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1、 EUR 31905 EN ISSN 1831-9424 Stepniak,M.,Cheimariotis,I.,Lodi,C.,Rataj,M.,Zawieska,J.,Grosso,M.,Marotta,A.2024 An assessment based on the Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System(TRIMIS)Research and Innovation on Drones in Europe JRC137334 EUR 31905 EN Print ISBN 978-92-68

2、-14349-0 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2760/28678 KJ-NA-31-905-EN-C PDF ISBN 978-92-68-14342-1 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/02357 KJ-NA-31-905-EN-N Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2024 European Union,2024 The reuse policy of the European Commission documents is implemented by the Commissi

3、on Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents(OJ L 330,14.12.2011,p.39).Unless otherwise noted,the reuse of this document is authorised under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).This mean

4、s that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated.For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the European Union permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.Cover page illustration:sizsus:image#634883444,.Ico

5、ns of drones on figures 16 and 18-26:nsit0108 image#283409948,.How to cite this report:European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Stepniak,M.,Cheimariotis,I.,Lodi,C.,Rataj,M.,Zawieska,J.,Grosso,M.and Marotta,A.,Research and Innovation on Drones in Europe,Publications Office of the European Union,Luxe

6、mbourg,2024,https:/data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/02357,JRC137334.This document is a publication by the Joint Research Centre(JRC),the European Commissions science and knowledge service.It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process.The contents of this publica

7、tion do not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Commission.Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication.For information on the methodology and quality underlying the data us

8、ed in this publication for which the source is neither Eurostat nor other Commission services,users should contact the referenced source.The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union conc

9、erning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Contact information Name:Alessandro Marotta Address:European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Vie E.Fermi 2749,I-21027,Ispra(VA)Italy Email:alessandro.mar

10、ottaec.europa.eu Tel.:+39 0332 78 9463 EU Science Hub https:/joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu 1 Contents Abstract.3 Acknowledgements.4 Executive summary.5 1 Introduction.8 2 Definitions,background and key challenges.10 2.1 Definitions.10 2.2 Policy background.11 2.2.1 Towards Drone Strategy 2.0:an

11、 evolution of EU drone policies.11 2.2.2 Drone Strategy 2.0:European Policy Actions on Drones research and innovation.11 2.2.3 Role of EU partnerships in drone innovation.13 2.3 Technologies for drones:literature review.14 2.3.1 Unmanned Aircraft Systems.15 2.3.2 Innovative Air Mobility and Urban Ai

12、r Mobility.16 2.3.3 U-space and Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management.17 2.3.4 Technology integration.18 2.4 Impact of drones on society and environment.18 2.5 JRC works on drones.21 3 Methods and data.22 3.1 Methodological approach.22 3.2 Data collection.23 3.3 Overview of projects.23 3.4 Mai

13、n actors.25 4 EU research and innovation in drone technologies.28 4.1 Overview of drone technologies projects.28 4.1.1 Research and innovation policy and funding sources.28 4.1.2 Funding schemes and expected technology readiness.30 4.1.3 Technology themes and effort repartition.32 4.2 Vehicles and s

14、ubsystems.33 4.2.1 Overview.33 4.2.2 Project analysis.35 4.3 Infrastructure.37 4.3.1 Overview.37 4.3.2 Project analysis.38 4.4 U-space.39 4.4.1 Overview.39 4.4.2 Project analysis.40 5 Research on environmental and socio-economic impacts of drones.44 2 5.1 Main trends in research on impacts of drones

15、.44 5.2 Noise pollution.45 5.3 Visual pollution.46 5.4 Land use impact.46 5.5 Energy and emissions.47 5.6 Safety.48 5.7 Security and privacy.49 5.8 Regulation and standardisation.50 6 Research and innovation support for policy initiatives.51 6.1 Safety rules and requirements for airspace and aircraf

16、ts.51 6.2 Research and innovation strategies.52 6.3 Civil,security and defence industry capabilities and synergies.52 6.4 Main trends in research and innovation support for policy initiatives.53 7 Conclusions.55 References.58 List of abbreviations and definitions.62 List of figures.64 List of tables

17、.65 Annexes.66 Annex 1.Description of funding sources.66 3 Abstract The European Commissions Drone Strategy 2.0 aims to create the right environment for a vibrant and competitive European drone economy.This report provides a review of recent trends,challenges,and achievements of European research an

18、d innovation projects.It identifies relevant projects that focus on public transport using the Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System(TRIMIS)database.It assesses the contributions of identified projects to the progress in drone technologies,their research on environmenta

19、l and socio-economic impacts,and their alignment with European policy aims.The reports conclusions highlight future research directions.4 Acknowledgements The Joint Research Centre is in charge of the development of the Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System(TRIMIS),and

20、the work has been carried out under the supervision of the Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport(DG MOVE)and the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation(DG RTD)that are co-leading the Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda(STRIA).The authors would also like to acknowledg

21、e the input and review of Pia Peitl,Jukka Savo,Huang Vu Duc,Ines Hartwig and Georgios Tzamalis at DG MOVE,Michail Kyriakopoulos and Guido Sacchetto at DG RTD,Luca Guarango at DEFIS,Elitsa Beyska at EISMEA and Stephane Petti at European Investment Bank,as well as for the support given by Ricardo-AEA

22、Ltd.to TRIMIS.Moreover,we would like to thank our JRC colleagues:Elena Paffuni,for supporting the publishing of accompanying data at JRC Open Data Repository,and Silvia Mondello,for providing graphic designer feedback and fresh ideas for charts prepared for the report.The views expressed here are th

23、ose of the authors and may not,under any circumstances,be regarded as an official position of the European Commission.Authors Marcin Stpniak,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy Ilias Cheimariotis,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy Chiara Lodi,Piksel srl,Milan,Ita

24、ly Micha Rataj,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy Jakub Zawieska,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy Monica Grosso,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy Alessandro Marotta,European Commission,Joint Research Centre,Ispra,Italy 5 Executive summary T

25、he report presents an analysis of the research and innovation activities on drones in Europe.It assesses the scope and main achievements of European Union projects.The study uses the Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System(TRIMIS)database to identify relevant projects.The

26、 report provides a review of recent trends,challenges and achievements of European research and innovation initiatives on drones.This includes their main technological advances,progress in research on environmental and socio-economic impacts of drones,and the alignment of project scopes with the Eur

27、opean policy agenda.Policy context In 2022 the European Commission published the Drone Strategy 2.0.The strategy aims towards creating the right environment for a vibrant and competitive European drone economy.Achieving this requires the safe and sustainable integration of drones in European airspac

28、e,emphasizing transport safety,security,sustainability,and innovation.The Drone Strategy also focuses on societal acceptance,regulatory progress,and the development of environmentally friendly drone technologies to support EU sustainability and climate goals.The strategy aims to establish clear and

29、effective regulatory frameworks to support safe and efficient drone operation,driving positive societal and economic outcomes.The document reflects the growing importance of research and innovation in drone technologies,aligning with the EUs broader policy framework for sustainable and smart mobilit

30、y.Moreover,the development of the drone sector in Europe has been guided by key policy documents,including the European Commissions Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy and the Aviation Strategy for Europe,addressing safety rules,research and innovation strategies,and civil,security,and defence i

31、ndustry capabilities.Key conclusions A comprehensive analysis was conducted for all identified projects,concentrating on technological aspects,socio-economic and environmental impacts of drones as well as the support of research and innovation activities to the European drone-related policies.Key co

32、nclusions are:Within the domain of aircraft and their subsystems,considerable progress has been noted in technologies towards the holistic design of drones,as well as in propulsion systems,enhancing energy efficiency,extending range,and increasing payload capacity.U-space development initiatives hav

33、e tackled crucial challenges including traffic management in the urban airspace,increased flight operation density,trajectory optimization,and the necessity for legal regulations.In the area of infrastructure for drones,main achievements have been related to improvement of power supply,charging infr

34、astructure,and landing systems.There are few projects on physical infrastructure,fact which can be attributed to the need for prior development of vehicles and U-space capabilities.About half of the reviewed projects explored environmental or socio-economic impacts of drones or focused on regulation

35、 and standardisation topics.Safety is the most frequently studied topic,followed by regulations,security and privacy issues,noise pollution and energy and emissions.In general,over 72%of the research and innovation projects analysed for this report,have their scope aligned with the policy aims,contr

36、ibuting to several flagship actions as listed in the Drone Strategy 2.0.Projects primarily focused on safety rules and requirements for airspace and aircraft,research and innovation strategies,and civil,security,and defence industry capabilities and synergies.Main findings Using the TRIMIS database

37、we identified 152 European projects which concentrate on drone research and innovation.It is noteworthy that there is a high diversity of funding sources for these projects.While most of them(118)are funded within Framework Programmes(primarily from Horizon 2020,with a few from Horizon Europe and on

38、e from FP7),the remaining projects are funded by ten different programmes,including the Connecting Europe Facility,Interreg,European Defence Fund,or the European Investment Bank.The total EU contribution for these projects varies from 50 000 EUR to over 50 million EUR.Thirty-two projects have been s

39、upported through funding programs for small and medium enterprises.Organizations from Spain,Germany,France,Italy and Belgium are among the most active participants in European drone research and innovation activities.Moreover,Spanish organizations led 20%of all analysed projects(31).6 Main achieveme

40、nts in technologies for drones:1.Vehicles and their subsystems:improvement in energy and propulsion systems by reducing energy consumption,improving aerodynamics,to extend the flight range;enhancement of drone resilience in challenging environmental conditions,such as strong wind,high temperatures,o

41、r fire;increase in drone safety,with advancements in sensor systems,communication with other drones and the infrastructure,collision avoidance systems,autonomous navigation,and emergency parachutes and propulsion systems.2.Infrastructure for drones:systems for precise landing in challenging weather

42、conditions;adaptation of digital telecommunications infrastructure to improve and secure communication,navigation,and surveillance for future air traffic management;application of GNSS and EGNOS services for navigation and positioning of drones in urban air mobility setting.3.U-space:development of

43、concepts of operations for drones,particularly in urban air mobility and U-space/air traffic management integration;incorporation of remotely piloted aircraft into air traffic control procedures;progress in traffic management systems(definitions of minimum separation distances,collision avoidance me

44、thods,air traffic management automation).Main research directions on environmental and socio-economic impacts of drones,arranged from the most to the least common research directions:1.Safety:collision avoidance systems;air traffic management;navigation,communication and interaction;human-machine in

45、terface design;best practices.2.Regulation and standardisation:new regulations and standardisation;review of regulations and standards.3.Security and privacy:cybersecurity;privacy;counter-drone systems.4.Noise pollution:aircraft noise certification;propulsion systems for noise reduction;noise measur

46、ement;perception of noise from drones.5.Emissions and energy use:energy efficiency and emission reduction;emission modelling.6.Visual pollution:visual pollution maps;visual influence factors;visual perception.7.Land use:traffic structure impact on airspace capacity;land use for U-space and urban air

47、 mobility activities.7 Related and future JRC work In the recent years JRC has conducted several studies related to drones,analysing their progress and role from various angles,including technological perspective(Carrara,2023),risk assessment(Hansen and Pinto Faria,2023 and Karlos and Larcher,2023),

48、review of regulations and standardisation(Baldini and Cano-Pons 2016),the role of drones in civil society(Boucher,2014)or an estimation of last mile delivery market potential(Aurambout et al.2019).Moreover,since 2017 TRIMIS reports cover a wide range of the transport-related analyses on research and

49、 innovation initiatives in Europe.The recent TRIMIS reports concentrated on specific,transport-related topics:public transport,urban mobility and logistics and transport safety and resilience.The forthcoming TRIMIS reports will focus on heavy duty vehicles,waterborne transport and on new and emergin

50、g transport technologies.Quick guide Section 1 provides the context of the report,highlighting the increasing role of drones in modern transport systems and introducing the policy background.Section 2 lists all definitions used throughout the report,presents the policy background,a literature review

51、 on technologies for drones,and the socio-economic and environmental impact of drones.Additionally,it includes an extract from previous,related JRC studies.Section 3 describes the detailed methodology and the project selection procedure.Section 4 provides an in-depth assessment of the relevant resea

52、rch and innovation projects,focusing on progress in drone technologies.Section 5 concentrates on the outputs of projects that concern the impact of drones on society and the environment.The following section describes how and to what extent the analysed projects support the EU policy agenda.The fina

53、l section concludes and identifies the remaining research topics.8 1 Introduction The rapid growth of research and innovation(R&I)in drone technologies has brought about significant changes in the transport landscape,shaping the future of aerial mobility and logistics.As a result,the European Commis

54、sion(EC)has recognized the need to address the potential of drones and develop a comprehensive strategy to ensure their safe and sustainable integration into European airspace-the European Drone Strategy 2.0(EC,2022a).The Drone Strategy 2.0 aims to achieve several objectives related to transport saf

55、ety,security and sustainability,increase of innovation and competitiveness of European Union(EU)transport sector.It also aims to address social acceptability and progress in the regulatory framework.The strategy focuses on safe and secure integration of drones into European airspace,with a strong em

56、phasis on minimizing operational risks and addressing concerns related to privacy and security.Additionally,it aims to foster research and innovation in drone technologies to maintain Europes competitive edge in the global drone industry,driving economic growth,job creation,and technological leaders

57、hip.The strategy promotes collaboration between industry,academia,and government to achieve these goals,while also fostering the development and implementation of environmentally friendly drone technologies,aligning with the EUs sustainability and climate goals.It also aims to encourage the social a

58、cceptability of drone technology by addressing public concerns,ensuring responsible and ethical use,and gaining public trust in the benefits of drone applications.Finally,the strategy focuses on establishing clear and effective regulatory frameworks that support the safe,secure,and efficient operati

59、on of drones,while enabling innovation and growth in the industry.Overall,the EUs Drone Strategy 2.0 aims to leverage the potential of drone technologies to drive positive societal and economic outcomes while addressing the associated challenges and risks.The increasing use of drones and the potenti

60、al benefits they offer make it essential to understand the current state of research and innovation in this field.Drones have the potential to revolutionize various industries,from agriculture to healthcare,with their ability to enhance efficiency and productivity.However,their widespread deployment

61、 may also lead to societal hesitation and anxiety,particularly regarding,for example,privacy concerns and the potential for misuse.Thus,understanding the current state of research and innovation in drone technology is crucial not only for their successful integration into various sectors but also fo

62、r addressing issues related to social acceptance and regulatory frameworks.In response,the ambition of this report is to provide a comprehensive overview of European R&I projects related to drones,with a focus on their achievements.By examining the latest developments in drone technology and their a

63、pplications,this report aims to contribute to informed policy decisions and support the implementation of the Drone Strategy 2.0.The report primarily focuses on the advancement of drones as vehicles,the development of infrastructure for drones,and their operational aspects,including air traffic mana

64、gement and related operations.This includes projects related to propulsion,energy,navigation,and other aspects that contribute to the technological progress of drones.Additionally,the report includes the use of drones for transport of people or freight and the management of transport infrastructure,

65、provided that the projects focus aligns with the explicit scope of drones.However,projects primarily involving the use of drones for carrying measurement equipment or surveillance purposes,except for traffic or mobility tracking and transport infrastructure maintenance,are considered out of scope fo

66、r this report.The aim of the report is to provide a comprehensive overview of the research and innovation landscape related to drones in the European Union.The report encompasses the identification and review of various projects and initiatives focused on the development and integration of drone tec

67、hnologies,infrastructure,and operational capabilities.Additionally,it seeks to offer a state-of-the-art review of current trends and challenges in the drone research and innovation,with a specific focus on technological advancements in drone aircraft,infrastructure,and operations.To offer a broader

68、context to a reader,the review of projects achievements is preceded by a literature review of recent achievements,essential definitions,and ongoing challenges concerning the environmental and socio-economic impact of drones.It also compares the achievements of European projects with this review,prov

69、iding a comprehensive assessment of how these projects align with the current state of research and development in the field.The report also aims to assess the contribution of research and innovation activities to progress towards EU policy aims,particularly the objectives outlined in the Drone Stra

70、tegy 2.0.Finally,the report provides a comprehensive review of the achievements of research and innovation projects.This includes technological advancements,the results of projects related to the assessment of environmental and socio-economic impacts of drones,and progress towards contributing to EU

71、 policies.In conclusion,the report offers a summary of 9 identified remaining research gaps and barriers for the development and implementation of drone technologies,providing valuable insights for future research and innovation activities and policy development in this field.The report is based on

72、the Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System(TRIMIS)database of R&I projects.TRIMIS is a comprehensive platform that provides detailed information on research and innovation activities in the field of transport across Europe.It offers detailed data on projects,initiatives,

73、and technological developments,serving as a valuable resource for analysing the research and innovation transport landscape.Additionally,as part of the reports scope,the TRIMIS database was updated,and new projects were added through extensive efforts to identify other R&I projects beyond the databa

74、se.This enriches the database and ensures a comprehensive review of the European research and innovation landscape in the field of drones.The structure of the report reflects its aims.The following section provides a broad overview of the European drone research and innovation landscape.It includes

75、key definitions used in the document and the policy background,including the evolution of EU drone policies and the significance of the Drone Strategy 2.0.These are followed by a literature review on technologies used for drones,and an overview of the current state-of-the-art on the environmental an

76、d socio-economic impact of drones.The chapter concludes with a summary of recent Joint Research Centre(JRC)works on drones.The third section of the report defines applied methods,describes data collection procedures,and presents an overview of identified R&I projects and the main actors involved in

77、research and innovation activities.The three following chapters of the report(chapters 4-6)are based on the review of scopes and deliverables of identified projects.Chapter 4 presents an overview of progress in technologies for drones,divided into three main subareas:technologies for aircraft,infras

78、tructure,and operations,including air traffic management.The subsequent chapter includes a review of projects focused on their achievements towards better understanding of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of drones.It also summarises works on standardisation and regulations related to dr

79、one operations.Finally,Chapter 6 shows the role of research and innovation activities in supporting and contributing to EU policy initiatives,particularly the objectives outlined in the Drone Strategy 2.0.The final section concludes by providing a synthetic summary of the main findings.Moreover,it d

80、iscusses remaining research gaps and open policy questions that should be addressed in future research.10 2 Definitions,background and key challenges 2.1 Definitions The following definitions are used in the presented report:Drones following the Drone Strategy 2.0(EC,2022a),this is the term to descr

81、ibe unmanned aircraft systems(UAS),meaning an unmanned aircraft(UA)1 and the equipment to control it remotely.Unmanned aircraft encompasses a wide range of vehicles,in terms of size,reach,and application domain.It is an aircraft without a human pilot on board that is remotely or autonomously control

82、led.Innovative Air Mobility(IAM)2 refers to operations with novel aviation systems.Innovative Air Mobility covers a wide range of novel aircraft technologies and concepts,which include electric vertical take-off and landing(eVTOL)capability,specific propulsion features such as distributed propulsion

83、 or tilt-rotor,and can be either manned or unmanned,autonomously or remotely controlled.Urban Air Mobility(UAM)is a part of Innovative Air Mobility3,aiming to enable on-demand mobility,reduce congestion and expand transport options in congested urban areas.Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management

84、(UTM)is a set of services designed for the automated management of the airspace,ensuring the safe and secure unmanned aircraft flights in both controlled and uncontrolled airspace.Controlled airspace refers to the airspace that is under the authority of air traffic control(Hamissi and Dhraief,2023).

85、While“Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management”refers to the operational concept under research,U-space airspace management is the European framework aimed at its practical implementation.This includes the development of the regulatory framework and an execution roadmap with clearly defined steps

86、 and milestones.U-space encompasses the digital infrastructure,services and automation of functions designed to support safe,secure and efficient access to urban airspace and safe integration with other air traffic,for a large number of unmanned aircraft systems(EC,2021a).The Single European Sky Air

87、 Traffic Management Research(SESAR)partnership identifies four phases of development of the U-space services:U1-foundation(e-registration,e-identification and pre-tactical geofencing),U2-initial(tactical geofencing,flight planning management,weather information,tracking,monitoring,drone aeronautical

88、 information management,procedural interface with air traffic control,emergency management and strategic deconfliction),U3-advanced(dynamic geofencing,collaborative interface with air traffic control,tactical deconfliction and dynamic capacity management)and U4-full services(which are yet to be defi

89、ned).Vertical take-off and landing(VTOL)aircraft refers to an aircraft capable to take off and land vertically,without requiring a runway,however after vertical ascent they can also transition to horizontal flight.European Union Aviation Safety Association(EASA)adds that unlike helicopters,VTOL airc

90、rafts are using more than two propulsion units,referred to as distributed propulsion4.Electric VTOL aircraft uses electric power to hover,take off,and land vertically.(1)The terms Unmanned Aircraft and Unmanned Aircraft System are also referred to in literature as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV)and Unm

91、anned Aerial System(UAS),respectively.The report will use the former terms,as per the Drone Strategy and Commission Implementing Regulation(EU)2019/947,except when a reference contains the latter in its title.(2)The term“Innovative Air Mobility”is also referred to in literature as“Advanced Air Mobil

92、ity”(AAM).The report will use the former term,as per the Drone Strategy and Commission Implementing Regulation(EU)2019/947,except when a reference contains the latter in its title.(3)Regional and international are equally subcategories of Innovative Air Mobility not covered in this report.It seems l

93、ike there is a word missing in the sentence,it might be better to rephrase the sentence to make it clearer.Regional and international are both subcategories of Innovative Air Mobility that are not covered in this report.(4)https:/www.easa.europa.eu/en/light/topics/vertical-take-and-landing-vtol(acce

94、ssed 17.11.2023)11 2.2 Policy background 2.2.1 Towards Drone Strategy 2.0:an evolution of EU drone policies The policy guidelines for the development of the drone sector in Europe are derived from general transport and mobility documents,as well as specific regulations pertaining to drones(Figure 1)

95、.The first European Commissions document relevant for drones is the Staff Working Document on Towards a European Strategy for the Development of Civil Applications of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems(EC,2012)published in 2012 which reviewed potential benefits and challenges of drones and their pote

96、ntial integration into European airspace.It was followed by the Commissions Communication“A new era for aviation”(EC,2014)which set up the foundations of the EU policy in the field of drones.An Aviation Strategy for Europe aimed to create a comprehensive framework to support the development of the E

97、uropean aviation sector(EC,2015).It proposed to create a basic legal framework for the safe development of drone operations.In addition,the Commission adopted in 2019 a series of rules regulating operations with drones(EC,2019b;EC,2019a)and adopted in 2021 three Implementing Regulations on U-space,w

98、hich provide the air traffic management system for drones(EC,2021a;EC,2021b;EC,2021c).In addition,the Commission also supported the development of standard scenarios to reduce the administrative burden related to the operational authorisation process(EC,2020b).In the Commissions Sustainable and Smar

99、t Mobility Strategy(EC,2020d),a document that outlines an ambitious roadmap to ensure a sustainable,smart,and resilient future for European transport,the Commission announced its plans to develop a Drone Strategy 2.0 for a smart and sustainable unmanned aircraft ecosystem in Europe.The strategy set

100、out possible ways to guide the further development of this technology and its regulatory and commercial environment(EC,2022a).The document is accompanied by a Staff Working Document(EC,2022b)which provides an overview of the Commission services assessment of the challenges that the drone sector face

101、s as well as the analysis and data underpinning the Drone Strategy.Figure 1.Timeline for drone-related EC documents Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 2.2.2 Drone Strategy 2.0:European Policy Actions on Drones research and innovation The summary of flagship actions outlined in Drone Strategy 2.0 is organised in

102、to four distinct policy areas.The alignment of flagship actions with these areas is presented in Figure 2.Some Flagship Actions from the Strategy are not a subject of research and innovation activities,but instead,they focus on organisation of funding of R&I projects(Flagship Action 9),organisation

103、of respective calls for projects and actions(Flagship Action 10)or amendments of financing/funding frameworks(Flagship Action 11).Furthermore,flagship actions concerning licensing and labelling(Flagship Actions 6 and 19)are not within the scope of research and innovation activities.Flagship Action 1

104、9 specifically focuses on the establishment of licensing drone operator systems and drone labelling with an emphasis on enhancing safety and cybersecurity.While the revision of the Commissions 12 regulations aims to facilitate fair market access through standardized requirements,these actions are no

105、t aligned with the objectives of R&I projects.Therefore,they are excluded them from the description below.Figure 2.Alignment of flagship actions with broader policy areas Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 13 Safety rules and requirements for airspace and aircrafts Policy initiatives are centred around the deve

106、lopment of U-space and its integration with Air Traffic Management(ATM),as well as the advancement of Innovative Air Mobility(IAM).This involves revising existing aviation safety rules and certifications,as well as creating new ones specifically tailored to the needs of Urban Air Mobility.The aim is

107、 to ensure safe and unrestricted airspace operation,promote collaboration between aviation and cellular communities,and establish standards for altitude,separation,and safe operating distances(mon altitude reference system;CARS).Standardisation and interoperability of the enabling technological buil

108、ding blocks are identified in the Drone Strategy 2.0 as key enablers for faster product development(EC,2022a).Additionally,research and innovation efforts should focus on facilitating the development of use cases for drone operations,including cross-border operations.Finally,partnerships between res

109、earch,universities,and industry in education should be promoted,as they can fulfil the need for a highly educated,qualified,and experienced workforce both on the ground and in the air.Research and innovation strategies According to the Drone Strategy 2.0,research and innovation strategies should foc

110、us on works on assessment of environmental impacts,societal acceptance of drones and identification of key technology building blocks that are vital for the innovative and competitive drone ecosystem.The environmental impact assessment should address a range of factors,such as noise mitigation,impac

111、t on wildlife(especially in urban areas),and the potential generation of visual disturbance.The EU research should also look to Integrated Communication,Navigation and Surveillance(ICNS)as the mechanism by which all airspace users can interoperate safely,while reducing costs and environmental impact

112、 through rationalisation and multiuse of existing and developmental technologies.Additionally,research and innovation initiatives should concentrate on key underlying technology enablers such as Artificial Intelligence(AI),robotics,semiconductors,batteries,EU space services and mobile telecommunicat

113、ions with the aim of reducing the EU dependency on external suppliers.Furthermore,it is essential for research and innovation initiatives to establish clear pricing and data sharing rules necessary for the development of the U-space market.Civil,security and defence industry capabilities and synergi

114、es An improvement of the availability,connectivity,and geographic distribution of test sites is crucial for further development of drone industry in the EU.Research and innovation efforts should facilitate a transition from concept to deployment and to showcase prototypes potential for various busin

115、ess cases.Standardisation,particularly in Information and Communication Technology(ICT),should be supported by research and innovation.It should focus on developing hybrid standards applicable to civil,security,and defence drone technologies.Furthermore,research and innovation initiatives should con

116、centrate on countering unauthorized drone usage by developing cyber-resilient drones equipped with secure communication links,identification systems,or utilizing open-source code.2.2.3 Role of EU partnerships in drone innovation Climate,energy and mobility partnerships The Clean Aviation Joint Under

117、taking is a public-private partnership between the European Union(represented by the European Commission)and the European aviation sector.Its objective is to foster the decarbonisation and competitively of European aviation via research and innovation programmes and projects on propulsion,power syst

118、ems,aircraft design and manufacturing,as well as an aviation impact assessment.Clean Aviation and former Clean Sky projects do not address directly drones or urban air mobility,but rather focus on regional and long-range flight.Nevertheless,the aircraft developed for short-range and regional aviatio

119、n are of interest since there is provision in the Clean Aviation Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda(SRIA)for technology transfer towards commuter and vertical lift applications(Clean Aviation,2021).The partnership aims to the complete evaluation of the feasibility of these solutions,by prototy

120、ping and testing up to full-scale demonstrator aircraft.The technologies that Clean Aviation projects develop that can be transferred to urban air mobility include a tiltrotor aircraft configuration which can allow for vertical take-off and landing,a prerequisite for urban air mobility.They also inc

121、lude hybrid-electric and hydrogen fuel cell propulsion and energy systems.14 The SESAR 3 JU5 is a partnership between the EU,Eurocontrol,and organisations representing the aviation value chain,from airports,airspace users of all categories,air navigation service providers,drone operators and service

122、 providers,the manufacturing industry and scientific community.The SESAR Partnership has the objective of leveraging digitalisation to achieve efficient,safe,secure and resilient air traffic management for all airspace users.In this context it seeks to develop U-space for the traffic management of U

123、As as defined in section 2.1.SESAR and the U-space account for the largest number of projects and funding amount,as the presence of U-space is a prerequisite for the presence of UA traffic and the deployment of urban air mobility under safety and efficiency,and therefore to unlock the potential of t

124、he drone economy.The BATT4EU partnership strategic research and innovation agenda has provision to collaborate with mobility partnerships to develop application-specific battery integrations,however this has not yet materialised as a project for drones.Within the Framework Programme 7,the Clean Hydr

125、ogen has in implemented fuel cell solutions for powering small-scale UAs(project SUAV).Enabler technologies-Digital,industry and space partnerships Drones as cyber-physical technology objects depend on enabling technologies.The Key Digital Technologies,Artificial Intelligence,Data and Robotics,and S

126、mart Networks partnerships,all identify drones in their strategic research agendas as an application domain for their innovation.As part of their development objectives destined for drones,the AI,Data and Robotics SRIA(ADRA,The AI Data Robotics Association,2020)identifies,among other applications,th

127、e knowledge and learning technologies,the reasoning and decision-making AI,as well as autonomous operation.The Key Digital Technologies-CHIPS partnership targets to develop control software,power electronics,actuators and diagnostics for small drones(Electronic Components and Systems technology plat

128、form,2022).The Smart Networks partnership strategic agenda discusses a pathway towards troposphere networking,as the network serving every device between the ground and 20 km altitude.This covers control and communication services for the drone and urban air mobility applications.It lists several te

129、chnology solutions to be explored,such as novel device to device(D2D),mesh,and cellular solutions.The agenda identifies troposphere networking as a challenge if supported only by terrestrial technologies.”(“ANNEX II to the 2023 SNS Work Programme 2023 SNS R&I Work Programme for 2023-2024”,p.15).The

130、European Institute of Innovation and Technology The European Institute of Innovation and Technology(EIT),through its accelerator programmes,supports early-stage start-ups towards raising investment and reaching their first customers and helps them scale their business.In this context,the EIT Climate

131、-KIC6 has supported LILIUM,an aviation start-up that will produce an electric jet for urban air mobility.The EIT Climate-KICs supported LILIUM through its Accelerator programme in 2014.The programme helped the company validate its business model and lay the groundwork for significant future investme

132、nt.By 2017,the Accelerator helped them raise USD 90 million towards the commercialisation of its electric jet,that was flight tested in 20177,and raised further EUR 224 million in funding in 20208.2.3 Technologies for drones:literature review The current scientific literature has limited visibility

133、into industrial research and development,as well as aspects of manufacturing,production capacity,and supply chains which are critical technological elements for the adoption of drones.The following literature review is based on comprehensive review papers to provide a global overview of current dron

134、e research and position reviewed projects main achievements in a broader context.When available,it is supplemented with other resources,such as press articles and reports from authorities or consulting companies.(5)SESAR Joint Undertaking,https:/www.sesarju.eu/discover-sesar,accessed 14/03/2024(6)EI

135、T Climate-KIC Accelerator for EIT Regional Innovation Scheme countries,https:/eit.europa.eu/news-events/news/eit-climate-kic-accelerator-eit-regional-innovation-scheme-countries,accessed 16/01/2024 (7)World first:EIT Climate-KIC supported LILIUMs zero emissions electric plane takes off,https:/eit.eu

136、ropa.eu/news-events/news/world-first-eit-climate-kic-supported-liliums-zero-emissions-electric-plane-takes,accessed 16/01/2024(8)EIT Climate-KIC supported LILIUM raises over 224 million,https:/eit.europa.eu/news-events/news/eit-climate-kic-supported-lilium-raises-over-eu224-million,accessed 16/01/20

137、24 15 Following definitions presented in the section 2.1,the literature review is organized in three main sections:Unmanned Aircraft Systems.There are mature technologies,both in the military/defence and civilian sectors.Technology research focuses on improving operational characteristics and minimi

138、sing impacts,leveraging advancement in enabler domains such as AI,telecommunications,and sensors.Innovative Air Mobility and Urban Air Mobility for passengers(manned and unmanned).Manned passenger Innovative Air Mobility and Urban Air Mobility vehicles are currently undergoing intense industrial dev

139、elopment(Bushey et al.,2023)due to their market potential.This section of the review covers vehicle and infrastructure requirements.U-space and Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management.A potential increase in drone traffic requires the establishment of an overall traffic planning and management s

140、ystem for drones to optimise routing and ensure safe conflict resolution.A significant amount of EU research and innovation efforts are dedicated to defining and progressively implementing U-space,following the roadmap set by the SESAR3 Partnership.The review concludes with a paragraph on technology

141、 convergence and integration,where the previous elements are examined together as comprehensive systems that achieve the drone transport and mobility objectives.2.3.1 Unmanned Aircraft Systems UASs,or unmanned aircraft systems,are defined as pilotless aircraft equipped with advanced components for c

142、ommunication,propulsion,ground control stations,and sensors.They are classified based on parameters such as size,weight,power,and lift style.While they have a historical context rooted in military use,the development of drones saw significant advancements in miniaturisation and automation,opening to

143、 civilian applications in multiple domains.These UASs integrate off-the-shelf technologies,sensors and communication systems,to produce subscale flight systems,weighting less than 100 kg.Pinpointing the technological state of the art of UASs is challenging,provided the wide variety of civilian drone

144、s and applications,as well as the confidential nature of military applications.Recent review papers provide an overview of the various types,categories,design,functionality,and research domains related to drones(Martinez and Cardona,2018;Chen et al.,2016;Ahmed et al.,2022).F.Ahmed et al.(2022)report

145、 improvements in flight capability(maximum roll angle,turn angle,path length,and flexibility in manoeuvring)and deployment capacity of UA systems with high scalability,portability and mobility.Straubinger et al.(2020)also report progress in power electronics,communications,sensors and data analytics

146、,combined with large cost reductions due to the availability of high performing commercial off-the-shelf components,which led to new opportunities for small unmanned aircraft.Ahmed et al.(2022),Telli et al.(2023)and Kraus et al.(2020)performed comprehensive reviews on UAS research,consulting diverse

147、 sources including scientific literature,patents,web intelligence,and collaborative project outcomes.A summary of these review papers provides an opportunity to classify open research items in UAS research,with the main classes outlined in the following paragraphs.Technical capabilities and needs,op

148、erability and flight range:several sources report that battery capacity and energy density,limited flight time,and limited payload carrying capability are major UA limitations requiring improvement(Chen et al.,2016;Telli et al.,2023;Johnson and Silva,2022).The research investigates methods to extend

149、 the battery life of UAs and develop efficient power management strategies.It also explores the utilisation of alternative energy sources,such as hydrogen fuel cell propulsion or sustainable aviation fuels(Afonso et al.,2021).Navigation and flight controls,autonomous flight:Chen et al.(2016)state th

150、at because UAs have 6 degrees of movement freedom and are moving at a high speed,manual remote control is challenging when working in geometrically complex environments.In such scenarios,developing autonomous navigation technologies is necessary to reach higher traffic volumes.Detect-and-avoid syste

151、ms need further development to allow to fly drones in complex airspace with a higher level of traffic(Kraus et al.,2020).Telli et al.(2023)emphasize the potential of integrating machine learning and artificial intelligence(AI)into UA systems to enhance perception,functionality,and decision-making ca

152、pabilities.They also discuss the challenges associated with swarm operations and drone collaboration,including decision making,control,path planning,communication,monitoring,tracking,targeting,collision avoidance,and obstacle avoidance(Telli et al.,2023).16 Safety and reliability:Kraus et al.(2020)h

153、ighlight the importance of further developing the reliability of individual parts of UA,such as control system and propellers,as well as ensuring reliable communications between the control station and the drone.They also address the potential impact of electromagnetic fields on drone electronics.Fu

154、rthermore,cybersecurity is identified as a critical research issue,which should focus on protecting UA systems from cyber-attacks or hijacking.This involves implementing robust encryption,authentication mechanisms,and effective countermeasures against cyberattacks.The presented review shows that the

155、re are several open challenges that need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of UASs in terms of payload capacity,flight time,functionality,and enhanced autonomous flight capabilities.This is particularly important in the context of achieving urban air mobility.2.3.2 Innovative Air Mobili

156、ty and Urban Air Mobility An important driving force for the drone sector is the integration of drones into cities,both for logistics and delivery,as well as for urban air mobility(Hader et al.,2020).Urban air mobility is envisioned as a component of the broader innovative air mobility concept.The a

157、im behind innovative air mobility is to develop an air transport system which uses new electric air vehicles for passengers and cargo shipments to serve regions that have been underserved by traditional aviation(Bauranov and Rakas,2021).Uber has published a white paper outlining the operational requ

158、irements for successful passenger transport using urban air mobility vehicles,reflecting the growing interest in innovative air mobility(Uber Elevate,2018).Companies worldwide are racing to create urban aircraft prototypes and partner with major aerospace suppliers to certify technologies for urban

159、flying(Bauranov and Rakas,2021).The AAM Reality Index and AAM Infrastructure Index(SMG Consulting,2023)are tools designed to monitor industrial and ecosystem progress in achieving innovative air mobility.Urban air mobility is already a reality today,as evidenced by the provision of charter-based pas

160、senger transportation services using helicopters in various cities.In addition to passenger transport,urban air mobility covers a wide range of operational concepts,including medical emergency missions,logistics,or surveillance.During the last decade,technological progress regarding distributed elec

161、tric propulsion and battery storage have led to the development of many flying vehicle concepts and demonstrators for personal air transport typically designed for one to five passengers(Straubinger et al.,2020).Scientific literature examines vehicle-related aspects,such as aircraft requirements(Str

162、aubinger et al.,2020)and design(Johnson and Silva,2022;Afonso et al.,2021),and aircraft classification for intra-and inter-city passenger transport.Literature focuses on services enabled by novel aircraft types with the capability for vertical take-off and landing.Moreover,it discusses technical hur

163、dles for successful introduction of VTOL capable aircrafts and operations(Filippone and Barakos,2021).The literature also considers the Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management and the need for appropriate digital infrastructure(Straubinger et al.,2020).A significant part of the EU-funded collabo

164、rative research and innovation activities,further analysed in Section 4,target the progressive implementation of U-space,the UTM in urban airspace in Europe.Within this context,Capitn et al.(2021)present the proposed software architecture for UTM,towards providing the required services for automated

165、 decision-making during real-time threat management and conflict resolution.Firmly connected to the UTM is the notion of the urban airspace.Bauranov and Rakas(2021)examine the literature on the design and management of urban airspace,analysing proposed airspace concepts and providing recommendations

166、 for research.Finally,literature also examines urban air mobility ground-based infrastructure with a focus on the adequate location for intermodal integration and land use requirements,rather than technological aspects such as charging infrastructure and telecommunications(Mavraj et al.,2022).Aircra

167、ft requirements The literature identifies the following aircraft requirements for a successful deployment of urban air mobility:VTOL capability,which requires rotorcraft technological advances in noise,structures,propulsion,automation and control.Filippone and Barakos(2021)argue that significant tec

168、hnology gap exists between a commercial UA drone and a full-size vehicle that is capable to navigate over complex terrain with passengers on board.Energy system,with a high level of battery technology,in particular high energy per weight at the pack level,which is indispensable to enable manageable

169、size of the aircraft for urban operations and enable sufficient operating range.Safety and reliability,which demand the implementation of new and rigorous requirements to ensure that multirotor configurations utilizing electric propulsion can adequately respond to failures.17 Concept vehicles in sim

170、ulation studies suggest that designing aircraft for low probability of failure and for low external noise will be possible,with the trade-off that they will require aircraft that are larger and heavier than conventional rotorcraft(Johnson and Silva,2022).Furthermore,all-electric propulsion is possib

171、le,yet from a performance perspective,a hybrid-electric version would be preferable(Afonso et al.,2021).The studies also highlight the necessity for manufacturing methods,and engineering tools for VTOL aircraft design and analysis.Infrastructure As most transport systems,urban air mobility also requ

172、ires adequate infrastructure.This infrastructure does not only encompass physical ground infrastructure for take-off and landing(vertiports),but also the digital infrastructure for navigation,traffic management and communication,including datacentres and telecommunications,and facilities for mainten

173、ance and energy supply(Straubinger et al.,2020;Mavraj et al.,2022;SMG Consulting,2023).There is little research on urban air mobility ground infrastructure with a focus on ground infrastructure location(Brunelli et al.,2023)within the urban landscape,and vertiport design and topology(arrangement of

174、multiple landing pads)based on existing heliports as foundation.Research articles primarily deal with demand-based location of vertiports and resulting time-saving potentials.Further subjects for vertiport and vertiport network design,such as modelling of ground-based operations,routing and vehicle

175、allocation and the design of network topologies,should be further investigated(Mavraj et al.,2022;Brunelli et al.,2023).For providing telecommunications,cellular networks are feasible candidates due to ubiquitous availability and high capacity especially in urban areas.Further research is required f

176、or ensuring cybersecurity and considering the quality-of-service limitations of commercial networks(Straubinger et al.,2020).2.3.3 U-space and Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management Another major challenge for urban air transport(both urban air mobility and logistics)is that the current air tra

177、ffic management system cannot properly manage urban airspace(Bauranov and Rakas,2021;Straubinger et al.,2020).Several challenges hinder the integration of existing airspace and urban operations,including the increased number and density of operations at lower altitudes,as well as the varying perform

178、ance capabilities of different operators and air vehicles.Urban air mobility requires full airspace integration and represents high-risk operation,especially as passenger operations are implied.Moreover,Bauranov and Rakas(2021)shows the need for appropriate digital infrastructure,and that while curr

179、ent Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management(UTM)concepts focus principally on safety,they neglect social factors,and rely on technologies that are still not available.UTM is described as a distributed network of highly automated systems that exchange information via application programming inter

180、faces,facilitating the management of Beyond Visual Line of Sight(BVLOS)operations.This contrasts with standard air traffic management and communication between pilots and air traffic controllers via voice(Straubinger et al.,2020),which limits the number of operations and overall system scalability(C

181、apitn et al.,2021).Nevertheless,the automatized UTM should not restrict operations of traditional airspace users and meet appropriate safety requirements.There are initiatives to integrate UASs into civil airspace and fulfil their operational requirements.In Europe,the U-space framework sets a clear

182、 roadmap towards UTM implementation(Single European Sky ATM Research 3 Joint Undertaking,2017).The European Union Aviation Safety Association has subsequently proposed an operational overview and regulatory outline of U-space(European Union Aviation Safety Agency,2021),that paved the way for the EU

183、regulation on U-space.(European Commission 2021a).For U-space,the concept contains as its core a U-space service provider platform,which is a server running on the cloud.There,the system consists of a software architecture that provides U-space services(such as pre-flight checks,geolocation,trajecto

184、ry optimisation and navigation,information systems,and conflict and separation handling)to the different actors in the U-space ecosystem.The U-space Service Manager(USM),a specific module of the system,coordinates the operation of the services.Finally,U-space,as a collaborative effort among research

185、ers,industry,and regulators,aims to facilitate the integration of UA operations in civil airspace.It provides UA situational awareness and enables digital communication between unmanned and manned aviation,ATM service providers,and legal authorities.While U-space services are currently under develop

186、ment and experimental evaluation,such as through on desk Hardware-in-Loop simulations,the technology maturity remains low.As a result,the pathway towards real-world implementation is still long.Capitn et al.(2021)assessed the level of implementation of the four phases of U-space,as defined in 2.1.Ac

187、cording to their assessment,the overall implementation level varies between 17 and 23%for the foundation services,3 to 20%for initial services,0 to 8%for advanced services and 0%for full ones(Capitn et al.2021,table 1).18 2.3.4 Technology integration Future drones are envisioned as cyber-physical sy

188、stems(CPS)that integrate sensing ability,on-board computing and connectivity to other drones,ground networks and infrastructure(Straubinger et al.,2020).Future airspace scenarios require a high level of convergence between ground and airborne technologies,data integration from on-board and ground se

189、nsors,using on-and off-board intelligence for safe navigation,robust telecommunications for operations and cooperative flight routing,as well as real-time database-representation of airspace information for ultimate situational awareness.Several technological challenges remain,including development

190、of reliable and robust technologies for sense-and-avoid and flight control,contingency management procedures,cooperative route planning,weather consideration,high-precision localisation systems for low-level,automated flight as well as development of required infrastructure.Concerning the effort rep

191、artition,Straubinger et al.(2020)indicates that several companies currently focus on the development and prototyping of air vehicles to improve the maturity of urban air mobility technologies,while the research communities,in collaboration with regulatory bodies,are focusing on realising airspace in

192、tegration.2.4 Impact of drones on society and environment Drone adoption in transport poses several non-technology-related challenges,primarily related to their impact on environment,society and economy along with regulatory issues.A study conducted by the European Union Aviation Safety Association

193、on societal acceptance of urban air mobility(EASA,2021)identified noise and safety as major barriers to societal acceptance,followed by concerns about privacy,security or negative impact on environment.Other concerns raised include affordability or potential job losses,however these topics have not

194、been a direct focus of identified R&I projects on drones.Thus,they are not included in the presented review,even though social acceptance is recognized of being of key importance for drone implementation,as outlined in the Staff Working Document accompanying the Drone Strategy 2.0(EC,2022b).Noise po

195、llution Noise pollution in drone transport refers to noise generated by the vehicles when they take-off and landing,as well as during the flight.The level of noise depends on the design of the vehicle and its vertical proximity to the ground infrastructure(Filippone and Barakos,2021).Various noise s

196、ources can be found in a VTOL aircraft,including thermal engine,rotor,electric motor,gearbox and other rotating internal components(Afonso et al.,2021).Noise pollution is considered a significant risk in urban air mobility(Eifeldt,2020;EASA,2021;Afonso et al.,2021).Studies suggest that drone noise i

197、s often perceived as more bothersome than noise from road traffic or conventional aircraft due to its unique acoustic characteristics(Schffer et al.,2021).Torija et al.(Torija et al.,2020)found that road traffic can mask drone noise,thereby reducing its impact on residents.The European Commission ha

198、s introduced regulations to address noise pollution in the context of drone operations.Specifically,for small drones weighing less than 4 kg that may be flown in close proximity to people,Regulation(EU)2019/945(EC,2019a)sets limits that align with the current state of the market.These limits are exp

199、ected to become even stricter in the future.Additionally,local authorities have the ability to implement further noise restrictions within specific UA geographical zones.Furthermore,the Environment Noise Directive(EC,2002)requires urban areas with populations exceeding 100,000 people to develop acti

200、on plans aimed at managing and minimizing noise from air operations,including those involving drones.According to the Drone Strategy 2.0(EC,2022a),EASA should continue to develop appropriate noise modelling methodologies for drones and eVTOL aircrafts.These methodologies should be considered by the

201、Commission for the upcoming amendment of Annex II of the Environment Noise Directive.In addition,EASA has recently developed Guidelines on noise measurement of unmanned aircraft systems lighter than 600 kg,operating in the specific category(EASA,2023).There is also a need to examine noise perception

202、 and annoyance(Schffer et al.,2021),impact of noise from drones on local fauna(EC,2022b),apart from research on cabin noise,which could directly affect passengers(Filippone and Barakos,2021).Finally,stakeholders should focus on manufacturing quieter vehicles or defining flying routes that minimize n

203、oise exposure(Bauranov and Rakas,2021).Visual pollution Visual pollution is the negative impact that the view of some artificial structure or object and its movement might have on a person(Thomas and Granberg,2023).Visual pollution can cause health problems and may 19 induce indirect costs or proper

204、ty value loss(Thomas and Granberg,2023).Simultaneously,a visual impact of aircraft and infrastructure should be limited,and city landscape should be preserved(EASA,2021).Limited research exists on the contribution of drones to visual pollution(Thomas and Granberg,2023),however,their impact will like

205、ly be more disruptive compared to existing road traffic(Straubinger,2019).Thomas and Granberg(Thomas and Granberg,2023)stated that among the main factors influencing visual pollution there are the number of drones and the distance between a drone and an observer.Their study also indicates that drone

206、s used for emergency medical services are more tolerable,and visual pollution caused by drones is similar in both urban and rural areas.The study also provides conclusions on research gaps in the area of visual pollution from drones.Future research should define methodology on quantification of visu

207、al impact,explore the impact of movement on visual pollution,as well as development of path planning algorithms that can consider trade-offs between visual pollution,noise pollution,risk,efficiency,and other relevant factors(Thomas and Granberg,2023).Land use impact Drone operations require specific

208、 infrastructure which may cause pressure on land use(EASA,2021),particularly in urbanized areas(Brunelli et al.,2023).EASA estimates(EASA,2021)as much as 20-45 landing pads for medium cities and 40-60 for large ones.In some cases,existing helipads or airports,including smaller aerodromes,could be re

209、purposed as vertiports.Moreover,Antcliff et al.(Antcliff et al.,2016)proposed the use of cloverleaf interchanges as vertiports,offering advantages such as minimized land consumption,reduced overflight of private properties,shorter ground travel times,and decreased noise impacts.Nevertheless,the Dron

210、e Strategy 2.0(EC,2022a)emphasizes the need of systematic analysis of suitable locations for new enabling infrastructure,such as vertiports,telecommunication and energy distribution equipment or alternative energy supplies like hydrogen.Additionally,the improved accessibility provided by drones may

211、indirectly influence land use patterns,motivating people and businesses to relocate away from densely populated urban areas(EC,2022a).Energy and emissions Most drones are powered by electricity and produce zero tailpipe emissions creating no direct(scope 1)greenhouse gas emissions(EC,2022a).Moreover

212、,the Commissions regulation already imposes that small drones must be powered by electricity(EC,2019a).The quantity of energy consumed and its related emissions(scope 2),depend on drones design,payload,the energy sources employed in electricity generation,and the means of electricity transmission to

213、 the battery.The production and disposal of drones at the end of their lifecycle consume energy and contribute to indirect emissions(scope 3).The potential for emissions reduction in Europe by shifting cargo and last-mile express deliveries from traditional transport methods to drone services is est

214、imated to be around 120,000 tons of CO2 by 2030(EC,2022b).According to a study by Kasliwal et al.(2019),fully loaded VTOL aircrafts(with three passengers)have GHG emissions per passenger-kilometre that are 52%lower compared to ground-based internal combustion engine(ICE)cars with an average occupanc

215、y of 1.54.The emissions of fully loaded VTOL aircrafts are also 6%lower than battery electric vehicles(BEVs).Furthermore,the study indicates that a 100 km point-to-point travel with one pilot in a VTOL aircraft results in 35%lower well-to-wing/wheel GHG emissions than a one-occupant internal combust

216、ion engine vehicle(ICEV),but 28%higher emissions compared to a one-occupant battery electric vehicle(BEV).Results presented by Kim et al.(2023)shows that current ICEV emissions are 4.7 times higher than estimated emissions from passenger drones.Finally,Goodchild and Toy(2018)showed that drones offer

217、 a CO2 emissions advantage over trucks in service zones that are either in close proximity to the depot or have a smaller number of recipients,or both.Nevertheless,Ahmed at al.argue that the overall environmental impact of widespread deployment of drones,using different energy sources and propulsion

218、 systems needs to be further investigated,together with life-cycle assessment of drones under different operational scenarios such as personal ownership,shared mobility service,and a mixture of both(Ahmed et al.,2020).Moreover,research and innovation projects should address an issue of recycling or

219、reuse of batteries from drones to reduce emissions(Kellermann et al.,2020).Finally,new propulsion systems,as well as drone design should be evaluated from their life-cycle impact on emissions and energy use(Ahmed et al.,2020).20 Safety concerns Safety of drone operations requires an efficient air tr

220、affic management,allowing safe airspace operations,promote collaboration between aviation and cellular communities,including issues like altitude,separation,and safe operating distances.Moreover,at the level of aircrafts,it entails sensors to detect other airspace users or ground-based obstacles to

221、avoid collision(e.g.detect-and-avoid systems),robust integrated communication,navigation and surveillance systems to interact with other drones and ground infrastructure.Under the Basic Regulation adopted in 2018(EU,2018),all drones,regardless of their weight,are required to adhere to the harmonised

222、 safety rules established by the Union.To further ensure the safety of drone operations in airspace,the Commission introduced a series of regulations in 2019 that specifically govern the use of drones(EC,2019a;EC,2019b).Additionally,in 2020,the Commission implemented three regulations on U-space,whi

223、ch establish the air traffic management system for drones and contribute to their safe operation within airspace(EC,2021a;EC,2021b;EC,2021c).The Drone Strategy 2.0(EC,2022a)indicates that the integration of drones in the airspace requires a thorough review of existing aviation safety rules.In the fi

224、rst step of integration,the airspace for drones is separated from the airspace used for manned operations.The following phase aims to achieve full integration,enabling all airspace users can safely and freely operate within the same airspace or transition between airspaces.That would include manned

225、and unmanned operations,as well as both individual aircraft and regular air traffic,including state and military operators.Security and privacy concerns Society may be concerned about privacy and data protection,as urban air mobility aircraft may fly above or close to places of residence(EASA,2021).

226、In particular,the capability of drones to carry cameras raises significant privacy concerns(Baldini and Cano-Pons,2017;Luppicini and So,2016;Lee et al.,2022),in particular,perceived privacy losses(Bauranov and Rakas,2021).Proposed solutions for mitigating potential privacy violations include technic

227、al and legal strategies.Technological solutions encompass built-in remote identification systems,the integration of preventative measures into drone designs,and the establishment of geofencing or no-fly zones.Legal solutions involve the implementation of mandatory drone registration,the development

228、of codes of conduct,and the expansion of regulatory frameworks to provide stronger protection for privacy rights(Kellermann et al.,2020).Privacy issues are frequently interconnected with security(including cybersecurity),because the personal data and personally identifiable information collected by

229、drones can also pose challenges to private and governmental security(Lee et al.,2022).Drones can move near sensitive areas(e.g.,nuclear facility)or they can use the camera to take pictures or videos of sensitive operations(e.g.,public safety or military operations)(Baldini and Cano-Pons,2017).Moreov

230、er,drones can be deployed in groups to complete common tasks,for example,to collectively monitor an area more comprehensively than a single aircraft could.While the so-called cooperative drones may not be directly employed to carry out threats such as terrorist attacks,they can still be utilized to

231、gather sensitive information that may be exploited by criminals in subsequent phases(Baldini and Cano-Pons,2017).Both the 2020 EU Security Union Strategy(EC,2020c)and Counter-Terrorism Agenda(EC,2020a)clearly state that the threat of non-cooperative drones is a serious concern in Europe that needs t

232、o be addressed(EC,2022b).The Commission has been supporting Member States in addressing the threats from non-cooperative drones,implementing a wide range of activities including information sharing,testing,research and funding support and legislative measures(EC,2022b).Regulatory issues The Commissi

233、ons implementing rules(EC,2019a;EC,2019b)set out common technical and operational requirements for drones to facilitate the development of the drone industry and market.In addition,the Commission took a significant step towards ensuring the scalability and safety of drone operations by adopting thre

234、e Implementing Regulations on U-space in 2021(EC,2021a;EC,2021b;EC,2021c).However,there are still regulatory gaps that need to be addressed to enable the operation of all drones in the European Union(EC,2022c).21 In particular,there is the need to roll out the rules for the certified category,which

235、involves common rules for the certification of aircraft,operators and remote pilots(EC,2022a).This also includes developing a regulatory framework for vertiports and other ground infrastructure(EC,2022b).In case of the latter,it is crucial to give due consideration to the interface with aerodromes,i

236、nteroperability,and the open access of equipment to ground infrastructures by drone operators.In this regard,the regulatory framework should ensure that these ground infrastructures do not become proprietary and instead adhere to the same open model as airports and heliports.Regarding operating lice

237、nses for operators,it is essential to appropriately adapt and simplify the rules outlined in Regulation(EC)1008/2008 to encompass drone operators.There is also the need to define global standards for cybersecurity(EC,2022a).Finally,in relation to rules on data protection,it would be beneficial to de

238、velop specific and user-friendly guidelines or checklists that explain to drone operators how to comply with data protection and privacy requirements.2.5 JRC works on drones The JRC works on unmanned aircraft systems have primarily focused on security and safety.This emphasis stems from the increasi

239、ng number of incidents involving drones reported in Europe.Many of these incidents are attributed to actors with criminal,illegal,or even terrorist intent.In response to these threats,the JRC recently published two handbooks that provide insights into countering drone-driven threats.The“Handbook on

240、UAV protection of critical infrastructure and public space.”(Hansen and Pinto Faria,2023)offers guidelines,references,approaches,and considerations on safeguarding against malicious UA.It also emphasizes the importance of involving various stakeholders to create comprehensive solutions.The Handbook

241、on UAS Risk Assessment and Principles for Physical Hardening of Buildings and Sites(Karlos and Larcher,2023)aims to guide those responsible for securing infrastructure and public spaces against threats posed by the malicious use of UAS.Moreover,JRC prepared a study on regulatory and standardisation(

242、Baldini and Cano-Pons,2016),where JRC researchers identified and evaluated available techniques that support various drone functions.These include operational transparency,4-D geo-fencing,and data collection minimisation,with a focus on assessing their technical,economic,legal,and security aspects.A

243、 JRC study titled Last mile delivery by drones:An estimation of viable market potential and access to citizens across European cities(Aurambout et al.,2019)explored various scenarios of citizens potential use of drone technology.The study aimed to estimate the optimal location of drone-beehives base

244、d on their economic viability and the number of EU citizens who could benefit from such services.The findings indicated that,in an improved technological scenario,up to 30%of EU citizens could potentially access these services.Additionally,the study highlighted the heterogeneous potential drone cove

245、rage across Europe,influenced by differences in population and land use patterns.Germany,Italy,and France emerged as the countries where drone-beehives could potentially experience the most efficient development.Ethical principles and citizens acceptability have been thoroughly investigated at the J

246、RC through public engagement activities and ethics evaluations.The JRCs work on civil drones in society(Boucher,2014),which examines consultation and development in the European context,specifically focuses on privacy and data protection,law enforcement,and the portrayal of the relationship between

247、civil and military drones.In a subsequent study,the methodological approach of“Ethics dialogues”(Vesni-Alujevi et al.,2015)about science and technology is presented,highlighting the combination of public engagement and ethics evaluations.This approach is applied to the case study of civil drone tech

248、nology,recognizing the societal transformation it entails.Public engagement activities were conducted to explore citizens perspectives on civil drones,with a particular emphasis on understanding the role citizens can play in their development and ensuring that drones are acceptable to the public(Bou

249、cher,2015).Finally,the JRC report on critical raw materials presents review of the access to raw materials used in drone manufacturing.The report highlights that while the EU is the second-largest producer of processed materials for drones(18%),it remains highly dependent on external sources,particu

250、larly China,for the processing of these materials.Notably,ferroniobium,Pt-Ru alloys,and other processed materials used in Li-ion battery production are among the materials where EUs dependence is significant.Additionally,the EU relies on external supply for other critical raw materials as well(Carra

251、ra et al.,2023).22 3 Methods and data 3.1 Methodological approach Figure 3 presents methodological approach applied in the presented report.Once the projects were identified and all the information is collected,their scope,achievements and deliverables were analysed to assess their contribution in t

252、hree distinct areas:-progress in technologies for drones(chapter 4),-research on environmental and socio-economic impact of drones and regulations and standardisation(chapter 5),-support for policy initiatives(chapter 6).Each of the three areas has its own dedicated chapter.Every project was evaluat

253、ed individually for its relevance to the three topics.Projects found to be relevant were then extensively reviewed,and the summaries of the main findings were organized into subsections based on the identified subthemes within each topic.Finally,the conclusions section provides a general summary of

254、all the findings,presenting aggregated and generalized information about the main findings.Figure 3.Methodological approach Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 23 3.2 Data collection The data collection procedure involves several steps to ensure a comprehensive identification of research and innovation projects

255、relevant for the report.It begins with the keyword search through the TRIMIS database as the starting point.TRIMIS database,managed by the European Commissions Joint Research Centre(JRC),serves as the primary source of data for transport research and innovation projects.It gathers information about

256、research and innovation projects funded from various programmes,including Horizon 2020(H2020),Horizon Europe(HE),or Framework Programme 7(FP7),as well as other European initiatives.It currently contains detailed information about nearly 9,000 projects.This includes over 2,000 projects funded within

257、the H2020 Framework Programme and a growing number of projects started under Horizon Europe.The database ensures the availability of reliable and up-to-date information for the identification and analysis of R&I projects in the field of transport.The keyword search included descriptive fields contai

258、ned in TRIMIS,such as project aims,as well as project descriptions available directly in the CORDIS database,including summaries,work performed,and final results.The search was specifically limited to projects funded under H2020,HE,and included only one FP7 project,METROPOLIS,due to its continuation

259、 within the H2020 program.Additionally,a search was conducted for other European projects that began since 2014,aligning with the start of H2020.This initial search yielded 144 projects,which were then manually reviewed to confirm their relevance for the report.As a result,a total of 67 projects wer

260、e identified in this stage.Next,the CORTEX platform was utilized to conduct a keyword search using terms such as drones,Urban Air Mobility,or UAV.The 200 most relevant projects resulting from this search were individually reviewed.From this review,50 projects were selected and added to the list.Thes

261、e projects encompass funding from H2020,HE,and other European programs including CEF and COSME.To ensure comprehensive coverage of the European research and innovation landscape,a manual check was performed to identify any additional projects awarded from drone-related calls that were not previously

262、 identified in the TRIMIS or CORTEX searches.This step only yielded the addition of one project that had not been previously identified.Furthermore,additional project lists from the European Defence Fund(EDF),European Investment Bank(EIB),European Innovation Council(EIC),Interreg,as well as projects

263、 mentioned in Drone Strategy 2.0(Staff Working Document),were examined.Any relevant projects found in these lists were included in the tentative list.The list was then consulted with The European Climate,Infrastructure,and Environment Executive Agency(CINEA),resulting in the addition of eight projec

264、ts.CINEA plays a vital role towards achieving the Commissions research and innovation goals and objectives through its implementation of several relevant EU funding programmes.Finally,13 projects were added to the list during the review process.The final list includes 152 projects,which underwent in

265、-depth review in the subsequent steps of analysis,and can be consulted at JRC Open Data Repository.9 3.3 Overview of projects Out of 152 projects reviewed for the report,most are funded within framework programmes:H2020(nearly 75 percent of all identified projects),HE and FP7(only 1 project METROPOL

266、IS,which had a continuation in H2020 METROPOLIS 2 project).They are all funded within main existing funding schemes:Research and Innovation Actions(RIA),Innovative Actions(IA),Coordination and Support Actions(CSA)and dedicated funds for small and medium enterprises(SME):concept and feasibility asses

267、sment(phase one SME-1)and innovation project(phase 2 SME-2),as well as their continuation European Innovation Councils(EIC)Accelerator programme,which replaces SME Instruments(both,phase 1 and phase 2).Additionally,few projects received EU support through funding for scientific and technological res

268、earch from the European Research Council(ERC)or fellowships within Marie Skodowska-Curie Actions(MSCA).Moreover,34 drone-related projects reviewed for the report were funded within other European programmes(Figure 4).Figure 5 presents a distribution of projects by the received EU contribution.The fu

269、nding varies between 50 000 to over 56.7 million EUR.The average amount of EU contribution exceeds 3.3 million EUR.However,the median of EU contribution is significantly lower(1.5 million EUR)due to high number of SME-1 projects with the lump sum of 50 000 EUR.(9)Direct link to the dataset:https:/da

270、ta.jrc.cec.eu.int/dataset/eb94ade1-42c3-4b5d-919d-5befd14e1f38 24 Figure 4.Overview of selected projects Footnote:EUSPA-EU Agency for the Space Programme;EDF-European Defence Fund;COSME-Internal Market,Industry,Entrepreneurship and Small and Medium Enterprises;SESAR grants-Delivering the Digital Eur

271、opean Sky Joint Undertaking grants;ISFP-Internal Security Fund;Connecting Europe Facility(CEF).Other include single projects funded from Digital Europe Programme(DIGITAL),European Union Aviation Safety Agency(EASA),European Defence Agency(EDA),European Investment Bank(EIB)and Hercule III grant progr

272、amme(HERC).Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS data Figure 5.EU contribution overview of selected projects Source:Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data 25 The SME-1 projects are most projects directed for small and medium enterprises(Figure 6).In consequence,even though projects

273、for small and medium enterprises constitute 21%of all analysed projects,the total funding directed through these funds is around 2.2%(11 million out of a total 501.5 million in all reviewed projects).Only 5 projects concentrate on more advanced,innovative ideas funded within SME-2 programme or its s

274、uccessor EIC Accelerator programme for development and scaling up innovations.In their case,the EU contribution varies between 1.2 to 2.5 million EUR with a total budget up to 3.5 million EUR.Figure 6.Research and innovation support for small and medium enterprises Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TR

275、IMIS and CORDIS data 3.4 Main actors In total,1438 project partners have been participating in all 152 analysed projects,with some organisations participating in multiple of them.Using the CORDIS database,it was possible to collect detailed data for 1223 project partners.The relevant,detailed inform

276、ation includes name of organisation,its ID(as used in the CORDIS database),country of their location,the role in the project(coordinator or participant)and received EU contribution(if applicable).In total,the data was collected for partners in 122 analysed projects.For the remaining 217 partners in

277、30 projects,the available data was collected manually.In all cases it includes a country of an organisation and the role of organisation in a project,and,wherever possible,also an information about EU contribution(64 partners).In total,742 different organisations participated in 122 projects.Eight o

278、f them has been participating in more than 10 different projects,with EUROCONTROL being the most active one(18 projects;Figure 7).Three organisations received over 10 million EUR:Italian Leonardo(7 projects and 20.7 million EUR)and GE AVIO SRL(one project-GAM-2020-FRC and over 12.2 million EUR)and S

279、panish Indra(11 projects and 12.7 million EUR).Four organisations were among the most active in terms of number of projects they participated in)as well as in terms of received EU contribution at the same time:German DLR,Dutch NLR,Spanish Indra and CRIDA.Among the most active participants in drone r

280、elated projects,two organisations belong to the category small and medium enterprises.Dronamics LTD and Sightec Israel LTD are both in the category of the highest received EU contribution(5.0 and 4.9 million EUR,respectively).26 Figure 7.Organisations with the highest number of projects and the high

281、est received total EU contribution Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data Small and medium enterprises constitute 28%of all identified project partners Figure 8.They have participated in 114 projects,which is over 93%of all projects for which it was possible to collect detailed infor

282、mation for all the participants(i.e.122 projects out of 152 analysed ones).Over one-fourth part of EU contribution in those projects has been directed to small and medium enterprises(85.5 million EUR).Figure 8.Participation of small and medium enterprises in research and innovation projects on drone

283、s Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data 27 The information about a location of a country of all participants and project coordinators has been collected for nearly all analysed projects(151 out of 152).Figure 9 summarises information about participation and coordination of the proje

284、cts by country.Organisations from Germany,Spain,France,Italy and Belgium participated in the highest number of projects(up to 71 Germany).Organisations from these countries,followed by organisations from the Netherlands and Denmark,have been the most active in project coordination.Spanish organisati

285、ons coordinated the highest number of projects 31.The figure also shows that organisations from Central and Eastern Europe have been relatively less active in terms of participation in or coordination of drone projects,however,there are some exceptions(e.g.Greece,Poland,or Romania).Figure 9.Particip

286、ation and coordination of research and innovation projects by country Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data 28 4 EU research and innovation in drone technologies This section provides an overview of the drone technologies investigated by the projects taken into consideration.Followi

287、ng an introduction on the typology and funding sources of the various initiatives,the technologies and respective projects are then presented in three separate subchapters devoted to vehicles and subsystems,drone infrastructure and U-space.The report concentrates on the projects that aimed at advanc

288、ing the drone technology itself,and for that reason the activities which instead focused on application of drones to a specific domain were omitted.Nevertheless,also the latter type of initiatives is worth mentioning since it provides a more complete picture of research and innovation activities in

289、the realm of drones.Among such projects it is possible to identify some areas which attracted particular attention.Out of the total 152 projects identified in the report,140 are examined in detail for the following subsections as having a technological content.4.1 Overview of drone technologies proj

290、ects 4.1.1 Research and innovation policy and funding sources The European Union fosters drone innovation with the funding and support of research,innovation,and market deployment initiatives.While most of the support is channelled through the EU Framework Programmes,it is worth exploring in more de

291、tail the different pathways for the examined 140 projects.-Sustainable transport calls in the Framework Programmes(21 projects).This includes the Transport(including Aeronautics)theme in FP7,Smart,green and integrated transport in H2020,and Destination Clean and competitive solutions for all transpo

292、rt modes in Horizon Europe.Projects from Sustainable transport calls cover all aspects of drones technologies,with a focus on traffic management and U-space.-Digital European Sky SESAR EU partnership(45 projects)and CleanSky2/Clean Aviation Partnership(4 projects).These European Public-Private Partn

293、erships,in the domain of Air Traffic Management(ATM)and sustainable aviation respectively,establish research and innovation roadmaps and programmes for research and innovation.SESAR is the most active entity in the effort of preparing U-space,the highly automated drone traffic management system whic

294、h is a prerequisite for the uptake of urban air mobility.While most of SESAR activity is channelled through the H2020 and Horizon Europe Framework Programme calls,Very Large Demonstration Activities(5 projects)were also funded by SESAR directly through a Delegation Agreement,and Digital Sky Demonstr

295、ators are funded through the CEF.-CEF and Interreg,with deployment and large-scale demonstrations also being funded under the Connecting Europe Facility and Interreg funds(5 projects).These large-scale demonstrations allow to evaluate in real conditions the urban airspace integration of drones and t

296、he technical maturity of traffic management solutions.-Support to SMEs and Enterprises,with enterprise supporting instruments including small and medium enterprise(SME)calls and accelerator programmes(35 projects).This includes 27 SME-1 or CSA“lump sum”projects,and larger projects supported by the C

297、OSME,SME-2,and more recently EIC accelerator grants and programmes.To these can be added the financial support in terms of accelerator grants and fundraising by the European Institute of Innovation and Technology,and direct investment by the European Investment Bank on promising start-up companies.M

298、ost SMEs were active in the development of drone vehicles and their components.-Digital and Space are represented by enabling technologies calls and partnerships(15 projects).These include:o Destination 5.i.Information and Communication Technologies in H2020,with 2 projects on 5G telecommunications

299、for drones,o Destination 5.iii Leadership in Enabling and Industrial Technologies Space in H2020(7 projects)and European Union Agency for the Space Programme(4 projects)for the development and use of GNSS(Global Navigation Satellite System)and the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service(EG

300、NOS)for safe navigation and traffic monitoring of drones.29 o Key Digital Technologies EU partnership(2 projects),and DIGITAL programme(1 project)managed by the Directorate General for Communications Networks,Content and Technology.The three projects focus on drone computing hardware and software ar

301、chitectures,robust sensing and telecommunications,AI and testing of autonomous flight capabilities.-European Defence includes European Defence Agency grants and European Defence Fund,accounting for 4 projects,focusing on the development of propulsion and energy systems,sensing capabilities,fuel cell

302、 powered drones,and detect-and-avoidance standards.-Governance and security funding covers the application of drones in crucial EU matters.Three projects were funded by the Secure societies theme of H2020 for border surveillance,one project was funded by the Hercule III programme by the European Ant

303、i-Fraud Office,and one by the Governance,environmental observations,and digital solutions for the safe use of drones in agricultural production,forestry,and rural communities.-Basic science and research are represented by European Research Council(ERC)Consolidator grants and Marie Skodowska-Curie Ac

304、tions(3 projects).These projects focus on the technical challenges of autonomous flight and precise geolocation even in confined spaces and overarching European drone ecosystem analysis.Figure 10.Number of active projects and their average monthly EU contribution by project type Source:TRIMIS,JRC,20

305、24 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data Figure 10 shows that the bulk of drone research and innovation activity kicked off with the 2016-2017 H2020 work programme,including the sustainable transport calls,SME,Clean Aviation and SESAR calls.The chart displays that SESAR is leading the EU effort on drones

306、in terms of number of projects(45)and EU contribution(160 million).Thirty-seven SMEs were supported in developing the business model for their drone innovations.In 2022 there are some significant new entries with the launch of the European Defence Fund drone activities,the EIB 40 million investment

307、on Wingcopter GMBH,and the launch of the Digital Sky Demonstrator projects within the CEF programme.No precise information was available on the EU contribution by the EIT Climate-KIC accelerator programme in its support to the LILIUM,therefore 139 projects are listed in the chart.30 4.1.2 Funding sc

308、hemes and expected technology readiness The TRIMIS project database contains information about the funding scheme(see Annex 1 for details).This information can serve as a proxy of the targeted technology maturity level(TRLError!Reference source not found.),as adopted in the EU Framework Programmes(H

309、der,2017).The report adopts a modified version of the TRIMIS technology development phases(Gkoumas et al.,2020)which uses aggregated development phases(Table 1).The outputs of projects range from technical specification documents,such as concepts of operation or U-space architecture,lab prototypes o

310、f drone and traffic management subsystems,to system and traffic testing and demonstration.Table 1.Technology development phase and corresponding readiness levels.Development phase TRL range Example project outputs Research 0-2 Technical specifications,concepts Prototyping and testing 3-5 Lab prototy

311、pe Pilot production and demonstration 6-7 Full vehicle prototype,drone traffic demonstration Deployment 8-9 Large scale demonstration,Product deployment Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 The funding source also indicates the receiving entity that conducts the research,innovation,development,and market deployme

312、nt.Error!Not a valid bookmark self-reference.lists funding sources combined with an estimated targeted TRL.Table 2.EU funding schemes for drone innovation.Source Source Type/Programme Receiving entities Funding/Grant/Investment ceiling levels Targeted TRLa MSCA H2020/HE Pillar I Doctoral and postdoc

313、toral Fellowships Grants:ca.170 thousand for individual fellowships 0 to 1 ERC H2020/HE Pillar I Research Team Consolidator grants:2 million 0 to 1 RIA H2020/HE Pillar II Consortium of partners Funding level:100%of project costs 2 to 6 IA H2020/HE Pillar II Consortium of partners Funding level:70%of

314、 project costs 6 to 8 EDF European Union fund Consortium of partners Funding level:100%of project costs for research,90%for development 4 to 5(Rb)5 to 8(Dc)SME-1 H2020/HE Pillar II SME,start-up or scale-up Grants:50 thousand lump sum 5 to 8 SME-2 H2020/HE Pillar II SME,start-up or scale-up Grants:0.

315、5 to 2.5 million 5 to 8 EIC H2020/HE Pillar III SME,start-up or scale-up Accelerator:Grants:0.5 to 2.5 million Direct investment:15 million 5 to 9 CSA H2020/HE Pillar II Consortium of partners Funding level:100%of project costs N/A SESAR grant H2020/HE Pillar II Consortium of partners Funding level:

316、50%of project costs 7 to 8 CEF European Union fund Consortium of partners Funding level:30%to 50%of project costs 8 to deployment Interreg Interregional cooperation programme Consortium of partners Funding level:80%of project costs 8 to deployment EIT Funding and support program SME,start-up or scal

317、e-up Accelerator:Grant or investment depending on the size of the project and corporation 6 to 9 EIB Long term lending and support SME to large scale corporations Investment depending on the size of the project and corporation 6 to 9 a MSCA and ERC Consolidator grants correspond to basic high-risk r

318、esearch,therefore the target TRL level is only an indication.SME-1 projects are desk studies on business plan development for existing innovations.CSA actions do not have a technology component.b Research 31 c Development Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 Figure 11 provides an overview of the analysed drone te

319、chnology projects in terms of numbers,EU funding,funding schemes,grouped together by expected technology readiness.It combines information presented in the Table 2 with quantitative data on number of projects in the technology development phase range.Additionally,it distinguishes type of projects by

320、 their funding source and provide information about their EU contribution.Figure 11.Distribution of projects by funding scheme Footnote:ERC-European Research Council grants,MSCA-Marie Skodowska-Curie Individual Fellowships,RIA-Research and Innovation Action,IA-Innovative Actions,EDF-European Defence

321、 Fund,EIB-European Investment Bank,SME-1/SME-2-Small and Medium-sized Enterprises phase 1/phase 2,EIC-European Innovation Council(Accelerator),CEF-Connecting Europe Facility,SESAR-Delivering the Digital European Sky Joint Undertaking grants,CSA-Coordination and Support Actions,EUSPA/GSA-EU Agency fo

322、r the Space Programme/European Space Agency grants,DIGITAL-Digital Europe Programme,OLAF-European Anti-Fraud Office grants.32 Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 based on TRIMIS and CORDIS data 4.1.3 Technology themes and effort repartition The following sub sections provide an overview of the drone technologies

323、 under investigation.Their qualitative assessment provides a summary of the project activities and how they address open challenges and perspectives for the wider adoption of drones.The qualitative assessment is organised into three main sections corresponding to vehicles and subsystems,infrastructu

324、re,and U-space.Figure 12.EU contribution repartition towards drone technology components Source:TRIMIS,JRC,2024 on TRIMIS and CORDIS data The Figure 12 summarises effort distribution between the different funding origins,and towards which aspects of drone technologies the funds were directed.As anti

325、cipated,SESAR Digital Europe Sky projects mostly address the development of the U-space,with CEF and Interreg projects complementing with several large-scale demonstrations that evaluate the performance of the solutions.SME and enterprise efforts are principally 33 directed towards the development o

326、f innovation for drone vehicles and subsystems.This is also the focus of European Defence Fund.Finally,Digital and Space calls and partnerships are distributed in a balanced way,underlying the connecting role of geolocation and communications between individual vehicles,the infrastructure,and air tr

327、affic.Moreover,infrastructure projects concern mostly the digital infrastructure,while physical landing and charging infrastructure received less attention as possibly a potentially less challenging aspect.Certain projects are not described in detail in the following sections,as their analysis showe

328、d that they explore the use of drones in given applications,rather than developing drone technology components.They are mentioned here as examples of the application of drones in crucial societal matters.A popular field of application is transport infrastructure state-of-health monitoring,particular

329、ly for road transport(HERON(IA),INFRAROB(IA),OMICRON(IA),PANOPTIS(IA).Some projects employed drones for the maintenance of railway infrastructure(RADIUS(IA)and airports and waterways(5D-AEROSAFE(IA).Other topics include agriculture(APMAV(SME-1),ICAERUS(IA)or border surveillance(ALFA(IA),BORDERUAS(IA

330、),HEFESTOS(Hercule III grant Union Anti-fraud Programme).Further relevant subjects are medical aid distribution(AIRMOUR(IA),landmine detection(ALDRONE(SME-1)and environmental surveillance(PROJECT SENSE(SME-1).4.2 Vehicles and subsystems 4.2.1 Overview One of the categories of projects are those focu

331、sed on vehicles and their subsystems.The identified projects mainly address unmanned aircraft destined to carry payload but not passengers,with some rare exceptions.Within this domain the projects can be further divided into those focused on development of holistic drone concepts and the ones addres

332、sing specific components.The projects were categorised by the challenge they address or the innovation that they propose.These include range and flight duration,payload,innovative concepts as indoors drones and hybrid drone for land and air use,onboard energy and propulsion systems,sensors,power sup

333、ply,and software for navigation and control.On drone vehicle innovations,certain observations can be made.In terms of funding,the main effort has been rather recent with the European Defence Fund funding of two projects on onboard hybrid fuel cell energy systems and rotorcraft propulsion(HYBRID and ENGRT EUR 43 million).The EUR 40 million European Investment Bank investment in WINGCOPTER is direct