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1、Leaving the shore Technical cooperation outcomeADVANCE COPYUNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENTMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics Geneva,2025 2025,United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentThe findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are thos

2、e of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.The designations employed and the presentation of material on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the

3、legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of any firm or licensed process does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.Photocopies and reproductions of excerpts are allowed with proper credit

4、s.This publication has not been formally edited.UNCTAD/TCS/DITC/INF/2025/4(advance copy)Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plasticsiiiAcknowledgementsThis study was prepared by the Division on International Trade and Commodities of UN Trade and Development(UNCTAD),under th

5、e supervision and guidance of Chantal Line Carpentier,Head of the Trade,Environment,Climate Change and Sustainable Development Branch.David Vivas-Eugui and Henrique Pacini of UNCTAD led the study team.UNCTAD gratefully acknowledges the substantive contributions of Lorenzo Formenti(UNCTAD consultant)

6、,Katniss Xuejiao Li(UNCTAD visiting researcher)and Malick Kane(UNCTAD)in the preparation of the overall study.The technical inputs of Rachid Amui(UNCTAD),Elisabetta Erba(Universit degli Studi di Milano),and Patrizia Silva(environmental biologist)in the writing of chapter 2;Sara Ferro(sustainability

7、expert)and Maria Durleva(UNCTAD consultant)in the writing of chapter 3;Marco Fugazza,Christian Knebel,Lalen Lleander and Samuel Munyaneza(UNCTAD)in the writing of chapter 4 are also gratefully acknowledged.The study benefited from interviews with Bhima Aries Diyanto(Reciki),Azzedine Badis(Seaweed Co

8、alition),Cindy Parokkil(International Organization for Standardization,ISO),Craig Updyke(American Society for Testing and Materials,ASTM),Julia Reisser(Uluu),Maliha Sumar(The FlipFlopi/The People&Planet Company),Nur Ahyani(World Wildlife Fund-,WWF),Xuesong Liu(Bottloop),Samantha Kiernan(Yale Univers

9、ity),Mahesh Sughatan(Forum on Trade,Environment,and the SDGs),Shunta Yamaguchi(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,OECD).This study results from the cooperation between the Sustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution(SMEP)and Ocean Economy and Fisheries Programmes of UNC

10、TAD,with the support of the Foreign,Commonwealth and Development Office(FCDO)of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of Portugal.Desktop formatting was done by Rafe Dent(UNCTAD)and Lia Tostes(UNCTAD consultant).Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alte

11、rnatives to plasticsivAbbreviationsABSaccess and benefit-sharingASCAquaculture Stewardship CouncilASTMAmerican Society for Testing and MaterialsAVEad-valorem equivalentsCAGRcompound annual growth rateCITESConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraCSOscivil societ

12、y organizationsFTAFree trade agreementGSCGlobal Seaweed CoalitionHSHarmonized Commodity Description and Coding SystemISAInternational Seabed AuthorityKIIskey informant interviewsLCAlife cycle assessmentMBSAsmarine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternativesMEAsmultilateral environmental agreement

13、sMFNmost favoured nationMSCMarine Stewardship CouncilNTMsnon-tariff measuresP&CPrinciples and Criteria(of UNCTAD BioTrade)PEpolyethylenePHAspolyhydroxyalkanoatesPPMsprocess and production methodsPSpolystyreneSIDSSmall Island Developing StatesSMEPSustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution

14、ProgrammeSPSsanitary and phytosanitary(measures)TBT technical barriers to tradeTrPMstrade-related policy measuresTVTechnischer berwachungsverein(Technical Inspection Association)VSSvoluntary sustainability standards WCOWorld Customs OrganizationWIPOWorld Intellectual Property OrganizationWTOWorld Tr

15、ade OrganizationWWFWorld Wildlife FundLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plasticsvTable of contentsExecutive summary.1Chapter IIntroduction.6Chapter IIMarine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs).92.1.The potential of marine resources to replace plastics.11

16、2.2.A first global mapping.13Chapter IIIChallenges and opportunities for sustainable socio-economic development.153.1.Opportunities and enabling factors.173.1.1.Seaweed and algae.183.1.2.Marine minerals.203.1.3.Marine invertebrates,plants and waste.223.2.Barriers to market development.223.2.1.Market

17、 dynamics.233.2.2.Enabling technology and infrastructure.243.2.3.Social and environmental governance.273.3.Environmental impact through LCA.343.3.1.The conventional wisdom and life cycle thinking.343.3.2.Key substitution trade offs.35Chapter IVPursuing MBSAs through a trade lens.394.1 The Harmonized

18、 System(HS)as a framework for measuring trade in MBSAs.414.2.Trends and prospects in global MBSA trade.444.2.1.Global trade trends.444.3.Market access policies applied to MBSAs.484.3.1.Import tariffs applied to MBSAs.484.3.2.Non-tariff measures applied to MBSAs.50Leaving the shoreMarine-based substi

19、tutes and alternatives to plasticsviChapter VConclusion and the way forward.56References.62Annex 1.71Annex 2.72Annex 3.76Annex 4.78Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics1Executive summaryLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics3UNCTAD adv

20、ocates for the recognition of non-plastic substitutes and alternatives in the future Global Plastics TreatyExecutive summaryPlastic pollution threatens marine ecosystems,human health,and economic development.The excessive use of plastics,coupled with inadequate waste management systems,has led to th

21、e accumulation of plastic debris and plastic particles in oceans,posing risks to marine life and coastal communities.In response to this growing crisis,a United Nations Global Plastics Treaty is under negotiations.UNCTAD has been conducting research and advocating for the recognition of non-plastic

22、substitutes and alternatives in the future treaty.This report builds on previous research and explores the role of marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs).These alternatives,derived from marine resources such as seaweed,algae,and marine minerals,offer potential to replace conven

23、tional plastics in various applications,thereby reducing plastic waste and supporting sustainable development.Unlike conventional plastics,MBSAs are of natural origin,ranging from algae-based polymers for bioplastics to mineral compounds used as fillers in glass and ceramics.Using a mixed-methods ap

24、proach combining desk research,original data analysis,and key informant interviews(KIIs)(see Annex 1),this study investigates the economic feasibility,benefits,and trade implications of MBSAs,emphasizing their dual role in mitigating plastic pollution and promoting socioeconomic development,particul

25、arly in coastal regions and Small Island Developing States(SIDS).It also identifies and discusses key challenges related to the development of global MBSA industries in all three dimensions of sustainable development:economic,social,and environmental,assessing the maturity and overall fitness of ena

26、bling policy frameworks.In principle,marine-based materials can be viable alternatives to fossil fuel-based plastics due to their biodegradability,good functionality(e.g.,strength,flexibility)and relatively low environmental footprint.Their widespread use in supply chains,such as packaging,could sig

27、nificantly reduce plastic waste and its negative impact on the marine environment.The global commitment to sustainability and the potential of marine natural capital to support transitions to environmentally friendly,equitable and inclusive production systems are also enabling MBSAs.However,well-doc

28、umented risks associated with marine resource exploitation such as the depletion of habitats,ocean acidification and chemical pollution,including from unregulated or intrusive seabed mining require careful consideration.By reviewing case studies of successful MBSA implementation worldwide,the study

29、demonstrates that MBSAs,such as algae-based biopolymers,can replace conventional plastics in various of applications,including but not limited to packaging and textiles.In this view,the further development and market uptake of MBSAs can also add value to upstream ocean industries,such as seaweed far

30、ming.We assess practical viability and market potential providing a basis for further policy and analytical work.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics4The socio-economic benefits of MBSAs typically include job creation,economic diversification and improved livelihood

31、s,particularly for youth and women,as well as fostering indigenous innovation,resilience to economic shocks,and food security.Challenges involve the need for technological innovation and diffusion,sustainable harvesting practices,and market access.At present,high costs and unfavourable economics hin

32、der market development in several locations.Robust supply chains need to be established,with targeted investments in research and development and public-private partnerships to support the growth of the MBSA sector.Sustainability is also a key driver for the development of MBSA industries,requiring

33、policy frameworks that enable fair supply chain relationships and sound natural resource management.In this context,life cycle assessment(LCA)is important to ensure that the environmental benefits of MBSAs,such as the low carbon footprint in production,are not offset by negative impacts at other sta

34、ges of their life cycle.This is the case with marine bioplastics,which can release greenhouse gases(GHGs)during decomposition in the absence of industrial composting facilities.Bilateral trade flow data show that the global market for MBSAs is growing with significant potential for expansion.After g

35、rowing three times faster than synthetic polymers exports between 2012 and 2022,global MBSA exports reached$10.8 billion in 2022.The participation of coastal developing countries in this market has also increased over time,with some becoming trading powerhouses for certain products(e.g.,Indonesia fo

36、r seaweed).However,tariffs and non-tariff measures(NTMs),including environmental,health and safety requirements,hinder market access for these materials,especially in developing countries.Except for marine minerals,all MBSAs are subject to higher tariffs and more stringent NTMs than conventional pla

37、stics.Sanitary and phytosanitary(SPS)measures linked to their trade can result in high compliance costs for companies.This is the case of seaweed,where health rules for edible products also apply to non-food materials used in packaging.Reducing trade barriers and harmonizing rules can enhance the gl

38、obal competitiveness of MBSAs,such as through multilateral trade and environmental agreements and standard-setting initiatives.In moving forward,multi-stakeholder and international cooperation is essential to address these challenges and fully unlock the potential of MBSAs.These materials offer a vi

39、able strategy for tackling plastic pollution while promoting sustainable and inclusive economic development through trade,especially for developing countries.The potential roles of stakeholders in this regard include:Intergovernmental organisations(IGOs)and their members:consider the incorporation o

40、f an enabling innovation and regulatory controls mechanism for MBSAs and other non-plastic substitutes under the ongoing United Nations negotiations for an international legally binding instrument(ILBI)on plastic pollution,including in the marine environment,creating a level playing field with plast

41、ic products.The World Customs Organization(WCO)could enhance trade flow accuracy by assigning detailed codes for MBSAs.A United Nations Task Force on seaweed could support R&D and regulatory discussions.Governments:Establish supportive regulatory frameworks,economic incentives,and public-private par

42、tnerships to enable MBSA markets.Additionally,collaborate in R&D to accelerate the adoption of MBSA.Businesses:Support supply chain and market development through R&D investment,either independently or in partnership with governments;invest in MBSA;adopt sustainable sourcing practices,and advocate f

43、or favourable policies.Global MBSA exports reached$10.8 billion in 2022,growing three times faster than synthetic polymers over the past decadeLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics5 Civil Society:Raise awareness through campaigns and community projects,sensitizing st

44、akeholders and holding governments and companies accountable for their sustainability commitments.Academia:Enhance understanding of the risks and opportunities associated with MBSAs through comprehensive,interdisciplinary research and help develop market-ready solutions to advance MBSAs.Consumers:Fo

45、ster market growth and drive adoption of MBSAs by mitigating cost barriers and cultivating environmental awareness and a willingness to pay for sustainable blue economy alternatives.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics6Chapter IIntroductionLeaving the shoreMarine-ba

46、sed substitutes and alternatives to plastics7While plastics have been instrumental to economic growth,they have also emerged as an unprecedented threat to the environment and human health due to their persistent nature.In the absence of certain conditions,plastics waste can take between 20 to over 5

47、00 years to break down and degrade in the environment,depending on the chemical composition and the product(United Nations,2021).Ineffective waste management across the globe has exacerbated this crisis,leading to a pervasive pollution problem.From municipal solid waste to microplastics polluting th

48、e ocean,the environmental and health consequences are profound.Despite global efforts,plastic waste is expected to permeate ecosystems for decades to come(Winnie,Lau et al.,2020).The alarming global issue of plastics pollution has created a“pressing case”for natural and environmentally friendly subs

49、titutes and alternatives to plastics(UNCTAD,2023a).While phasing out plastics entirely may not be feasible in the short term,developing and adopting alternative materials could play a crucial role in curbing plastic waste.In this view that countries are being encouraged to transition towards a new p

50、lastics economy that reduce polluting plastic use and prioritizes,where possible,sustainable and safe substitutes with comparable functional properties.Traditional materials,such as paper and glass,offer established and readily available options for reducing our reliance on plastics.Innovative appro

51、aches have scaled where substitutes such as paper and glass work alongside plastics to create sustainable products.For instance,flexible packaging,combines paper and plastic film offering to provide functionality(e.g.,moisture insulation)that is comparable to that of plastic-based solutions.At the s

52、ame time,less common fibre-based materials,such as bagasse and bamboo,are gaining traction as a renewable and biodegradable alternatives for single-use plastic products(e.g.,cups,straws),promoting a circular economy by adding value to excess biomass.While their scalability is still uncertain,their p

53、otential is being explored by materials scientists and sustainability experts,paving the way for new business models that combine value addition and resource efficiency.UNCTAD research shows that non-plastic substitutes and alternatives are attracting more regulatory interest as businesses increasin

54、gly recognize the benefits of sustainability.Indeed,sustainable trade can not only support the diffusion of low carbon materials and technologies but also contribute to socio-economic development in producing countries.However,to fully realize this potential,investment must be redirected from fossil

55、 fuel-based plastic production IntroductionPlastics have become a fundamental enabler of human economic activity as it is inextricably woven into the fabric of the global economy and trade.Their low cost and unparalleled versatility have driven their widespread adoption across all sectors,from consu

56、mer goods to industrial applications,leading the world to be undeniably plastic-dependent.Trade in plastics at all levels of the value chain already reached a record$1.2 trillion in 2022(UNCTAD,2023a).Projections do not show a different outlook.Without decisive policy interventions,plastic use is on

57、 a trajectory to triple by 2060,with the largest increases expected in developing regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia(OECD,2022).Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics8towards new business models centred on substitute materials(The Pew Charitable Trusts and SY

58、STEMIQ,2020).Marine and coastal ecosystems are increasingly recognized as pivotal for the sustainable development of coastal regions,particularly SIDS.Their unique natural capital provides a prime opportunity to foster new entrepreneurial ecosystems that can balance economic growth with environmenta

59、l protection,through trade.Ecosystems,such as farming,processing and marketing of algal products,offer potential access to natural resources(e.g.,water,minerals)with reduced competition and land use pressures.However,challenges such as the conservation of biodiversity and marine habitats must be car

60、efully managed through effective policy frameworks to fully realize the potential benefits.This study presents original research demonstrating the potential for trade in marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs)to address plastic pollution,while promoting sustainable economic deve

61、lopment in coastal communities,including in SIDS.By looking at selected ocean-based supply chains and unconventional uses of their products and byproducts,such as the production of bioplastic polymers from algae,it responds to three specific objectives:1.Identify promising MBSAs,defined as natural r

62、esources,bio-based materials and components that have a role or potential in replacing fossil fuel-based plastics,either directly,as building blocks or additives for alternative bioplastics,or indirectly,as inputs to produce non-plastic substitutes(e.g.,ceramics,glass).2.Analyse the potential for tr

63、ade-led socio-economic development of MBSAs in producing countries vis-vis environmental and social risks.Accordingly,discuss the main trade-offs between environmental sustainability and economic feasibility assessed through LCA considerations.3.Discuss policy frameworks that can incentivize trade i

64、n marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives,including e.g.,tariff and non-tariff measures,and standards.This is intended to inform the upcoming rounds of negotiations of a United Nations Global Plastics Treaty,with a view to support trade-related policy coherence and harmonization.Chapte

65、r 1 provides context and introduces the overall purpose and objectives of the study,including an overview of marine biomaterials and their downstream uses.Chapter 2 highlights their potential for sustainable trade and presents a novel mapping of MBSAs covering marine resources and their immediate de

66、rivatives.Chapters 3 and 4 examine the micro-economics and local impacts of global MBSA trade.Chapter 3 discusses the main challenges and opportunities for socio-economic development affecting MBSA industries.Opportunities are analysed for key MBSA supply chains,such as seaweed and algae,while three

67、 main types of barriers to the development of these industries are considered:market dynamics(e.g.,economies of scale),enabling technologies and infrastructure,and sustainability.The chapter also maps out the main environmental impacts originating from the production,marketing,consumption and dispos

68、al of MBSAs and uses life cycle thinking to discuss the main trade-offs in the substitution for more sustainable materials.From a trade perspective,Chapter 4 estimates the size of the global MBSA market using bilateral trade flow data as a proxy for demand.The average applied tariffs and non-tariff

69、measures(NTMs)affecting these materials are also analysed to profile the trade distortions and market access conditions prevailing in MBSA markets.Chapter 5 concludes and provides a narrative on the way forward.Plastic waste can take between 20 to over 500 years to degrade in the environmentLeaving

70、the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics9Chapter IIMarine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs)Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics10Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics11Marine-based non-plasti

71、c substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs)1 Contrary to popular belief,biodegradable plastics are not a panacea for plastic pollution.They only degrade under specific conditions and their rate of degradation in the natural environment can vary significantly depending on how well these conditions are met.

72、Influencing factors include the type of bioplastics,environmental conditions(e.g.,temperature,humidity,availability of oxygen)and the presence of microorganisms that affect degradation.While biodegradable plastics can degrade in the ocean,they may take a long time to degrade or may not break down co

73、mpletely into harmless substances due to factors such as salinity and pollutants.These considerations also apply to marine-based bioplastics.2 Technically,polymers are large molecules formed by linking numerous smaller molecules,called monomers,through covalent chemical bonds.These monomers act as r

74、epeating units,creating a long chain-like structure.The specific properties of a polymer(strength,flexibility,etc.)are determined by the type of monomer used,the length of the chain,and the arrangement of the monomers within the chain.These unique properties allow polymers to be the fundamental buil

75、ding blocks of plastics.By varying the monomer and chain structure,a vast array of plastics can be produced with a wide range of characteristics for countless applications.2.1.The potential of marine resources to replace plasticsThrough its unique mix of natural capital,the ocean has shaped the cour

76、se of human history and determined the key trajectories of civilization.From ensuring sustainable livelihoods through fisheries to facilitating trade routes,humanity has long relied on oceans to meet its most pressing economic and social needs(Allison et al.2023).As the world is confronted with the

77、need to transition to more equitable and sustainable production systems,the ocean continues to provide access to invaluable resources and ecosystem services,such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation,with increasing interest from governments in promoting it for the development of the

78、ir national economies(Martnez-Vzquez,Miln-Garca and de Pablo Valenciano,2021).However,the ocean is not immune to the negative environmental externalities of human activity and the challenges of a changing climate(IPCC,2019 and IOC-UNESCO,2022).Due to the non-biodegradable nature of conventional plas

79、tics,plastic pollution has become a significant threat to marine ecosystems and coastal communities.1The very environment threatened by plastics might offer previously underexplored opportunities to curb plastic waste and hold the key to a more sustainable future.In fact,many of the bio-based compon

80、ents that can replace fossil fuel-based plastics,such as in food packaging,have a strong marine connection and can be sourced from the marine and coastal environment(Ayyakkalai et al.,2024;Pipuni et al.,2023;Bose et.Al,2023).MBSAs encompass the entire material life cycle,from raw material extraction

81、 to end-of-life.They range from living organisms found in marine and coastal ecosystems that can be used as feedstock(e.g.,seaweed)to by-products of aquaculture or seafood processing as sources of biological compounds(e.g.,mollusc shells).The potential applications for replacing plastics are diverse

82、 and vary according to their degree of conversion(Table 1).For instance,microalgae and other microorganisms show strong potential as a source of biopolymers,such as polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs),which are directly used as building blocks for bioplastics.2 Conversely,inorganic compounds such as mineral

83、s can indirectly support the substitution of plastics as inputs to produce non-plastic substitutes.For example,high purity silica sands have wide applications in the production of glass.The ocean offers underexplored opportunities to curb plastic waste through marine-based substitutesLeaving the sho

84、reMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics12Table 1 Potential applications of bio-based components of marine origin for the replacement of plasticsThe potential of marine resources for replacing plastics is also evident when looking at their downstream uses.For instance,through a higher

85、 level of transformation,coastal and aquatic plants can contribute to the production of sustainable,bio-based alternatives to basic consumer goods while unleashing frugal indigenous innovation.These include,but are not limited to,basketwork made of mangrove fronds and fish leather coasters(UNDP,2024

86、).Source:UNCTAD analysis based on Ayyakkalai et al.(2024),UNDP(2024),United States Geological Survey(2024),Bose et al.(2023),Jianxin,F.et al.(2023),Pipuni et al.(2023),Yadong et al.(2022),Pacchioni(2022),Holland(2019).Life cycle stageCategoryExamplesPotential applicationsRaw materialsMacroalgae(seaw

87、eed)Kelp,Wakame,Carrageenan mossBioplastics,gels for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals,food thickening agents,wastewater reuseMicroalgae and other microorganismsMicroalgae,bacteria,diatoms Bioplastics,biofuels,biodegradable detergentsMinerals,from the seabed or continental shelfMarine clays,silica sands

88、 and quartz,calciteFillers in bio composites,ceramics,glassMarine invertebrates SpongeFiltration and absorption materials(e.g.,for water purification)ProcessingBiopolymersPolyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs),carrageenanBiodegradable films,coatings,fibresBioplastic films,foil and sheetsSeaweed-based or PHA-ba

89、sed filmsFood packaging,carrier bags,agricultural filmsGels,foams and creamsAgar-agarThickening or gelling agents,emulsifiersNatural fibre Seaweed-based yarn,mangrove-based plaiting materialTextiles,basketworkBiofuelsAlgae-based biodiesel,ethanol Transportation fuelsManufacturingPaperAlgae-based pul

90、p and paperPackaging materials,printing paperGlass and glasswareGlass,made from silica sand and quartzFood packaging,constructionOther manufacturesChitin-based fishing nets,seagrass basketryMiscellaneousEnd-of-lifeFish waste,for purposes other than food,feed or fertilizer Mollusc shells,fish scales(

91、e.g.,for extracting Chitin)Fillers in bio composites,bioplasticsLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics13Table 2 UNCTAD mapping of marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs)CategorySource of substitutes or alternativesDescriptionNon-exclusive example

92、of substitutes or alternativesMacroalgae(i.e.,seaweed)Brown algae(Phaeophyta),green algae(Chlorophyta),red algae(Rhodophyta)Macroscopic,multicellular marine algae found in coastal regions;rich in polysaccharidesAlginic acid,agar-agar,carrageenanMicroalgae and other microorganismsBacteria,microalgae(

93、e.g.,Chlorella vulgaris),marine fungiMicroscopic,unicellular algae found in freshwater and marine ecosystems;accumulate biopolymers and polyestersPHAs,polylactic acid(PLA)Minerals(seabed or continental shelf)Aragonite,calcite,clay minerals(illite,kaolinite,smectite),diatomite,marine biosilica,pebble

94、s and gravel,silica sands and quartz,sands(other than silica and quartz)Biogenic,detrital or chemically precipitated minerals and sands;used for their binding properties as functional fillers in plastics and paper,glass components etc.Calcium carbonate,silicates2.2.A first global mappingUNCTAD has a

95、n established track record in analysing substitutes and alternatives to conventional plastics from a trade perspective.Previous research has focused on mapping bio-based materials that can potentially replace plastics in clusters that contribute most to global waste streams(e.g.,single-use plastics)

96、.A comprehensive list of 282 codes of the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System(HS)was compiled and used to analyse global trade trends and import tariffs and NTMs affecting these substitutes(UNCTAD,2023a).A subsequent effort focused on analysing environmental measures targeting these s

97、ubstitutes and discussing key substitution trade-offs along their life cycle(UNCTAD,2024a).Building on this work,and as the first effort of its kind,this study identifies MBSAs that have a role or potential in replacing fossil fuel-based plastics,either directly,as building blocks or additives for a

98、lternative bioplastics,or indirectly,as inputs to produce non-plastic substitutes 3 Processed and finished goods,such as paper and glass,will only be considered as part of the downstream uses of the substitutes and alternatives in scope.In this context,value-added products and marine-led innovation

99、pathways in downstream industries are discussed separately in section 3.1.(e.g.,ceramics).The analysis focuses on the upstream part of the supply chain and is limited to bio-based components that can be found as natural resources in the marine and coastal environment(e.g.,seaweed)or are obtained fro

100、m primary processing(e.g.,biopolymers).Organic materials derived from their waste,such as fishery biomass,are also included.3Many bio-based components meet these criteria.They range from polysaccharides that naturally accumulate in algae to minerals embedded in aquaculture and seafood processing was

101、te(Table 2).This is the case of Chitin,a natural polymer that can be extracted from crab and shrimp shells.It has promising food packaging applications due to its biodegradability,antimicrobial and barrier properties(Bose et al.,2023;Holland,2019).Similarly,a handful of minerals that can be sourced

102、from the seabed or continent shelves,such as calcite and kaolinite,are widely used as functional fillers in plastics and their substitutes(United States Geological Survey,2024).Their aim is to improve certain material properties and achieve cost reduction(Houssa,2003).Leaving the shoreMarine-based s

103、ubstitutes and alternatives to plastics14Source:UNCTAD analysis based on Ayyakkalai et al.(2024),UNDP(2024),United States Geological Survey(2024),Bose et al.(2023),Jianxin,F.et al.(2023),Pipuni et al.(2023),Yadong et al.(2022),Pacchioni(2022),and Holland(2019).Note:Material substitutes and alternati

104、ves are listed in alphabetical order.Proxy HS codes for each identified MBSAs are presented in Annex 2.The list of polymers and constituents in column 4 is non-exhaustive as it only includes the main examplesCategorySource of substitutes or alternativesDescriptionNon-exclusive example of substitutes

105、 or alternativesMarine invertebratesCoral,jellyfish,spongeInvertebrates living in marine habitats;provide valuable biomolecules as well as water filtration propertiesCollagen,sponginBiopolymers of animal plant and microbial originSee individual polymers listed in column 4Natural polymers from living

106、 organisms,such as seaweed;biodegradable,with good barrier properties for food packaging_Fish waste,for purpose other than food,feed or fertilizerMollusc shells and claws,cuttlebone,fish skinsBy-products of aquaculture and seafood processing,rich in biopolymers like chitin and collagen.Chitin,chitos

107、an,fish oil-derived polyurethanesOther miscellaneousMangroves,coconut huskCoastal trees and shrubs with potential for extraction of biomaterialsCellulose,starchTable 2(cont.)UNCTAD mapping of marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives(MBSAs)Other marine resources have less direct but impo

108、rtant applications.Amid growing sustainability concerns,marine gravel and sand have long been mined in coastal regions and are used extensively in the manufacture of concrete,glass and electronic devices(Maribus,2014).On a smaller scale,the potential of certain marine invertebrates to produce biocom

109、pounds for industrial applications is well documented.For instance,certain jellyfish species can yield collagen with functional and physico-chemical properties suited not only for biomaterial applications but also for cosmetic and biomedical uses(Chiarelli et al.,2023)While research suggests strong

110、potential for these materials to replace traditional plastics,widespread adoption in supply chains is not automatic as scaling up production involves complex considerations beyond scientific feasibility.Enabling factors such as access to technology,responsible sourcing practices and material functio

111、nality play a critical role.In addition,price competitiveness and market access,which is notoriously affected by tariffs and NTMs,are key determinants of market development in a world dominated by cheap fossil fuel-based plastics.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics

112、15Chapter IIIChallenges and opportunities for sustainable socio-economic developmentLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics16Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics17Challenges and opportunities for sustainable socio-economic development4

113、 UNCTAD defines the ocean economy as“a vehicle toward a more sustainable and inclusive economic path on the marine and coastal environment.It encompasses all industries that sustainably utilize and contribute to the conservation of ocean,seas and coastal resources for human benefit in a manner that

114、maintains all ocean resources over time”(UNCTAD,2020a).5 The full trade flow analysis,including estimates of the size of the MBSA market at a material group level,is presented in section 4.2.3.1.Opportunities and enabling factorsMBSAs differ from their land-based counterparts in that they offer the

115、potential to simultaneously pursue some of the key developmental and sustainability goals that are high on nations agendas notably Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)8(Decent work and economic growth),9(Industry,innovation and infrastructure),12(Responsible consumption and production),13(Climate act

116、ion)and 14(Life below water).From this perspective,the opportunities in MBSA-related industries are diverse,encompassing the three dimensions of sustainable development:social,economic,and environmental.Some,such as job creation,economic growth,and innovation,are opportunities that these industries

117、share with the broader ocean economy(FAO,2024;Allison et al.,2023;OECD,2016).4 Others,such as the economies of scope that can arise from food to material applications,are specific to MBSAs.Both require certain enabling factors as well as financing and investment from both the public and private sect

118、ors to unlock their potential(Table 3).These opportunities can be quantified using bilateral trade flow data as a proxy for demand.After growing at an average annual rate of 3 per cent over the period 2012-22,global MBSA exports totalled$10.8 billion in 2022.Driven by particularly dynamic segments,s

119、uch as marine biopolymers and seaweed,they represent a vibrant market with untapped opportunities for coastal regions and SIDS.5It should also be noted that there are different supply chains and production systems behind global MBSA trade.These primarily include wild capture fisheries and aquacultur

120、e/farming.The latter has become increasingly important in recent years due to growing demand,technological advances,and environmental concerns.Its share in the production of aquatic animals,excluding algae,is estimated to be 51 per cent in 2022,while the share for algae is estimated to be 97 per cen

121、t(FAO,2024).Although estimates are not available,non-mineral MBSAs that are typically farmed for trade also include molluscs and crustaceans and their residues,while wild capture remains the dominant source of corals,jellyfish and sponges.Sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.3 discuss trade-related opportunities a

122、cross MBSA supply chains and product groups.In 2022,acquaculture accunted for 51%of aquatic animal production,while algae contributed 94%Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics18Source:UNCTAD analysis based on UNCTAD(2024a,2024b,2023b,2022),literature referenced in sec

123、tion 3.1.and expert knowledge from KIIs.Note:The table provides examples of opportunities and enabling factors and may not be exhaustive.DimensionOpportunityEnabling factorSocioeconomic developmentFood security and nutritionJob creation(e.g.,seaweed farming),mineral beneficiationTechnological spillo

124、vers(e.g.,less intrusive mining technology)Economic growth,foreign exchange(e.g.,exports)Innovation and value addition(e.g.,algae-based fibre,consumer goods)Economies of scope(e.g.,algae edibles to materials)Enabling Infrastructure(e.g.,testing labs)Skills development and R&D(e.g.,biotechnology)Enab

125、ling business environment e.g.,rules,licensing)Biodiversity conservation or restoration(e.g.,kelp,mangrove forests)Responsible sourcing practices,for example,for endangered species(coral,sponge etc.)Environmental and social Material substitution(e.g.,bioplastics,mineral fillers)Ecosystem services(e.

126、g.,carbon sequestration)Reduction of agricultural and land-based mining emissions,run-offs,land use pressures etc.Diversity and inclusion(e.g.,women,indigenous peoples and vulnerable groups)Renewable energy(e.g.,from feedstock)Resource efficiency and circularity(e.g.,biopolymers from fish waste)Tran

127、sparency(e.g.,subsidies)Harmonization and reform of non-tariff measures(NTMs)(e.g.,non-food seaweed standards)Waste management(e.g.,run-offs)Risk management(e.g.,climate hazards)Finance and investment(e.g.,green foreign direct investment FDI)Public-private partnerships Technical assistance and inter

128、national cooperationTable 3Opportunities and enabling factors for MBSA-led sustainable development3.1.1.Seaweed and algaeThe opportunities associated with MBSAs are better illustrated by the growing interest in algae,increasingly recognised as a key lever for sustainable,ocean-led economic recovery

129、following the pandemic(UNCTAD,2023b;UNCTAD,2022a).Indeed,algae are attracting global interest outside traditional Asian producers due to their versatility(i.e.,providing food,additives,and supplements),while also serving the non-food sector with thickeners,nutraceuticals,pharmaceuticals and bio-base

130、d materials such as fertilizers,feed,biofuels and bioplastics.This is not limited to macroalgae(i.e.,seaweed);special biosilica derived from easily cultured single-celled microalgae,such as diatoms,have recently emerged as a sustainable alternative to synthetic mesoporous silica used in drug deliver

131、y systems(Lim et al.,2023).From this perspective,algae can provide sustainable livelihoods for coastal communities,not only by contributing to nutrition and food security,but also through the development of the blue economy,creating employment opportunities for women and youth and value addition in

132、downstream industries(FAO,2024;UNCTAD,2024b;UNDP,2024).Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics19In terms of environmental sustainability,algae provide biomass that can be used to produce biodegradable materials at no additional environmental cost,as well as critical ec

133、osystem services such as carbon sequestration6.With approximately 650 million hectares of the worlds oceans potentially supporting algae farms,they have great potential to reduce the demand for terrestrial crops,thereby reducing agricultural emissions,as well as competition for arable land and fresh

134、water(FAO,2024;UNCTAD,2024b,Spillias et al,2023a).From this perspective,seaweed is also emerging as a sustainable means of conserving marine biodiversity and the environment.Against this backdrop,seaweed-related innovation is on the rise in all promising sectors(pharmaceuticals,bioplastics,biostimul

135、ants,alginates and cosmetics),as evidenced by the number of scientific publications that have skyrocketed in recent years.This is particularly evident in the case of alginate or ulvan-biopolymers 6 Unlike land-based agriculture and traditional industrial processes,algae cultivation often requires mi

136、nimal or no use of fertilisers or pesticides,reducing the risk of water pollution and soil degradation.Furthermore,algae can be grown in wastewater or salt water,minimizing competition for arable land and fresh water.with extensive applications in bioplastics-where the number of scientific publicati

137、ons has more than quadrupled in the last decade,from less than 10 in 2009 to 137 in 2020(Selnes,Giesbers and van den Burg,2021).A similar trend can be seen in patenting activity,where the number of patent families with algae-related applications has shown double-digit average annual growth between 1

138、995 and 2005,initially driven by biofuels(WIPO,2016).Apart from the biostimulant sector,these sectors are characterized by strong lead firms driving product development and enforcing their standards on upstream suppliers.This is consistent with findings from key informant interviews(KIIs)conducted a

139、s part of this study,which pointed to locally led innovation by start-ups in close collaboration with raw material suppliers as an emerging trend in ocean-based entrepreneurial ecosystems(OBEE)(Box 1).A new wave of OBEE is emerging,fostering collaboration between scientists,entrepreneurs,and investo

140、rs to harness ocean resources in a sustainable way.These OBEEs hold great promise for socio-economic development,offering exciting opportunities to create new jobs,strengthen social inclusion(e.g.,women,youth)and ensure a healthy and productive ocean for future generations.As part of this trend,star

141、tups and individual entrepreneurs around the world are entering the seaweed sector and developing innovative algae-based products with a wide range of applications.These range from material substitutes for conventional plastics,to healthy foods,textiles and clothing and are being developed in collab

142、oration with raw material suppliers,operating upstream in the supply chain(e.g.,aquafarms).Australian start-up Uluu is using algae to produce injection-mouldable bioplastic pellets with a wide range of applications in manufacturing,from packaging to consumer electronics,furniture and car interiors.A

143、t the same time,the start-up is developing fibre-grade pellets that show great potential for yarn production via melt spinning.This will provide a breakthrough alternative to polyester textiles.Uluu is securing high quality raw material supplies by establishing cross-border linkages with seaweed far

144、mers,such as cooperatives in Indonesia,and investing in product traceability and skills development.Box 1 Local innovation and startups tackling plastic pollution in the seaweed sector:Uluu,The People&Planet Company,and Runa RayLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics20

145、These business models offer unprecedented opportunities for sustainable socioeconomic development in SIDS as they have the potential to add local value from increasingly global supply chains while promoting environmental and social development.Over time,companies can also specialize and achieve econ

146、omies of scope enabling them to transition from producing basic products like seaweed edibles to more sophisticated applications such as bioplastics.By leveraging their growing expertise,these social and environmental-led companies have the potential to leapfrog into advanced sectors,driving innovat

147、ion and sustainable growth.3.1.2.Marine minerals A wealth of minerals and metals with industrial applications can be found in the seabed or on the continental shelf in concentrations that can exceed those of land-based deposits(Hein,Conrad and Staudigel,2010).These minerals can be used in the produc

148、tion of many MBSAs,such as fillers and plasticizers to enhance the properties of glass,ceramics and bioplastics,but also in low-carbon technologies such as solar and wind power farms,electric vehicles and batteries(International Seabed Authority,2022;SPC,2013).In theory,this represents a viable alte

149、rnative to land-based mining at a time when nations struggle to procure indispensable resources for the sustainability transitions.Indeed,sea-based mining could provide access to new resource supplies,reducing the environmental externalities that are usually associated with land-based mining(e.g.,wa

150、ter pollution,land degradation),but with potential for significant negative impacts on marine ecosystem,as outlined further in this sub-section.Marine minerals with applications for plastic substitution range from clays(Illite,Kaolinite,Smectite)through silica sands to Aragonite,Diatomite and Calcit

151、e.Depending on their origin,these minerals can be found on continental shelves or on the sea floor(Figure 1).For example,sands,pebbles and gravel,can be very abundant on continental shelves.Their abundance and composition are determined by the intrinsic characteristics of the river input and the typ

152、e of rock in the source area.Conversely,calcite is the most abundant Source:Adapted from Trujillo and Thurman(2011).Figure 1Global concentrations of marine minerals with applications as substitutes and alternatives to plasticsLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics21mi

153、neral in oceanic sediments and covers large areas of the seafloor at depths of less than 4,000 metres.It derives from biocalcification of different organisms.Marine biosilica are produced by siliceous plankton(e.g.,diatoms)and are usually rare in marine sediments,except for high productivity areas w

154、here they are dominant.The abyssal plains,deeper than 4000 m,are covered with clays.Marine minerals have less obvious socio-economic development opportunities than seaweed.On the one hand,this may be because sea-based mining is a relatively new concept.At present,no commercial deep-sea mining is und

155、erway and dredging operations only occur at depths of about 200 metres targeting sands,silt and mud of the type used in construction(The Ocean Foundation,2021).7 Whatever the pace of development,deep-sea operations will also compete with land-based operations,which rely on well-established economics

156、.Their commercial viability,which is mineral-specific and encompasses both market factors(e.g.,demand,technology)and project factors(e.g.,capital expenditure,costs),is highly uncertain(Lf,Ericsson and Lf,2022;Ecorys,2014).87 Several countries,including China,the Russian Federation,India,and some Pac

157、ific Island nations,have been granted exploration licenses by the International Seabed Authority(ISA)to explore specific areas of the international seabed for potential mineral resources.At time of writing,22 exploration licenses have been granted.An updated list of grand licenses can be found on th

158、e ISA website:https:/www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/.8 As most feasibility studies have looked at polymetallic nodules containing high-value metals like copper,cobalt,nickel,and manganese,uncertainty is particularly high for the minerals covered in this study.9 The“resource curse”describes a s

159、ituation in which countries rich in natural resources often experience slower economic growth,greater political instability and social inequality than countries without resource endowments.This phenomenon is attributed to a number of factors:Lack of economic diversification due to,inter-alia,currenc

160、y appreciation from resource exports,rent-seeking behaviour by governments with no incentives to invest in value-added sectors(e.g.,manufacturing),the inherent volatility of commodity prices,as well as corruption and conflict.The concept was first proposed and mainstreamed by the seminal contributio

161、ns of Auty(1993)and Sachs and Warner(2001).10 This study discusses the potential for socioeconomic development of marine-based non-plastic substitutes and alternatives and does not address the complex relationship between mineral resources and economic development.For a deep dive in that topic,pleas

162、e refer to the seminal contributions of Prebisch(1950),Singer(1950),Corden and Neary(1982),Auty(1993),and Sachs and Warner(2001).By the same token,the study does not address issues pertaining to the development of deep-sea mining,such as operation requirements,the organization of the seabed supervis

163、ory authorities,production quotas and licensing,technology transfer and taxation.For an in-depth discussion of deep-sea mining from a trade perspective,please refer to UNCTAD(2024,forthcoming).At the same time,sea-based can also be susceptible to the negative effects of the“resource curse”that has c

164、haracterized land-based operations for centuries.9 Indeed,the development outcomes of mining have historically been controversial,with limited domestic value added and foreign-led operations generating significant backward and forward linkages in the domestic economies in limited circumstances(Casel

165、la and Formenti,2022;UNCTAD,2007).10Furthermore,the true environmental risks and costs associated with deep-sea mining are still poorly understood and,in many cases,remain unknown.Additionally,this activity is not yet regulated in areas beyond national jurisdiction for commercial exploitation purpos

166、es,and very few countries have national laws addressing the matter.The impacts of deep-sea mining can be potentially significant and irreversible for many species and marine ecosystems.Therefore,rigorous impact assessments and a precautionary approach must be the foundation for any discussion on the

167、 potential of pursuing such activities.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics223.1.3.Marine invertebrates,plants and wasteMBSAs are also abundant in the biomass of marine invertebrates or plants that are relatively common in the marine environment.In addition to some

168、well-documented sources of chitin,such as sponges,black coral also shows potential for isolating chitinous scaffold,a natural polymer with promising food packaging applications(Nowacki et al.,2020).Similarly,starch can potentially be extracted from propagules of common mangrove species,such as Rhizo

169、phora stylosa and Kandelia candel(Hanashiro et al.,2004)In a more circular way,bio-based components can be extracted from aquaculture by-products such as mollusc shells and seafood processing waste.For example,calcium carbonate(calcite,aragonite),a mineral widely used as a filler in ceramics,can be

170、derived from natural seashells such as clam and oyster where it reaches concentrations of up to 95 per cent(Yamaguchi and Hashimoto,2022).Similarly,natural calcium phosphate(CaP-N),a sustainable alternative to materials commonly used in medical applications and packaging,can be obtained from fisheri

171、es by-products such as fishbones(Righi et al.,2023).Mussel byssus,a by-product of mussel farming,is a potential source of collagen with properties that make it suited for the encapsulation of bioactive molecules(Rodrguez et al.,2017).This property makes it a valuable alternative to plastic-based mat

172、erials in several applications,including food packaging films and cosmetics.While these are innovative substitution approaches that allow value to be extracted from solid waste,thereby promoting resource efficiency and circularity,most are currently at the research stage and their commercial viabili

173、ty remains uncertain(Lionetto and Esposito Corcione,2021).Like the other substitution options discussed in this chapter,they have great potential for sustainable socioeconomic development.However,realising this potential depends not only on scientific feasibility but also on key enabling factors,suc

174、h as technical capacity and market readiness.These issues are discussed comparatively in the section 3.2.3.2.Barriers to market developmentDespite their strong potential,there are certain barriers hindering market development that MBSA share with the wider ocean economy.These barriers are most commo

175、n in developing countries and add up to the challenges related to over-exploitation,pollution,threatened biodiversity and climate change that are already affecting ocean ecosystems(OECD,2016).These include,but are not limited to,underdeveloped markets for enabling goods and services,limited access t

176、o finance and technology,poor policy coherence and stakeholder capacity as well as significant trade barriers including tariffs and technical barriers to trade(TBT)(OECD,2024;UNCTAD,2022a).Some of these barriers are particularly relevant to the development of efficient markets for marine-based alter

177、native plastics and non-plastic substitutes.Barriers typically relate to fundamental market dynamics such as supply and demand,economies of scale and the resulting competitiveness of marine biomaterials vis-vis conventional plastics.Additionally,the R&D,technologies and infrastructure needed to deve

178、lop,produce and market these materials are often lacking,particularly in developing countries.The sustainability imperative also requires robust legal frameworks to ensure that supply chains operate in ways that minimize environmental damage and prevent human rights abuses,even in indirect supplier

179、relationships(Table 4).Black coral shows potential for isolating chitinous scaffold,a natural polymer with promising food packaging applicationsLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics23In addition to the economic costs of these inefficiencies,the foregone environmental

180、 benefits can be significant in the absence of timely policy responses.This is particularly valid for the sustainable use of ocean resources,which are under increasing pressure from a changing climate and unsustainable extraction and require governance,principles,and frameworks that may not be avail

181、able or effectively enforced locally(UNCTAD,2023b).These include regulations and voluntary standards,such as UNCTADs Blue BioTrade Principles and Criteria,which are discussed in section 3.2.3.3.2.1.Market dynamicsDespite growing interest and demand,marine bioplastics may face adverse market dynamics

182、 and low economies of scale,making them only partially competitive with conventional plastics.In fact,the latter benefit from significant cost efficiencies,including large volumes(e.g.,bulk purchasing),workforce specialisation,mature and cheaper technologies and established industry networks,not to

183、mention significant subsidies to fossil fuels.These benefits are limited for nascent marine bioplastics industries.Table 4Top barriers hindering market development in MBSAs and policy options for considerationType Challenge/barrierPolicy options for considerationMarket dynamicsDemand,scale(or scalab

184、ility)etc.Price,cost efficiency(e.g.,PHAs)Competition(e.g.,from fossil fuel-based plastics),diversificationDirect support measures(e.g.,tax concessions,price control)Green public procurementMultiproduct clusters,biorefineries(food,bioplastics etc.)Recognition of social and environmental entrepreneur

185、sEnabling technology and infrastructureMarine-based biotechnology(e.g.,bioreactors for algae fermentation etc.)Critical equipment(e.g.,subsea mining vehicles,farmed seaweed conveyers)Biomaterials R&D(e.g.,for bioplastic applications,marine mineral fillers etc.)Public R&D,including joint R&DUniversit

186、y-industry collaborationsDirect support to business(e.g.,loans)Supplier development programmes(e.g.,within cooperatives,led by lead firms)Public or communal facilities(e.g.,testing labs)Sustainability and governanceEndangered species(i.e.,risks to biodiversity conservation)Water pollution(e.g.,ferti

187、lizer run-offs,waste)Ecosystem damage(e.g.,seabed dredging)Responsible sourcing practices,including human rightsTraceability(e.g.,seaweed farming)Risk management and biodiversity safeguardsSound regulatory frameworks and enforcement(e.g.,CITES)Carbon markets,blue carbon creditsEnvironmental and huma

188、n rights principles and criteria and due diligence(i.e.,supply chains)Risk assessments creditsSource:UNCTAD analysis based on UNCTAD(2024a,2024b,2023b,2022),literature referenced in section 3.2.and expert knowledge from KIIs.Note:The table provides examples of challenges/barriers and may not be exha

189、ustive.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics24Consider PHAs,a promising biopolymer that can be derived from microalgae.The large-scale cultivation of these microbes requires specialised facilities,optimized growth conditions and efficient harvesting methods.For these

190、 reasons,the initial investment for them can be significantly higher than that required to produce comparable volumes of fossil fuel-based polymers and may only be justified by strong demand.However,price negatively affects demand.The unit price of PHAs is on average 2 to 3 times higher than that of

191、 fossil fuel-based polymers(e.g.,polyethylene(PE),polypropylene(PP),polystyrene(PS),at least partly for the reasons just discussed.11 Consumers may be unwilling to pay this price premium,pushing demand down and perpetuating a mechanism that hinders the development of marine bioplastics.This may also

192、 explain why several marine biomaterials are currently produced in limited quantities.This is where government procurement can help stimulate demand and reduce costs for consumers.This assumption is supported by qualitative evidence from KIIs with business executives,who cited the high price of PHAs

193、 compared to synthetic polymers as a major challenge,limiting their use primarily in high-value products such as gift and cosmetic packaging.They also stressed the need to“internalize the externalities”of conventional plastics e.g.,by removing subsidies to fossil fuels.The same respondents also desc

194、ribed the marine bioplastics business as being research and development(R&D)driven,with R&D expenditure pushing bioplastics prices up.On the costs side,the costs of feedstock used to produce PHAs are estimated to account for 30 to 50 per cent of total production costs(Song et al.,2022).At the same t

195、ime,algae tend to have relatively high conversion rates,achieving efficiencies of up to 90 per cent from raw biomass 11 PHA:3700$/MT.PE,PP,PS:800-1600$/MT.High level estimate based on polymer prices published by different sources,including:IMARC Group(https:/ Similar considerations cannot be made fo

196、r marine minerals,whose extraction from the marine environment is,with few exceptions,at the exploration stage.Nevertheless,it is reasonable to hypothesise a similar scenario for the economics of marine minerals when and if marine exploitation gains traction.to bioplastic.In this context,exploring l

197、ow-cost marine sources of biomass for extracting PHAs,such as microalgae,could substantially reduce production costs and enable environmentally-sound procurement.This may also exert a downward pressure on wholesale prices and make PHAs a scalable and competitive alternative.123.2.2.Enabling technolo

198、gy and infrastructureThe issues discussed in section 3.2.1 may be further exacerbated by the limited availability of enabling technologies and infrastructure and the low absorptive capacity of firms.Indeed,the isolation of biopolymers from algal biomass is a complex business involving several steps,

199、from feedstock production to mixing,processing and purification(Figure 2).The technological requirements are many and different at each step.For example,microalgae cultivation requires algal ponds or photobioreactors,while PHA extraction typically combines chemical,mechanical and biological methods.

200、Further downstream,purification requires washing,centrifugation and grinding equipment while drying equipment and extruders are used to melt and shape the PHA into pellets or films(Adetunji and Erasmus,2024;Bezirhan Arikan et al.,2021).As in other ocean industries such as fisheries and aquaculture,a

201、 complex technological mix can be a barrier to entry for new players or a constraint to scaling up for incumbents,especially in developing countries.In fact,assets may not be readily available or may be too expensive to acquire as companies lack sufficient finance or technical capacity to handle the

202、m.Additionally,the proliferation of patents can create further hurdles for new entrants,as they may need to negotiate licensing agreements or develop alternative technologies to avoid infringing The unit price of PHAs is 2 to 3 times higher than that of fossil fuel-based polymersLeaving the shoreMar

203、ine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics25on existing patents.Rapid technological advances such as those in artificial intelligence and machine learning are also revolutionizing marine bioplastics production and may render several technologies obsolete(Adetunji and Erasmus,2024).Technology

204、 intensity emerges as one of the key features of the marine bioplastics sector in KIIs carried out with private sector and academic actors.More specifically,references were made by interviewees to a“high bar technology”,“deep tech”and“biotechnology readiness”to describe a situation where the high up

205、front cost of bioplastic technology does not allow it to spread in the market and makes it difficult for start-ups to scale up.Similar constraints have been identified upstream in the supply chain,where low technological readiness affects the volume and quality of seaweed harvests.In some cases,effo

206、rts are being made within cooperatives and producer associations to improve technical capacity and facilitate access to critical equipment(Box 2).Interviewees also identified a strong potential for economies of scope within the sector-specifically for edible seaweed producers to switch to bioplastic

207、s production.This potential arises from the fact that some edible seaweed species,such as those used to produce carrageenan,are also suitable for biopolymer production.However,concerns were raised about the immediate viability of this shift due to technological constraints and the higher minimum pro

208、duction scale required for bioplastics,which exceeds that of traditional food applications.Source:Pipuni et al.,2023.Figure 2Simplified production process of marine-derived bioplasticsa.Overallb.Polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs)Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics26Minera

209、l extraction and value-addition are also typically technology-intensive activities.In the case of marine minerals,the capital-intensive nature of the equipment and the varying mechanical properties and water content of the rocks add to the technological complexity.Also,technology requirements differ

210、 depending on where the mining takes place(i.e.,in the deep seabed,offshore in shallow water,on beaches or from seawater).From this perspective,barriers to entry may be lower for more established activities that take place offshore,such as sand and gravel extraction,which is typically carried out us

211、ing dredgers(Garel et al.,2019).Conversely,the extreme conditions associated with deep-sea mining,including high pressure and the potential for underwater volcanic activity,require state-of-the-art seawater equipment(Lf,Ericsson and Lf,2022).Deep-sea mining systems are complex and involve multiple p

212、rocesses,including resource extraction,ore transport,mineral processing and ore recovery.These processes require a variety of capital equipment,ranging from subsea mining vehicles to mineral lifting systems and surface support technologies that are be expensive to develop and acquire.This is one of

213、the reasons why land-based mining has traditionally been dominated by multinational enterprises(MNEs)undertaking large-scale extraction projects in mineral-rich countries.These M&Es possess the advanced skills,technologies and capital required to manage these projects,often relying on local firms ma

214、inly for services or basic equipment supply(Casella and Formenti,2022;UNCTAD,2007).In addition to the relatively diverse technology mix and capital-intensive nature of deep-sea mining,technological progress may pose barriers to entry,particularly for developing countries.Indeed,the technological tra

215、jectory of deep-sea mining is uncertain due to the early stage of development of the industry.However,several technologies from neighbouring industries,such as oil and gas,can be integrated into deep-sea mining and provide a reference for its technological requirements.For example,the maturity of su

216、bsea drilling technology may facilitate the successful collection of subsea mineral samples(Liu et al.,2023).Source:UNCTAD(2024)compilation based on KIIs with seaweed businesses and company websites.Mina Agar Makmur is an Indonesian cooperative based in East Java that produces dried seaweed and seaw

217、eed gels.In 2023,the cooperative had 150 farmers cultivating 1,200 hectares of Gracilaria seaweed.The cooperative has long facilitated its members access to critical technology and infrastructure,including communal facilities and post-harvest machinery(e.g.,conveyors,excavators,etc.),while providing

218、 technical assistance on good harvesting practices.Similarly,it is now developing a site and demonstration plant with seaweed processing equipment aiming to scale up production to up to 1,000 tonnes of fully traceable seaweed.The cooperative has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Uluu,an Aust

219、ralian start-up that uses algae to produce injection mouldable bioplastic pellets for the supply of seaweed.This agreement has led to the establishment of SeaSae,an Indonesia-based joint venture that will source certified seaweed to produce biomaterials.The partnership aims to further improve local

220、livelihoods while supporting the diversification of the regions economy.By purchasing large quantities of seaweed from Mina Agar Makmur,including by-products and waste,the venture not only supports sustainable income generation for local farmers but also actively promotes a circular economy.Box 2Sha

221、red technology and know-how in seaweed farming cooperatives:Mina Agar Makmur and SeaSaeLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics27Given these complexities,offshore activities such as sand and gravel extraction may be of more immediate interest to developing countries tha

222、n deep-sea mining.For instance,mining in shallow water requires readily available technologies and has important synergies with offshore oil and gas extraction,a sector in which many developing countries have well-functioning supply chains and solid market links(Lf,Ericsson and Lf,2022;Teka,2011).3.

223、2.3.Social and environmental governanceIn addition to market-related constraints,there are several sustainability-related risks associated with sourcing MBSAs.Negative impacts are MBSA-specific and range from the environmental externalities of production(e.g.,runoffs)to unsustainable harvesting prac

224、tices,including social risks(Table 5).As the economies are in transition to more sustainable practices,underperforming industries or the lack of appropriate frameworks to address these risks can hinder market demand and development as much as more common market forces(see section 3.2.2.).They theref

225、ore require careful consideration.Table 5Environmental and social sustainability risks of sourcing MBSAsMBSAEnvironmental riskSocial riskSeaweed and algaeEcological imbalances in marine ecosystems due to mono or poly cultureAccelerated spread of diseaseDepletion of nutrient stocksReduction of seaflo

226、or lightHuman rights violations,e.g.,harassment and sexual abuseSanitation and health issuesConstrained tenure rights,e.g.,land and water accessUnfair remunerationMarine minerals(deep-sea,shallow water,continent shelf)Environmental degradation,e.g.,from drilling,dredging,etc.Ecosystem damage and los

227、s of biodiversitySeabed disturbance(e.g.,noise,light,sediment)Increased seawater temperatureRelease of toxic elementsLand loss,e.g.,from erosionChild labourExploitation of vulnerable groups,e.g.,minoritiesForced displacementExacerbated inequalities,e.g.,between social and racial groupsIncreased cost

228、s of living,congestionMarine invertebrates and plantsForegone ecosystem services,e.g.,water filtration,fish habitatsBiodiversity lossExtinction of endangered species(e.g.,reef corals)Ecological imbalances in marine ecosystemsSafety issues,e.g.,injuries and fatalitiesSocial conflict,unrestChild labou

229、rSource:UNCTAD analysis based on UNCTAD(2024b,2024 forthcoming),literature referenced in section 3.2.3 and expert knowledge from KIIs.Note:The table provides examples of sustainability-related risks/impacts and may not be exhaustive.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plast

230、ics28Overall,research suggests that the environmental externalities of seaweed farming are relatively low compared to land-based crop systems.However,amidst non-negligible socio-economic benefits and contributions to nutrition and food security(cfr.section 3.1.1),there are several environmental and

231、social risks associated with scaling up seaweed production that are only partially understood.These risks include potential biodiversity impacts,disruption of local ecosystems and socio-economic issues such as unfair and inequitable benefit-sharing.These concerns are increasingly attracting the atte

232、ntion of practitioners and policy makers(Spillias et al.,2023b;UNEP,2023).Large-scale seaweed farms,especially those based on invasive species,can disrupt the ecological balance of host habitats and endanger living organisms through accelerated disease,genetic changes and variations in physicochemic

233、al properties(Bhuyan,2023).Poor technical capacity and knowledge of farmers in areas such as genetic management exacerbate these issues(FAO,2024).Seaweed farms can also reduce the amount of light reaching the seafloor and deplete nutrient stocks,harming other species that rely on the same light and

234、nutrients,such as seagrass(UNEP,2023;Macrofuels,2021;Campbell et al.,2019).In addition to confirming most of these risks,KIIs with seaweed practitioners also revealed a risk of effluent run-offs and water pollution.Seaweed farming offers extraordinary potential for engaging women,youth and vulnerabl

235、e groups in coastal communities,providing them with opportunities for economic empowerment and improved livelihoods.However,it also carries a significant risk of human rights abuses.Recent UNCTAD research shows that the basic rights of small-scale seaweed farmers can be violated in several ways.In t

236、he informal economy,women have limited protection against harassment and verbal,physical or sexual violence,which can occur within or outside of working relationships.Sanitation and health problems,such as those resulting from excessive working hours,are also relatively common.In some cases,indigeno

237、us peoples reported that even the creation of protected areas acted as a barrier to basic access and tenure rights to water and land(UNCTAD,2024b).In this context,the sectors growth and the integration into global supply chains presents an opportunity to advance formalization,which demands the devel

238、opment and enforcement of environmental and social safeguards.MBSAEnvironmental riskSocial riskFishery byproducts and waste Oxygen depletionGHG emissions,e.g.,methaneWater pollution,e.g.,run-offsSoil contaminationEcological imbalances in marine and terrestrial ecosystemsChild waste picking,e.g.,for

239、informal recyclingTable 5(cont.)Environmental and social sustainability risks of sourcing MBSAsSource:UNCTAD analysis based on UNCTAD(2024b,2024 forthcoming),literature referenced in section 3.2.3 and expert knowledge from KIIs.Note:The table provides examples of sustainability-related risks/impacts

240、 and may not be exhaustive.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics29Private sector-led approaches are becoming increasingly important in mitigating environmental and social sustainability risks.For instance,social sustainability and product traceability are emerging as

241、 new requirements for market access in key trading blocs such as the European Union,where supply chain regulations are becoming increasingly stringent,including on due diligence and other requirements in the sourcing of raw materials.13 To meet evolving standards and secure access to sustainable mar

242、kets,seaweed farming cooperatives in Indonesia are working with the World Wildlife Fund(WWF)Indonesia to obtain ecolabelling certifications in 13 An example of emerging legislation on supply chain due diligence is the European Union Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence(CSDD)(link).Con

243、versely,traceability is a core element of the European Union Deforestation Regulation(EUDR)(link).While currently focused on terrestrial commodity sectors such as wood fibre,the requirements underlying these regulations may soon be extended to marine commodity chains such as seaweed.support of produ

244、ct traceability(Box 3).The overall importance of sustainability as a key driver to market development is also confirmed by KIIs.Respondents unanimously pointed to buyers being ready to pay a price premium for sustainably harvested seaweed.One respondent indicated traceability as an invaluable means

245、of shedding light on the upstream part of the supply chain as buyers have typically low visibility on where the seaweed comes from,how much producers get paid etc.The same respondent attributed an important role to voluntary sustainability standards(VSS)such as Source:UNCTAD(2024)compilation based o

246、n KIIs with seaweed businesses and company websites.The seaweed sector is characterised by a growing awareness of the importance of traceability.On the one hand,this is driven by a growing interest in responsible business practices,as consumers demand transparency about the origin and production met

247、hods in all sectors including seaweed products ranging from food to clothing.At the same time,regulations are becoming more stringent,requiring robust traceability systems to meet requirements such as those recently imposed by the European Union and other high-end markets.However,setting up robust t

248、raceability systems comes with its own challenges and compliance costs.Indonesia is home to some of the worlds largest seaweed production hubs such as South Sulawesi,which accounts for 11 per cent of the global seaweed supply(Permani et al.,2023).Seaweed farming is largely carried out by smallholder

249、 farmers in remote areas.The product travels through a complex network of intermediaries to processing plants,which are mainly located near urban areas on the Java Island(Soethoudt,Axmann and Kok,2022).This not only increases transport costs and direct emissions but also makes it difficult to track

250、the movement of seaweed through all stages.In addition,carrageenan producers often mix seaweed from different sources and regions to meet buyers requirements(e.g.,gel content).This blending creates challenges in tracing the origin of individual seaweed species in the final product.Whether it is used

251、 as a barrier film or film in packaging or as a gelling agent in cosmetics,seaweed is usually only a small part of the final product.Given its relatively small contribution to final products,buyers may be less keen to implement traceability systems or certifications that are expensive and technicall

252、y challenging in nature.At the same time,farmers often lack clear economic benefits and incentives to participate in traceability programmes.Certification costs can be high and the value proposition for farmers isnt always readily apparent.Box 3Improving traceability in Indonesias seaweed supply cha

253、inLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics30Aquaculture Stewardship Council(ASC)and Marine Stewardship Council(MSC),with regulations not yet keeping pace.Deep-sea mining is under scrutiny by the international community due to the high risk of environmental degradation a

254、ssociated with the exploitation of deposits(drilling,dredging,etc.).However,deep-sea mining is at an early stage of development and commercial exploration has not yet begun.For this reason,scientific evidence is limited to small-scale trials,and the lack of data on seabed biodiversity makes thorough

255、 risk assessment difficult.While its risks are not fully understood,environmental impacts commonly attributed to deep-sea mining include ecosystem damage and loss of biodiversity associated with seabed disturbance(e.g.,noise,light,sediment),increased seawater temperature and the potential release of

256、 toxic elements(Miller et al.,2018;Ecorys,2014).However,the landscape is changing rapidly.For instance,recent research has found that seabed polymetallic nodules produce oxygen(Sweetman,2024)a significant discovery which implies that deep-sea ecosystems may not be as dependent on sunlight as previou

257、sly thought.This could have significant implications for future mining operations as mining would not only threaten marine ecosystems directly but also disrupt the oxygen-producing process.A more nuanced consideration can be given to the extraction of aggregates,including sand and gravel,which has b

258、een taking place in marine environments since the 1950s as shown for example in the case of the United Kingdom(Figure 3).Despite the strategic importance of sand,its extraction and sourcing,remain largely unregulated,causing environmental and social damage in many regions.Land loss through erosion,n

259、oise disturbance and ecological imbalances in fish habitats are well-documented impacts in shallow waters and on continental shelves(UNEP,2022).Fortunately,these impacts have been found to affect only relatively small areas in the vicinity of operations and take a relatively short time Source:Garel,

260、E.et al.2019.Figure 3Sand and gravel production of aggregates in the United Kingdom between 1900 and 2004o193019201910194019501960197019801990200040206080100120140Marine aggregates onlyLand-won and marine aggregatesLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics31to reverse on

261、ce dredging ceases(Maribus,2014).On the social side,sand mining in developing countries is often associated with child labour,a vulnerable workforce and inequalities between social and racial groups(UNEP,2022;Bendixen et al,2021).Against this background,discussions on the overall feasibility of mari

262、ne mining cannot be divorced from environmental and social considerations.It is crucial to acknowledge that the potential of marine mining to provide a viable solution to the plastics crisis remains highly uncertain due to the limited understanding of its long-term environmental impacts.Its external

263、ities must be also compared with those of land-based mining,the main alternative source of these materials(Lf,A.,Ericsson,M.and Lf,O.,2022).Offshore oil and gas production also offers valuable insights,as it has similar operational complexities to deep-sea mining,but in a more established setting wh

264、ere environmental and social impacts are well documented(Albeldawi,2023;Cordes et al.,2016;Akakpo,2015).The role of governance frameworks,such as those established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS)and the International Seabed Authority(ISA),is also essential in ensuring

265、that marine mining operations adhere to international environmental,social and regulatory standards.Sustainability motives,primarily the conservation of marine ecosystems and the sustainable use of ocean resources,should also be key determinants of choice relating to the harvesting of certain marine

266、 species with potential for material applications.These species,which include marine invertebrates and plants such as corals,sponges and mangroves,contribute in various ways to healthy marine and coastal ecosystems and are increasingly being studied as nature-based solutions to climate change.While

267、corals cover only 0,2 per cent of the seafloor,they support at least 25 per cent of marine species by providing shelter,spawning grounds,and food sources,and are estimated to provide ecosystem services worth$2.7 trillion(ICRI,GCRMN,Australia Institute of Marine Science and UNEP,2022).Sponges act as

268、natural water filters,constantly sucking in water and filtering out plankton,bacteria,and other tiny particles,thus contributing to cleaner water(NOAA,2024;Folkers and Rombouts,2020).Mangroves are champions of shoreline protection because their dense root systems stabilize the soil,preventing erosio

269、n and storm damage(Sunkur et al.,2023).Unfortunately,many of these species are highly sensitive to environmental changes and are under pressure from human activities and the effects of a changing climate.These include rising temperatures,water pollution and illegal,unreported and unregulated(IUU)fis

270、hing.For instance,reef building corals have been found to be threatened by localized stresses resulting from destructive fishing,declining water quality and degraded coastal habitats(Carpenter K.E,et al.,2008).The global coral reef population was found to have declined by 14 per cent between 2009 an

271、d 2018,highlighting the urgent need for conservation measures to avoid ecological imbalances in many ecosystems(ICRI,GCRMN,Australia Institute of Marine Science and UNEP,2022).Similar considerations can be made for sponges and mangroves.While not all species are currently threatened,the harvesting o

272、f marine species for human applications needs to be carefully managed to avoid creating new environmental externalities in the process of mitigating existing ones.This situation is complex and requires detailed consideration of both species-specific and geographic factors.For example,certain species

273、 might be resilient to environmental changes,while geographic variations can influence the sustainability of harvesting practices.Fortunately,there are well established legal frameworks to manage these challenges.Among them,the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna an

274、d Flora(CITES),stem from inter-governmental processes and is The global coral reef population declined by 14%between 2009 and 2018Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics32legally binding on the 184 countries that are Parties to the Convention.Additionally,voluntary fra

275、meworks such as UNCTADs BioTrade Principles and Criteria(UNCTAD,2020b),are endorsed on a voluntary basis by supply chain actors(Box 4).1414 While BioTrade Principles and Criteria are primarily a voluntary framework promoting the sustainable trade of biodiversity-based products,their implementation i

276、s also shaped by various sectoral laws and regulations.In particular,access and benefit-sharing(ABS)measures,often mandated by national and regional legislation,make certain aspects of BioTrade compliance legally required.Legal frameworks and safeguards,including multilateral environmental agreement

277、s(MEAs),provide a legal basis for improving the sustainability of economic activities and trade that affect biological diversity.While UNCTADs BioTrade P&C and UNCTAD defines BioTrade as“the activities of collection/production,transformation and commercialization of goods and services derived from n

278、ative biodiversity under the criteria of environmental,social and economic sustainability”.These criteria,called the BioTrade Principles and Criteria(P&C),cover a growing range of goods and services,including personal care products,natural and phytopharmaceuticals,nature-based fashion,horticultural

279、products,handicrafts and textiles,among others.The BioTrade P&C were established and implemented since 2007 and had been revised in 2020 to address new challenges,and evolving legal and policy frameworks as they are experienced by practitioners on the ground.The P&C are now being implemented in abou

280、t 100 countries.In this context,the emerging concept of Blue BioTrade-focused on marine-based products and services builds on the P&C to promote sustainability and equity and the responsible use of marine biodiversity.It applies the P&C to selected ocean industries,focusing the seven criteria on mar

281、ine and coastal resources:Biodiversity conservation,sustainable use of biodiversity,equitable benefit-sharing,socio-economic sustainability,legal compliance,respect for stakeholders rights,and clearly defined tenure and access to resources.Blue BioTrade draws upon international agreements(e.g.,the C

282、onvention on Biological Diversity CBD,UNCLOS and CITES)and is a spinoff of UNCTADs Oceans Economy and Fisheries Programme and the BioTrade Initiative.The P&C can be applied by endorsing bodies and practitioners in governments,the private sector and civil society(e.g.,government organizations,IGOs,in

283、dustry associations,companies,community organizations)at different levels of the supply chain to develop sustainable livelihoods,adopt an ecosystem-based management approach,and promote rapid adaptation to dynamic markets and changing environmental conditions.The P&C also support access and benefit-

284、sharing(ABS)in line with the Nagoya Protocol,ensuring that the benefits derived from biodiversity are shared fairly with the communities that provide access to these resources.They define a sustainable sourcing model that is primarily applied on a business-to-business basis,but business-to-consumer

285、applications have also proven successful.In 2020,UNCTAD,the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States(OECS)and CITES joined forces to design a pilot project to test the application of the revised P&C to the queen conch(Strombus gigas)value chain(a CITES Appendix II listed species).The project designe

286、d a regional action plan to enable small-scale coastal producers from OECS member states to sustainably produce and trade queen conch products in domestic,regional and international markets.This included addressing certain supply-side constraints,such as the lack of traceability systems and limited

287、understanding and use of CITES procedures and permits.Source:UNCTAD(2022b,2020a,2020b,2018).Box 4 Life Cycle Assessment(LCA)Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics33VSS,such as the ASC and the MSC,are typically not legally binding,they are designed to complement and re

288、inforce the objectives of MEAs.Both encourage the adoption of sustainable practices that align with international obligations,thereby supporting broader efforts to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity.Black corals(Antipatharia),which are being explored as a source of chitin,are an interesting c

289、ase in point.They are not currently listed as threatened on the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN)Red List of Threatened Species,although reef corals account for 36 per cent of the threatened species on the list.15 However,Antipatharia are listed in Appendix II of the CITES.16 This

290、 means that they“are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade is closely controlled”.Appendix II controls include an export permit or re-export certificate issued by the Management Authority of the state of export or re-export.For Antipatharia,a specimen introduc

291、ed from the sea,a certificate must be issued by the Management Authority of the state where the specimen is imported.17 Issuance of these documents are dependent on evidence that the trade will not adversely affect the survival of the wild population.Against this backdrop,supply chain actors may cho

292、ose to adhere to and implement relevant VSS for Antipatharia,provided that the VSS reinforce compliance and do not conflict with the provisions of CITES and other biodiversity-related MEAs.The extraction of minerals and polymers from aquaculture and seafood processing waste represents,at least in th

293、eory,a viable way of extracting value from otherwise discarded by-products(e.g.,shells,skins).15 The full list can be accessed here:https:/www.iucnredlist.org/.16 CITES uses three Appendices(I,II,and III)to categorize species based on the level of protection they need from over-exploitation.Appendix

294、 I includes species facing the highest risk of extinction,i.e.,endangered,due to trade.These species are subject to the most stringent controls.Appendix II includes species that are not currently endangered but that may become so if trade is not carefully controlled.Appendix III lists species includ

295、ed at the request of a Party where that Party already regulates trade in the species and needs the cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation.More information on the specific trade regulations for each Appendix can be found on the CITES website:https:/cites.org/e

296、ng/app/index.php.17 For more details,see:https:/cites.org/eng/disc/how.php.As by-products account for 50 to 75 per cent of the weight of the catch,this would not only generate economic gains but also help to address a key environmental externality of the industry,waste(Lionetto and Esposito Corcione

297、,2021).Indeed,the societal costs of solid waste management are not always reflected in market prices and can be substantial.They range from oxygen depletion in water bodies to ecological imbalances in ecosystems and habitats caused by air,water and soil pollution.Despite the high potential for resou

298、rce efficiency and circularity,these approaches are not free from sustainability challenges.First and foremost,polymer recovery requires,inter-alia,collection systems and sorting facilities to collect fish waste and produce polymer rich biomass.It can be hampered in contexts where robust waste manag

299、ement frameworks and infrastructure are lacking,as is the case in many developing countries.Creating the right conditions to preserve marine waste prior to extraction can also be challenging,especially on a large-scale.Indeed,storage in a sterile environment is necessary to maintain the integrity of

300、 the biomaterial and to prevent contamination(Kang et al.,2023).In addition,the degradation of fish waste in uncontrolled environments such as landfills generates emissions.It is converted in GHGs,particularly methane,which is a top contributor to global warming and climate change(World Economic For

301、um,2024).From a social sustainability perspective,the lack of collection systems can drive vulnerable groups such as children into informal recycling of by-products for resale in secondary markets(e.g.,waste picking),posing serious ethical and health concerns.Leaving the shoreMarine-based substitute

302、s and alternatives to plastics343.3.Environmental impact through LCA3.3.1.The conventional wisdom and life cycle thinkingMBSAs have characteristics that make them substantially different from each other.As the analysis in chapter 2 and 3 suggests,these relate not only to production,market and socio-

303、economic factors but also to environmental performance(e.g.,biodegradability)and functionality.This can be seen,for example,when comparing synthetic plastic polymers with bio-based alternatives such as marine-based.While the conventional wisdom would suggest that bio-based materials are better for t

304、he environment than synthetic ones,this is not true in all contexts.Consider,for example,a situation where a government incentivizes the development of biodegradable alternatives for synthetic plastic coatings in packaging.Grants or tax breaks could be offered to packaging companies that invest in r

305、esearch and development efforts.From an environmental perspective,replacing synthetic coatings with biodegradable materials,such as marine-based,may only make sense if the country has access to surplus polymer-rich biomass(e.g.,fishery waste,algae)that can be used as feedstock,or to marine environme

306、nts where seaweed farming systems can be established at minimal environmental cost.Conversely,the establishment of land-based crop systems dedicated to the production of feedstocks may have high environmental costs(e.g.,land use,runoffs)that can at least partly offset the environmental benefits of m

307、ainstreaming biodegradable plastics.The same considerations apply to end-of-life scenarios.Indeed,industrial composting facilities for biomaterials,a favourable regulatory environment and a critical mass of environmentally-conscious consumers 18 For a detailed discussion of the methodological steps,

308、caveats and applications of LCA to trade in non-plastic substitutes and alternatives,see UNCTAD(2024a).would be needed to make the promotion of biomaterials environmentally sound.In the absence of these conditions,bioplastic waste would end up in landfill,where the layering and limited air circulati

309、on may make it difficult to find the right conditions for rapid decomposition,including oxygen,moisture and microbial activity.This can make biodegradation much slower than in environments with controlled conditions such as industrial composting facilities.In addition,the anaerobic breakdown of biop

310、lastics can produce GHGs such as methane,a major contributor to global warming and climate change.From this perspective,it is fair to assume that no material is environmentally superior to another without careful consideration of the context in which it is produced,marketed,consumed and disposed of.

311、This example helps to illustrate that in the absence of certain framework conditions,business and policy decisions that are theoretically greener may at least partially,if not completely,negate their own environmental benefits.It is therefore important that these issues are not overlooked and that t

312、hey are carefully assessed based on their opportunity costs in any decision to phase out or replace plastics.One tool that is becoming increasingly popular with decision-makers,both in business and government,as it can help to properly assess situations such as the one just described is the LCA(Life

313、 Cycle Assessment).LCA is a comprehensive method designed to quantify the environmental impacts of a product,process,or service throughout its life cycle,from raw material extraction to disposal or recycling.LCA consists of four main steps:1)Goal and scope definition;2)Life cycle inventory;3)Life cy

314、cle impact assessment;and 4)Life cycle interpretation.18 The accuracy,quality and usefulness of a LCA is dependent on the criteria applied and the quality of data available.However,No material is environmen-tally supe-rior to another without con-sidering its production,consumption,and disposal conte

315、xtLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics35even in the absence of high-quality data applying some degree of life-cycle thinking can provide certain direction and help to manage complex decisions.3.3.2.Key substitution trade offsMBSAs generate various environmental exte

316、rnalities throughout their production,marketing,consumption,and disposal phases.These impacts,along with the key influencing factors,encompass the entire life cycle,presenting intricate trade-offs and potential constraints for business strategies and policy development(Figure 4).This framework can s

317、erve as a basis for preliminary evaluations when navigating the complex choices between conventional plastics and their MBSAs.Some of the strategic inputs required for well-functioning MBSA industries,such as energy,embed emissions or have lifecycle impacts on the environment.For example,power gener

318、ation still relies heavily on fossil fuels such as coal,oil and gas.These are the dominant sources of greenhouse gases,accounting for over 75 per cent of global emissions.From this perspective,the production of bioplastics with a fossil fuel-dominated energy matrix could reduce their GHG reduction p

319、otential compared to conventional plastics(UNCTAD,2023a).This is particularly the case for algae,where cultivation processes such as pumping and mixing can be energy intensive.Further downstream,the extraction of agar-agar,carrageenan and alginates is a technologically complex business involving mul

320、tiple steps,some of whom are known to be energy-,water-and chemical-intensive(Lomartire,Marques,and Gonalves,2022)(Figure 5).Similarly,a wide range of technologies that could revolutionise marine mining,such as artificial intelligence,have been identified as significant carbon emitters due to their

321、high energy consumption(Crawford,2024;UNCTAD,2024c;Dhar,2020).While they can help reducing plastic pollution by mainstreaming MBSAs globally,they can also embed invisible externalities that need to be factored into decisions.Source:UNCTAD analysis based on ISO(2006a,2006b)and UNCTAD(2024a).Note:The

322、diagram is not exhaustive as it only shows selected examples and influencing factors of environmental impact.The“Inputs”and“Packaging”stages are added for illustrative purpose and are not part of the standard life cycle process chain(cfr.ISO 2006a,2006b).Figure 4Examples and influencing factors of e

323、nvironmental impact across the life cycle of MBSAsLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternatives to plastics36Moving downstream,the production of agricultural and mineral commodities is known to have a high environmental footprint due to emissions to soil,water and air(e.g.,from fertilis

324、ers and pesticides),high freshwater consumption and pressures on arable land.Under the right conditions,the establishment of marine-based commodity chains has the potential to save resources and reduce emissions from agriculture.For example,without needing land or freshwater,pesticides or fertilizer

325、s,seaweed farming systems can be established at relatively low environmental cost and can counteract demand for terrestrial feedstock crops such as maize(WWF,2024).Interestingly,as well as having a low carbon footprint,algae can achieve conversion efficiencies from raw biomass to bioplastics that ma

326、ke it a competitive alternative to19 Insights gathered from KIIs with producers of PHAs.land crops.Around 10 kg of raw algae is needed to produce 1 kg of PHAs,and conversion rates are higher for hydrocolloid-based materials such as PLAs.19 Similarly,the exploration of deep-sea mineral deposits could

327、 reduce pressure on land-based resources in high demand for the green transition,such as rare hearts.Nevertheless,the lifecycle GHG reduction potential of marine-based commodity chains can be affected by externalities that do not arise directly from raw materials production.This is the case of biopo

328、lymer extraction from algal biomass in cases when the processing facilities(e.g.,fermentation,purification)are located far from the farming sites,e.g.,inland.In such a scenario,if fossil fuel-based transport is used,transportation can cause GHG emissions to soar and add significantly to the carbon f

329、ootprint of the product.For materials that have undergone primary processing,functionality entails the specific characteristics and capabilities a material has that make it suitable for a particular application,i.e.,packaging.These include mechanical properties(e.g.,strength,elasticity),physical pro

330、perties(e.g.,density,thermal properties),chemical properties(e.g.,corrosion resistance,reactivity)and other functional attributes(e.g.,barrier,biodegradability,recyclability).While research tends to agree on biodegradability(or compostability under certain conditions)as a distinctive property of MBS

331、As,the evidence on other properties of MBSAs compared to synthetic polymers is mixed.Recent contributions,such as Mogany,Bhola and Bux(2024)and Pipuni et al.(2023),tend to ascribe identical or at least similar physical and mechanical performance to algal bioplastics.While acknowledging similar mater

332、ial performance,others such as Adetunji and Erasmus,2024 and Perera et al.(2021),take a more cautious approach and identify properties such as barrier,tensile strength and water solubility where synthetic polymers Figure 5 The extraction process of carrageenan and agar-agar(a)and alginate(b)Source:U

333、NCTAD calculations,based on World Bank International Debt Statistics.CleaningCarrageenan/Agar-agarAlkali pre-treatmentHot water extractionAlkali extractionNeutralizationDrying and millingPrecipitationand fltrationCleaningAlginateHCI pre-treatmentAlkali extractionNeutralizationDrying and millingPrecipitationand fltrationFormaldehydepre-treatmentLeaving the shoreMarine-based substitutes and alternat