to support sustainable development and gender equalityThe Taiba NDiaye Wind Farm,a 158.7MW project developed and owned by the L

274、ekela Power consortium,began operating in 2021,and includes a programme dedicated to gender equality and sustainable development.Understanding that women play a leading role in driving socio-economic development,the project provided solar power systems with a combined capacity of 29.5kilowatts to th

275、ree businesses led by local women.The entrepreneurs could in turn scale up their mango,cashew nut and poultry production and processing businesses.Not only does this programme help these women save time and bring more money into their local communities,but the solar systems are also expected to save

276、 over 540tCO2eq across their life cycle.The project has also provided financial support for education,entrepreneurship and training in crop-processing techniques.18 South Africa:Wind farm funds home improvement programmeSouth Africas Home Improvement Programme is a project of the Umoya Wind Energy F

277、arm located outside the town of Hopefield.While the wind energy farm was initially designed to make low-cost homes more energy-efficient,in a second phase,the focus shifted to skill development in plumbing,electrics and carpentry for the unemployed residents of Hopefield(AIIM,2018).The programme sta

278、nds out due to its participatory approach,which fosters skill development,creates employment,promotes entrepreneurship and supports the immediate improvement of living standards.It also holds great potential to improve health,education and gender equality through the increased accessibility of hot w

279、ater for laundry,washing,cleaning and cooking.Under the programme,solar water heaters,insulated ceilings,and improved wiring and energy-efficient light bulbs are installed in low-income homes.The local municipal authority supports skill and capacity building,including carpentry,plumbing and electric

280、al skills and employment for trainees.The programme also provides entrepreneurship and business skill training,and ongoing mentorship for community-based businesses resulting from the first phase.Trainees can offer these services in the Hopefield community,and the plan is to roll out these services

281、to further homes and towns.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA3619 United Republic of Tanzania:Making electricity more affordable and accessible for womenThe Mwengeni project provides regional residents with access to affordable electri

282、city using a gender-sensitive approach that specifically addresses womens energy needs.The wind project sells electricity to the national utility and distributes it to over 6 000 local grid connections.The company cross-subsidises the tariff for local connections,allowing the regions residents to ac

283、cess electricity at a more affordable rate.The project is also implementing an evolving set of programmes supporting local economic development.It offers,for example,a financing programme for low-income households to purchase domestic appliances,and free training on the safety aspects and productive

284、 uses of electricity,and also supplies electricity at discounted prices to senior citizens and people with disabilities.The company has hired a significant number of women in technical positions and introduced technological innovations to the community for example,its introduction of electric maize

285、milling machines and pressure cookers has increased economic opportunities for women-headed enterprises(common in the maize and catering sector).Overall,the Mwengeni projects community investments are impacting the regions residents by making electricity more affordable and accessible,through traini

286、ng and employment opportunities for women,and by introducing innovations specifically designed to benefit women.20 United Republic of Tanzania:Solar project electrifies entire regionThe 5MW capacity Kigoma solar plant,which was built to be a grid-tied project but eventually became a standalone mini-

287、grid,supplies electricity through more than 35 000 connections.Residents and businesses are benefitting from first-time reliable access to electricity,which integrates existing diesel generation capacity and stimulates a range of economic activity in the region.Among the benefitting institutions is

288、a girls college whose popularity has been reported to have shifted significantly due to the availability of electricity,which has enhanced the students experience in the classroom as well as while living on campus.NextGen Solawazi,the project owner,is expanding the project to meet growing demand.Her

289、e Now S37 3 DISCUSSION OF GOOD PRACTICES FOR COMMUNITY BENEFITSThe previous section highlighted the range of emerging community benefits from large-scale solar and wind energy projects in Sub-Saharan Africa.This section focuses on how rights-based approaches could be further integrated into renewabl

290、e energy projects.Doing so would align the industry and developers with internationally recognised good practices(e.g.the UN Guiding Principles on business and Human Rights UN,2011 or the International Labour Organization Conventions ILO,n.d.),and advance social justice objectives.Further,such benef

291、it-sharing approaches and supportive policies could amplify the benefits for project-affected communities.Approaches to human rights,gender equality and social inclusion,11 indigenous people and stakeholder engagement are discussed.Underlying rights-based approaches is how IPPs engage with communiti

292、es recognising their diversity and complexity.This is central to planning for and implementing sustainable benefits,which may also help communities become more resilient in the context of climate change.This section further highlights areas for strengthening practices,mentioned during interviews wit

293、h the project implementers and supported by various studies.3.1 Human rightsThe United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights,in its key messages on renewable energy and the right to development,states that“A just transition from fossil fuels to renewables should be grounded in a h

294、uman rights and development-orientated approach that would work towards fulfilling human rights for all including the Right to Development”(UNOHCHR,2022).Promoting this right is one of the major opportunities for enhancing socio-economic benefits,as highlighted in section 1.11 Gender equality and so

295、cial inclusion emphasise the need for the equal inclusion of all individuals and groups,including women and those disadvantaged based on their identity,in community benefits highlighted in the project examples above.The intersectionality of social inclusion and gender equality issues is increasingly

296、 a frontier of practice globally(SMRI,2022)While these are not explicitly explored in this report,thinking around current community benefit approaches and recommendations would recognise the interconnections of social identity(ethnicity,age,class,disability and gender)and the way those identities in

297、teract to reinforce inequalities.Their impact on energy justice in Sub-Saharan Africa requires much deeper analysis.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA38Solar and wind energy projects are subject to the human rights legislation of the c

298、ountries where they exist.They must also comply with any applicable requirements of the developers country of jurisdiction.Meanwhile,there are no specific requirements for renewable energy projects in Sub-Saharan African countries to incorporate human rights considerations.However,developers based i

299、n certain countries must fulfil increasingly specific human rights due diligence requirements(e.g.the European Union Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive of 2023).In addition,where projects are supported by international development finance,they must comply with the applicable internatio

300、nal standards and guidelines(e.g.IFC Performance Standards,Equator Principles and guidelines of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development),which include human rights considerations.Research and interviews for this study found a high prevalence of small companies developing projects

301、in Sub-Saharan Africa that have little or no experience in such matters.Many demonstrate little to no recognition of the need for a proactive rights-based approach and are at best compliance driven.There is an opportunity to learn from the experiences of the extractive sector,and other industries th

302、at have more readily embraced this agenda,while in the case of renewable energy,it is still largely civil society that is paying attention(BHRRC,2021;CCSI,2022).Perhaps this gap is based on the industrys self-perception that renewable energy projects generally have lower environmental and human righ

303、ts impacts.However,large-scale projects can pose significant threats,which are compounded by the remote locations of the projects and the pre-existing socio-economic and socio-political vulnerabilities of the affected communities(BHRRC,2021;Dolton-Zborowski etal.,2022).Like fossil fuel projects,huma

304、n rights infringements and violations in renewable energy projects typically relate to land rights and displacement,and the rights of indigenous peoples(e.g.free,prior and informed consent).To some degree,there have also been threats against human rights defenders,including women,where projects have

305、 faced resistance(Bansal and Green,2021;Timperley,2022).Other potentially salient impacts could include those on community health,safety and security,working conditions for employees,and access to information and stakeholder engagement(Bansal etal.,2021).Corruption-related risks may be indicative of

306、 potential human rights violations and undermine community benefits(CCSI,2022).For example,a company acting inappropriately or fraudulently to secure tenders,licences or permits may infringe on communities human rights by causing environmental damage,illegally“grabbing”land or diverting project fina

307、nces otherwise due to local governments for socio-economic development and infrastructure delivery.Concerning hiring practices,interviews across different project locations highlighted instances of local councillors and traditional authorities adopting unfair and exclusionary practices in allocating

308、 employment opportunities.Developers and their contractors must follow transparent employment processes.In addition,the involvement of a trusted community liaison officer was deemed essential to help ensure fair and transparent employment.Trustees were reported to have been unduly pressured to push

309、for certain community development initiatives using specific service providers.In one instance,a trust provided trustees with training and a supportive environment to mitigate this risk.All of this underlines the importance of communities voting for trusted local community representatives who are in

310、vested in the bigger picture of local socio-economic development and the public good.dIscussIon of practIces towards communIty benefIts393.2 Gender equalityAs noted in Solar PV:A gender perspective(IRENA,2022),there is an intrinsic link between human rights and gender equality,reinforcing the need t

311、o take a gender-aware approach to developing renewable energy projects in Sub-Saharan Africa.As in many other parts of the world,gender disparities are deeply entrenched on the continent(Mckinsey Global Institute,2019;Sokona etal.,2023),12 and increasing the active participation of women,and securin

312、g benefits for them,is an immense task.The energy transition offers an opportunity for profound societal transformation towards diversity and inclusivity in the workforce across affected communities(GWNET,2019).If achieved,this would also help address historic and present systemic injustices in the

313、energy sector and society more broadly(Sokona etal.,2023).It is encouraging to note the growing attention to gender in some of the projects explored for this report.However,some interviewees noted that gender mainstreaming is yet to be genuinely achieved in government policy,implementation and insti

314、tutional capacity.This is even though national gender policies are in place,including,for example,in the Tanzanian Rural Energy Master Plan(REMP 2022)and the Sustainable Energy for All(SEforALL)project.13 Also,significant gender-focused work is ongoing with the support of continental and wider inter

315、national organisations including the AfDB,the Climate Investment Fund and the ENERGIA International Network on Gender and Sustainable Development,or regional bodies such as the Economic Community of West African States14(ECOWAS,n.d.).12 In exploring existing gender and other inequalities in Africa,S

316、okona et al.emphasise the continents legacy of colonisation,in which“institutions and systems were designed to extract primary commodities to supply markets in Europe”,and which,to do so,also restructured African economies and“devastated many thriving societies,embedded systems of patriarchy and rac

317、ism and left structural dependencies.”(Sokona et al.,2023).In its research towards advancing womens equality in Africa,McKinsey Global Institute states that“although some countries have made tremendous progress towards gender parity in some areas,overall the gap between men and women in Africa in bo

318、th society and the world of work remains high.African women have lower levels of education,and have less access than men to the financial services and digital technologies that increasingly unlock doors to economic opportunity”(Mckinsey Global Institute,2019).13 The REMP(2022)recognises that“electri

319、city access is gendered.”It presents the SEforALL Gender Action Plan as a strategic tool for gender-responsive SEforALL.Key issues in the REMP for mainstreaming gender in governance and decision making recognise the need for“policy development,implementation and monitoring,service delivery and finan

320、cing”as well as“promoting increased womens participation and leadership in energy governance and institutions.and promoting gender equity in planning,designing,producing,supplying,and managing sustainable energy solutions”(REMP 2022).The Tanzania Country Brief(2020)emphasises the need for significan

321、t attention to the details of implementing SEforALL.From a gender mainstreaming perspective,institutional capacity constraints and gaps in detailed job descriptions and mandates to intervene in policy formulation and planning were seen to persist(Ngoo and Kooijman 2020).For example,the Gender Commit

322、tee,established in 2018 to work closely with the SEforALL secretariat on gender issues,including in the implementation of the SEforALL Action Plan,had not yet developed the required interventions,including the capacity-building activities for the Gender Commission itself(Ngoo and Koojman,2020).While

323、 the more recent REMP outlines roles and responsibilities for implementation,interviews conducted for this study highlighted constraints that include inadequate institutional capacity,the absence of clear targets for policies and projects,and a lack of gender-disaggregated data for monitoring and ev

324、aluation.14 The ECOWAS Policy for Gender Mainstreaming in Energy Access is a framework governing the implementation of gender mainstreaming across energy sectors in all member countries of West Africa.To align with it,the ECOWAS Programme on Gender Mainstreaming in Energy Access of 2013 put gender a

325、t the centre of energy-related policies,laws and projects.The policy envisions equal access to modern energy services for both men and women,to raise living standards and boost economic development.Key objectives include increased awareness of gender and energy issues;gender-inclusive energy policie

326、s;womens increased participation in energy-related fields;and the establishment of comprehensive monitoring and accountability mechanisms.A JUST ENERGY TRANSITIONS FOR COMMUNITIES:LARGE-SCALE WIND AND SOLAR PROJECTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA40Interviews that highlighted gender awareness in project desig

327、n and implementation focused on employment opportunities and constraints,land access and livelihood activities,and community benefit planning and structures.Several of the project examples discussed in section 2 recognise some specific womens needs that would be well served in the early design of be

328、nefit projects.For example,access to clean cooking and water heating technologies(South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania)saves the time spent collecting wood and improves womens health(Ngoo and Koojman,2020).Such improvements have ripple benefits for the wider family.Prevailing gender role

329、 expectations result in girls being commonly involved,along with female adults,in gathering heavy wood resources and burning wood for heating and cooking,exposing them to indoor air pollutants,which impact their health(Ngoo etal.,2020;Sokona etal.,2023).Early involvement of women in energy-related p

330、rojects is essential to ensure the projects consider their needs and perspectives.One example is the electrification of mills and water pumps.Although men almost exclusively own and profit from mills(Pueyo etal.2022),electrification would reduce the cost of milling for women,letting them invest time

331、 and money elsewhere,while generating nutrition and health gains for the family.The money saved could also be spent on childrens schooling.Where water is pumped and treated closer to peoples homes,it benefits women and other marginalised individuals,including older people and people with physical di

332、sabilities,who have to spend less time and physical energy to fetch it.Improved water sanitation benefits women and vulnerable community members and contributes to broader family and community health.Community access to electricity was demonstrated to further benefit women,who could extend their ent

333、repreneurial activities(Senegal,South Africa,the United Republic of Tanzania,and Zambia);for example,they could sew clothes faster,stock their shops with new products requiring refrigeration and use electrical appliances to make and store juices and beers.In fact,where fishing is exclusively the economic activity of men,access to refrigeration has enabled women to buy,freeze and sell fish to wider