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1、Environmental&Social Research(ESR)2024 UpdateStrategicPartners:ResearchPartner:Key TakeawaysGlobal T&T GDP returned to 96%of its 2019 peak in 2023 and exceeded 2019 in most regions.T&T contributed 6.5%to global GHG emissions in 2023,well below its pre-pandemic peak of 7.8%in 2019.Total T&T GHG emiss

2、ions per unit of T&T GDP fell by 2%between 2022 and 2023,and were 10%below 2019,meaning it is less emissions intensive.T&T contributed 8.1%of global energy use in 2023,up from 6.9%in 2022 but well below the 9.5%contribution in 2019.T&T directly contributed 1.1%of global water use in 2023,with an add

3、itional 4.5%share coming from the value chain.T&Ts contribution to global air pollution increased for all pollutants between 2022 and 2023 but remained significantly below 2019 peak for most pollutants.Fossil fuels extraction in the T&T value chain returned most quickly to 2019 levels of all materia

4、ls and is now at 96%of 2019 levels.Direct T&T jobs contributed 4.3%of global youth employment,and 3.6%of female employment.T&T supported 90.9 million high wage jobs in 2023,1.7 million than in 2019.T&T-linked tax revenues were$3.3 trillion in 2023 across all channels,27%of its GDP footprint.2303Cont

5、entsIntroduction11Greenhouse gas emissions16Energy22Water26Air pollution31Materials use37Youth employment41Female employment45High wage jobs48Tax revenuesIntroduction 5Economic context:T&T GDP*nearly returned to its 2019 peak globally in 2023,and exceeded this level in most regionsT&T contributed 9.

6、1%of global GDP to the global economy in 2023,compared to 7.5%in 2022.The Travel&Tourism sector was more heavily affected by the pandemic than the economy overall.In 2023,T&T GDP returned to 96%of its 2019 peak,signalling a return to normal after the disruption of the pandemic.T&T GDP in many region

7、s was higher in 2023 than in 2019.In Asia-Pacific,a significant T&T market,GDP remained 15%below 2019 but grew significantly in 2023.T&Ts total GDP by region,2019-2023Why is Travel&Tourism GDP important for understanding environmental impact?Travel&Tourisms economic contribution and its recovery fro

8、m the pandemic disruptions provides important context for understanding its environmental impact.Travel&Tourism and its value chain generate impacts on the environment.Higher emissions,energy use,water use,air pollution and material use can therefore represent either an increase in economic output,o

9、r an increase in the amount of environmental impact per dollar of Travel&Tourism GDP(higher environmental intensity,or in other words,a reduction in efficiency)or both.*Travel&Tourism GDP value in the rest of this briefing includes only the direct and indirect impacts of the sector.It doesnt include

10、 its wage-induced impacts.-20 40 60 80 100 12020192020202120222023WorldLatin AmericaNorth AmericaCaribbeanAfricaEuropeAsiaMiddle East6Glossary Environmental impactsThis report uses several shorthand terms for conciseness and simplicity.These terms are defined below.Shorthand usedDefinition Environme

11、ntal intensityA measure of the environmental impact per$1 of T&T GDP generated(in real terms).We measure the T&T intensity of all environmental impacts,including GHG emissions intensity and energy intensity.T&T air pollutionThe air pollutants generated by economic activities in the T&T sector and it

12、s value chain.T&T emissionsThe emissions generated by T&T.This includes Scope 1-3 emissions,unless otherwise stated.T&T energy useThe energy used by T&T,both in direct activities and in supply chains.We specify when we are referring only to energy used in direct activities.T&T GDPT&Ts contribution t

13、o overall GDP.This includes the contribution of T&Ts direct economics activities to GDP(direct)as well as the indirect contribution of the economic activities which support T&Ts supply chain(indirect).T&T materials useThe materials use associated with spending on T&T.T&T activities do not generate m

14、aterials extraction directly so all(raw)material use associated with T&T spending occurs through the supply chain.T&T water useThe water used by T&T-related economic activities.This includes direct activities(eg,in hotels)as well as water used in the supply chain(indirect).Total T&T impactThe impact

15、s of the T&T sectors direct economic activities,as well as the impacts associated with the supply chains that support T&Ts supply chain.7Glossary Social impactsThis report uses several shorthand terms for conciseness and simplicity.The precise definitions of these terms are outlined below.Shorthand

16、usedPrecise definition High-wage jobsFor the purposes of this study,high-wage industries are defined as those in which average wages are roughly in the top third of earnings in a given country(i.e.above the 65th percentile).Income groupsWe adopt the World Banks classification of income groups which

17、classifies countries as being low,lower-middle,upper-middle,or high-income countries based on thresholds of per capita income.Pandemic periodWhile most pandemic-related lockdowns and travel restrictions have eased,the impacts of the pandemic on the T&T sector have lingered.As such,we refer to the pa

18、ndemic period as the 2020-2022 period over which these impacts were the strongest.T&T employmentThe employment supported by the T&T spending.This include direct,indirect,and induced employment.On each measure of employment,the channels considered are specified.Youth employmentFor the purposes of thi

19、s study,youth refers to those aged between 15 to 24.8Channels of employment impactWe assess employment across three channels Introduction to social impacts:The channels of social impactThe social impact of the Travel&Tourism sector acts largely through its employment of different groups of people.T&

20、T encompasses many activities which employ people both directly and indirectly via their value chains.The people employed are of different ages and genders,and T&T supports different levels of wages.Our study focuses on the impact of T&T employment on young workers,women,and the share of workers on

21、high wages.DirectIndirectInducedThe workforce directly employed in the Travel&Tourism sector.The workforce supported by Travel&Tourisms value chain.The workforce supported by the wages spent by those directly employed within the Travel&Tourism sector in the consumer economy.Example:What is the emplo

22、yment impact associated with a tourists resort vacation in Mexico?DirectIndirectInducedThe resort directly employs receptionists,cleaning and maintenance workers,chefs,waiters,and managers.The resort purchases many products and services for a resort stay,such as food for meals,or towels,sheets,and o

23、ther products.The employment associated with the manufacture and transport of these products is attributable to the resorts purchases and the tourists resort stay.The price the tourist pays for the resort stay goes,in part,to the employees of the resort in the form of wages.The employees spend their

24、 wages in the consumer economy on products and services such as groceries,clothing,electronic goods,etc.The employment associated with the manufacture,sale,and transport of these products is therefore induced by the wages paid to the resort staff,which is attributable,in part,to the tourists resort

25、stay.9Interpreting trends in environmental intensitiesIntensities vary by country and industry.For example,Mexican agriculture has a different GHG emissions intensity than both Mexican accommodation,and US agriculture.Moreover,changes in intensity over time are unique to each industry and country.Tr

26、ends are calculated based on observed data between 2010 and 2019(the latest year available).Changes in global and regional T&T intensities therefore capture both:1.Changes in the underlying environmental performance in the countries and industries that contribute to the T&T sector and its supply cha

27、ins;and2.Changes in global patterns of Travel&Tourism spending in other words,changes in the countries and industries in which tourists are spending money.Introduction to environmental impacts:Interpreting intensitiesReporting metricsWe report environmental impacts of T&T in three categories:Absolut

28、e impact e.g.,tonnes of CO2e emitted.Contribution to global totals e.g.,share of global GHG emissions.Intensities e.g.,kilograms of CO2e emitted per$1 of T&T GDP.These headline results are the primary indicator of the sectors overall environmental impact.However,headline findings can reflect several

29、 underlying trends,and it is important to keep these factors in mind when drawing conclusions.A note on different indicators of environmental performanceIt is worth noting that while intensities are an important indicator of industries performance,and useful for environmental management,it is absolu

30、te impacts that are meaningful for environmental outcomes.10Defining the T&T sectorThe T&T sector refers to all economic activities that contribute to T&T GDP,which may occur across several different industries.There are seven industry breakdowns:hospitality,transport,public services,retail,arts&rec

31、reation,agriculture&food,and other industries.10T&T Contribution to Greenhouse Gas Emissions12Channels of impactWe assess emissions across four channels of impactUnderstanding GHG emissions impactsActivities that burn fossil fuels,like transportation and electricity generation,contribute to GHG emis

32、sions.To understand the emissions impact of T&T,we assess the sectors direct economic activities like driving a car and using electricity as well as the emissions associated with the supply chains that support those activities.SCOPE1SCOPE2SCOPE3All GHG emissions from direct T&T activities.All indire

33、ct GHG emissions from T&Ts consumption of power,heat,and stream.All indirect GHG emissions which occur along the supply chain which supports T&T.Inter-national transportAll GHG emissions from T&T-related international transportation.Example:What are the emissions associated with a tourists hotel sta

34、y in Spain?SCOPE1SCOPE2SCOPE3The hotels vehicle fleet,such as the van used for airport pickups,may run on petrol or diesel,which generates greenhouse emissions at the tailpipe.The hotel uses electricity for heating,lighting,cleaning,and other uses.The share of this electricity which is generated usi

35、ng fossil fuels produces emissions.The hotel purchases many products and services for a hotel stay,such as food for hotel meals,or towels,sheets,and other products.The emissions associated with the manufacturing and transport of these products is attributable to the hotels purchases and the tourists

36、 hotel stay.Inter-national transportThe tourists flight to Spain generates emissions as it burns jet fuel.13Travel&Tourism contributed 6.5%to global GHG emissions in 2023,well below its pre-pandemic peak of 7.8%in 2019T&T directly contributed 1.8%of global GHG emissions in 2023(Scope 1).Including it

37、s supply chain and international transport,the sector contributed 6.5%to global GHG emissions.T&T Scope 1 GHG emissions were 917 billion kg CO2e.GHG emissions across all scope increased by 20%since 2022 to 3,410 billion kg CO2e.However,GHG emissions remained 14%below 2019,even as global T&T GDP retu

38、rned to 96%of its pre-pandemic peak.This indicates a reduction in overall GHG intensity of T&T.GHGs from international transportation were 12%below the 2019 peak.This was primarily driven by reductions in international aviation emissions,which are 17%below 2019.T&Ts global GHG emissions by scope,201

39、9-2023T&Ts contribution to global emissions by Scope,2019-2023A note on the divergence between Travel&Tourism GDP and emissionsTravel&Tourism GDP and GHG emissions have diverged due to changes in the pattern of Travel&Tourism spending and reductions in emissions intensity,as outlined on the next sli

40、de.2.0%1.0%1.2%1.5%1.8%6.7%3.6%4.1%4.9%5.7%7.8%4.1%4.5%5.6%6.5%0%2%4%6%8%10%20192020202120222023T&T share of global GHG emissionsScope 1Scope 1-3+Intl transport3,9491,9472,2682,8383,41001,0002,0003,0004,0005,00020192020202120222023Billion kg CO2eScope 1(Direct)Scope 2Scope 3(Value Chain)Internationa

41、l transport14T&T GHG exceeded the 2019 peak in the Middle East but remained 23%below the 2019 peak in Asia PacificTotal T&T emissions increased between 2022 and 2023 across all regions,as the sector continued its post-pandemic recovery.Total emissions remain below the 2019 peak in all regions aside

42、from the Middle East,where there has been an 18%increase in the absolute emissions but only a 2pp increase in the share of regional emissions.This reflects(1)increases in GHG intensity of some value chain industries in the Middle East,including construction,and(2)an increase in the share of T&T spen

43、ding going to industries with GHG-intensive value chains,including food and accommodation.Asia-Pacific had the highest-emitting T&T sector by volume,driven partly by its very large T&T sector.However,total emissions in the region remained 23%below 2019 levels due to its slower recovery.A note on uni

44、ts of measurement for GHGs:Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide(CO2),methane(CH4),nitrous oxide(N2O),and ozone.Each gas has a different global warming potential.CO2e is a measure in which all GHGs are converted into comparable units based on how much CO2 emissions would produce the same warming i

45、mpact.T&Ts total GHG emissions excl.international transport by region,2019-2023T&Ts contribution to regional GHG emissions,incl.international transport,2019-20238.4%9.8%7.1%7.7%5.9%8.5%9.1%5.0%7.9%5.8%0%2%4%6%8%10%12%AmericasEuropeAsia-PacificMiddle EastAfricaTourism%share of regional total GHGs emi

46、ssions201920207926241,6011891677665431,23822415702004006008001,0001,2001,4001,6001,800AmericasEuropeAsia-PacificMiddle EastAfricaBILLION KG OF CO2E2019202020212022202315Total T&T GHG emissions per unit of GDP in 2023 fell by 2.4%since 2022 and were 10.2%below 2019Why does T&T generate so many GHG em

47、issions per$in Africa?The high GHG emissions intensity of African tourism is partly driven by the regions emissions-intensive economies,where energy use,agricultural practices,and industrial processes tend to be high-emitting.However,it is also driven by the relative cheapness of T&T in Africa-$1 ca

48、n buy you far more T&T-related activities in Africa than in the Americas or Europe.Part of the regions high emissions intensity is therefore simply because there are more T&T activities(and supply chains)associated with equivalent tourism spending.T&Ts global GHG emissions intensity by scope,2019-20

49、23T&Ts total GHG emissions intensity incl.international transport by region,2019-2023T&T GHG emissions per unit of GDP(intensity)fell since 2022,continuing a declining trend since 2019.T&T direct and Scope 1-3 GHG intensity has decreased every year since 2019,while the total GHG intensity(including

50、international transport)increased slightly in between 2021 and 2022 but has since fallen.This is likely due to a pandemic-related rebound in international travel,which has settled in 2023.The GHG emissions intensity of tourism varies widely across regions,with T&T spending in the Middle East and Afr

51、ica being far higher than in the Americas or Europe.3994297136661,2373723726337441,15202004006008001,0001,2001,400AmericasEuropeAsia-PacificMiddle EastAfricag CO2e per 1$of GDP(2023p)20192020202120222023314405474312389440312379424304379436300366426050100150200250300350400450500Direct(Scope 1)Total(S

52、cope 1-3)Total(+Intl transport)g CO2e per 1$of GDP(2023p)20192020202120222023T&Ts Energy Use17Understanding energy useThe Travel&Tourism sector encompasses many activities that use energy both directly and indirectly via their value chains.This energy comes from different sources and fulfils differe

53、nt needs:aeroplanes rely on carbon-derived jet fuel,manufacturers use electricity purchased from the grid to produce products such as souvenirs,and hotels may use gas for heating and cooking.Types of fuelsWe assess energy use across three fuel types.Note that a major category of Travel&Tourism energ

54、y use occurs in the form of electricity.We assess the fuel which is used to generate the electricity,which is a better measure of its emissions impact.Fossil fuels include coal,oil,and natural gas that are burned to produce electricity,power modes of transportation,or directly in industrial processe

55、s.Low-carbon energy includes renewables such as solar,wind,wave,and geothermal,as well as traditional hydroelectricity and nuclear.In the context of Travel&Tourism,these fuels are mostly used to generate electricity.Biofuels and waste are presented separately as they describe different activities in

56、 different regions and income levels.In lower-income regions,they predominantly involve wood and charcoal fires,and domestic and industrial waste burning.In higher-income areas,there is a higher prevalence of bio-additives to gasoline and diesel,such as crop-derived ethanol.A note on energy useWhile

57、 energy use can have negative environmental impacts,energy use is not inherently bad in fact,energy has enabled many of the major developments of human history.Higher energy use in Travel&Tourism can therefore be a positive development,enabling better Travel&Tourism services and economic prosperity,

58、when coupled with a growing share of low carbon sources in the fuel mix.18T&T contributed 8.1%of global energy use in 2023,up from 6.9%in 2022 but well below the 9.5%contribution in 201918T&T contribution to global energy increased by 1.2 percentage point(pp)between 2022 and 2023.However,it remained

59、 well below the pre-pandemic peak of 9.5%in 2019.Total T&T energy use increased steadily since the pandemic low in 2020.Energy use across all channels in 2023 increased by 22%since 2022.Most T&T energy use occurs in the supply chain(46%in 2023)and through international transport(13%).Energy use from

60、 international transport grew by 34%between 2022 and 2023,the fastest growth across all channels.T&Ts global energy use by channel,2019-2023T&T contribution to global energy use and GHG emissions,2019-20233.6%1.8%2.2%2.8%3.3%8.1%4.2%4.9%6.0%7.0%9.5%4.8%5.4%6.9%8.1%7.8%4.1%4.6%5.6%6.7%0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7

61、%8%9%10%20192020202120222023Tourism%share of world energy useDirectDirect+Supply ChainTotal+Intl transport5426324150010203040506020192020202120222023Million TJ of EnergyDirectValue ChainInternational Flights19T&T contributed 12.1%of regional energy use in the Americas in 2023,the highest across all

62、regions19 T&Ts contribution to regional energy use grew in all regions between 2022 and 2023 as the sector returned to normal.T&Ts contribution to regional energy use varied by region,between 4.8%in Asia-Pacific to 12.1%in the Americas in 2023.T&Ts contribution to energy use in 2023 exceeded its pre

63、-pandemic peak in the Americas and the Middle East.The energy intensity of T&T increased between 2022 and 2023 in the Americas but decreased or remained stable in all other regions.T&T energy intensity by region,2019-2023T&T share of total regional energy use,2019-20236.7%11.5%7.0%7.9%6.7%6.5%12.1%4

64、.8%8.5%5.9%0%2%4%6%8%10%12%14%EuropeAmericasAsia-PacificMiddle EastAfricaT&T share of regional total energy use201920202021202220234.06.97.26.715.03.77.16.78.114.505101520EuropeAmericasAsia-PacificMiddle EastAfricaMJ of energy per$(2021p)2019202020212022202320Energy intensity of T&T fell slightly si

65、nce 2022,and remained 2%below 2019 levels20The energy intensity of T&T fluctuated over the pandemic period as spending patterns changed.T&T energy intensities appeared to be returning to normal in 2023 but remain slightly below 2019 levels.Across all channels,US$1 of T&T GDP was associated with 6.3M

66、J of energy use globally in 2023.The energy intensity of T&T varies significantly by income group.Intensities tend to be higher in countries at a lower income level.This may be related to lower energy-efficiency levels across T&T activities in low-income countries,leading the local industries to use

67、 more energy than their high-income counterparts.However,the purchasing power of US$1 of T&T spending is also greater in low-income countries,so tourists can purchase more(energy using)T&T activities per$1.Energy intensity of T&T by channel,2019-2023Energy intensity of T&T by income group,2019-20235

68、.47.19.911.65.27.59.414.00.02.04.06.08.010.012.014.016.0High incomeUpper middleincomeLower middleincomeLow incomeMJ energy per$of GDP(2023p)201920202021202220236.55.56.66.65.46.302468DirectDirect+Value ChainDirect+Value Chain+Intl transportMJ of energy per$(2023p)2019202020212022202321T&T energy use

69、 is more dependent on fossil fuels than the economy as a whole Most T&T energy use came from fossil fuels(88%)in 2023,compared to 77%in the wider economy.The largest source of T&T energy is oil,which contributed 60%in 2023.The share of energy coming from low carbon sources(hydroelectric,nuclear,and

70、renewables)has remained stable around 6%since 2020.However,the share coming from renewables increased in every region over this period.This has not yet influenced the total energy mix,as the share of renewables only remains small just 2%globally.T&T energy mix,2019-2023Renewables share of T&T energy

71、 use by region,2019-2023Why is T&T more heavily reliant on oil than the global average?Travel&Tourisms energy use is dominated by the transport sector,which accounted for 54%of the sectors energy use in 2023.The transport sector(including international transport)remains disproportionally reliant on

72、oil for energy,compared to other sectors.What drives differences in the energy mix across regions?Differences in the energy mix of Travel&Tourism reflects both differences in the types of activities tourists spend money on and differences in economy-wide energy mix across regions.15.2%16.6%15.0%12.3

73、%12.8%61.5%56.6%57.4%60.1%60.4%13.3%15.1%15.6%15.5%14.8%5.1%6.1%6.3%6.0%6.0%4.9%5.6%5.7%6.1%6.1%20192020202120222023SHARE OF TOTAL ENERGY USECoalOilNatural GasLow-carbonBiofuels&waste4.3%2.4%9.0%0.9%4.8%5.1%2.7%10.8%1.1%5.7%0%2%4%6%8%10%12%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific20192020202120222

74、023T&TsWater Use23T&T and its value chains contributed 5.6%of global water use in 202323The T&T sector used 222 billion m3 of fresh water in 2023,an increase of 26%since 2022.T&T freshwater use was just 5%below 2019 levels in 2023.More than 80%of T&Ts water use occurred in its value chain in 2023(se

75、e box below).T&T contributed 5.6%of global water use,across all channels.Direct T&T activities only accounted for 1.1%.T&Ts share of global water use increased 1.2pp between 2022 and 2023,returning to near-2019 levels.T&Ts global water use by scope,2019-2023T&T contribution to global water use,2019-

76、2023A note on water use in different impact channelsDirect:T&Ts direct economic activities use water when its they draw from water sources to produce outputs.For example,a swimming pool will draw water from the local public network.Value chain:Many products used in T&T use water in their production.

77、For example,food products or beverages require water for agriculture and manufacturing.42 21 25 35 42 159 71 86 116 147 33 16 20 27 33 234 109 132 177 222 20192020202120222023050100150200250DirectValue chain-domesticValue chain-internationalm3 of fresh water,billions1.1%0.6%0.7%0.9%1.1%5.1%2.5%2.9%3

78、.9%4.8%5.9%2.9%3.4%4.5%5.6%0.0%1.0%2.0%3.0%4.0%5.0%6.0%7.0%20192020202120222023DirectDirect+domestic valuechainPercent24T&T water use intensity varies significantly by income group24T&T total water use intensity was 27.8 m3 of fresh water per US$1000 of T&T GDP in 2023.Intensity increased slightly s

79、ince 2022 and was below 2019 levels across all channels in 2023.Water use intensity varies significantly by income group.Lower middle-income countries tend to have far higher water use intensity than other groups.Across all sectors,the overwhelming majority of world water use(70%)is linked to agricu

80、lture.Therefore,T&Ts water footprint in each country is driven principally by(1)how much its T&T value chain depends on agriculture,and(2)the water intensity of agricultural practices in the country.Lower middle-income countries tend to have more water-intensive agricultural sectors.T&Ts global wate

81、r use intensities by scope,2019-2023T&Ts water use intensity by income group,2019-202313.2 24.2 28.1 13.7 20.9 24.5 13.3 20.8 24.6 13.8 23.1 27.2 13.8 23.6 27.8 DirectDirect+domestic value chainDirect+total value chain0.05.010.015.020.025.030.020192020202120222023m3 of fresh water per thousand USD(2

82、023p)17 36 119 70 18 35 114 62 High incomeUpper middle incomeLower middle incomeLow income02040608010012014020192020202120222023m3 of fresh water per USD thousands(2023p)T&Ts contribution to regional water use exceeded 2019 levels in all regional but Asia-Pacific25T&T contribution to regional water

83、use exceeded the 2019 peak in all regional aside from Asia Pacific.T&Ts contribution to regional water use ranged between 4.1%in Africa to 8.3%in Europe in 2023.T&Ts water use intensity is lowest in the Americas and Europe,despite the sector having a relatively high share of water use.This is due to

84、 the size of the T&T markets in these regions,and the dominance of low water-intensity industries in these economies.T&Ts contribution to regional water use,2019-2023T&T water use intensity by region,2019-20235.5%5.4%5.1%4.0%3.8%6.4%5.0%8.3%6.1%4.1%AmericasAsia-PacificEuropeMiddle EastAfrica0%1%2%3%

85、4%5%6%7%8%9%20192020202120222023Source:Oxford Economics,FAO AquastatPercent565632201556 52 39 24 16 AfricaAsia-PacificMiddle EastAmericasEurope01020304050607020192020202120222023m3 of fresh water per USD thousands(2023p)25T&Ts Contribution to Air Pollution27Air pollutants included in this studyPollu

86、tantDetailsSourcesParticulate matter(PM)Diverse class of tiny inhalable particles that include dust,black carbon,mould spores,minerals and other chemicals,that cause negative impacts on human health outcomes.PM pollutants are classified by size.We focus on the most common measures of PM2.5 and PM10.

87、Motor vehicles and industrial processes.Carbon monoxide(CO)A toxic gas that can cause illness and death at high levels of exposure.Motor vehicles and industrial processes.Non-methane volatile organic compounds(NMVOCs)A group of chemicals with varying negative impacts on human health and the environm

88、ent.Fuel burning,solvents and cleaning products.Ammonia(NH3)Pollutant that can damage plants and soil health.Commonly produced in agriculture.Nitrogen oxides(NOx)Poisonous gases linked to smog and acid rain that cause respiratory problems and damage ecosystemsBurning of fossil fuels and transport.A

89、note on comparing across pollutantsThis report contextualises and measures the impact of several pollutants in Travel&Tourisms supply chain.However,these six pollutants cannot be directly compared due to their different harmfulness.In other words,the harm associated with an additional kilogram of PM

90、2.5 is different from the harm of an additional kilogram of carbon monoxide.In some cases,the analysis in this section focuses on specific pollutants of most interest.T&Ts contribution to global air pollution remained significantly below 2019 peak for most pollutants28T&T contribution to global air

91、pollution increased between 2022 and 2023 across all pollutants.The largest increase was seen for NOx,which increased by 1.7 percentage points(pp)between 2022 and 2023 to 9.5%of global NOx emissions.However,T&Ts share of global air pollution remained below its 2019 peak for all pollutants aside from

92、 ammonia(NH3),which just exceeds 2019 levels by 0.1pp.By mass,T&T generates the most emissions of CO,primarily through its value chain.CO is commonly produced in industrial facilities and by transportation.However,the global levels of CO emissions are higher than for other pollutants,so T&Ts contrib

93、ution to the global total is relatively low(3.8%).T&Ts contribution to global air pollution,by pollutant,2019-2023T&Ts air pollution impact by pollutant and channel,2023A reminder about comparing across pollutantsThis analysis does not provide a like-for-like quantification of the relative harms of

94、these air pollutants.Although the estimates are presented alongside one another,we cannot:1.Draw conclusions about the relative harm of Travel&Tourisms footprint across the different pollutants,nor 2.Aggregate across the six types of pollutants.5.2%4.6%4.6%6.4%5.1%12.3%4.1%3.7%3.8%5.1%5.2%9.5%0%2%4%

95、6%8%10%12%14%PM2.5PM10CONMVOCsNH3NOx%of world total201920202021202220231.62.418.67.93.111.305101520PM2.5PM10CONMVOCsNH3NOxmillion tonnes of emissionsDirectValue chainIntl transport29Asia-Pacific dominated T&T air pollution across all pollutants29Regions contribution to global T&T air pollution follo

96、ws a similar pattern across all pollutants.Asia-Pacific contributed the lions share of air pollution,and more than half the global total for PM2.5(55%)and PM10(51%).The Americas and Europe were also major contributors,while the Middle East and Africa contribute relatively small amounts across most p

97、ollutants,largely reflecting their smaller tourism markets.All regions saw a slow return to the 2019 peak.The graph on the left shows NOx pollution,but other pollutants follow similar trends.Only the Americas and Middle East have exceeded their 2019 levels of NOx pollution.This may reflect the role

98、of hub airports in these regions,as international aviation is a large contributor of NOx pollution.T&Ts NOx emissions by region,2019-2023Share of T&T air pollution,by region and pollutant,20232.70.73.10.85.12.90.72.70.94.00.01.02.03.04.05.06.0AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacificmillion tonnes

99、 of NOx2019202020212022202322%21%31%25%23%26%7%10%8%10%7%7%14%15%12%16%25%24%3%3%4%8%3%8%55%51%44%41%43%36%0%20%40%60%80%100%PM2.5PM10CONMVOCsNH3NOxshare of total T&T emissionsAmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific30T&T pollution intensities remained relatively stable across most pollutants30T&

100、T air pollution intensity varies significantly between pollutants.While there has been some fluctuation in air pollution intensity over the pandemic,particularly in transport-related pollutants such as CO and NOx,intensities in 2023 were largely similar to levels in 2019.CO and NOx have the highest

101、intensities,reflecting the important role of transport in T&T direct operations and supply chains.Air pollution intensities also vary by region.Here we show NOx pollution intensity;other pollutants follow similar trends.T&T in Africa is almost 4x as NOx-intensive as T&T in the Americas(see note).T&T

102、s air pollution intensities,by pollutant,2019-2023T&Ts NOx emissions intensity by region,2019-2023A note on air pollution in AfricaAfrica has the highest pollution intensity of Travel&Tourism across all pollutants,despite having the smallest absolute pollution footprint.This is due to the regions re

103、liance on biofuels,pollution-intense agricultural practices,and legacy industrial processes.0.210.312.370.970.381.480.200.302.320.980.391.410.00.51.01.52.02.5PM2.5PM10CONMVOCsNH3NOxg of air pollution per$(2023p)201920202021202220231.24.61.62.12.01.24.71.42.41.90.01.02.03.04.05.06.0AmericasAfricaEuro

104、peMiddle EastAsia-Pacificg of NOx pollution per$(2022p)20192020202120222023T&Ts Materials Use32Material use across Travel&Tourism supply chain sectorsBiomass includes the total mass of harvested crops,vegetation consumed by livestock,wood felled for timber or fuel,and fish drawn from rivers and ocea

105、ns.In the context of Travel&Tourism,this material forms the food consumed in restaurants and other establishments,in addition to feeding into the broader supply chain.Fossil fuels are the oil,natural gas,coal and other fuels extracted by the energy industry.In the context of Travel&Tourism,these fue

106、ls are used to produce electricity and power modes of transportation.Metal ores are the materials extracted by the mining sector that are used in metals manufacturing and ultimately fabricated into metal structures,machinery,vehicles,etc.Non-metallic minerals includes the stone,sand,clay,and other s

107、ubstances that are mined to form cement,concrete,and ceramics,as well as precursors to other industrial chemicals and fertilisers.Extracting industryAgriculture,forestry,and fishing EnergyMiningType of materialAll materials use associated with T&T spending occurs through the supply chain.This study

108、measures materials extraction and raw material use.The T&T sectors direct extraction and use of raw materials is negligible.T&T supply chain spending occurs across several industries,but only a few industries engage in the direct extraction of materials.The industries contributing to T&T material us

109、e are directly determined by which industries extract materials.We estimate Travel&Tourisms material footprint across four categories,quantified in terms of total weight(kg).33Material use is a proxy for environmental damage and captures T&Ts dependence on natureData availability and techniques for

110、modelling environmental impacts have greatly improved,but some impacts remain difficult to quantify.For example,the biodiversity impacts of land use change to support biomass production,habitat destruction and fragmentation caused by mining for metal ores,minerals,and coal,or the water pollution lin

111、ked to oil spills or fracking for natural gas.Material use can be a useful proxy for measuring these environmental impacts,but it is not a one-to-one relationship.We therefore largely focus on trends and contributions rather than absolute values.Materials use is also an important measure of the sect

112、ors dependence on nature.The creation of biomass inputs depends on services that can only be rendered by healthy and diverse ecosystems.Fossil fuels are extracted from finite and non-renewable stocks,while minerals are extracted at a rate that is orders of magnitude greater than the geological proce

113、sses that produced them.Material use therefore represents one of Travel&Tourisms most important dependencies on the natural world.A note on weight-based measures of material useMaterials use is quantified weight of materials used.However,the environmental impact associated with a kilogram of materia

114、ls use is not comparable across types of materials.For example,the environmental impact associated with a kilogram of biomass production is not the same as the impact associated with a kilogram of fossil fuel extraction.The same is true within categories of materials as well.For example,the amount o

115、f land used for production of biomass varies greatly across different crops.Weight-based measures of material use are therefore an imperfect proxy for environmental impact.This should be kept in mind when interpreting results.34Materials use increased between 2022 and 2023 but remains below 2019 pea

116、k34Travel&Tourism materials use continued to return to the 2019 peak across all materials.Fossil fuels use returned most quickly to 2019 levels and is now at 96%of 2019 levels.T&T contribution to global resource use increased significantly from 2022 for all resources but did not yet return to 2019 l

117、evels.T&T made its largest contribution to global resource use for biomass.The sector contributed 4.1%of global biomass use in 2023,up from 3.3%in 2022.T&Ts supply chain contribution to global fossil fuels use was 3.7%.This excludes fossil fuels used directly,for example in electricity used or for i

118、nternational transportation(this is captured in direct energy usage).T&Ts materials use,by material,indexed to 2019,2019-2023T&T share of global materials use,by material,2019-20234.4%3.8%2.1%3.2%4.1%3.6%1.8%2.8%0%1%2%3%4%5%BiomassFossil fuelsMetal oresNon-metallicmineralsTourism%of total20192020202

119、120222023475874945162789659667692616575915364789602550751001252020202120222023Index where 2019=100BiomassFossil fuelsMetal oresNon-metallic mineralsT&T GDP35T&T materials use in Asia-Pacific was more than double resource use in any other region35T&T global materials use across all materials is domin

120、ated by Asia-Pacific,which used 46%of the global total in 2023.The Americas and Europe used 23%and 18%of the global total respectively.Africa(5%)and the Middle East(8%)remained significantly below their peers.The composition of materials use varied significantly across regions.Resource use in Africa

121、 and the Middle East is dominated by non-metallic minerals,while T&T in the Americas,Europe and Asia-Pacific use more biomass and fossil fuels.T&Ts materials use,by region,2019-2023Type of T&T materials use by material and region,2023Why do the Middle East and Africa use lots of non-metallic mineral

122、s?Non-metallic minerals include construction minerals like sand,stone,and clay,and industrial and agriculture minerals such as chemicals and fertilisers.Most non-mentality minerals use is construction related in both the Middle East(96%)and Africa(90%).This reflects the regions high-growth T&T secto

123、rs(and economies),requiring more construction.The high intensities of T&T in these regions(see next slide)partly reflect this higher spending on construction-related activities in T&Ts supply chains.It also reflects the higher underlying intensity of construction activities in countries in these reg

124、ions.1,0772568683002,8531,1772368813492,31805001,0001,5002,0002,5003,000AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-PacificBillion kg2019202020212022202331%15%32%7%39%31%7%22%18%28%10%6%7%5%13%28%72%39%70%21%0%20%40%60%80%100%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-PacificShare of total material useBiomassFossi

125、l fuelsMetal oresNon-metallic minerals36Materials use intensity increased since 2022 for biomass,but fell or remained constant for other materials36The global biomass use intensity of T&T increased by 3.3%since 2022 to 171g per USD$of T&T GDP.However,it remained 2.7%below 2019.For all other material

126、s,T&T intensity fell since 2022.The largest decrease occurred in metal ores intensity,which fell by 2.1%since 2022 and 5.3%since 2019.T&T is most intensive in its use of non-metallic minerals,which include those used in construction,industry and agriculture.This reflects the importance of these indu

127、stries in T&Ts supply chain.There are significant differences in the materials intensity of T&T by region.This graph shows the non-metallic minerals use intensity,but similar patterns are seen across all regions.Low-to middle-income countries tend to have the highest materials use intensity of T&T.T

128、&Ts materials use intensities,by material,2019-2023T&Ts non-metallic minerals use intensities,by region,2019-202313676318048351814167418455848301002003004005006007008009001,000AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacificg per$201920202021202220231761415826917114055254050100150200250300350BiomassFossi

129、l fuelsMetal oresNon-metallicmineralsg per$(2023p)20192020202120222023T&Ts Contribution to Youth Employment38The youth employment supported by T&T has nearly returned to its 2019 peakT&T directly employed 18.7 million young workers in 2023,returning to only 1%below the 2019 level.T&T directly contri

130、buted 4.3%of global youth employment in 2023.Considering its value chain(indirect)and induced impacts,T&T supported almost 1 in 10 youth jobs in 2023.T&Ts share of global youth employment was only 0.3pp below the 2019 level in 2023,with an annual increase of 8%since 2022.18.913.515.216.818.713.811.6

131、12.413.313.97.04.65.25.76.739.729.732.835.739.3201920202021202220230510152025303540DirectIndirectInducedYouth employment supported by T&T,per channel,2019-2023Millions4.5%3.4%3.7%4.0%4.3%3.3%2.9%3.0%3.1%3.2%1.7%1.2%1.3%1.3%1.6%9.4%7.4%7.9%8.4%9.1%201920202021202220230%2%4%6%8%10%DirectIndirectInduce

132、dT&Ts share of total global employment of young people,2019-2023A note on youth employment:For the purposes of this study,youth refers to those aged between 15 to 24.3915.5%of global T&T workforce is aged between 15-24,more than 2ppts higher than across the wider economy3915.5%of T&T employees were

133、between 15-24 in 2023,up from 15.2%in 2022.T&Ts youth employment share is significantly higher than the share across the whole economy,of 13.1%.The share of young people employed in T&T is larger than the share compared to the wider economy in all regions,except Africa.19.4%17.0%13.1%15.9%14.9%15.5%

134、14.1%21.3%8.2%11.6%11.8%13.1%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-PacificWorld0%5%10%15%20%25%T&TWider economyShare of T&T and wider economy employment that is youth,2023Note:The bottom chart is for 2023 and both charts include direct employment only.Why is T&T youth employment lower than in the wide

135、r economy in Africa?In Africa,agriculture remains the dominant employer of young people.In contrast industries such as hospitality offering the most opportunities for youths in other regions.15.7%14.8%15.2%15.2%15.5%13.4%12.9%13.1%13.1%13.1%11%12%13%14%15%16%20192020202120222023T&TWhole economyShare

136、 of employment that is made up of young people,T&T vs wider Economy,2019-202340Why is the share of youth employment supported by T&T larger in higher income countries?The nature of the industries that T&T jobs generally fall into(e.g.in hospitality and retail)can differ based on level of economic de

137、velopment.T&T jobs in developing countries may be regarded as part of formal sector employment which is more valuable and scarcer and,therefore,may be more sought-after and more often held by older workers.In richer countries,T&T jobs may be regarded as more entry-level jobs more attractive to young

138、 people,students or those seeking part-time work,etc.T&Ts contribution to direct youth employment in 2023 exceeded the 2019 peak in upper middle-income countriesThe share of youth employment supported by T&T has fully or nearly fully recovered in all regions.The Middle East has seen significant grow

139、th in T&Ts contribution to direct youth employment since 2019.Despite quick growth from 2020 to 2022,youth employment by T&T is still slightly below the 2019 level in high income countries.7.6%5.5%3.6%1.1%7.4%5.8%3.5%1.0%High incomeUpper middle incomeLower middle incomeLow income0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7%8%9%

140、20192020202120222023T&Ts share of total youth employment by income group,2019-2023T&Ts share of regional total youth employment,2019-20235.0%1.6%6.5%5.1%5.1%5.1%1.5%6.4%5.3%5.1%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7%20192020202120222023T&T Contribution to Female Employment42T&Ts

141、female employment continued to grow in 2023,contributing 8.7%of global female employmentThe T&T sector directly employed 48 million women globally in 2023,equivalent to 39.7%of its total direct workforce.T&T direct employment contributed 3.6%to global female employment.Direct and indirect female emp

142、loyment in 2023 had recovered to 99%of the 2019 peak,while induced female employment returned to 91%of its 2019 peak.The gap between 2019 and 2023 is larger for female employment than youth or high wage employment.48.636.139.643.748.045.439.241.443.244.925.516.518.418.623.3119.491.899.4105.5116.2201

143、92020202120222023020406080100120DirectIndirectInducedMillionsFemale employment supported by T&T,by channel,2019-20233.8%2.9%3.1%3.4%3.6%3.6%3.2%3.3%3.3%3.4%2.0%1.3%1.4%1.4%1.7%9.4%7.4%7.8%8.1%8.7%201920202021202220230%2%4%6%8%10%DirectIndirectInducedHow did the pandemic affect female employment?The

144、slower recovery of T&Ts share of female employment compared to youth employment and high-wage jobs may reflect the ongoing disruptions and/or structural changes in the labour markets from the pandemic.The pandemic placed a disproportionate burden on women due to unpaid care work and their employment

145、 in industries more heavily hit by pandemic restrictions.T&Ts share of total global employment of women,2019-202343T&Ts share of female employment returned to 2019 levels in the Middle East,but remained below elsewhereWhile T&Ts share of regional female employment had returned to 2019 levels in the

146、Middle East by 2023,it remains up to 0.3pp lower in other regions.Nonetheless,all regions experienced a grown in T&T share of female employment between 2022 and 2023,as the sector continued to recover.The share of T&T jobs going to women was 39.7%in 2023,compared to 40.6%across the wider economy.The

147、 share of employment that is female is higher for T&T than the wider economy in the Americas and Europe.4.1%1.7%4.3%3.6%4.2%4.0%1.5%4.1%3.6%3.9%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific0%1%2%3%4%5%20192020202120222023T&Ts share of regional total female employment,2019-2023Is maximising the share o

148、f female employment desirable?Maximising the female share of employment could inadvertently perpetuate gender imbalances in other areas or mask underlying structural issues within male employment.Best performance countries may instead be judged using other metrics,such as achieving gender parity or

149、equal rates of employment across those in the labour force.Note:The bottom chart is for 2023 and both charts include direct employment only.Share of T&T and wider economy employment that is female,202348.0%34.6%47.8%17.6%37.7%39.7%43.6%43.2%45.9%19.3%38.9%40.6%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pac

150、ificWorld0%10%20%30%40%50%60%T&TWider economy44T&T direct female employment supported 4.3%of global totals in high income countriesT&Ts contribution to global female employment varies by income group.In high and upper middle-income countries,T&T direct employment contributes 4.3%,compared to 1.2%in

151、low-income countries.The share of female employment supported by direct T&T employment grew in all regions between 2022 and 2023,returning to near-2019 levels.4.5%4.3%3.3%1.3%4.3%4.3%2.9%1.2%High incomeUpper middle incomeLower middle incomeLow income0%1%1%2%2%3%3%4%4%5%5%20192020202120222023Share of

152、 female employment supported by T&T by income groupT&Ts Contribution to High-Wage Jobs46High-wage jobs supported by T&T exceeded 2019 levels in 2023 T&T supported 90.9 million high wage jobs in 2023,1.7 million than in 2019.The share of direct T&T jobs in high-wage sectors in 2023 exceeds 2019 level

153、s in all regions except the Middle East,where the share is 3pp below 2019.The share of high-wage T&T jobs increased slightly during the pandemic as high-wage industries tended to be less heavily hit by pandemic-related restrictions.Low wage workers are also more vulnerable to job losses.35.930.033.3

154、36.538.535.329.731.534.135.534.022.225.025.931.989.271.278.084.690.920192020202120222023020406080100DirectIndirectInducedHigh-wage employment supported by T&T,by channel,2019-202329%35%14%24%33%30%36%15%21%36%AmericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific0%10%20%30%40%20192020202120222023Share of direc

155、t T&T jobs in high-wage sectors,by regionA note on high wage employment:For the purposes of this study,high-wage industries are defined as those in which average wages are roughly in the top third of earnings in a given country(i.e.above the 65th percentile).This measure allows for some degree of co

156、mparison between international earnings as it accounts for what is considered a high wage within each country context(i.e.a relative measure).These high-wage industries encompass a different set of industries in different countries and also describe a difference wage level(and standard of living)in

157、each country.47Africa and Asia-Pacific had the largest share of high-wage T&T supported employment The share of employment than is in high-wage sectors is larger for T&T compared to the wider economy in Africa and Asia-Pacific.In all other regions,the wider economy supports a larger share of high-wa

158、ge jobs.Lower income countries had a larger share of high-wage employment supported by T&T than higher income countries in 2023.Jobs in T&T industries may be regarded as formal sector work in lower income countries and held by more experienced people compared to the entry-level jobs often found in T

159、&T industries(e.g.,hospitality)in higher income countries.16%25%42%37%17%26%46%37%High incomeUpper middle incomeLower middle incomeLow income0%10%20%30%40%50%60%20192020202120222023Share of total high-wage employment supported by T&T by income group29.9%35.6%15.4%21.0%35.7%45.8%26.1%33.4%36.3%27.2%A

160、mericasAfricaEuropeMiddle EastAsia-Pacific0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%T&TWider economyShare of T&T and wider economy employment that is high-wage,2023A note on comparisons across regionsIt is important to note that the definition of high-wage industries adopted by this study is relative to in-cou

161、ntry living standards.It is therefore not appropriate to directly compare the wages or standard of living of high-wage employees across regions.T&Ts Contribution to Tax Revenues 49T&T-linked tax revenues were$3.3 trillion in 2023 across all channels,27%of its GDP footprint49 Direct T&T-related tax r

162、evenues were$1.8 trillion in 2023,marking a return to the pre-pandemic peak.The value chain(indirect)and spending induced by T&T wages supported an additional$1.6 trillion in tax revenues in 2023.Direct T&T-linked tax contributions were 22%of direct T&T GDP in 2023.Across all channels,this share ros

163、e to 27%of total T&T GDP in 2023.1.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 3.4 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.3 20192020202120222023011223344DirectIndirectInducedTrillion US$(2023p)Tax contributions related to T&T by channel,2019-2023T&T tax contributions as a share of T&T GDP(excl.product taxes),2

164、019-202321%27%26%23%22%26%32%30%27%27%0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%20192020202120222023Direct T&T tax as a%of direct T&T GDPTotal T&T tax as a%of total T&T GDP504.0%7.0%6.5%2.6%5.5%3.8%5.6%6.3%2.2%5.4%AmericasAsia-PacificEuropeMiddle EastAfrica0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7%8%20192020202120222023Source:Oxford Economics,F

165、AO AquastatPercentT&T-linked activities supported an estimated 9.6%of total government revenues in 2023 Across all channels,T&T-linked taxes were 9.6%of global tax revenues in 2023.This is a 1pp decrease since 2019.Given the absolute value of T&T-linked taxes has nearly returned to 2019 levels,this

166、is likely to be related to a greater non-T&T tax base globally.Tax revenues from direct T&T activity alone contributed 9.6%to global government revenues.The contribution of direct T&T-linked tax revenues was highest in Europe in 2023,at 6.3%.Asia-Pacific had the highest contribution of tax revenues

167、from T&T in 2019.However,the regional contributions remained 1.4pp below pre-pandemic levels in 2023,as the region has had a slower T&T recovery.5.7%3.1%3.5%4.3%5.1%10.6%6.3%7.0%8.0%9.6%0%2%4%6%8%10%12%20192020202120222023DirectTotalPercentEstimated share of T&T-linked tax as a share of total govern

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