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1、Closing the Gender Gap in Education and EmploymentMARCH 2025ReportIn support of Global Education Coalitionlaunched by UNESCOUNESCOWith 194 Member States,the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization contributes to peace and security by leading multilateral cooperation on educat

2、ion,science,culture,communication and information.Headquartered in Paris,UNESCO has offices in 54 countries and employs over 2300 people.UNESCO oversees more than 2000 World Heritage sites,Biosphere Reserves and Global Geoparks;networks of Creative,Learning,Inclusive and Sustainable Cities;and over

3、13 000 associated schools,university chairs,training and research institutions.Its Director-General is Audrey Azoulay.“Since wars begin in the minds of men,it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed”UNESCO Constitution,1945.For more information,visit www.unesco.orgIFCIF

4、Ca member of the World Bank Groupis the largest global development institution focused on the private sector in emerging markets.We work in more than 100 countries,using our capital,expertise,and influence to create markets and opportunities in developing countries.In fiscal year 2024,IFC committed

5、a record$56 billion to private companies and financial institutions in developing countries,leveraging private sector solutions,and mobi-lizing private capital to create a world free of poverty on a livable planet.For more information,visit www.ifc.org.Global Education Coalition(GEC)The Global Educa

6、tion Coalition launched by UNESCO is a platform for collaboration and exchange to protect the right to education during this unprecedented disruption and beyond.It brings together 233 members from the UN family,civil society,academia,and the private sector to ensure that#LearningNeverStops.Closing t

7、he Gender Gap in Education and Employment Page 4CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTThis report was prepared under the overall guidance of Susan Lund,International Finance Corporation(IFC)Vice President of Economics and Private Sector Development,and Stefania Giannini,Assistant Directo

8、r-General for Education at the United Nations Educational,Scientific,and Cultural Organization(UNESCO).The project was delivered under the leadership of Borhene Chakroun,UNESCOs Director for Policies and Lifelong Learning Systems,Farid Fezoua,IFCs Global Director of Disruptive Technologies,Services,

9、and Funds,and Pablo Fajnzylber,IFCs Director of Development Impact Measurement.IFCs Amy Luinstra,Chris McCahan,and Emelly Mutambatsere supervised the analysis.This joint study is a product in support of UNESCOs Global Education Coalition,of which IFC is a member.Andrew Myburgh of IFC and Hiromichi K

10、atayama of UNESCO were the lead authors.Working team members from UNESCO included Mattia Olivari,Allegra Colombino,and Chiara Burastero,and from IFC included Dina Nicholas,Bertrand Momo,Sanola Alexia Daley,David Mena,and Geoffrey Sanzenbacher.IFCs Partnerships team,represented by Morten Lykke Laurid

11、sen and Charlotte Portes,facilitated the joint work as part of the broader UNESCO-IFC partnership.We thank Beliyou Astatike Haile and Verena Christina Wiedemann of IFC who advised the team throughout.The team is grateful to reviewers of the report for providing thoughtful and constructive feedback.R

12、eviewers included Mark West of UNESCO,Francesca de Nicola of IFC,Kathleen Beegle,Roberta Malee Bassett,Maria Marta Ferreyra,and Jason Weaver of the World Bank,Christopher Baum of Boston College,Henry Decock of IFCs Vitae program,and Mohammed Ali Kahn of Humania Capital.Brian Beary at IFC edited the

13、report,while Irina Sarchenko was responsible for graphics and design.AcknowledgmentsPage 5 Table of ContentsForeword.6Executive Summary.8Trends in Education,Employability,and Gender 11Analysis of the IFC Vitae Survey of Graduates 14Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability 25Conclusion 4

14、0Annexes.42Glossary.63Endnotes.65Page 6CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTGlobally,womennow account for the majority of students in tertiary education:according to UNESCO,there are 113 women enrolled for every 100 men1 This represents a significant achievement,considering that women h

15、ave not benefited from the same opportunities as men to acquire an education,progress in their career,or realize their full potential2 3But the story does not end there.Once men and women enter the workforce,gender disparities stubbornly persist in key metrics such as labor force participation,unemp

16、loyment,and pay.4 Ensuring that the progress made on gender parity in access to education translates into gender equity in labor market outcomes is a major challenge that requires commitments and partnership among diverse stakeholders.It is in this spirit that this report is written,in partnership b

17、etween the International Finance Corporation(IFC),a member of the World Bank Group,and UNESCO,the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organizationboth institutions with a deep knowledge of tertiary education.The report provides a detailed diagnosis of the problem and outlines practica

18、l solutions to address it.It presents original research that pinpoints with actionable granularity where these disparities are greatest and how they can be reduced.This project has its origins in a survey that IFC conducted in partnership with 54 educational institutions in 22 developing countries a

19、s part of Vitae.Through this program,IFC is advising and assisting colleges and universities in enhancing their students employability skills and facilitates their transition to the job market.Among the reports key findings is a confirmation that gender disparities remain,both in terms of employment

20、 rates and earnings levelsand that they persist across a range of professional fields.In addition,the gaps tend to widen for older graduates,possibly due to women shouldering a larger share of care work for children and the elderly.For instance,the analysis revealed that recent women graduates are,o

21、n average,30 percent more likely than their male counterparts to report that they are in the two lowest earning categories,and 50 percent less likely to be in the top two earning categories.This research has a particular focus on the employability of women ForewordPage 7Forewordgraduates in low-and

22、middle-income countries,and outlines the role that tertiary education institutions,employers,and governments can play in reducing these disparities.IFC and UNESCO are strengthening their partnership to collaborate in delivering sustainable and inclusive development,a commitment that both institution

23、s share.Enhancing womens employability is an important part of advancing this agenda.UNESCO leads the Global Education Coalition,a network of over 200 institutional partners united by a common goal:to advance inclusive and equitable quality education.5 IFC is a member of the coalition and this repor

24、t is a contribution to its knowledge library.The partnership between IFC and UNESCO reflects the importance of working together to build global knowledge and demonstrates how leveraging the comparative advantages of diverse institutions can create the greatest impact.The insights,knowledge,and data

25、generated by this research at the intersection of gender,tertiary education,and employability provide a nuanced exploration of graduate employability and gender.Women make up half of the worlds population,and in many countries form the majority of higher education enrollments.Without taking concrete

26、 action to improve their employability,their full participation in the labor forceand thus sustainable and inclusive developmentwill not be possible.There are clear social and economic benefits to closing gender gaps in labor markets.The World Bank has estimated that eliminating womens participation

27、 gap in the workforce by 2034 could double the global growth rate.Based on the insights of this joint study,we underscore that womens transition from school to work warrants greater attention,and we illuminate pathways for how this can be done.Data-driven policies and actions in the education space

28、are essential to reach the ambitions of the UN Sustainable Development Goals,in particular Goal 5,which aims to“achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.”It is only through strong partnerships that we can attain that goal.SUSAN M LUND Vice President,Economics and Private Sector Develo

29、pment,IFC STEFANIA GIANNINI Assistant Director-General for Education,UNESCO Page 8CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTSince the early 2000s,the number of women in tertiary education has increased significantly According to data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics,women now outnumb

30、er men in tertiary education enrollment across much of the world In 2022,womens gross tertiary enrollment rate was 45 percent compared to 39 percent for men6 However,gender disparities in enrollments persist,with women underrepresented in many fields of study that correlate to high-paying jobs andaf

31、ter entering the labor markettending to be concentrated in certain,often lower-paying,fields that nevertheless require a tertiary credential For example,women are underrepresented in tertiary education enrollment in certain science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM)fields7This report compa

32、res how recent female and male graduates do in the labor market,using results from a series of graduate surveys conducted by IFC.These surveys measure the employment and wage outcomes of over 14,000 graduates at tertiary education institutions(education institutions)in Africa,Asia,Latin America,and

33、the Middle East.This unique data on the experience of graduates was captured as part of the Vitae program through which IFC advises education institutions on strategies to increase their graduates employability and facilitate their transition to the labor market.The survey responses from the Vitae c

34、lients were analyzed with the goal of understanding whether female graduates from these institutions earn less than male graduates with similar backgrounds?Are female graduates more likely to be unemployed than similar male graduates?Is there a link between a graduates gender and the probability of

35、their being employed in the field they studied?The study identifies an earnings gap,with female graduates tending to earn less than men.This is true even if the woman studied in the same field,at the same institution,is the same age,and graduated in the same year.The gap in earnings between male and

36、 female graduates is particularly notable in high-paying STEM fields such as engineering where female graduates are close to 27 percent less likely to be in a high-earning category,even after considering factors such as the graduates age and the institution they attended.The large gap between male a

37、nd female engineering graduates means that a female engineering graduate will Executive SummaryPage 9Executive Summarytend to earn less than a male who graduated from a lower-paying field of study such as social sciences.This findingthat women who enter STEM fields tend to earn less than men in non-

38、STEM fieldswarrants further exploration.The earnings gap between male and female graduates is greater among people who are older when they graduate.A female graduate in her early twenties is three percentage points less likely to be in a high-earning job than a similar male graduate.This gap increas

39、es to 12 percentage points for graduates between the age of 31 and 45.These results suggest that older women who have recently graduated face unique challenges.Career disruption is likely an important factor here as older women face greater demands from family,including caregiving for children or el

40、derly parents.Women find it more difficult than men to find a job after graduation.Female graduates in their early 20s,for example,are around 8 percent more likely to be unemployed than similar male graduates.This result was accentuated for older graduates,where recent female graduates in their 30s

41、and early 40s are almost 30 percent more likely to be unemployed than similar men.This result does not reflect a lack of interest in employment by female graduates.Indeed,more than 95 percent of respondents to the surveys were either working or actively looking for employment,and relatively few fema

42、le or male graduates were in part-time employment.Overall,the findings demonstrate that women have less favorable employment and income outcomes than men when transitioning from university to work.This suggests improving employment outcomes for female graduates demands urgent attention.Educational i

43、nstitutions stand to benefit by improving employment outcomes for their female graduates.The Vitae survey data shows that graduates are more likely to recommend an institution to others when they have better employment outcomes.Ninety-four percent of female graduates reported that getting a good job

44、 was“very important”or“extremely important”to their decision to enroll in their program.Consistent with the high priority that students place on earnings,students were 20 percent more likely to claim that the benefits of their education outweighed the costs when they were in the highest earning cate

45、gory,and higher-earning graduates were also more likely to recommend the institution to others.To improve the employment outcomes of female graduates,educational institutions need commitment from their senior executive and academic leadership.This leadership ensures that any measures taken will tran

46、slate into sustainable and impactful results.Institutions should start by gathering data.This includes collecting and analyzing data on graduate employment outcomes by program and disaggregating the data by gender to identify disparities.Relatively few institutions in emerging markets systematically

47、 collect and analyze data on their students and graduates.Yet without good data,it is not possible to make evidence-based decisions or understand the relevance of current curriculum to labor market needs(IFCs Vitae website provides background and guidance on the activities underpinning the implement

48、ation of a high-quality tracer study process).Second,institutions should introduce gender-responsive career support as they move toward individualized services and introduce tech-based career support solutions.Page 10CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTFinally,institutions should lever

49、age career resources and guidance to counter gender-based biases and misconceptions.The report details some specific real-world examples of educational institutions in emerging markets working to close gender gaps through such actions as salary negotiation training tailored to female students and me

50、ntorship programs.Employers can achieve increased profitability and growth by pro-actively working to close gender disparities among their workers.Ultimately,decisions regarding recruitment,hiring,promotion,and retention lie with employers.Employers can help close the gender gap by conducting gender

51、 assessments and audits to understand gender dynamics in their talent management strategy and how company practices,policies,and programs either help or hinder achievement of gender equity in the workplace.They can hire,retain,and promote more women through gender-responsive employment policies,care

52、er development programs,and family-friendly work arrangements.UNESCO and Diors WOMENDIOR Education&Mentoring Program is an example of an employer actively working to enhance female employability(see Box 6).Governments have a critical role to play in helping reduce gender disparities in the labor mar

53、ket.This involves taking a whole government approach,including interventions in education,labor markets,and social protection.There are large benefits to be reaped from increasing womens labor market participation rate.The World Banks Women,Business and the Law data hub reports that closing womens p

54、articipation gaps in the workforce through employment and entrepreneurship could increase global Gross Domestic Product by 20 percent,while eliminating the gap by 2034 could double the global growth rate.8 Governments can implement gender-responsive education programming,behavioral change campaigns

55、to address relevant societal norms and biases,and social protection programs.A concerted effort is needed to enable women to successfully transition from education to employment.From better preparing women to transition into the labor market through improved skills and information to ensuring women

56、are entering workplaces that are equitable,educational institutions,employers,and governments each have an important role to play in ensuring a successful transition.This report is structured in three parts.Section I describes the current tertiary education trends across countries,as well as gender

57、gaps in employment outcomes,including labor market participation,unemployment rates,and average earnings.Section II presents the key findings of the gender and employability-focused analysis of the graduate surveys undertaken through IFCs Vitae employability advisory program.Section III provides rec

58、ommendations for tertiary education institutions,employers,and governments on how to reduce and close the gender gap in employment outcomes.The methodology used,as well as the data and its limitations,is discussed in Box 2 and in more detail in Annex A and B.Page 11Trends in Education,Employability,

59、and Gender 1Trends in Education,Employability,and Gender This report utilizes insights,knowledge,and data generated from IFC and UNESCOs work at the intersection of gender,tertiary education,and employability to provide a nuanced exploration of graduate employability by gender It is informed by grad

60、uate tracer surveys with responses from over 14,000 graduates from 54 tertiary education institutions across the world,with a focus on developing markets in Africa,Asia,and Latin America(see Figure 1)IFC undertook the surveys as part of its Vitae employability advisory program(see Box 5)An analysis

61、of the survey responses offers fresh insights on gender disparities in employment outcomes in lower-and middle-income countries Post-secondary education institutions have diverse offerings,increasing employability through different pathways.Post-secondary education encompasses all forms of education

62、 pursued after completing secondary level,9 including tertiary education,typically associated with universities,colleges,and technical and vocational education and training(TVET)institutions.10 The role that post-secondary education has in increasing employability can differ by country.Across low-an

63、d middle-income countries,TVET plays a prominent role in enhancing employability by skilling,upskilling,and reskilling workers.11 In this context,the targeted nature of TVET can be especially valuable for equipping women with the skills needed to better connect to labor market opportunities,such as

64、higher-paying,formal sector jobs.12 Tertiary education institutions(TEIs),employers,and governments all benefit from addressing the gender employability gap Reducing gender gaps in labor markets can yield tangible benefits for firms,TEIs,and the economy at large.For TEIs,positive employment Page 12C

65、LOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENToutcomes for women and men can boost reputation,contribute to higher rankings,and strengthen graduates satisfaction with the education they received.Furthermore,maintaining good employment outcomes is important as there is increasing pressure for TEIs

66、 to publicly report employment outcomes.Employers,on their part,can achieve improved productivity,profitability,and growth by closing gender gaps in their workforce.Additionally,governments stand to gain from increased female participation in the labor market by harnessing the benefits of womens pro

67、ductive power.The gender gap in education enrollment has declined significantly in recent decades.Across the world,school enrollment has improved dramatically,especially for women and girls.13 Since 1995,the number of women enrolled in tertiary education has tripled,from 38 million to 116 million.14

68、 According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics,the tertiary gross enrollment ratio,a measure of what share of the school-age population is actually attending school,has improved for every region in the last two decades.15 This ratio is higher for women than men in every region but Sub-Saharan Afr

69、ica.In Latin America and the Caribbean,there is a dramatic difference in this ratio between men and women,with about 130 women enrolled in tertiary education for every 100 men.16 The term“Female Advantage”has been used to describe the reversal in tertiary enrollment and completion.17 For example,acc

70、ording to UNESCO,in Mexico womens tertiary graduation rates have nearly doubled,from 16.3 percent in 2001 to 31.8 percent in 2021.18 In certain countries,this paradigm shift has been observed not only for tertiary education but for post-secondary education more broadly(including TVET).19 There has b

71、een a substantial increase in women enrolled in tertiary education across all regions apart from Central Asia,Southern Asia,and Sub-Saharan Africa.20 Additionally,women undergraduate students are more likely to graduate than men.21 Despite this,gender disparities still exist.Women continue to be con

72、centrated in certain,often lower-paying,fields.22 As discussed in UNESCOs 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report,globally,women are over-represented in fields like healthcare and education and underrepresented in fields like engineering and science.23 Women comprise less than 35 percent of tertiary

73、 graduates in engineering and information and communication technologies.24 Gender gaps persist in employment outcomes on key metrics such as labor force participation,unemployment levels,and wages.25 26 Despite women now comprising a majority of tertiary education graduates,the employment rate is g

74、enerally higher for young male graduates than for young female graduates.27BOX 1Defining Employability Holistically*UN Women.UN SWAP 2.0:UN strategic planning and gender equality and the empowerment of women:guidance.2020.*UNESCO.UNESCO Science Report:the race against time for smarter development.20

75、21.The varied nature of influences on female labor force participation,employment,and pay reflects a wider trend of redefining employability.The concept has evolved from being centered on the supply and demand of skills,to a more integrated perspective,encompassing individual characteristics,persona

76、l preferences,societal norms,labor market conditions,and other mediating factors.*Simultaneously,there has been a shift from a singular focus on finding a job to emphasizing performance throughout ones working life.Employability,per the International Labour Organization,is thus the ability to secure

77、 and retain a job,progress at work,cope with change,secure another job if desired or in case of layoff,and enter the labor market more easily at different stages of the life cycle.*These transformations carry significant implications for addressing gender gaps in labor markets,necessitating interven

78、tions that carefully examine the interplay between individual skills and various factors across the lifecycle of workers.A Framework for Understanding Womens EmployabilityFamily Society Marriage Care and household responsibilitiesEMPLOYER FACTORSINDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICSSkills Education Attitudes M

79、obility Job seeking Health AgeSOCIO-ECONOMIC&POLITICAL FACTORSPERSONAL PREFERENCESWork-life expectations Preferences ChoicesGENDER ROLESSocietal norms Transport Social protection(including childcare)Legal and policy frameworkLabor demand Firm employment policies Vacancy characteristics Working arran

80、gementsSource:Ronald McQuaid and Colin Lindsay 2005“The Concept of Employability”Urban Studies,Vol.42,No.2,197219,February 2005.World Employment and Social Outlook:Trends for women 2017 International Labour Officeeneva:ILO,2017Page 14CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT2Analysis of the

81、 IFC Vitae Survey of GraduatesThis section analyzes the Vitae surveys that IFC has conducted with tertiary education institutions worldwide The surveys were analyzed with the goal of answering key questions,notably:Do female graduates from these institutions earn less than otherwise similar male gra

82、duates?Are female graduates more likely to be unemployed than similar male graduates?Are there gender differences in graduates probability of being employed in their field of study?The surveys were done as part of Vitae,the employability advisory program IFC offers to its partner universities and TV

83、ET institutions in developing countries(www.vitaeready.org).The Vitae platform helps higher education institutions equip students with the knowledge and skills they need to transition to the job market by sharing proven techniques and practices that improve student employability.As part of the Vitae

84、 assessment process,participant institutions email a link to a standard survey to all graduates who completed studies in the past three years.Thus,the surveys collect data only from recent graduates of degree and diploma programs.The responses are collected and aggregated in a third-party online sur

85、vey platform.The survey was conducted in 22 countries at 54 institutions where the IFC provided the Vitae advisory program on employability.Most institutions and respondents were in Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean,with fewer surveys conducted in the Middle East and North Africa and in Eas

86、t Asia(see Figure 1 and Appendix for further details).Page 15Analysis of the IFC Vitae Survey of GraduatesFIGURE 1Vitae Survey Respondentsby Country and Gender14,000+tertiary education graduates from all developing regions respondedArgentinaBotswanaBrazilChileChinaColombiaCosta RicaCte dIvoireEgyptG

87、hanaJordanKenyaMaliMexicoMoroccoPeruPhilippinesSenegalSouth AfricaTunisiaUgandaZambia3,000300Survey respondents:FemaleMaleShare of respondents by gender:Source:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsPage 16CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTBOX 2Survey Analysis Methodology The Vitae surv

88、ey results were analyzed with respect to earnings,employment status,and whether someone found work in their field of study.Specifically,the study explored:1)what graduates earned on a country-specific scale from 1(lowest)to 5(highest);2)whether they were unemployed,working part time,or full time;and

89、 3)whether they were employed in their field of study,in a related field,or outside their field of study.Statistical techniques were used to compare these outcomes between females and males who were otherwise similar along a variety of measures.For example,how do earnings outcomes for women and men

90、who are of a similar age,graduating in a similar field of study,and with a similar family background compare?To the extent that gaps remain even after accounting for these differences,it would suggest that tertiary education does not eliminate gender inequality even for otherwise similar men and wom

91、en graduating from these institutions.In some of the analyses,the effects of certain characteristics are allowed to differ between men and women.For example,do certain fields of study have a smaller gender earnings gap than others?This analysis is presented in detail in Table A4 of the Annex and foc

92、uses on two sets of surveys.The analyses in columns II and IV include variables from a more limited survey asked to the full sample of respondents.The analyses in columns I,III,and V are from a narrower set of institutions where the survey included questions on graduates experience,and whether stude

93、nts were working in the field they studied.These issues are important for understanding certain contributors to the gender gap such as difficulties finding a position in the field studied.However,including these variables comes at the expense of having to analyze a much smaller sample,one that is to

94、o small to evaluate whether the gender gap is lower for certain fields of study,or for older graduates.Because of the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches,the Annex includes both sets of results.As discussed in more detail in Annex A,several issues arise that may affect the generalizabil

95、ity of the estimates provided in this study.First,the institutions surveyed may not be representative of other tertiary educational institutions in these countries.Without data from these institutions,knowing the direction of any effect is impossible.Instead,results should be interpreted as related

96、to the surveyed schools.A second issue is that low survey response rates mean that the graduates responding to the surveys may be different from other graduates from the TEIs in those years.A major issue would be if women are more likely to respond to the survey when earning or working less relative

97、 to men(e.g.,if men do not want to admit lower earnings due to cultural expectations).In this case,the study would overestimate the gender gap.However,such selection may show itself in the data schools with disproportionately more female respondents in the surveys would also have larger gender gaps.

98、Yet,for example only a slight correlation exists between female over representation in the surveys,and the earnings gap(correlation coefficient of 0.05).A lesser concern is that women(or men)are simply more likely to respond to the survey.However,this does not appear to be the case either,as the pro

99、portion of women responding to the surveys is very similar to that in the TEIs overall student populations49.9 percent of women responded to the survey,compared to women making up 49.3 percent of the TEIs student bodies.Other differences could arise between those responding to the survey and the ove

100、rall cohort of alumni for those years.For example,those responding could be self-selecting to be older than the overall alumni body,more likely to study certain degrees,and so on.For these measures,we cannot directly measure whether this type of selection has occurred because we do not have informat

101、ion on these measures for a relevant cohort of graduates or the student populations.However,to the extent that respondents are self-selecting on a measure that is included in the regression,the effect of this on gender gaps is controlled for,and so is not affecting the validity of the results.Theref

102、ore,while one limitation of the study is that we cannot preclude all possible issues arising from graduates selection into responding to the survey,the major concerns are unlikely to be affecting the results or are effectively dealt with through the research methodology.Page 17Analysis of the IFC Vi

103、tae Survey of GraduatesWhile most of the institutions in the dataset are private,13 are public institutions.The participating institutions include research universities,technical universities,and TVETs.Survey findings confirm female graduates face unique challenges while offering clues to solutions

104、Across the surveys,female graduates are 30 percent more likely than male graduates to report that they are in the two lowest earning categories,and 50 percent less likely to be in the highest earning category.*While some of these differences in employment outcomes are likely due to differences in fi

105、eld studied and other characteristics,analysis discussed in Box 2 and the Annex control for these differences and still find a considerable gender gap.Specifically,this analysis controls for factors beyond gender that could account for employment differences such as field studied,institution attende

106、d,family background,and age.The presence of gender gaps suggests that female graduates are facing unique challenges hindering their employment and pay prospects.This section explores the factors associated with these challenges and outlines areas that TEIs,employers,and governments can focus on to o

107、vercome them.Female graduates earn less than men across all fields of study One potential reason females may make less than males is their chosen field of study:perhaps*Respondents were asked to report on their earnings by selecting which range their earnings fell in.They were given five ranges to s

108、elect from in answering the following question:What is your current gross monthly salary range?The ranges were determined for each country,and kept consistent across institutions within that country.women simply study in fields that pay less.If this reason explained the gender earnings gap,then one

109、potential solution would be for institutions to encourage females to enter higher-paying fields.Yet,as can be seen in Figure 2,the predicted probability a female graduate was in the highest two earnings categories within their country is lower across all fields of study.For instance,although enginee

110、ring is the highest paying field on average,female engineering graduates earn less than men in the social sciencesa lower paying fieldeven once other characteristics are accounted for(see Box 2 and Annex).Indeed,the gap between male and female graduates is large across all fields.Overall,the margina

111、l effect of gender is twice as large as the effect on earnings of being the first in family to attend tertiary education(the latter phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the“class gap,”see Tables A5 and A6).Numerous factors may be driving the gender-based earnings gap,such as women being offered lo

112、wer starting salaries or women being less likely to seek promotion.28 29 It is worth noting that the analysis does suggest that gender gaps in earnings are lower for graduates of technical and vocational educational institutions than for other types of institutions,suggesting TVETs may have lessons

113、to offer on alleviating gender inequality(see Table A4).The gender gap likely contributes to the challenge of attracting women into high-paying STEM fields.The overall trend is for the earnings gap to be larger in higher earning STEM fields such as information and communications Page 18CLOSING THE G

114、ENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTFIGURE 2Graduate Earnings Disaggregated by Gender and Field of StudyFemale graduates earn less than men across selected fieldsEngineeringInformation and CommunicationsTechnologiesSocial SciencesBusiness and LawHumanities and ArtsHealthServices30%20%10%35%25%15%Ea

115、rnings(%in top two categories)30%30%28%28%26%26%22%22%22%22%22%22%19%19%19%19%18%20%17%14%16%16%15%15%FemaleMaleSource:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsNote:The figure shows the predicted probability of being in the highest two country-specific earnings categories across fields of study according

116、 to the analysis in Column II of Table A4.Earnings are measured by the predicted probability of graduates reporting that they are in the surveys two highest income categories.The navy and blue markers reflect the predicted probabilities for males and females respectively,controlling for other charac

117、teristics,including field studied,institution attended,type of institution(TVET or not),age,first in family to attend a TEI,and nature of employment(i.e.,full time or part time,in the private or public sector).Interactions between gender and various other characteristics,like field and age,are also

118、included.Page 19Analysis of the IFC Vitae Survey of Graduatestechnology(ICT)and engineering where there are also relatively fewer female graduates.The gap is lower in fields with more female graduates such as business and law and health.The larger gap in ICT and engineering contributes to the result

119、 that female graduates in higher earning STEM fields are only modestly more likely to be in the top two earning categories compared to lower paid fields.For instance,as can be seen in in Figure 2,female social science graduates are only slightly less likely to be in the highest two earning categorie

120、s compared to female engineering and ICT graduates.The modestly higher earnings in STEM for female graduates suggests that institutions attempting to increase female enrollment in the higher earning STEM fields(engineering and ICT)will face difficulties attracting women from other fields given the w

121、age gains for these fields seem smaller than for men.This challenge is likely accentuated because relatively few women study or work in the field.30 The analysis finds that graduates working in the field they studied tend to have higher earnings.As shown in Figure 3,those who are not working in the

122、field they studied are less likely to end up in the top two earnings categories in their country.The positive side is that,as shown in Figure 4,over time graduates appear to move into positions that utilize what they learned during their academic studies.In the surveys,the percentage of graduates wo

123、rking in their field of study rises from the mid-40s at graduation up to the mid-50s four years after graduation.As Figure 4 illustrates,the problem of earning less due to working outside your field of study appears to be larger for female graduates.The statistical analysis similarly suggests that i

124、ndividuals who are first in their family to attend college also FIGURE 3Impact on Earnings of Working in Chosen Field of StudyGraduates are more likely to get a high-earning job if employed in the field they studied0%20%10%5%25%15%Earnings(%in top two categories)Not in field studiedPartially in fiel

125、d studiedWorking in field studiedSource:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsNote:The figure shows the predicted probability of being in the highest two country-specific earnings categories based on whether the individual is working in their field of study.The predictions hold other characteristics c

126、onstant,including institution attended,field studied,age,gender,years since graduation,and work experience prior to studying(see Table A4,Column I,for further analysis).Page 20CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTstruggle to land jobs in their field of study.Both these findings highligh

127、t the importance of developing professional or alumni networks for groups at a disadvantage in labor markets.The experience of developing country graduates analyzed through the Vitae surveys is broadly similar to the experience of college graduates in the United States,more than 50 percent of whom s

128、truggle to get a job that utilizes their college education in the year after graduation,and this leads to much lower earnings.31Gender wage gaps are lower for women in government employment The results suggest that the earnings gap between male and female graduates is lower for those graduates who w

129、ork in the government(see Table A4).This finding is in line with the World Banks Worldwide Bureaucracy Indicators database,which reports that“womens average wages are 86 percent of mens in the public sector and 76 percent in the formal private FIGURE 4Gender Gap in Share of Graduates Working in Chos

130、en Field of Study Females are less likely to be working in the field they studied several years after graduatingAt graduation1 year2 years3 years4 yearsYears since graduation50%40%55%45%in field studiedFemaleMaleSource:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsNote:Years since graduation is measured as th

131、e difference in year of survey and year of graduation.The figure shows the predicted probability of being in the field studied across years since graduation(see Column V of Table A4 for further details).The navy and blue markers reflect the predicted probabilities for males and females respectively,

132、holding other characteristics,including age,institution attended,field studied,and prior years of work experience,constant.The difference between male and female graduates is on the edge of traditional measures of statistical significance,with a p-value of just above 0.1,with prior years of work exp

133、erience,field studied,and employment status,held constant.Page 21Analysis of the IFC Vitae Survey of Graduatessector.”32 The Vitae survey results align with the view that gender gaps may be smaller in employers which,like government agencies,utilize more formalized pay structures and procedures for

134、hiring,firing,and promotion.33 34 Female graduates seem to face particular challenges stemming from career disruption.The effect of career disruption is suggested by the analysis of the Vitae surveys.As seen in Figures 5 and 6,the age of recent graduates is a key driver of the earnings and unemploym

135、ent gender gaps.For younger graduates the earnings gap is relatively narrow,with similar fractions of females and males in the top two country-specific earnings categories.However,this gap widens considerably for older recent graduatesjust 3 percentage points for recent graduates who are 18 to 25 ye

136、ars old but 13 percentage points for those aged 46 to 60 years.35 Furthermore,while the unemployment rate is lower for older graduates,FIGURE 5Earnings Levels by AgeOlder female graduates earn less than male graduates of the same age18-2526-3031-4546-60Age range0%10%20%30%40%50%60%Earnings(%in top t

137、wo categories)11%15%26%44%14%19%38%57%FemaleMaleSource:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsNote:The figure shows the predicted probability of being in the highest two country-specific earnings categories across age ranges(see Column II of Table A4 for further analysis).The navy and blue markers are

138、the percentages for males and females respectively,holding other characteristics constant,including field of study,institution attended,age,first in family to attend a TEI,and nature of employment(full or part time,working in the public or private sector).Page 22CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION A

139、ND EMPLOYMENTthe gap in unemployment between males and females is larger with age.Importantly,almost all graduates in the survey are in employment or seeking work(as shown in Table A2 in the annex).The larger gap for older graduates is consistent with the results from an International Labour Organiz

140、ation study of 84 countries that highlights that living with a partner decreases labor force participation for women.Another potential contributor is unpaid care work.According to UN Women,the UN agency dedicated to achieving gender equality,women perform twice as much unpaid household work as men.3

141、6 This includes time spent cleaning,cooking,and caring for children or the elderly.37 Other possible explanations for the gap by age may be that women transition out of initial careers sooner than men or that women are being promoted less.That age is a key driver of the gender earnings and unemploym

142、ent gap for recent graduates warrants further study.38 39 FIGURE 6Graduate Unemployment Rates By Age and GenderOlder female graduates are more likely to be unemployed than their male counterparts18-2526-3031-4546-60Age range10%20%30%40%Unemployment*40%35%23%19%37%30%18%13%*Unemployment is measured b

143、y predicted probability of being unemployed and actively looking for a jobFemaleMaleSource:IFC analysis of Vitae survey resultsNote:Graph shows predicted values based on regression IV in the Annex.This is based on the broader set of surveys,as explained in the Annex.The navy and blue markers are the

144、 percentages for males and females respectively,holding other characteristics constant,including field of study,institution attended,age,gender,and first in family to attend a TEI.BOX 3*The World Bank.New Data Show Massive,Wider-than-Expected Global Gender Gap.March 4,2024.IFCs Employment and Gender

145、 Equality Programs According to World Bank research,women globally continue to face severe barriers to joining the workforce as the workplace gender gap has widened.*Women on average earn just 77 cents on the dollar compared to men,in addition to facing gender-specific challenges around personal saf

146、ety,access to childcare,and job opportunities.In 20 countries,women are prohibited from working at night,and only one in five corporate board positions is held by women.IFC has been working with its clients in the private sector as well as with public sector bodies and other partners to address thes

147、e issues and promote womens access to better jobs and entrepreneurship opportunities.Two key initiatives worth highlighting in this regard are:Womens Employment ProgramBetween 2018 and 2023,IFCs Womens Employment Program supported more than 350 companies across the manufacturing,agribusiness,and ser

148、vices industries(including healthcare,retail,and tourism)to be more gender inclusive in the workplace.This included doing firm-level gender assessments with 14 IFC clients to identify gender dynamics including workplace policies,representation in management and leadership,board representation,promot

149、ion rates,equal pay,gender-based violence,employer-supported childcare,and other inclusive workplace issues.The assessments also quantified the costs and benefits(labor,productivity)of gender-smart policies.The program had a capacity-building component that provided advice to 330 companies and partn

150、ers on the business case for gender inclusion and on how to create evidence-based gender inclusive strategies.Part of the capacity-building strand targeted more than 100 supplier companies in the garment industry,86 percent of which reported that they were planning or implementing gender-smart actio

151、ns,with 90 percent attributing the training series to catalyzing their decision to implement gender-smart actions.Individual clients reported:increases in womens representation in middle management,corporate leadership,and board positions;reductions in absenteeism and voluntary turnover;increases in

152、 retention of women workers after maternity leave;increases in the number of women promoted;creation of new inclusive workplace policies;revisions of gender pay gaps;and policies and training to create more respectful workplaces and respond to gender-based violence.Tackling ChildcareAccess to childc

153、are continues to be a challenge for working parents,particularly women,who spend almost two and a half hours per day more than men on unpaid work,including childcare.Increasing access to childcare is correlated to an initial increase in womens participation in the labor force by 1 percentage point.I

154、FCs research in Nigeria estimates that the demand for childcare will continue to grow by 10 percent by 2025.IFCs initiative,Tackling Childcare,involves working with clients and partnersincluding policymakers,childcare providers and governmentsto document the business case for employer-supported chil

155、dcare,conduct needs assessments,and review options that would best serve working parents.In Bangladesh,for example,IFC found that among firms that offered employer-supported childcare options,74 percent reported greater employee productivity,72 percent reported improved employee retention,56 percent

156、 reported womens career advancement,and 51 percent reported improved profitability.Photo Dominic Chavez/IFCPage 24CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTFemale graduates were more likely to recommend an institution to others when they have better employment outcomes.Improving employment p

157、rospects is an important rationale for attending a TEI.For most female graduates a good job was“very important”or“extremely important”in their decision to enroll in the program.Ninety percent reported that increasing earnings was similarly important to their decision to enroll.Consistent with the hi

158、gh priority that students place on earnings,graduates were 20 percent more likely to suggest that the benefits of their education outweighed the costs when they were in the highest earning category,and higher-earning graduates were also more likely to recommend the institution to others.Photo Ashesi

159、 University Page 25Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability 3Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability The analysis of the Vitae survey results suggests that simply working to ensure parity in male and female tertiary graduation rates is insufficient to bring about gender eq

160、uity in employment outcomes More concerted efforts are required to ensure that female tertiary graduates do not fall behind equivalent male counterparts on the key employment outcomes:earnings and employment rates Enhancing female graduate employability requires collaborative interventions by TEIs,e

161、mployers,governments,and communities.To achieve sustained impact,it is imperative to adopt targeted gender-inclusive interventions to support womens employability and to mainstream gender equality across programs and policies intended for improving employability more broadly.40 41 Additionally,inter

162、ventions should consider change management dynamics to promote a comprehensive gender inclusion strategy,emphasizing a clear shared vision,securing buy-in from key stakeholders,pursuing early wins,and shaping beliefs and attitudes through setting evidence-based and intentional targets as well as aut

163、hentic communication and advocacy.Role of Tertiary Education Institutions The link between employability,reputation,and rankings cannot be overstated.As discussed above,the Vitae surveys indicate that a significant factor driving participants to enroll in institutions is the desire to enhance their

164、employment opportunities,with more than 95 percent of survey respondents Page 26CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTeither employed or seeking a job.This is consistent with the results from a survey of U.S.undergraduates which revealed that student outcomes,including post-graduation em

165、ployment,ranked among the top three factors influencing the choice of universities,second only to affordability.42 As such,the success of graduates is vital to the success and sustainability of TEIs.By enhancing employment outcomes for women graduates,TEIs can improve their brand and reputation thro

166、ugh better net promoter scores,*helping them to attract new learners.This will impact their bottom line,underscoring that there is a clear and compelling business case for institutions to address gender gaps in employability outcomes.Get commitment and leadership from the top Leadership is at the co

167、re of high-quality education.According to UNESCO,there is a growing belief that leadership may be the second-most important factor that explains learning outcomes.43 TEI executive and academic leadership must fully commit to achieving equitable employment outcomes for their male and female students.

168、This includes formulating an institutional strategy on womens employability,strong leadership commitment,adequate resource deployment,and robust policies and actions informed by systematic graduate outcomes data.Including a gender analysis and objectives in key TEI documents such as strategic plans

169、can provide a strong signal to the academic community that the employability of female students is a priority.*A net promoter score is a measure of customer loyalty that ranges from-100 to 100,with any score above zero suggesting more promoters than detractors Being aware of significant discrepancie

170、s between student gender mix and the gender mix of faculty in particular departments can yield benefits for both male and female learners.This awareness can help to prevent and address biases or gaps where present,providing students with opportunities to identify role models,mentors,and networks,par

171、ticularly in fields of study and industries where women are under-represented.Furthermore,TEIs should eliminate gender-based stereotypes from curricula and teaching materialsas well as biases coming from instructors.44 Research has found that teachers perceptions of sex-based ability can have a nega

172、tive impact on girls pursuit of technology-related studies.45Collect gender-disaggregated data,at the level of programs,through tracer studies Collecting gender-disaggregated employment outcomes data at the program level,through regular tracer studies,is the first step to making evidence-based decis

173、ions to address employability gaps.Tracer studies that use technology solutions linked to the universitys student information system will allow for more advanced analysis,including predictive analytics.It is important that tracer studies are systematicmeaning they are conducted regularly,in a standa

174、rdized manner,and aim for a sound response rate.Data should be analyzed at the level of credentials and individual programs to obtain useful insights.Gender-disaggregated data,when analyzed at the program level,makes gender gaps more Page 27Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability visib

175、le,promotes accountability for addressing them,and can help build trust with key stakeholders working toward gender equity,including employers.IFCs Vitae program supports TEIs in implementing tracer studies and gives initial guidance on where to begin.Share information and differentiate career suppo

176、rt Career services are quickly becoming personalized through adoption of technology,including artificial intelligence.This makes it much simpler to differentiate career support to students throughout their educational journey,informing them about career prospects,skills gaps,the financial returns of

177、 various occupations,the importance of lifelong learning,and job search tools,inter alia.46 47 There is evidence that women are more likely than men to apply for jobs only where they meet all criteria(instead of some or most),and that they are less likely than men to negotiate their salaries when co

178、nsidering a job offer.48 49 Institutions can offer career development workshops and resources tailored to the needs of women graduates.Advisors can help address individual skills gaps by offering resume-writing workshops(including through technology),mock interviews,and by teaching negotiation techn

179、iques.Institutions can provide access to online career resources that address gender-specific challenges in the workplace,dispel myths about the job application process,and provide benchmarks and reference points to help female job seekers better prepare.For example,as highlighted in the 2021 UNESCO

180、 publication Investing in Career Guidance,the Khetha radio program in South Africa was used by the public employment service to provide career guidance“for all citizens regardless of geographical position or socio-economic status”through a weekly 30-minute live radio program in all 10 official langu

181、ages.The target audience was a largely rural population aged 15 to 65,with 3.1 million listeners a week reached in a cost-effective way.50TEIs can also help all learners make well-informed choices when selecting faculties of study and careers.Publishing information on employment rates and starting s

182、alaries of typical graduates in different fields is one example.For instance,in a randomized experiment in the Democratic Republic of Congo,when women were provided with information on trade-specific earnings,they were 28.6 percent more likely to apply to traditionally male-dominated trades.51 In or

183、der to build a pipeline of women workers in traditionally male-dominated fields,such as STEM,outreach programs can be developed to target girls at secondary level or earlier.These TEI programs can encourage girls to pursue their interests in scientific or technological fields.52 Increase relevance o

184、f learning through engagement with industry Aligning teaching content and methods more closely with industry needs can contribute significantly to narrowing skills gaps.Many institutions use industry-led program advisory committees to help align their programs with industry needs.These advisory boar

185、ds,which are working groups composed of professionals from industries that hire a programs graduates,provide advice on matters such as curriculum feedback,program review,new trends and technology,and skills needs in the industry.They help promote the institution in the community,including to employe

186、rs,and support fundraising Page 28CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTBOX 4What Are Universities Doing to Close Gender Gaps?While measurable progress has been made on female representation in higher education,practitioners agree this is only half the battle.As students move toward grad

187、uation and job-seeking stages,they need different kinds of guidance and support.This is reflected in conversations with staff working on this issue at a number of TEIs.An institution taking action to close the gender gap is Mangosuthu University of Technology(MUT)near Durban,which is also one of the

188、 few higher education institutions in South Africa located in a township.Dr.Paulette Naidoo,Director of Student Counseling,highlighted something that may seem obvious but is not necessarily so:encouraging female students to actually apply for more jobs.Dr Naidoo said this resonates with the widely u

189、sed reference to Sheryl Sandbergs statement in her book Lean In that men apply for positions if they meet just 60 percent of the requirements,while women only apply if they meet 100 percent.Dr.Naidoo added:“Our institution is taking on a greater advocacy role in this area.We encourage employers to s

190、ay more explicitly when recruiting that they welcome women applicants.”If female applicants are offered a job,one valuable tool they can be equipped with is salary negotiation skills.This is described by Verusha Maharaj,Managing Director at Red&Yellow Creative School of Business in Cape Town,South A

191、frica who said:“In our survey of alumni,this was an area where many students asked for our help.Females tend to be more uncomfortable demanding a minimum salary than males.”Her institution has responded by organizing webinars to tutor students in salary negotiations.“We are also asking employers to

192、have open and frank discussions about the gender pay gap,”she said.These sentiments were echoed by Nuzhat Kamran,Director for Advancement at Lahore University of Management Sciences(LUMS),a private not-for-profit institution in Pakistan:“Inherently,women are averse to negotiating their salary.But in

193、creasingly I see younger womenGeneration Z and millennialsbeing less shy in asking for what they need.”Kamran noted that boosting female students self-worth helps,and that this is in fact being buoyed by their increasingly superior gradesa notable trend in recent years with girls tending to get high

194、er scores in exams than boys.Another useful confidence and knowledge-building exercise cited by practitioners is inviting employers and successful professionals and alumni to come from outside to speak with students.As Red&Yellows Maharaj put it:“Gaining access to networks is a key aspect of employa

195、bility.Our survey revealed a demand for mentoring programs.We are setting up a Meet the Matriarch program to address this.”Kamran at LUMS also touted the benefits of mentoring:“We just launched LUMS Commons,an online platform that will make our existing mentorship program less ad hoc and more formal

196、.Senior alumni register as mentors and younger alumni and students register as mentees.We then do the matching.”She added:“We believe that among other things,this counseling will help students especially females in negotiating a better package during job interviews.The mentees are all students for n

197、ow,but we plan to extend it to alumni.”Page 29Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability By taking a pro-active approach,TEIs and employers can reduce gender gaps and boost female employment rates.LUMS Kamran noted that large corporates in Pakistan have been active lately trying to bring

198、back into the labor market women who left it for a long time to raise a family.In Pakistan,just 25 percent of female graduates are in employment,she noted,while the share for LUMS alumni,at 74 percent,is much higher.Laura Kakon,Group Chief Growth and Strategy Officer at Honoris United Universities,a

199、 network of 16 higher education institutions in 10 African countries,noted that“86 percent of our male graduates are employed within six months of graduation,compared to 82 percent of females.”The gender gap is well below the market average:currently,the labor market participation rate for women of

200、working age averages just 22 percent in Morocco,25 percent in Tunisia,47 percent in Nigeria,and 46 percent in South Africa.Echoing others support for gender-informed outreach in recruitment,exposure to female role models,and mentorships,Honoris Kakon added that buy-in from leadership was key too:“Yo

201、u need to have a deliberate approach coming right from the topand not just from female leaders.”Getting quality data is equally crucial to closing the gender gap,she said.“You need reliable data and milestones that can be measured.We track employment rates,salaries,quality of jobs,levels of entry,th

202、e time it takes to get a joband we track this yearly to see the evolving trends and track progress.”Photo IFCPage 30CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTefforts.They support the programs internship and job placement efforts.The Vitae surveys suggest that graduates not working in their f

203、ield of study are 12 percent more likely to be in the lowest two quintiles of income and 6 percentage points less likely to be higher earning.These results control for the various factors that affect earning outcomes such as institution attended,work experience,and age.This suggests that the disadva

204、ntage of working outside the field studied is comparable in magnitude to the advantage from studying in a higher-earning field such as engineering.These results suggest that it is critical for tertiary institutions to help align the fields that students study with the needs of the labor market.For e

205、xample,in South Africa,the Education,Training and Development Practices Sector Education and Training Authority finances training for TVET teachers to help them keep up to date with evolving industry practices.53Ensure the availability of micro-credentials and lifelong learning opportunities Micro-c

206、redentials are qualifications composed of a series of short,competency-based courses that focus on the acquisition of technical skills for a particular industry or career.They allow students to further target their education to the needs of the labor market.Often,micro-credentials are offered by ins

207、titutions and digital platforms such as Coursera as a series of top-up courses that provide career-critical knowledge,technical competence,and skills.For traditionally female-dominated fields such as communications,psychology,and administrative support,micro-credentials can play a key role in increa

208、sing employability.Evidence from the United States is promising.In the state of Virginia,for example,additional community college credentials have large and positive effects on employment and wages.54Connect students to the workplace.This can be done by increasing work-integrated learning opportunit

209、ies,from internships to co-ops This helps align course content with industry needs while providing students important practical experience during their studies.Moreover,while evidence on the effectiveness of internships on early labor market performance is mixed,some research has shown that internsh

210、ips can boost graduates employability.55 56 57 58 59 60 Increasing work-integrated learning opportunities can support graduates in finding employment in their field,which would disproportionally benefit female students for whom this is a particular challenge as discussed above.Engage students early

211、and continue through their academic journey Engagement with students should begin in their first year with introductory seminars and workshops on life after graduation.Employer sessions,particularly ones that showcase women in leadership roles,can lead to mentorship,especially if these sessions incl

212、ude alumni.Furthermore,a structured system of mentorship with senior students,alumni,employers,and faculty from various disciplines(business,STEM,nursing etc.)can expose female students to different versions of what success can look like.It is also important to engage with male students and alumni t

213、o ensure inclusivity in the selection process and Page 31Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability BOX 5IFCs Vitae Employability Advisory ProgramIFC developed Vitae,an employability advisory program,to help universities prepare graduates for the job market.Vitae empowers higher education

214、 institutions to improve their graduation employability practices through a data-driven approach.The tool has been delivered by IFC specialists to over 100 tertiary education institutions in developing markets,sharing proven techniques to improve graduate employability,while helping to align process

215、es with global good practice.Increasing the focus on graduate employability has been shown to bring many benefits including:improved student outcomes;enhanced relevance of programs;strengthened competitiveness;and institutional self-improvement.A focus on employability creates an opportunity to cons

216、istently improve and innovate,build partnerships,and deliver on the promise for students.Vitae employs a standard methodology and tailors it to the needs of each individual institution.The process involves three steps as described below(more information on Vitae is available at www.vitaeready.org).S

217、TEP 3STEP 2STEP 1ASSESSMENTRECOMMENDATIONSHANDS-ON SUPPORTA systematic approach of institutional self-assessment,stakeholder surveys,and qualitative interviews with faculty,staff,employers,and students to measure operations and current employability practices.Debrief held with management to deliver

218、tailored analysis and findings.Good practices are shared as recommendations for improvement.Benchmark to peers is provided.IFC experts work with universities to increase the relevance of programs and student support services and align with the needs of the global and local labor market.Source:https:

219、/www.vitaeready.orgPage 32CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTencourage male alumni to mentor younger women students by providing career advice,internship opportunities,and project support.Finally,soft skills like presenting,resume writing,interviewing,negotiation,and networking can be

220、 refined through workshops and coaching so that these skills are continually fine-tuned as the student progresses through academic life.Engage employers TEIs are strategic partners for employers and can use gentle persuasion to convince them to aspire for gender equity in pay and employment.Gender-r

221、esponsive employer engagement can contribute to broadening horizons and supporting womens transition from education to work.61 62 TEIs can ensure equitable participation of female students in talks,workplace visits,enterprise competitions,curriculum enrichment,research collaborations,internships,and

222、 work-based learning.63 To manage the risks of occupational segregation,”advisory committees can be created to promote proactive measure that encourage young women to aspire to careers in traditionally male-dominated fields like STEM.Furthermore,TEIs can collaborate with employers to institute hirin

223、g practices that are based on potential and skills rather than only credentials and experience.64 Encouraging employers to use diverse teams for hiring(gender,occupation),conduct annual pay equity analyses,and to act on their findings may help reduce the wage gap.Engage alumniA robust alumni engagem

224、ent policy hinges on building a strong community,being explicit about the need to address womens employability,and providing varied opportunities for support depending on different alumni profiles and availability.65 For instance,successful female alumni can serve as role models and mentors for curr

225、ent students and recent graduates.In our analysis,we found that universities with developed alumni programs tend to have more students transition into higher earning categories and into full time employment.Indeed,ICT mentorship programs for women and girls have been found to be effective both withi

226、n and outside the formal education sector.The Aspirations in Computing initiative,established in the United States,is a good example of a network that works with schools.Of the 9,500 girls the program has reached,75 percent expressed interest in taking a future computing class after the program conc

227、luded,suggesting that mentorship relationships,particularly among girls who are close in age,can significantly influence girls motivation to develop more advanced ICT skills.66 Leverage technology Flexible learning solutions can underpin skills development for women,especially caregivers.An IFC stud

228、y on women and online learning showed that women are 38 percent more likely than men to indicate that they intend to pursue a mix of online and offline education or training in the future,showing interest in blended learning options.67 In cases where online learning was unavailable,42 percent of men

229、,45 percent of women,and 60 percent of female caregivers expressed a willingness to delay or forgo their education,underscoring the impact on women in particular.However,according to UNESCO,women and girls are 25 percent less likely than men to know how to leverage Page 33Gender-Informed Approaches

230、to Improving Employability digital technology for basic purposes,four times less likely to know how to program computers,and 13 times less likely to file for a technology patent.68 A way to overcome the digital skills gap could be to embed ICT in formal education as it was done by Harvey Mudd Colleg

231、e in the United States which has boosted the percentage of female computer science majors from 10 percent to 55 percent in about 10 years by redesigning its introductory computing course.69 Online learning can therefore support womens acquisition of job-relevant skills,potentially improving their em

232、ployment outcomes.Role of Employers While TEIs and governments can contribute to building skills and creating a conducive environment to close gender gaps,decisions regarding recruitment,hiring,promotion,and retention ultimately lie with employers.Programs that support womens employment can give the

233、m a strategic advantage:enterprises with gender-inclusive cultures are 9 percent more likely to have improved business performance.70 Additionally,firms implementing equal employment policies and gender-inclusive cultures are 60 percent more likely to report increased profits and productivity.71 The

234、 following actions can be taken by employers to this end:Conduct gender assessments Gender assessments and audits can help employers better understand gender dynamics in their talent management strategy and how company practices,policies,and programs hinder or contribute to gendered outcomes in the

235、workplace.They can cover a wide range of topics,including how men and women are distributed across the organization,promotions,recruitment and retention,absenteeism and turnover,flexible work arrangements,employer-supported care programs,organizational culture,corporate strategy and related key perf

236、ormance indicators,objectives,budget,and monitoring and evaluation systems.72 Identifying gender pay gaps is becoming a central element of gender assessments,providing comprehensive analysis on remuneration and differentials between women and men.73 Gender assessments can underpin equal employment a

237、nd gender-inclusive policies and practices by helping to establish a baseline,identifying challenges and opportunities for action,and defining a gender action plan based on the employers unique characteristics.74 Promote gender-responsive employment policies and programsAt a company level,gender-res

238、ponsive employment policies explicitly pursue the objective of gender equality across departments and levels of hierarchy.While national normative frameworks for such policies vary from country to country,employers across the globe can draw from a wealth of best practices and benchmarks for both the

239、 public and private sector.For instance,during the recruitment process,gender-inclusive language and imagery can be utilized in job advertisements to ensure that postings appeal to both men and women.Additionally,discriminatory interview questions on themes such as pregnancy and marriage intentions

240、must be avoided.75 Gender-responsive employment goes beyond the recruitment process.It also encompasses ensuring equal access to training and promotion opportunities;policies on non-discrimination;fair and Page 34CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTequitable pay;flexible work arrangeme

241、nts and support to working parents;leave benefits(paternity,parental,maternity);and creating safe and respectful workplaces with zero tolerance for violence or discrimination against women.For example,IFCs Gender Equality and Returns training program,developed through a partnership with the Internat

242、ional Labour Organization,helps women working in the garment manufacturing sector advance to more supervisory roles.Among the more than 150 apparel businesses where the program was deployed,the factories reported a 38 percent improvement in efficiency and a 58 percent improvement in quality.76Have f

243、amily-friendly work arrangements This can be a win-win for employers and workers,including women.Employers with family-friendly work arrangements can benefit from enhanced staff productivity and retention.Employees benefit from improved morale.77 Additionally,employer-supported childcare can support

244、 workers with families and should be offered to both men and women.Flexible working arrangements where appropriate,such as part-time work,compressed work hours,job-sharing,and telecommuting can help reduce stresses that accrue from balancing career and family.78 Research has shown that new mothers a

245、re more likely to drop out of the workforce or face a greater gender pay gap throughout their career.This phenomenon is known as the maternity or motherhood penalty.Astute companies have begun to organize re-entry programs for women returning from maternity leave,providing reduced hours,part-time op

246、tions,lactation spaces,and BOX 6UNESCO and Diors Program to Break the Glass Ceiling An example of an employer actively working to enhance female employability is the WOMENDIOR Education&Mentoring Program which,since 2017,has empowered women in their 20s to enter the professional world with the skill

247、s,confidence,and ambition needed to break the glass ceiling.The program seeks to embed five core values in its participants:self-awareness,autonomy,creativity,durability,and inclusion.Selected women are provided mentorship;an education platform with over 25 online courses;participation in the Dream

248、for Change project where mentees apply the knowledge acquired in the program by designing and implementing a social entrepreneurship project that creates tangible positive impact for young women;and finally,the presentation of projects at the UNESCO&WOMENDIOR Global Conference.2023 UNESCO&WomenDior

249、Global Conference Photo:Christian Dior CouturePage 35Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability other support.Assessments and certification programs help clients to track the retention of working mothers a year after returning from maternity leave to determine whether or not the company i

250、s having difficulty retaining new mothers,and to identify the best ways to support their retention.However,these arrangements should be designed in such a way that does not hinder womens higher earning and promotion opportunities.79Collaborate with TEIs As part of their company strategy,employers ca

251、n leverage university-industry relations to address skills mismatches and enhance opportunities for women in the world of work.Women-focused apprenticeships and internships can help build a pipeline of future female employees in high-paying or traditionally male-dominated fields.Firms can encourage

252、female employees to take up event speaking and mentoring opportunities at universities and TVET centers.Grants and award programs can also play a major role in supporting students employability in specific fields.For instance,the LOral USA Women in Science program awards female postdoctoral scientis

253、ts substantial grants to underpin their contributions and work in STEM.80 Additionally,employers and employer organizations can collaborate with TEIs through sector skills councils to ensure that workforce planning,labor market analysis,and training programs are all gender informed.Moreover,the lang

254、uage used to describe job postings is particularly important.Gendered language in job postings and course descriptions that emphasizes competitiveness and assertiveness over teamwork and relationships may discourage women from applying.A study of job advertisements in BOX 7IFCs Womens Employment Pro

255、gram(WEP)IFC helps companies conduct gender assessments in the workplace and provides them with evidence-based recommendations for action through its Womens Employment and Workforce Programs established in 2018.The assessments look at three sources of data:human resource and talent flow;company poli

256、cies and practices;and employee experience as measured through surveys,interviews,and focus groups.This data analysis is done in the context of the companys overall corporate strategy and institutional priorities.This enables a unique business case to be developed that addresses gender and inclusion

257、 and that is tailored to each company.The program helps companies better identify gender gaps in their organization,take appropriate action,better allocate resources,and communicate authentically internally and externally on gender dynamics.Taking such an approach can spur improvements in recruitmen

258、t,workforce retention,employee engagement,and in the employers brand.It can also create training and career progression opportunities,particularly for women employees.Photo Botho University Page 36CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTthe UK identified the top male-gendered words as lead

259、,analyze,competitive,active,and confident,whereas the top female-gendered words were support,responsible,understanding,dependable,and commitment.81 Furthermore,in-office training and awareness programs can help socialize and emphasize the importance of womens full participation in historically male-

260、dominated fields.IFC helps companies conduct gender assessments in the workplace and provides them with evidence-based recommendations for action through its Womens Employment and Workforce Programs established in 2018.The assessments look at three sources of data:human resource and talent flow;comp

261、any policies and practices;and employee experience as measured through surveys,interviews,and focus groups.This data analysis is done in the context of the companys overall corporate strategy and institutional priorities.This enables a unique business case to be developed that addresses gender and i

262、nclusion and that is tailored to each company.The program helps companies better identify gender gaps in their organization,take appropriate action,better allocate resources,and communicate authentically internally and externally on gender dynamics.Taking such an approach can spur improvements in re

263、cruitment,workforce retention,employee engagement,and in the employers brand.It can also create training and career progression opportunities,particularly for women employees.Role of GovernmentsThere are many interventions governments can make in education,labor markets,and social protection to help

264、 female graduates find and keep decent jobs.Closing gender gaps in labor markets goes beyond the realm of skills,employment,and safety nets.A whole of government approach is required.The following are some of the actions governments can take:Mainstream gender equity into TEI missionsGender equity sh

265、ould be mainstreamed in national plans on education and training.Importantly,gender equality should be integrated into national curricula and teacher training programs.According to UNESCO,women in general are less likely than men to be enrolled in TVET.82 Gender-targeted measures such as subsidies a

266、nd vouchers can be directed to boost womens enrollment in underrepresented fields.For instance,government subsidies could require TEIs to meet a quota of women in STEM and other male-dominated fields.Recruiting and training more female ICT teachers may be particularly beneficial to women.In North Am

267、erica,for example,girls interest in computing has been found to be significantly higher when the subject is taught by a female teacher,whereas boys interest is unaffected by the teachers gender.Female teachers self-efficacy,or confidence in their knowledge of the subject and their ability to teach i

268、t,has been linked to girls achievement in STEM subjects but not to boys.83 Page 37Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability Include female employability in tertiary education governance Governments can instrumentalize TEI governance to improve female employability.For instance,ministries

269、 of education can ensure womens equal representation in TEI leadership positions and governing bodies,as this can boost female students aspirations and educational attainment.84 This could be achieved through direct appointments in public institutions,or sector-wide directives to nudge both public a

270、nd private TEIs toward gender-balanced boards,leadership teams,research faculty and teaching corps.Additionally,regulatory frameworks could require regional governments or individual TEIs to report gender-disaggregated data on labor outcomes and participation in different fields(including STEM).Supp

271、ort Work-Based Learning Governments can support a variety of work-based learning schemes to help women access in-demand sectors and occupations.For instance,the United States Women in Apprenticeship and Nontraditional Occupations program helps women take part in quality apprenticeships in high-payin

272、g fields such as manufacturing,cybersecurity,and infrastructure.85 Governments can also provide tax benefits to enterprises that run gender-inclusive internship or apprenticeship programs.BOX 8Tackling the Gender Digital Divide:Interventions Targeting Girls and Women Gender-equal education will not

273、be realized until gender issues are mainstreamed.Improved awareness is needed about the biases that keep women out of technology fields,both within the education sector and in society more broadly.Interventions do not necessarily need to focus on upskilling women and girls to make a difference in th

274、e digital skills gender divide.Educators should be encouraged to take a step back and think about the ways in which discourses around technology are gendered and how this has trickled into everything from the curriculum to the posters on classroom walls.As much as efforts are needed to equip women a

275、nd girls with digital skills,so too are interventions to enhance understandings of how the digital field is biased and to encourage approaches to neutralize this bias and make digital skills education attractive and approachable for all learners.Source:UNESCO&Equal Kills Coalition.Id Blush If I Coul

276、d:Closing Gender Divides in Digital Skills Through Education.2019.Page 56.Photo Al Hussein Technical University Page 38CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTBOX 9How UNESCO Is Empowering Women in Madagascar In 2008,UNESCO launched a program dedicated to empowering women in the Tsingy Nat

277、ural Reserve,a UNESCO World Heritage site in Madagascar.The main goal of the program was to help women leverage the economic benefits of tourism by developing skills necessary for their economic integration,with a focus on catering and hospitality,agricultural professions,crafts,and tourism.The prog

278、ram had three objectives:to qualify 210 young people,of whom 80 percent were women,for identified lucrative professions and support their integration;to promote sustainable community tourism by mentoring 10 cultural guides/animators and strengthening the capacities of 5 village communities;and to eq

279、uip 600 women with horticultural(500)and embroidery/weaving(100)skills.The programs approach involved:implementing an information and awareness campaign that highlighted the importance and benefits of womens professionalization for the local community;facilitating womens access to credit;profiling f

280、uture learners;and creating a label and launching an awareness campaign to enhance recognition of products crafted by women from the site.The program resulted in 60 individuals,of whom 45 were women,being trained in sustainable tourism professions and getting hired by hoteliers and restaurateurs in

281、the reserve,with 41(32 women)receiving job offers.In addition,138 individuals,of which 104 were women,were certified to practice lucrative hospitality and restaurant professions and are now capable of working and developing these skills.A further 105 women,having received training in producing touri

282、st/artisanal products(including 70 in weaving and 35 in embroidery),have increased their income through product sales.A label was developed and recognized for the sale and marketing of products from women trained by the program.Finally,562 farmers were trained in agricultural professions such as ric

283、e cultivation and short-cycle poultry farming.Photo World BankPage 39Gender-Informed Approaches to Improving Employability Enhance social protections and have pro-active labor market policies Social protection measures are designed to reduce and prevent poverty and social exclusion throughout a pers

284、ons life and can help improve female employability.86 Active labor market initiatives like job training and job search assistance can support unemployed or underemployed women in acquiring new skills or identifying employment opportunities.For instance,Singapores HerCareer initiative provides resour

285、ces and opportunities for women re-entering the workforce.87 Government initiatives that support childcare are also vital.There is evidence that increased government coverage of childcare enhances womens labor market participation.88Indeed,governments should implement policies that address the growi

286、ng mismatch between the skills that young workers have and the vacancies that employers want to fill.For example,in Malawi,according to the Malawi Confederation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry,there is not enough interface between TVET institutions and the private sector,which contributes to fe

287、male youth unemployment remaining extremely high.89 Include gender in macroeconomic policyOpting for individual taxation over family-level taxation has the potential to reduce the tax burden on secondary earners,particularly women,and could result in positive changes in aggregate labor market outcom

288、es.Additionally,implementing gender budgetingwhich allocates public resources for addressing gender inequalitiescan increase the likelihood of women experiencing equitable benefits from counter-cyclical measures.90Page 40CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTConclusion This report,a coll

289、aborative effort between IFC and UNESCO,highlights how progress has been made in narrowing the gender gap in education enrollment,particularly in tertiary education However,the reports analysis reveals persistent gender disparities in employment outcomes among graduates,underscoring the need for com

290、prehensive interventions to ensure that women successfully transition into the labor market The analysis emphasizes the need for gender-targeted and gender-integrated approaches to improve womens employability,with recommendations on actions that TEIs,employers,and governments can take It also outli

291、nes the benefits these key actors will likely accrue from taking such actionsThe findings from the Vitae surveys,conducted by IFC,offer valuable insights into the challenges faced by female graduates in accessing meaningful employment opportunities across diverse contexts,particularly in developing

292、countries.Analysis of the responses shows that female graduates earn less across fields of study than their male counterparts.However,gender gaps in earnings are lower for graduates of technical and vocational educational institutions.Interestingly,students who work in positions outside the field th

293、ey studied tend to earn less.Moreover,the findings also suggest that women face greater career disruptions,evidenced by the widening earnings and employment gap between older male and female recent graduates.Finally,the analysis shows that female graduates are more likely to recommend their educatio

294、nal institution to others when they have better employment outcomes.What is driving these gender gaps is an area where further study is urgently needed.Addressing the challenges identified in this report requires concerted action from multiple key stakeholders.Tertiary education institutions are a c

295、ritical link in ensuring women successfully transition from school to work.The results from the Vitae surveys emphasize the value of tracer studies of this kind.They are key to identifying the problem,finding solutions,and tracking progress,and thus further work along these lines is recommended(the

296、Vitae website provides further information on tracer studies).Commitment and leadership from TEI leadership is needed to prioritize gender mainstreaming in their policies and practices.Furthermore,since decisions regarding recruitment,hiring,promotion,and retention ultimately lie with employers,they

297、 can contribute to closing gender gaps by implementing inclusive employment policies and practices that support womens recruitment and advancement.As for governments,they can help close gender gaps by fostering gender-responsive education programming and economic policies.Page 41Conclusion TEIs,empl

298、oyers,and governments alike stand to gain from closing gender gaps in the workforce,whether through enhanced reputation(TEIs),improved profitability(employers),or increased economic productivity(governments).Ultimately,the benefits of improving womens employability extend beyond individual empowerme

299、ntthey generate broader societal and economic gains.Women are half the worlds population.As we strive for a more inclusive and equitable future,it is imperative that we continue to prioritize gender-targeted and gender-integrated approaches to empower women and promote sustainable development worldw

300、ide.There is no single solution to improve womens employability,rather it is collective and coordinated efforts that can empower and enable women to achieve this ambition.Page 42CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTAnnex A Vitae Survey Data This study has used regression analysis on Vit

301、ae survey data to evaluate whether gender gaps in earnings,unemployment,or employment in ones field of study are statistically significant after controlling for various factors that can be expected to be associated with differences in outcomes such as field of study,institution,and age.The regressio

302、ns also include interactions to evaluate whether the gender gap is different for graduates based on type of employment,field of study,and age.Description of dataThe study uses results from a series of surveys that IFC conducted as part of its Vitae advisory program offered to tertiary institutions t

303、o help them improve their graduates employability.The surveys are conducted by institutions directly emailing graduates from the previous three years,with the responses compiled on a third-party platform.The Vitae surveys were conducted across 22 developing countries at 54 institutions.Many of these

304、 are private.However,the survey has been also conducted at 13 public tertiary institutions.While most institutions are universities,15 also provide TVET qualifications.Table A2 shows selected descriptive statistics.The first two columns show results for the overall sample.The third and fourth column

305、s show statistics for the subset of surveys which included questions on experience,and whether the graduate is working in the field they studied.The subset of surveys has a similar proportion of gender disparities when compared against the full sample.Table 2 indicates that most graduates are in the

306、 18-25 years age range.This group is likely to include those graduates who studied full time immediately after secondary school.However,many respondents are older,with around 40 percent aged between 26 and 45 years.The overall tendency is for male graduates to be older.A greater proportion of women

307、report being unemployed and a smaller proportion report being in the higher earning categories.As expected,there are more men reporting that their field of study was engineering,or information and communication technology.Health and education have more female respondents.AnnexesPage 43AnnexesTABLE A

308、1 Institutions Surveyed,by Region and Type of InstitutionNumber of institutionsShare of institutions Number of respondentsShare of respondents Overall5414,643RegionSub-Saharan Africa2648%5,287 36%East Asia 36%912 6%Latin America and the Caribbean2037%7,98755%Middle East and North Africa 59%3773%Gove

309、rnance 54100%14,643 100%Private 4176%10,68773%Public1324%3,95627%Type of institution54100%14,643100%University3972%12,166 83%Technical and vocational education and training1528%2,477 17%TABLE A2Descriptive Statistics(number of respondents and(share of category)Overall survey respondentsSubset of sur

310、veys with additional questions on experience and working in fieldFemaleMaleFemaleMale8,205(563%)6,358(436%)3,086(56%)2,379(44%)Selected age ranges18 to 254,459(54.5%)2,415(38.0%)1,825(59.1%)988(40.1%)26 to 301,956(23.9%)2,030(32.0%)608(19.7%)644(27.1%)31 to 451,418(17.3%)1,513(23.8%)506(16.4%)570(24

311、.0%)46 to 60331(4.0%)359(5.7%)133(4.3%)184(7.7%)Overall survey respondentsSubset of surveys with additional questions on experience and working in fieldFemaleMaleFemaleMaleSelected Fields of EducationBusiness and Law3,774(47.9%)2,361(38.8%)1,533(49.7%)922(38.8%)Education330(4.2%)124(2.0%)267(8.7%)95

312、(4.0%)Engineering761(9.7%)1,376(22.6%)332(10.8%)588(24.7%)Health834(10.6%)326(5.4%)167(5.4%)56(2.4%)Humanities and Arts285(3.6%)235(3.9%)67(2.2%)34(1.4%)Information and Communication Technology507(6.4%)795(13.1%)218(7.1%)386(16.2%)Natural Sciences114(1.4%)114(1.9%)15(0.5%)16(0.7%)Services184(2.3%)87

313、(1.4%)130(4.2%)61(2.6%)Social Sciences1,042(13.2%)624(10.2%)321(10.4%)205(8.6%)Employment StatusEmployed full time4,114(50.1%)3,558(56.0%)1,403(45.5%)1,311(55.1%)Employed part time1,093(13.3%)728(11.5%)313(10.1%)209(8.8%)Not employed but looking for work2,565(31.3%)1,711(26.9%)1,155(37.4%)707(29.7%)

314、Not employed and not looking for work183(2.2%)171(2.7%)72(2.3%)51(2.1%)Studying full time121(1.5%)80(1.3%)121(3.9%)80(3.4%)No response129(1.6%)110(1.7%)22(0.7%)21(0.9%)Earnings Category Lowest 1,318(25.7%)737(17.8%)307(18.0%)150(10.0%)Second lowest 2,069(40.4%)1,341(32.5%)757(44.4%)448(29.8%)Third h

315、ighest1,002(19.6%)940(22.8%)388(22.8%)391(26.0%)Second highest481(9.4%)634(15.3%)161(9.4%)229(15.2%)Highest254(5.0%)479(11.6%)92(5.4%)268(19.0%)Note:Overall sample has 14,643 respondents.This includes 16 respondents who did not respond on their gender(not shown above).The age ranges and fields of ed

316、ucation show selected categories and so do not include categories with very low response ratesfor instance,graduates that are less than 18 years old(less than five respondents).Earnings data was unavailable for 5,124 females and 4,131 males in the overall sample and unavailable for 1,381 females and

317、 875 males in the sub-sample of surveys.The results do not show field of study“other”which is reported by around 100 respondents.The third and fourth columns report for the subset of surveys that includes questions on prior years of experience and employment status of graduates.This subset of survey

318、s was used for regressions(I),(II)and(V)in Table A3.Page 45AnnexesLimitations of DataThe surveys were implemented at institutions where IFC provided the Vitae advisory program on employability.As such,the institutions were not selected randomly and so cannot be expected to be representative of the i

319、nstitutions in these countries.The data was collected by emailing recent graduates,only some of whom responded.Overall,the response rate is 6 percent on average for the institutions covered.Among those who answered the survey,only some answered the questions on income and employment status.This sugg

320、ests the potential for self-selection bias.To the extent that self-selection is related to variables in the survey such as field of study,the use of regression can control for the bias.Another limitation with the data is the way that income is measured.Income thresholds are not consistent across ins

321、titutions.Income scales were set at each institution with the intention that a broadly equal number of graduates fall into each category.Once the scale has been determined for one institution,the same scale is used for subsequent surveys in the country.This method of categorization introduces differ

322、ences across institutions,and it turns out a tendency for more respondents to report incomes in the lowest two categories than in the top two(as can be seen in Table A2).To the extent that this methodology introduces measurement error in this dependent variable,the efficiency*Within countries,all ca

323、lculations used weights that captured how many households in the population the sampled individuals household represented.Once country-specific weighted averages were calculated(e.g.,share employed full time in South Africa),these averages were then weighted by the Vitae sample shares to arrive at a

324、 comparable number.of the statistical analysis may be lower than it otherwise would have been.Given that the Vitae surveys are from a non-random set of institutions and focus only on recent graduates,a comparison to a broader sample can offer useful context for the analysis.To provide this context,t

325、he study turned to harmonized economic data maintained by the World Bank.This data is collected within each of the countries represented by an institution in the Vitae survey data.These harmonized data contain information on education,age,and employment status that can be compared to similar informa

326、tion from the Vitae surveys.For purposes of this comparison,the harmonized data were limited to individuals with at least some tertiary education and weighted to reflect each countrys representation in the Vitae survey.For example,South Africa represented 15 percent of Vitae survey observations and

327、so is given that weight in the comparisons averages.*The results of this comparison suggest that Vitae survey graduates are substantially younger than those with some tertiary education in the broader population.As Table A2 shows,nearly half of Vitae survey members are ages 18 to 25,and another quar

328、ter are 26 to 30.So,three quarters of the Vitae survey sample is under 30.In the broader sample of economic datasummarized in Table A4 just 41 percent of individuals were under 30.This age gap is hardly surprising given the Vitae surveys focus only on recent graduates.Page 46CLOSING THE GENDER GAP I

329、N EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENTTABLE A3 Descriptives from World Bank Data,Sample Members 18 and Older with Some Tertiary Education,Weighted by Country Share of Vitae Sample Full SampleFemaleMaleShare of Observations100%551%449%Average Age369360381Age Groups18 to 2524.8%26.9%22.4%26 to 3016.7%17.2%16.0%31

330、 to 4533.1%33.0%33.3%46 to 6018.1%17.0%19.5%61 Plus7.3%6.0%8.8%Employment StatusEmployed69.4%64.6%75.4%Of Employed,30 Hours17.1%20.4%13.1%Not Employed,but Seeking5.9%6.3%5.5%Not in Labor Force24.6%29.1%19.1%Source:Analysis of World Bank labor economic data from the years 20052017 depending on the co

331、untry being analyzed.The most recent available year of data was chosen for each country with the exception of Ghana,where employment data for the most recent year was not usable.Notes:1.By Reported Gender columns exclude observations where gender was not reported.2.Presence of Some Tertiary/Secondar

332、y identified based on coded response of Some tertiary/post-secondary or post-secondary.3.Percent for Of Employed,30 Hours is a share only of those employed.The weekly hours worked question contains responses for roughly half the working sample.Observations in Tunisia,Senegal,and Zambia did not have

333、data on hours worked and are excluded from this calculation.4.Observations weighted within country and then averages calculated across country with weights according to Vitae sample representation.5.The analysis included 443,682 observations.Page 47AnnexesAs a likely consequence of this age difference,members of the study sample are less likely to be employed full time and more likely to be unempl