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1、WOR LDWOR LDR ESOURCESR ESOURCESINSTITUTEINSTITUTEREPORTMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructureUrban road design and planning recommendations for reducing motorized two-wheeler deaths and injuries in low-and middle-income countriesSegundo Lpez,Vineet John,David Prez-Barbosa,Valentina Perdomo

2、,Juliana Vega,Jessica Kisner,Eric Dumbaugh,Vipassana Vijayarangan,Adriana Jakovcevic,Claudia Adriazola-Steil,and Hannah KempSUGGESTED CITATIONLpez,S.,V.John,D.Prez-Barbosa,V.Perdomo,J.Vega,J.Kisner,E.Dumbaugh,V.Vijayarangan,A.Jakovcevic,C.Adriazola-Steil,and H.Kemp.2025.“Motorcycle safety and urban

3、road infrastructure:Urban road design and planning recommendations for reducing motorized two-wheeler deaths and injuries in low-and middle-income countries.”Report.Washington,DC:World Resources Institute.Available online at doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.21.00030.VERSION 1 February 2025ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis

4、 research and report were made possible by support from Bloomberg Philanthropies.We are also grateful for the support of our partners on the Bloomberg Philanthropies Initiative for Global Road Safety(BIGRS).We are pleased to acknowledge our institutional strategic partners that provide core funding

5、to WRI:the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs,and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.The authors would like to acknowledge all those who participated in the data collection and analysis,shared their knowledge,provided expert comments,or

6、 reviews.We thank Vital Strategies and other BIGRS partners for their efforts in collecting the data used in this research.Thanks to our partners at Thai Roads Foundation who led the data collection work in Bangkok.Thanks to Asumpta Lagat,Badu Katelo,Beatrice Olwa,George Njao at the National Transpo

7、rt and Safety Authority(NTSA),Kenya for providing data for Nairobi.From WRI,the authors would like to thank Adriana Jimnez Flrez,Chetan Sodaye,Tolga Imamoglu,Iman Abubaker,Bruno Rizzon,Karolina Jesus,Andressa Ribeiro,Bruno Batista,Subha Ranjan Banerjee,Dhruva Someshwar,Manuel Santana Palacios,Sergio

8、 Alejandro Lpez,Camilo Andrs Durn,Robin King,Carlos Muoz,Jose Luis Santana Verduzco,Siba El-Samra,Alejandro Schwed-helm,Kimberly Kosicki,and Yen Bui for their valuable inputs,review,comments,analysis,materials and other support.The authors also thank the following experts and colleagues for their re

9、view,advice,and support for this report:Fred Wegman,Professor Emeritus of Traffic Safety at Delft University of Technology;Sarah Whitehead,Vital Strategies;Abdul Bachani,Johns Hopkins University;Paul Supawanich,Eduardo Pompeo,and Ivan de la Lanza,Global Designing Cities Initiative;Hilda Mara Gmez,ro

10、ad safety consultant;and Tawia Addo Ashong,World Bank.Publication and design support were provided by Romain Warnault and Lauri Scherer.AUTHORSSEGUNDO LPEZ|is the former Global Data Coordinator at WRI Colombia.VINEET JOHN|is an Urban Mobility Manager in the WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.DAV

11、ID PREZ-BARBOSA|is a Global Data Coordinator at WRI Colombia.VALENTINA PERDOMO|is a former Data Analyst at WRI Colombia.JULIANA VEGA|is a former Data Analyst at WRI Colombia.JESSICA KISNER|is a Project Manager at WRI Colombia.ERIC DUMBAUGH|is a Professor with the Department of Urban and Regional Pla

12、nning,Associate Director,Collaborative Sciences Center for Road Safety,and Associate Editor,Journal of the American Planning Association.VIPASSANA VIJAYARANGAN|is a former Research Analyst with the WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.ADRIANA JAKOVCEVIC|is a Road Safety Specialist in the Active Mo

13、bility team of WRI Brasil.CLAUDIA ADRIAZOLA-STEIL|is the Deputy Director of Urban Mobility and Direc-tor of the Health and Road Safety Program for WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.HANNAH KEMP|is a former intern with the WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.DESIGN AND LAYOUTSHANNON COLLINS sh

14、annon.collinswri.orgii|WRI.ORGCONTENTS2 Foreword3 Foreword5 Executive summary6 About this report7 Research overview8 Summary of key findings 9 Summary of recommendations11 Introduction12 Why is tackling motorcycle safety important?16 Why infrastructure and road environment matter in a Safe System ap

15、proach17 What this report contributes21 Data and methods22 Data collected 27 Methodstatistical models28 Limitations 31 Results32 Statistical model results34 Main findings 41 Recommendations43 1.Tackling vehicle speeds is critical 46 2.Consider the impact of land use on road conflicts 48 3.Minimize c

16、onflicts at intersections 50 4.Consider road widths,median openings,and merging53 5.Combine actions for motorcyclist safety with actions for other road users57 Conclusion58 Moving toward implementation60 Next steps for research62 Appendices62 Appendix A:Variables in the models71 Appendix B:Model res

17、ults75 Abbreviations76 Glossary 77 References81 About WRI 81 About WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|1ForewordMotorcycles have become an integral piece of the trans-portation system in many parts of the world,providing reliable access and mobility

18、 for many road users.Afford-able,versatile,and efficient,motorcycles have even become a preferred choice for on-demand delivery and taxi services across cities in Africa,Latin America,and Asia.The rapid adoption of motorcycles has been closely tied to economic growth and development,but it has also

19、brought new road safety challenges.Motorcycles have become one of the riskiest modes of road travel today.In 2021,an astounding 1.2 million people were killed in traffic crashes globally,with nearly a third of these fatalities involving users of motorized two-and three-wheel-ersmore than any other t

20、ype of road user.The risk of death in the event of a crash for riders can be as much as 20 to 35 times higher compared to those in four-wheeled vehicles.Motorcycle safety is not just a transportation problem;it is a matter of socio-economic development,public health,and urban design.Increasing road

21、fatalities disproportionately impact young people and populations in dense urban areas,leading to significant economic,health,and social costs.Furthermore,low-and middle-income countrieswho have the largest motorcycle fleetsexperience a disproportion-ate number of road deaths and injuries.In Southea

22、st Asia,motorcycle use has increased by 273 percent since 2011,and today,motorcyclists account for 46 percent of all road deaths in the region.The growing adoption of motorcycles brings mobility ben-efits,but also significant risks that demand urgent attention.While encouraging helmet use and buildi

23、ng safer vehicles are crucial measures for improving road safety,these interven-tions do little to address the root causes of traffic crashes.This complex issue requires a comprehensive approach.There is a pressing need for more evidence and data to guide sound policy on motorcycle safety.This repor

24、t shows how road design,infrastructure,traffic speeds,and land use patterns have an important impact on two-wheeler safety and should all be considered as part of a multifaceted“Safe System”approach.In addition,evidence shows that speed management and good design of urban road infrastructure can cre

25、ate safer environments for not only motorcyclists,but all road users.To achieve the United Nations ambitious global goal of halving road deaths by 2030,we must adopt a comprehensive,evidence-based approach.Motorcycle safety cannot go under the radar.It is critical that we reverse the alarming trends

26、 in deaths and injuries to meet global sustainable develop-ment goals.Collaboration within cities and across regions is a vital foundation for success,bringing together those working to shape safer roads and more resilient mobility systems worldwide.ANI DASGUPTA President&CEO World Resources Institu

27、te2|WRI.ORGForewordSaving lives and reducing injuries from road crashes is a priority at Bloomberg Philanthropies.Road traffic crashes claim 1.19M people each year,and are the lead-ing cause of death for 5-29 year olds;yet they still dont get the attention they require.Since 2007,the Bloom-berg Phil

28、anthropies Initiative for Global Road Safety(BIGRS)has supported evidence-based road safety interventions in low-and middle-income countries and cities worldwide.Through our local and international partners,we are focused on strengthening road safety laws,improving data collection and surveillance,c

29、hang-ing road user behavior,creating safer infrastructure,and enhancing vehicle standards.As urban populations grow,the demand for reliable and flexible mobility solutions has led to an increase in motorized vehicles on our roads,with motorcycles becoming a key component of the transport system in e

30、very region of the world.Through the work of the Bloomberg Philanthropies Initiative for Global Road Safety,we have witnessed a rapid rise in motorcycle use in many regions of the world,accompanied by steep increases in road fatalities and injuries.Today,users of motorized two-and three-wheelers acc

31、ount for more road fatalities globally than any other road user.Over half of all road fatalities involve vulnerable road userspedestrians,cyclists,and motorcyclistsand more than 90 percent of fatalities occur in low-and middle-income countries.Addressing motorcycle safety presents an opportunity to

32、tackle one of the most pressing road safety chal-lenges of our time.We cannot reach the UN Decade of Action for Road Safety goal of halving road deaths by 2030 without understanding and tackling the issue of motorcycle safety.At the core of our approach to road safety is the use of data to develop e

33、vidence-based countermeasures.Through the implementation of evidence-based activities and our partners,we have collaborated with cities to improve crash data collection and reporting,including the six cities featured in this study.With research and reports such as this,we have gained a deeper unders

34、tanding of the factors impacting motorcycle safety and are better equipped to address issues like traffic speeds and road infrastructure issues that contribute to powered two-wheeler road deaths and injuries.As this report makes clear,cities that are seeing rapid growth in motorcycle use need to ado

35、pt a comprehen-sive approach to managing speeds and road conflicts to prevent motorcycle-related deaths and injuries.KELLY LARSON Injury Prevention Lead Bloomberg PhilanthropiesMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|3Executive summaryRapidly growing motorized two-wheeler fleets in low-and m

36、iddle-income countries have led to a rise in road death and injury.Addressing motorized two-wheeler safety requires a comprehensive approach that includes the design and planning of our road networks.This report uses data from six cities to understand how the urban built environment contributes to m

37、otorcycle deaths and injuries and suggests recommendations that can save lives.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|5HIGHLIGHTS Motorized two-and three-wheelers account for 30 percent of total traffic fatalities globallythe highest share by road user.In 2021,riders of powered two-and-thre

38、e wheelers represented 46 percent of the total reported deaths by road user type in Southeast Asia,25 percent in the Americas,and 14 percent in Africa(with increases in deaths since 2013 of 39 percent,67 percent,and 100 percent,respectively).Meanwhile,there has been a 175 percent increase in powered

39、 two-and three-wheelers worldwide since 2011(WHO 2023).Motorized two-wheeler safety is an economic,social,developmental,and equity issue.Addressing it is necessary to meet global road safety,poverty,and climate goals.Infrastructure,land use,and road environment factors can impact the safety of motor

40、cyclists.Speed,road width,road complexity,and uncontrolled conflict points are some of the factors that can have severe impacts on motorcyclist safety.Tackling motorized two-wheeler safety requires a shift in policies,enforcement,and road management,as well as a broader area-wide and comprehensive a

41、pproach to speed and conflict management.In the long term,investments in safe infrastructure for safer modes of travelsuch as for pedestrians,cyclists,and public transportcan also have direct and indirect benefits for motorized two-wheeler safety.The UN Global Plan of Action on road safety aims to r

42、educe the 1.19 million annual global road fatalities in half by 2030.Motorcycle usersalong with pedestrians and bicyclistsare vulnerable road users,accounting for half of global road deaths(WHO 2023).Both the new UN Global Plan of Action on Road Safety and the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals c

43、all for action to provide safety mobility by prioritizing the most vulnerable,with targeted actions for motorcycle safety.Reaching these goals will require a renewed focus to reduce road deaths and injuries among users of motorized two-wheelers(UNGA 2020).Across Latin America,Africa,and Asia,the mot

44、orized two-wheeler serves a vital mobility function,and is considered a working tool(deliveries,freight,and moto-taxi),especially for those in lower socioeconomic groups;however,they impose a significant risk in terms of road deaths and injuries.To achieve UN targets,the UN Global Plan calls for a h

45、olistic approach that ties road safety goals to urgent global needs for climate action such as addressing global inequity,air pol-lution,chronic disease,and poverty(UNGA 2020;WHO 2023).For developing economies,the need for this holistic approach is clear:Although road crashes can affect all road use

46、rs,the population groups most vulnerable to road crashes are those in low-and middle-income countries(LMICs),with poorer access to safe mobility options,safe street infra-structure,working opportunities,and life-saving emergency care.These groups also tend to be those who are most vulner-able to cha

47、llenges imposed by inequitable and unsustainable development.Motorized two-and three-wheelers account for 30 percent of global traffic fatalities;therefore,meeting global goals for road safety and equitable,sustainable transport requires tackling the safety of motorized two-wheelers.About this repor

48、tThis report presents the results of World Resources Institute(WRI)research and data analysis,as well as the application of findings for infrastructure design elements that have shown an impact on safety of motorized two-wheelers in urban areas of LMICs.The findings are based on data analysis,statis

49、tical modeling,and field observations for cities in Latin America,Africa,and Southeast Asia from 2014 to 2020.The overall objective is to present evidence on the impact of road infrastructure design on motorized two-wheeler safety and discuss implications for design and policy.The report is intended

50、 to supplement local knowledge as a resource for decision and policymakers,as well as designers and plan-ners,to address motorcycle deaths and injuries and develop safer road systems.The report is organized as follows:The introduction outlines why it is critical to address motorcycle safety and focu

51、s on infrastructure and road environment factors.“Data and methods”provides an overview of research methods and find-ings from the models.“Results”provides a discussion of the findings,and“Recommendations”discusses the implications and recommendations for infrastructure policies and design.Finally,t

52、he conclusion provides suggestions for next steps toward implementation and further research.Research overviewFor this research,WRI analyzed data from six cities:Accra(Ghana),Bangkok(Thailand),Bogot and Cali(Colombia),Buenos Aires(Argentina),and Nairobi(Kenya).Based on statistical models,this report

53、 examines the effects of different road and built environment elements on motorcyclists safety.For this purpose,data on the arterial road network of these cities were collected and analyzed,such as counts of traffic crashes and/or motorcyclist victims,variables of infrastructure data,built environme

54、nt and land use(such as vehicle speeds,road medians,block sizes,lane and road widths,land-use patterns,public transport stops,heavy vehicle use,and income levels);and variables of a roads operation(traffic speeds at different times of the day).Data were collected from several sources of information.

55、While the crash data and land use data come from each citys official geocoded information or open data sources,information regarding infrastructure settings,built environ-ment conditions,and traffic speeds come from observations,measurements,and queries from several Google information platforms.The

56、data were then used to study the impact of each of these elements on road safety outcomes.Data availability and quality are often a problem in low-and middle-income countries;however this report shows how much insight can be obtained from the actual available data.More data and research are needed t

57、o understand the impact of the built environment on speed and injury risk,of road conditions such as surface quality or weather,to develop better recommendations for urban infrastructure designparticularly intersectionsand to understand the impact of motorcycle traffic on other vulnerable road users

58、.Motorcycle usersalong with pedestrians and bicyclistsare vulnerable road users,accounting for half of global road deaths.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|7Summary of key findings WRIs research shows that infrastructure and road environ-ment factors have an impact on motorcycle safety

59、 in the cities examined.Speed,road geometry,and land use patterns have the following impacts:FIGURE ES-1|Key findings of the studySPEEDUrban roads with higher overall traffic speeds of all vehicles are linked to an increase in motorcycle crashes,fatalities,and injuries.NUMBER OF LANESRoads with more

60、 lanes in Nairobi and Buenos Aires are linked to an increase in motorcycle injuries.MOTORCYCLE BOXESIn Buenos Aires,roads with motorcycle boxes saw increased injuries to riders.BRT STATIONSIn Latin American cities,the presence of well-designed BRT stations is associated with a decrease in motorcycle

61、 injuries.LOWER INCOME AREASAreas of lower economic status showed higher risk for motorcycles in Bogot.MEDIANSMedians with uncontrolled openings or merging resulted in increased injuries in Bogot and Buenos Aires.INTERSECTIONSThough frequent intersections can help to reduce speeds and provide safety

62、 benefits,the increase in conflict points poses higher risks to motorcycles in Latin American cities.LAND USEDense urban environments and areas with high commer-cial activity tend to have more conflict points that result in higher risks in Latin American cities.PEDESTRIAN BRIDGESRoad segments with p

63、edestrian bridges are associated with an increase in motorcycle injuries in Cali.PUBLIC SPACERoads with more public spaces around it saw fewer motorcycle-related injuries in Cali.Summary of recommendationsOur research identifies the following five key recommenda-tions for motorcycle safety:1.TACKLIN

64、G VEHICLE SPEEDS IS CRITICALIn all cities examined,higher road speeds of all vehicles are the most significant risk factor for motorcycle safety.Improving motorcycle safety therefore requires safe operating speeds at a corridor level of all vehicles,not just of motorcycles.Speed management measures

65、should target all vehicles.Speed interventions should also be comprehensive and continuous,rather than targeting specific locations.2.CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF LAND USE ON ROAD CONFLICTSDense urban areas and areas with concentrated com-mercial land use showed a higher risk of conflict.Low-income areas

66、in Bogot also saw higher risk for motor-cyclists safety.These areas need a more comprehensive,area-wide approach to managing both traffic speed and traffic conflicts.Motorcycle safety therefore needs to be addressed on a larger scale,with special attention paid to high-risk areas where conflicts are

67、 more likely.3.IMPROVE DESIGN AND REDUCE COMPLEXITY Locations with road intersections pose higher risk for motorcyclists than other users.Although more intersec-tion points(or a shorter average block length)on a road segment may help moderate the speed of traffic,there are still higher risks for mot

68、orcyclists due to their inherent vulnerability at traffic conflict points.While car drivers are protected by the body of the vehicle,motorcyclists are not.Therefore,even minor collisions that result in no injury to other vehicle drivers could more likely injure a motorcyclist,under similar speeds an

69、d traffic conditions.Further research is needed into specific risk factors at intersections,and may include issues of speed,visibility,compliance,design,signal phasing,etc.In general,reduc-ing speed,complexity,and conflicts at these locations can lead to safer intersections.4.CONSIDER ROAD WIDTHS,ME

70、DIAN OPENINGS,AND MERGINGWide carriageways with medians and wide arterials with adjacent median-separated service roads are associated with increases in injuries.While the median itself is not a safety issue and in fact can make roads safer,mid-block openings for vehicles in the medians allow for un

71、controlled,high-speed merging and turns across the median between carriageways.In many cases the design of median openings does not allow for safe merging of vehicles,which can result in severe conflicts.Wider car-riageways encourage higher speeds,weaving,and other riskier road use,which particularl

72、y makes motorcyclists more vulnerable.Turns and merges should be redesigned or restricted for safer maneuvering.5.COMBINE ACTIONS FOR MOTORCYCLIST SAFETY WITH ACTIONS FOR OTHER ROAD USERSImprovements for pedestrians,bicyclists,and other road users can be opportunities to also address motorcyclist sa

73、fety.Many interventions that reduce risks for other vulnerable road users can also benefit motorcyclists.For example,intersections can be high-risk conflict points for all vulnerable usersthat is,motorcyclists,pedes-trians,and bicyclists.Road safety interventions such as safe at-level crossings,curb

74、 extensions,better traffic signaling,traffic calming,and speed management can therefore benefit all road users,including motorcyclists.Similar cobenefits come from reducing road widths and intersection size.Good design and investment in public transport systems with safe access to stops and stations

75、 can improve safety for transit passengers and minimize conflicts for motorcyclists.This research shows that tackling unsafe road speeds and infrastructure can reduce motorcycle deaths and injuries.However,rapidly increasing motorcycle fleets and increasing motorization can lead to worse road safety

76、 outcomes.This means that in addition to tackling road design and speeds as part of a Safe System approach,the continued growth in motorcycle use and dependency will also need to be addressed for long-term and sustainable road safety outcomes.This will require cities and countries to work toward sus

77、tainable mobility systems and urban development that systemically and equitably reduce dependence on motorcycles and provide safer,reliable alternatives.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|9IntroductionMotorized two-wheeler fleets are growing rapidly in Southeast Asia,the Americas,Africa

78、,and the Western Pacific.These vehicles have become integral to our mobility systems,but they account for 30 percent of global road traffic deathsmore than any other type of road userwith the highest share of fatalities in low-and middle-income countries.Achieving the UNs global goal of halving road

79、 deaths by 2030 will be challenging without addressing motorcycle safety.A comprehensive approach is needed to address the complex socio-economic development and equity issues associated with motorcycle use and road safety.Road infrastructure is a key component of a Safe System approach,and the desi

80、gn and planning of our road networks should be a necessary component of motorcycle safety.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|11Why is tackling motorcycle safety important?Motorized two-wheelers play a key role in mobility systems.Motorized two-wheelers have become an integral part of mo

81、bility systems in many low-and middle-income econo-mies and are likely to remain so for the near future.Rapid motorization has accompanied economic growth in the Global South and motorcycle use has significantly increased in the past few decades with huge impacts on transport,health,climate,and equi

82、ty(Nishitateno and Burke 2014).Motorized two-and three-wheelers are also a high-risk mode of transport and currently account for 30 percent of global road deaths(WHO 2023).With the global motorcycle fleet expected to grow rapidly,motorcycle safety will continue to be a pressing challenge for low-and

83、 middle-income countries(LMICs),and tackling motorized two-wheeler safety will be critical to meeting the UNs global goal of halving road deaths by 2030.Motorcycle fatalities and injuries rise as motorcycle fleets continue to growThe reasons for this rapid growth are diverse and complex.From a rider

84、s view they are seen as an affordable,versatile transport option due to lower costs of ownership,financing,fuel,and operation compared to other motor vehicles.They provide a level of personal mobility and accessibility that was previously unavailable to manyoften preceding car owner-ship for familie

85、s and replacing bicycles.They may be less regulated than other modes of transport in some countries through lighter licensing and insurance requirements,and lower vehicle standards.In very congested cities,motorized two-wheelers promise a quicker journey because of their ability to cut through traff

86、ic.Their ability to travel and park anywhere can provide door-to-door journeys that other modes cannot provide.From a mobility systems perspective,they fill critical gaps by offering access to jobs and opportunities to those either unable to use,or are underserved by,existing mobility systemsespecia

87、lly public transit.These typically include lower-income or vulnerable communities unable to afford or access other modes of travel.From an economic standpoint,motorized two-wheelers are also a significant economic engine for developing econo-miesboth in the manufacturing,export,and sale of vehicles,

88、as well as a vehicle for commercial use(Nishitateno and Burke 2014).Motorcycles have provided livelihoods for vendors and hawkers,taxi services,transportation for goods and materials,and delivery of essential goods and services in many regions of the world.In recent years,the use of motor-cycle-base

89、d taxis and delivery services in Latin America,Asia,and Africa has seen exponential growth driven by the rise of mobile phone-based apps for on-demand services.The COVID-19 pandemic also further accelerated motorcycle uptake by increasing demand for delivery services and reduc-ing ridership on publi

90、c transit.BOX 1|Defining motorized two-wheelersThe term“motorized two-wheeler”can refer to a range of powered two-wheel vehicles such as motorcycles,scooters,and in some contexts,micro-mobility vehicles like e-bikes and kick scooters.However,a clear defini-tion is necessary to address road safety im

91、plications because vehicle classes determine how regulations and standards are applied and enforced.An e-bike,for instance,would be able to travel on sidewalks and be regulated like a bicycle,while a motorcycle would not.For the purposes of this report,the term“motorcycle”and“motorized two-wheeler”a

92、re used interchangeably and are defined as two-wheeled vehicles capable of traveling faster than 25 kilometers per hour,legally able to operate on roadways,and regulated as motor vehicles.By this definition we include vehicles such as motorcycles,mopeds,and scooters in our analysis,but not e-bikes o

93、r three-wheelers.Motorized two-and three-wheelers are also a high-risk mode of transport and currently account for 30 percent of global road deaths.12|WRI.ORGMotorcycle users face higher risk of death and injury on the roadDespite their versatility and convenience,motorized two-wheelers remain a hig

94、h-risk mode of transport on roads worldwide,especially in low-and middle-income countries(see Figure 1).Motorcycles can travel at speeds similar to other motorized vehicles,but in the event of a crash it is the rider that absorbs most of the kinetic forces and impact forces,which can be well beyond

95、what the human body can tolerate.Motorized two-wheelers also have smaller profiles that reduce their visibility by other road users and are inher-ently prone to instabilityexacerbated by unsafe speeds,sudden directional changes,poor road conditions,weather conditions,or mechanical issues.In a crash,

96、riders are easily ejected from the vehicle and are at risk of being run over or sustaining friction-induced injuries.As a result,motorcycle riders involved in a crash are more likely to suffer severe injury or death.The risk of death for motorized two-wheeler users is signifi-cantly higher per vehic

97、le-mile traveled,even in high-income countries:over 20 times that of car occupants in European Union countries(WHO 2004),and 29 times that of car occupants in the United States(NCSA 2021).In So Paulo,Brazil,fatality risk for a motorcyclist can be about 35 times higher than for a car occupant(Prefeit

98、ura Municipal de So Paulo 2019).Like other vehicles,motorized two-wheelers also cause injury and death to other road usersparticularly in crashes involv-ing pedestrians and bicyclists or other motorcyclists.Motorcycle safety is a development issue for low-and middle-income countriesThe rapid uptake

99、of motorcycles is not just a mobility or road safety issue.It is a larger socioeconomic development issue that requires systemic consideration.There is evidence that countries with higher motorcycle mode-shares have higher national road mortality rates,and that the increase in the motorcycle fleet h

100、as a larger negative impact on road deaths than increases of cars or trucks(Chandran et al.2012;Ngoc et al.2023;Villaveces et al.2021).Motorcycle ownership rates tend to increase with GDP per capita as economies develop,especially in densely populated countries,before then declining with increased a

101、ffluence once they reach a GDP per capita of US$7,000US$9,000(Nishitateno and Burke 2014).Consequently,lower-income countries should expect to see an increase in motorcycle fleets as well as a growing number of motorcycle-related and other road deaths as they continue to grow.FIGURE 1|Global motorcy

102、cle mortality rates,per 100,000 populationNote:*DRC=Democratic Republic of the CongoSource:WHO 2018.0510152025ThailandDominicanRepublicTogoBeninCook IslandsCambodiaMyanmarParaguayMaliColombiaUgandaIndiaIndonesiaCte dIvoireKenyaTanzaniaMauritiusBrazilGhanaDRC*ZimbabweArgentinaMexicoFatality Rates per

103、 100,000 populationWorldMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|13For example,Cambodias GDP grew from$8.6 billion to$12.8 billion between 2007 and 2011,accompanied by a 137 percent growth in registered motorized two-and three-wheelers,and a 23 percent rise in road-traffic fatalities over the

104、 same period.Motorcyclist fatalities alone grew 30 percent(Roehler et al.2015).Motorcycles connect economic growth to improvements in access to growth,opportunity,education,and healthcare.As a result,the victims of motorcycle crashes also tend to be typi-cally low-income and young adult riders who r

105、epresent the core of the economic workforce in low-and middle-income countries.For example,in Latin America,people between the ages of 15 and 44 account for more than 60 percent of all motorcycle deaths(PAHO 2018).Increased road deaths and injuries can therefore stunt economic growth,preventing a qu

106、icker transition away from motorcycle-based transport(World Bank 2017).It is a core principle of Vision Zero poli-cies that road traffic deaths are highly preventable through evidence-based policy and design.This makes comprehen-sive planning to address motorcycle use and motorcyclist deaths a neces

107、sity for growing economies from a develop-ment perspective.Motorcycle safety is an equity issueImpact on poverty and low-income populations Motorcycle safety also has equity implications for vulner-able population groups.Motorcycles provide mobility where mobility options are lacking,especially in l

108、ow-income,low-accessibility areas of cities in developing countries.Lower income areas are often along the peripheries of cities,requiring longer trips to opportunities.Motorcycles may provide quicker and cheaper trips compared to other modes,increasing exposure to road safety risk.Low-income areas

109、are often not prioritized for investments in road upgrades and maintenance.As a result,these areas also tend to have poorer quality road infrastructure,which can further exacerbate the risk of road injury.Outside of urban areas,public transport coverage may be poor or nonexistent,which would also co

110、m-pel rural and peri-urban populations to use motorcycles.Thus,low-income groups tend to have more exposure and a higher risk of serious road crashes as motorcyclists.Gender and safetyAs with all modes of transportation,it is likely that motor-cycle crash victims globally are mostly male riders,sinc

111、e most motorcycle users are also men.However,motorcycles can also have significant direct and indirect impacts on womens safety and access to opportunities,as well as their decisions on what trips they choose to make and what forms of transport they use to make those trips.Safety and security are ty

112、pically the primary considerations for women in making transport choices.Where public transport is unsafe or unavailable,the motorcycle may offer transport benefits even if it is not an ideal choice.In India,for example,women use motorcycles to access education or for leisure and shopping trips,offe

113、ring mobility opportunities to women who feel that public transport is“unreliable,dirty,and unsafe”(Pai et al.2014).Motorcycle taxis have also provided transport solutions for women who do not typically own or drive their own vehicles or where public transport is viewed as unsafe.These have also gen

114、erated personal safety concerns for women,particularly on unregulated informal services where instances of harassment or violence have been reported against women passengers.However,when given a choice,women were less likely to choose motorcycles as a transport option(Ng and Acker 2018).Motorcycles

115、also impact nonriders.Surveys in Jakarta,Indonesia,have shown that women associated streets with motorcycle traffic as unsafe for them and their children(Hidayati et al.2020).Impact on child safetyGlobally,road traffic injuries are already the leading cause of death for children and young people(WHO

116、 2023).In Southeast Asia,motorcycles are involved in 5060 percent of transport-related injuries and deaths in children 15 years and younger.In Thailand,which has the highest reported motor-cycle fatality rate in the world,motorcycles were involved in 74 percent of all transport-related deaths for ch

117、ildren below 17 years,with higher rates for adolescents.In addition to riders,data from 2009 also show that among child pedestrian victims,60.8 percent were hit by a motorcycle.Public health surveillance pilot projects in India,Nepal,and Sri Lanka also showed child motorcycle users sustaining the la

118、rgest propor-tion of transport-related injuries compared to other vehicle types(WHO 2014).14|WRI.ORGBOX 2|Motorcycles and income-levels in Bogot,ColombiaWorld Resources Institute analysis of data from Bogot has shown that a majority of work-related motorcycle trips originate in low-income areas loca

119、ted on the periphery of the city,with the city center as the destination,compared to higher income areas.The boroughs of Bosa,Suba,and Ciudad Bolivar,which are outside of major transit service,see the largest volumes of motorcycle traffic.Motorcycles are an attractive means to travel to work in thes

120、e areas because travel times by motorcycle in the city are shorter compared to other modes of transport.On average,half(53 percent)of all work trips take less than an hour on a motor-cycle,compared to only 17 percent of trips on other modes.Most hot spots of motorcycle crash victims(locations with s

121、ignificantly higher incident counts than others)in Bogot are in low-to mid-low-income areas of the city.The majority of victims are working-aged people between 20 and 30 years old.a The impact of economic disparity in terms of exposure,infrastructure quality,and access to mobility choices is evidenc

122、ed by the fact that all motorcycle crash hot spots are in the lowest-income areas of the city(see Figure B2-1).FIGURE B2-1|Motorcycle hot spots and income levels in Bogot,ColombiaNote:Hotspots shown are statistically significant with 90%confidence level.Source:WRI with data from Secretariat of Mobil

123、ity of Bogot.Source:a.Secretara de Movilidad 2022.km03Income levelLowestLowMid-lowMid-highHighHighestMotorcycle crash hot spotMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|15But research and practice to understand and address environ-mental and infrastructure risk factors to prevent motorcycle cra

124、shes is lacking,despite significant research on similar risk factors for other road users such as pedestrians or bicyclists.A lot of the existing research is from cities and countries where motorcycle mode shares are lower than what we see in many low-and middle-income countries,which have large vol

125、umes of daily motorcycle users.In countries with larger motorcycle mode shares,despite being disproportionately impacted by road crashes,motorcyclists are often seen unfa-vorably as contributing to unsafe road environments by being more likely to engage in speeding or unskilled,risky driving.Why inf

126、rastructure and road environment matter in a Safe System approachAddressing motorcycle safety presents unique challenges compared to other modes due to their increased vulnerability as they operate alongside other vehicles.Global efforts to address motorcycle safety have tended to focus on individua

127、l behaviors and protecting the rider in the event of a crash,including equipment mandates such as helmet-wearing,use of antilock braking systems(ABS),and daytime running lights,all of which are proven to reduce fatalities and injuries.Road user behavior modifications,as well as restrictions on when,

128、where,and how motorcycles can be used,have also been used with varying efficacy in different countries(Afukaar et al.2019;Oteng-Ababio and Agyemang 2015).BOX 3|What is a Safe System approach?The Safe System approach operates on the premise that while human error is inevitable,traffic fatalities and

129、serious injuries are largely preventable.Land-use planning,road design,safe-mobility options,and speed management are all action areas of the Safe System approach.They address systemic and underlying factors that impact road safety and demand mobility systems that do not have death or serious injury

130、 as an outcome.Motorcycle safety is a complex and multifaceted issue that cannot be tackled with siloed or isolated efforts.It is a systems issue that requires systems thinking and solutions,with shared responsibility among multiple stakeholders.FIGURE B3-1|Elements and action areas of a Safe System

131、 approach to road safetyPRINCIPLESCORE ELEMENTSACTION AREASHumans make errorsEconomic analysisLand-use planningStreet design and engineeringHumans are vulnerable to injuryPriorities and planningImproved mobility optionsSpeed managementResponsibility is sharedMonitoring and evaluationEnforcement,laws

132、,and regulationEducation and capacity buildingNo death or serious injury is acceptableComprehensive governance and managementVehicle design and technologyPost-crash emergency response and careProactive vs.reactiveStrong targets and dataSource:Welle et al.2018.16|WRI.ORGThis may have also contributed

133、 to a focus on modifying road user behaviorwhich is one component of road safetyover road design and management.While much research and design guidance exist to design safer roads for pedestrians,bicyclists,public transit,and motor vehicles,there is insufficient research into how road design impacts

134、 motorcycle safety,especially in LMICs.As a result of this gap,the road environment has been designed based on the needs and tolerances for these other road user groups,which may not necessarily be safe for motorcyclists(Doctor and Ngo 2022).Road design often does not consider motorcyclists,as four-

135、wheel vehicles were the original“pri-mary”design users.This,coupled with the increased vulner-ability of motorized two-wheelers,has created almost“unfair”road conditions(Elvik 2009).Infrastructure design,road environment,land use,speed,and transport systems are all critical elements that impact road

136、 safety.A Safe System approach(see Box 3)requires a com-prehensive and proactive look at the systems that contribute to road fatalities,including the growth in motorcycle use and associated fatalities and injuries.While safe equipment like vehicles and helmets,better enforcement,and education are al

137、l important and effective elements of a safe system,there is a need to expand the scope of motorcycle safety efforts to bring about broader systems change and increase action in other areas.What this report contributesThis report aims to fill some of the gaps in research and understanding of how roa

138、d design and road environment contribute to motorcycle fatalities and injuries.Our research examines the relationship between road environment(specifi-cally road infrastructure)and motorcycle safety in selected cities from LMICs across the globe.The report uses statisti-cal analysis of infrastructur

139、e and built environment data to provide recommendations based on evidence for improving motorcycle safety.This report aims to answer the following key questions:1.Is there a link between road environment factors,particularly speed and infrastructure,and motorcycle road safety in low-and middle-incom

140、e countries?2.What are the road environment factors that impact motorcycle safety?Based on the results of this study,we examine how cities can tackle speed and road infrastructure issues to improve motorcycle safety performance.To answer these questions,the research tested how motorcycle-related inj

141、uries and fatalities could be associated with built environment variables including infrastructure,speed,and land use.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|17BOX 4|Is dedicated infrastructure a solution for motorcycle safety?FIGURE B4-1|Dedicated motorcycle lanes in Ho Chi Minh City,Vietna

142、mSource:Vineet JohnDedicated motorcycle infrastructure has shown mixed results for safety.The evaluation of motorcycle lanes was not included in this report since motorcycle lanes do not exist in the cities that were analyzed.While pedestrian and cyclist segregation from motorized traffic is not new

143、,exclusive facilities for motorcycles remain relatively unexplored.a In some cities with high motorcycle mode shares,the use of dedicated motorcycle lanes(as seen in Figure 2),as well as motorcycle boxes at intersections modeled after bicycle boxes,have been used,with mixed results.For example,studi

144、es in Indonesia,Malaysia,and Taiwan saw a signifi-cant reduction in motorcycle crashes after implementation,while studies in Brazil and Argentina saw an increase in motorcycle crashes after implementation.b They have also been implemented on a range of road typesfrom exclusive lanes on highways or a

145、rterials to segregated lanes or turn boxes on urban roads.The mixed safety performance of dedicated motorcycle infrastructure may therefore be dependent on factors outside of the scope of this report,such as road type,driver behavior,traffic volumes,driv-ing culture,placement and design characterist

146、ics of the lane,or mode shares.In general,segregating a more vulnerable mode of transport into dedicated lanes away from mixed traffic conditions can be expected to improve safety for that user while using those lanes.This is why well-designed,dedicated infrastructure is safer for road users at high

147、er risk,such as bicyclists and pedestrians.Such lanes can potentially minimize risky maneuvers in traffic and conflicts with other vehicles.However,these do not eliminate conflicts at junctions or intersections.For bicyclists and pedestrians these conflicts are managed by prioritization through well

148、-designed crossings,signals,signal phases,traffic calming,lower speed limits,and other safety features.18|WRI.ORGBut without similar prioritization measures,motorcyclists can remain especially vulnerable even if segregated lanes are provided.c In denser urban areas we can expect dedicated motorcycle

149、 lanes to be intersected by numerous openings for turning vehicles,property entrances,and other curbside amenities such as parking,bus stops,or crossings,all of which are potential conflict points.Unlike bicycles on bicycle lanes,higher speeds of motorcycles on dedicated lanes can make these conflic

150、ts severe while providing a false sense of safety.Moreover,there are fewer reasons to prioritize motorcycles on the road.Prioritizing pedestrians and bicyclists or even public transit vehicles in road design offers multiple other benefitsincluding safety,public health,economic,air quality,climate,an

151、d accessibility benefits.These benefits are derived from increased use of sustainable transport options,increased physical activity,and lower emissions,which can counter the negative externalities of motorized transport.d A similar prioritization of motorcycles would not provide these benefits,but m

152、ay in fact have the opposite effect by prioritizing more motorized travel.The question of dedicated motorcycle lanes and infrastructure should therefore be considered within the larger mobility system,broader sustainable transport and road safety goals,to enable the safest use of limited road space

153、that serves all road users.Research on the broader systemic impact of motorcycle infrastructure is limited.While they can offer some protection to motorcy-clists in specific situations,they need to be considered carefully and with caution,as they may also encourage further motorcycle uptake,higher s

154、peeds,or divert resources from other necessary road safety or mobility improvements.In places with limited road capacity,such as dense urban areas,the opportunity cost for adding motorcycle lanes should be evalu-ated,especially if these roads are missing other important infrastructure elements for p

155、edestrian safety or public transit.Investing and prioritizing both nonmotorized and public transport have been proven to reduce road deaths and injuries.e It is important to find outcase by caseunder which conditions dedicated motorcycle infrastructure might be safe and how to allocate scarce physic

156、al space.Nevertheless,motorcycles should never be prioritized over safer modes of transport such as walking,biking,and public transit,and investment in any dedicated infrastructure for motorcycles should not be made at the expense of high-quality nonmotorized or public transport infrastructure.Sourc

157、es:a.Ahmed et al.2023;b.Jimenez et al.2015;Saini et al.2022;c.Chu et al.2012;d.Adriazola-Steil et al.2021a;e.Adriazola-Steil et al.2021a;Duduta et al.2014.BOX 4|Is dedicated infrastructure a solution for motorcycle safety?(cont.)FIGURE 2|Exclusive motorcycle lanes in Ho Chi Minh City,VietnamSource:V

158、ineet JohnData and methodsThe methods followed in this report use quantitative crash data for identifying relationships with road environment data such as infrastructure,built environment,land use,and road speeds.The quantitative and geographic analysis was then complemented with WRIs experience and

159、 observations in the field to provide recommendations.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|21Data collected We used data from six cities to study the impact of speed and road environment on motorcycle safety.The cities covered in this report were chosen due to data availability.The six ci

160、ties are:Accra,Ghana Bangkok,Thailand Bogot,Colombia Buenos Aires,Argentina Cali,Colombia Nairobi,KenyaVulnerable road users are the majority of traffic crash victims in all six cities.Motorcycle-related fatalities as a share of total road fatalities range from 14%in Nairobi to 76%in Bangkok(Figure

161、3).The study used statistical models to test the relationship between the speed and built environment variables collected with the number of motorcycle crashes,injuries,and fatali-ties.The data used are summarized below and a detailed list of each variable,its description,and source can be found in

162、Appendix A.Variables were tested for multicollinearity before inclusion in the models.For this study,the arterial road network of each city was divided into segments(also referred to as polygons)which were the units of analysis for running the different statistical models.The road segments were defi

163、ned as a polygon with a width of 100 m(50 m on either side of the centerline of the road),and length between intersections with other arterial roads,as shown in Figure 4.For each road segment,traffic crash data(and victims if available)involving motorcyclists,infrastructure(Figure 5)and land use(Fig

164、ure 6),and opera-tional speed data were collected,as described below.FIGURE 3|Distribution of fatalities,by type of user in each city Sources:WRI,based on official data reported by each city.Bangkok:Data collected by Bangkok police and geocoded by WRI;Cali:Data collected by Secretariat of Mobility a

165、nd provided by Vital Strategies.Buenos Aires:Data collected by the city of Buenos Aires.Bogot:Official data collected and geocoded by Secretariat of Mobility.Accra:Data collected by the city of Accra and provided by Vital Strategies.Nairobi:Data collected by the city of Nairobi and provided by the W

166、orld Bank.13%44%37%42%65%64%1%11%3%15%1%2%76%42%36%31%16%14%8%3%9%11%10%1%15%10%8%11%0%20%40%60%80%100%Bangkok(2014-2017)Cali(2017-2019)Buenos Aires(2015-2018)Bogot(2018-2021)Accra(2019-2020)Nairobi(2017-2019)Distribution by travel mode(%)PedestrianCyclistMotorcyclistDriverPassenger22|WRI.ORGFIGURE

167、4|Example of polygons used in arterial roadsSource:WRI.km00.25kmPolygonsTraffic crash dataGeocoded crash data were obtained for all six cities for the most recent years of data available,using up to five years of data where available.The data for Bangkok were collected by the Thai Roads Foundation,w

168、ith the support of WRI through the Bloomberg Philanthropies Initiative for Global Road Safety(BIGRS).In the case of Nairobi,crash data were made available by the National Transport and Safety Author-ity of Kenya with support from the World Bank,which were then geocoded by WRI to the closest street l

169、ocation identi-fied in the crash reports.For Cali,Bogot,Buenos Aires,and Bangkok,the data were made available by the cities through our BIGRS partner Vital Strategies.All crash data points were assigned to the closest corresponding major and arterial road segments for analysis.Intersection locations

170、 between major roads were excluded from the analysis to avoid double counting(Vergel-Tovar et al.2020),as shown in Figure 4.Serious injury and fatal crashes were modeled where infor-mation on severity of the crash was available.For Accra and Nairobi,however,information on crash severity was not avai

171、lable so all crashes were examined for these cities.As the exact extent and geographical pattern of underreport-ing is unknown,we assume that underreporting is uniform across the arterial road network.In the context of this report,arterial or major road network refers to high-capacity urban roads an

172、d large collector roads in the city,ignoring smaller residential streets,access roads,and small collector roads.In all cases,main roads and arterial roads come from Open Street Maps datasets and their classificationsfrom primary,secondary,trunk,and other high-capacity roads.Speed dataWhile research

173、on motorcycle safety has been limited,particularly in developing countries,previous research focusing on the built environment and road safety suggests that vehicle speeds are one of the leading risk factors in road safety(Dumbaugh and Rae 2009).Speed is already recognized universally in road safety

174、 research literature as a key risk factor,and the most significant one for the safety of all road users(Elvik 2005).Higher vehicle speeds increase the likelihood of collisions,or of a driver losing control of the vehicle,and decrease the amount of time available for a driver to anticipate and react

175、to road hazards.Higher speeds also increase the severity of a crash,with higher impact forces causing more-severe injuries,especially for vulnerable road users,including users of motorized two-wheelers.The risk of collisions is higher when vehicle speeds are unsuited for the road environment,such as

176、 in dense urban environments.For motorcyclists in the cities examined,more-severe crashes also occur at night when congestion is lower,and traffic flows unimpeded at higher speeds.In other words,traffic speeds increase both the likelihood and severity of traffic crashes.But in general,traffic speed

177、data from arterial roads in the studied locations were not easily available from local sources.Therefore,as a proxy,the study uses predicted average traffic speeds under free-flow conditions.These are defined as speeds a motorist would travel in the total absence of congestion or adverse conditions.

178、These speeds were obtained using Google Distance Matrix API,which predicts average travel times for a given distance(see Box 5 to learn more about Google Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|23Distance Matrix API).As a result,the study used the average speeds at 3 AM for each road segment

179、 in all six citieswhich is the time of day with the highest speeds(which is a proxy variable to free-flow speed conditions).Road speeds tend to change over the course of the day in response to conges-tion,targeted enforcement,construction,weather,and other changes in road conditions.Our model does n

180、ot consider the influence of the daily variation of speeds for the analysis of crashes.However,the free-flow speed value represents how fast a driver could go on the road in the absence of traffic congestion given the existing road design and built environ-ment conditions.On the other hand,the sever

181、ity of crashes tends to be higher in the night and early morning hours(see Figure 7)and it is no coincidence that it occurs when traffic speeds are higher.Road infrastructure dataInfrastructure data were collected with a combination of existing geocoded data from each city(for cities that had availa

182、ble information on land and infrastructure features from their own institutions),information from open sources(like Open Street Maps)and visual observations using Google Street View imagery.The complete list of variables and descriptions are included in Appendix A and a general repre-sentation for e

183、ach can be seen in Figure 5.Variables collected include the following:Traffic lights.A variable to designate corridors with traffic lights on them(meaning the presence of signalized intersections)was included,building on previous research finding traffic lights to be associated with an increase in c

184、onflicts for vulnerable road users and with a higher association with motorcyclist casualties compared with pedestrians and cyclists(Vergel-Tovar et al.2020).Pedestrian bridges.This variable indicates the presence of a pedestrian bridge along the segment.While intended as a safety feature,the decisi

185、on to construct an elevated crossing for pedestrians is an indicator of an existing safety problem.Indeed,previous research has found the presence of pedestrian bridges to be associated with increased crash risk for all road users,not just pedestrians(Vergel-Tovar et al.2020).Pedestrian crossings.Th

186、is variable was included to reflect the presence of marked paths across the corridor designed for pedestrians to cross the corridor.This variable was also included,based on the results of traffic lights found in previous research by Vergel-Tovar et al.(2020).Nonsignalized intersections.In the models

187、,this variable considers the existence of places where vehicles or pedestrians can cross the street without a controlling signal.This variable was chosen due to significant results found by Vergel-Tovar et al.(2020)influencing overall casualties.Motorcycle boxes.This variable was included for Buenos

188、 Aires,where there are designated areas for motorcycles to queue ahead of traffic at a signalized intersection in some arterial corridors.The existing research on this type of infrastructure has led to contradictory findings(see Box 4).BOX 5|Google Distance Matrix APIThe Distance Matrix API is a ser

189、vice that accepts an HTTPS request containing origins and destinations for a given mode of transport and returns travel distance and duration for each combination of origin and destination that has been specified.With this data,travel speeds along a road segment can be calculated.For each request,ad

190、ditional options,such as departure time,travel mode(the study uses“driving”as the default option to reflect mixed traffic circulation on a corridor),and traffic model can also be specified.There are three traffic models used to calculate the expected travel time between two locations under dif-feren

191、t traffic conditions:Optimistic:considers the expected duration in traffic to be shorter than the normally expected travel time on most days(though occasional days with particularly good traffic conditions may be faster than this value).Best guess:considers the best estimate of expected travel time

192、given what is known about both historical traffic conditions and live traffic conditions.Pessimistic:estimates travel times that are longer than the normally expected travel time on most days due to congested traffic conditions.Based on these combinations,speed data for different traffic conditions

193、and different times of the day can be calculated for each road segment.The optimistic traffic model was selected for the purposes of this publication,as it reflects the riskiest possible conditions in traffic in terms of speed on a given corridor at a given time of the day.24|WRI.ORGFor instance,in

194、Fortaleza,Brazil,motorcycle-exclusive infrastructure is associated with a 30 percent reduction in serious motorcycle crashes(SCSP 2020);whereas in Barcelona these boxes were found to be ineffective and had a chance of increasing the risk of crashes with motorcyclists(Prez and Santamaria-Rubio 2019).

195、This research aimed at having an analysis controlling for other built environment variables.Lane width.This variable includes the average width of a lane in the roadway.It was included because of recommendations that narrow lanes improve safety(Welle et al.2015)but it was unclear if this applied to

196、two-wheelers,as motorcycle“lanes”of circulation may vary depending on traffic conditions(Pea Cabra 2014).Number of lanes.This variable counts how many lanes of vehicle traffic exist for the circulation of vehicles.This variable was also selected based on past research by Vergel-Tovar et al.(2020).Nu

197、mber of carriageways.This variable refers to the sum of unobstructed or unseparated sections of road used for vehicular trafficdivided by central and lateral medians.This variable was selected based on previous research by Vergel-Tovar et al.(2020).Width of corridors.This variable includes the estim

198、ated width(in meters)of the road section.This variable was included as a proxy variable for the road capacitysince traffic volume data were not availableand in consideration of a higher likelihood of filtering maneuvers depending on the number of lanes and carriageways(Pea Cabra 2014).Presence of la

199、teral medians.This variable for medians between the main carriageway and service roads was selected to reflect a geometry condition that is common in throughfares of the cities under analysis.In addition,WRI carried out road safety audits in Bogot,where it was found that a common conflict occurred w

200、hen a vehicle merged from one carriageway to another due to openings in the median,where traffic can merge from or to the adjacent service road(see Figure 5 and the Glossary for further details).Public transit stops and stations.These are designated locations along a route where buses or public tran

201、sport regularly pick up and drop off passengers.This variable was included based on Vergel-Tovar et al.(2020)and relates to additional design features in urban arterials,such as exclusive bus lanes with bus stops in the central median,or buses operating in service roads with bus stops located on the

202、 sidewalks.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|25 Blocks per km.In the model,the number of blocks along a road segment was counted,and then this was divided by the length of the total road segment,giving the number of blocks per km of road on that segment.Previous research has shown that

203、 junctions and road access points along a main road can influence overall casualties(Vergel-Tovar et al.2020)and increase conflict points between motorcycles and other vehicles,especially at turning points(Jimenez et al.2015).FIGURE 5|Infrastructure variables collectedSource:WRI.Lane widthRoadway wi

204、dthNumber of lanesBlockCentral medianLateral medianMotorcycleboxService roadSignalizedintersectionBUSSTOPNon-signalizedintersectionBus stopRoadway widthNumber of lanesLand-use dataInformation about land use came from existing geocoded data for each city and was summarized for each polygon,considerin

205、g what type of land use is found within a zone approximately 50 meters on each side of the road axis.The information that was collected by polygon included land classification(which includes categories such as residential land use,commercial land use,services,recreational land use,production land us

206、e,public space,employment centers,informal land use,among others),population and population density,and income levels(in the case of Colombian cities).26|WRI.ORGMethodstatistical modelsThis study used statistical models to test the relationship between the speed and built environment variables with

207、the number of motorcycle crashes,injuries,and fatalities.Draw-ing on similar road safety research,the study uses negative binomial and Poisson modelsdepending on the locationto test the effect of infrastructure and built environment on motorcycle safety(crashes,injuries,and fatalities of motor-cycli

208、sts)in the selected cities(Dumbaugh and Rae 2009;Vergel-Tovar et al.2020).A detailed list of each variable,its description,and source can be found in Appendix A.Considering the different nature and distribution of all crashes and serious crashes that involve motorcyclists,we ran Poisson models for t

209、he African cities and negative binomial models for the other cities.The model of best fit for each location was selected considering the following:The values of the dependent variable(see Table 1)tend to be positively skewed(i.e.,follow a right-skewed distribution),especially the values of fatalitie

210、s.In cases where the variance is higher than the mean(overdispersed)or the frequency of zero observations(locations with no crashes)is notably higher,negative binomial models can be used.This was done in four of the cities.In cases where the data are not overdispersed,Poisson regression is commonly

211、used to characterize count data(crashes)where the highest frequencies correspond to the lower values of the variable.In the African cities,due to the nature and limited availability of data,information on severity of crashes was not available.In those cases,Poisson distribution using crash data was

212、a better choice of model.FIGURE 6|Example of land use data collected in BogotSource:WRI,with data from the Secretariat of Planning of Bogot.m0260Bogot polygonsNon-residentialInstitutionalEducationalStorehouseIndustrialCommercialResidentialBogot land useTABLE 1|Type of model used in each cityCITYDEPE

213、NDENT VARIABLETYPE OF MODEL USEDAccraCrashes involving motorcyclistsPoissonBangkokFatal crashes involving motorcyclistsNegative binomialBogotFatal and injury crashes involving motorcyclistsNegative binomialBuenos AiresFatal and injury crashes involving motorcyclistsNegative binomialCaliFatal and inj

214、ury crashes involving motorcyclistsNegative binomialNairobiCrashes involving motorcyclistsPoissonMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|27Limitations While this study draws valuable conclusions using the data currently available,there are limitations that stem from the data and data collect

215、ion process and the methodology used.These are opportunities for future studies on motorcycle road safety on urban roads when data are more readily available.Limited information on other road safety related variablesInformation on other variables that affect road safety in general,or motorcyclists r

216、oad safety,was not available for WRI,could not be adequately characterized,or in other cases was simply nonexistent.Information such as vehicle type shares and volumes,infrastructure quality and conditions,weather,local policies,etc.(Bezabeh et al.2022)could make a significant difference in the resu

217、lts.Variables related not only to crash risks but also to exposure and injury risks(severity of crashes)must be more precisely and extensively gathered to understand in full detail which factors affect motorcy-clists road safety.Data on traffic volumes were only available in the case of Bogot,so the

218、y were included in the Bogot results.However,the models of the other cities under study lacked this information as inputs for the statistical models.Traffic volume can be a big predictor of crashes due to increased exposure,but other variables,such as road widths,can be used as a proxy variable for

219、the capacity of the road.Land-use data were not available for all the cities in general in the same quantity or quality.The models had to be adapted to the available or missing information.Information on speeds was available for general traffic,yet we still know little about how big the difference b

220、etween motorcyclists and other vehicles speeds at various locations might be.Speed of motorcycles and vehicles,particularly at the time of collision,was unavailable.Such data would be very useful for determining the relation between impact speed and injury or fatality risks.Information on victims of

221、 crashes would be useful to determine risks to riders,pillion riders,as well as pedestrians and other road users involved in motorcycle crashes.28|WRI.ORGAnalysis does not include dedicated infrastructure for motorcyclistsCities included in the analysis did not have any dedicated infrastructure for

222、motorcyclists and,therefore,this variable was not included in the research.Dedicated infrastructure for motorcyclists has shown mixed results(see Box 4).In Malaysia,it showed a positive impact on road safety in a highway context(Radin Sohadi et al.2000)while in So Paulos urban context,there was an i

223、ncrease in serious traffic crashes,and such infrastructure was removed(Gerncia de Segurana no Trnsito 2014).The long-term impact of dedicated lanes for motorcyclists is also something that should be studied because investment in such infrastructure could induce demand for more motorized travel or ta

224、ke away road space and investment in safer,more sustainable modes of travel,such as walking,cycling,and public transit,espe-cially in places with scarce public space dedicated to mobility(Welle et al.2015).Intersections and local roads are not includedThe information included in the models includes

225、characteris-tics of infrastructure and the associated built environment of segments of arterial thoroughfares in the cities under analysis.Information regarding characteristics of local roads and intersection characteristics was not included in the analysis.Future studies could apply elements of thi

226、s methodology to local road segments in different types of urban environments.Intersections can share the characteristics of two or more corridors that go through them and have their own physical and operational characteristics.In this study we find associa-tions between each crash and the character

227、istics of a corridor where they“belong,”thus making it unsuitable to study intersections.The physical and operational characteristics of an intersection would have to be studied under a differ-ent methodology.Due to these reasons,intersections were excluded from the scope of this study.More detailed

228、 crash information not availableWhile the data used in this study provide information on where a crash occurred,the data lack more detailed informa-tion on the type of crash that occurred,the characteristics of involved parties,or information on the vehicles that were involved.The addition of this i

229、nformation would greatly aid efforts to improve road safety in LMICsif properly col-lected by local authorities and made available to researchers.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|29ResultsOur analysis shows links between speed,land use,and infrastructure elements with motorcycle crash

230、es,injuries,and fatalities.In this section,the most relevant results of the different statistical models are presented based on the interpretation of their coefficients and statistical significance.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|31Statistical model resultsThe general summary of resu

231、lts in the selected locations(Accra,Bangkok,Bogot,Buenos Aires,Cali,and Nairobi)with only significant results includedis described in Table 2.The results of the models can be observed in full detail in Appendix B.In general terms,traffic speed,the presence of median openings in the road,pedestrian b

232、ridges,and a higher number of blocks in a segment are associated with increases in motorcyclists injuries and fatalities.Some other variables,such as lane width,interaction with public transport and mass transit systems,and motorcycle-dedicated infra-structure have mixed effects that must be examine

233、d in detail in each location.TABLE 2|Summary of significant results from the statistical models for the six cities VARIABLE/SUMMARYACCRABANGKOKBOGOTBUENOS AIRESCALINAIROBIPeriod of analysis201718201417201519201519201719201719Traffic speedsMotorcyclist injuries increase by 824%and fatalities increase

234、 by 1231%across all six cities for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed13%increase in motorcycle crashes for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed 12%increase in motorcycle fatal crashes for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed24%increase in injuries and 28%incr

235、ease in fatalities for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed8%increase in injuries and 20%increase in fatalities for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed15%increase in injuries and 31%increase in fatalities for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speed58%increase in

236、the expected number of motorcycle crashes in the corridor for every 10 km/h increase in traffic free-flow speedRoad widthMotorcycle injuries increase between 9%and 17%for each additional lane /9%increase in injuries for each additional lane in the widest section of a road/17%increase in motorcycle c

237、rashes for each additional laneWide multipurpose lane adjacent to curbThe presence of a wide lane in Buenos Aires was also associated with a 53%increase in fatalities.The lane has unclear usage and is used for parking,travel,utilities,etc.NTNTNT53%increase in fatalities on roads with very wide right

238、 lane(over 3.5 m)NTNTMedians on service lanes with uncontrolled openings Increase of motorcycle injuries between 28%and 64%in 3 cities/28%increase in injuries64%increase in injuries/37%increase in motorcycle crashesPedestrian bridges Increases motorcycle fatalities by 11%for road segments with a ped

239、estrian bridge in CaliNT/11%increase in fatalities on road segments with a pedestrian bridgeNT32|WRI.ORGVARIABLE/SUMMARYACCRABANGKOKBOGOTBUENOS AIRESCALINAIROBIPeriod of analysis201718201417201519201519201719201719Blocks per kilometer Each additional block per kilometer increases motorcycle injuries

240、 and crashes by 1.58.6%in 3 cities.This does not imply that block sizes should increase,as they do have many safety benefits.But they may need to be designed better to mitigate remaining risks to motorcyclists.5.6%increase in the expected number of crashes for each additional block per km/1.5%increa

241、se in injuries for each additional block per km8.6%increase in the expected number of crashes for each additional block per kmTraffic lights and intersectionsEach additional traffic light per km increases motorcycle injuries by 513%in 3 cities.This does not imply that traffic lights or intersections

242、 should be avoided since they have many safety benefits and provide better connectivity.But they may need to be designed better to mitigate remaining risks to motorcyclists./9%increase in injuries for each additional traffic light per km7%increase in injuries and 12%in fatalities for each intersecti

243、on per km5%increase in injuries for each additional traffic light per km13%increase in injuries for each additional traffic light per km/Mass transit corridor infrastructure(BRT,MRT)*Mixed results may be dependent on the design and implementation of public transit infrastructure.A well-designed BRT

244、system like in Bogot saw decreases in motorcyclist injuries,but locations with an elevated railway over a road as in Bangkok saw increases.NT70%increase for each mass transit station6%decrease in fatalities for each additional bus stop0.8%increase in injuries for each additional bus stop per km28%de

245、crease for each additional BRT stationNTIncome levelRoads in lower income areas are associated with higher rates of motorcyclist injuries in Bogot.NTNTThe lowest income neighborhoods saw a 44%increase in risk of injuries;a low-to middle-income level neighborhood saw a 23%increaseNT/NTLand useCommerc

246、ial land use and employment centers are associated with an increase in fatalities and injuries.This does not imply that such land uses are unsafe,but rather can increase exposure for motorcyclists.Risk of crashes is up to 11.5 times higher in commercial areas/Higher risk of injuries(up to 0.05%)on c

247、orridors with employment centersHigher risk of injuries(up to 0.2%)on corridors with commercial land useThere is up to 42%increase in risk of injuries on corridors with mixed land use/TABLE 2|Summary of significant results from the statistical models for the six cities(cont.)Motorcycle safety and ur

248、ban road infrastructure|33.for every 10 km/h increase in the free-flow speed of a road,there is a corresponding increase of between 7 and 24 percent in motorcycle injuries,and 20 to 31 percent in motorcycle fatalities.VARIABLE/SUMMARYACCRABANGKOKBOGOTBUENOS AIRESCALINAIROBIPeriod of analysis20171820

249、1417201519201519201719201719Population densityPositive association between population density and risk of fatalities and injuries in Bogot and Buenos Aires.This does not imply that density should be avoided,as density has many benefits;but rather,density can increase exposure for motorcyclists.NTNTD

250、enser areas have a higher risk of fatalities and injuriesDenser areas have a higher risk of fatalities/NTMotorcycle boxesIncreased fatalities in Buenos Aires.NTNTNT6.3%increase in motorcycle injuries and fatalities NTNTNotes:/:Indicates there was not a statistically significant result found(see comp

251、lete list of variables in Appendix A);NT:The corresponding variable was not tested for the city mentioned due to no available data or lack of the mentioned infrastructure;*:MRT corridor(elevated railway)applies to Bangkok,whereas BRT infrastructure is present in Bogot,Cali,and Buenos Aires.TABLE 2|S

252、ummary of significant results from the statistical models for the six cities(cont.)Main findings This section discusses the models most relevant findings.The variables with significant influence on motorcyclists traffic crashes will be examined in more detail in terms of the inter-pretation of resul

253、ts and possible applications for planning,policymaking,and infrastructure design in general.SpeedThe results show that vehicle speed is a significant variable associated with fatalities,injuries,and crashes in all cities under study.More importantly,this association shows a clear link between motorc

254、yclist deaths and speeds of all vehicles,not just motorcycle speeds.According to the results,for every 10 km/h increase in the free-flow speed of a road,there is a corresponding increase of between 7 and 24 percent in motorcycle injuries,and 20 to 31 percent in motor-cycle fatalities.Based on the an

255、alysis of time of day of all the available crash data,it can be observed that motorcycle crashes tend to be much more severe during night hours(see Figure 7)when free-flow conditions are more likely.Although traffic patterns during night hours may change according to cultural and local dynamics asso

256、ciated with nighttime activities in each of the cities,in general,for all of the cities under analysis,the times of the day between 10 PM and 5 AM saw a concentra-tion of the most severe traffic crashes.Similarly,the density of motorcycle fatalities increases after 3040 km/h(see Figure 8)which suppo

257、rts the positive impacts of safe speeds for motorcyclists.Nevertheless,more extensive research on this topic is needed.34|WRI.ORGFIGURE 7|Motorcycle crash severity by time of dayNote:The Motorcycle Crash Severity Index used here is calculated as the percentage of total reported traffic crash victims

258、 who die as a result of the crash,categorized by the hour of the day.Source:WRI,based on official data from each city.0%2%4%6%8%10%12%14%0:001:592:003:594:005:596:007:598:009:5910:0011:5912:0013:5914:0015:5916:0017:5918:0019:5920:0021:5922:0023:59Severity(%)Time of the dayBangkokBuenos AiresBogotCal

259、iFIGURE 8|Relationship between motorcycle fatality density and traffic free-flow speeds Source:WRI,based on official data from each city and Google Distance Matrix API speed data.00.20.40.60.811.21.42030405060+Rate of motorcycle fatalities(fatalities/km)Speed(km/h)CaliBuenos AiresBogotBangkok4 citie

260、s averageMotorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|35BOX 6|Motorcycle safety and enforcement in Bogot,Colombia Bogot launched a citywide speed management program in 2018.Through this program,the city has implemented a vari-ety of speed management measures,such as lowering the urban speed limit

261、 on major roads and arterials from 60 to 50 kilometers per hour and enforcing it with police and speed cameras.In 2023,World Resources Institute conducted a study using difference-in-differences and hot spot analysis to check the impact of such measures.a According to Lopez Valderrama et al.(2023)th

262、e impact of these speed cameras showed that locations with a camera had the highest decrease of fatalities per kilometer in 202021 compared with the previous five years,with a 21 percent decrease in fatalities in locations with speed cameras.FIGURE B6-1|Motorcycle hot spots change and speed enforcem

263、ent in BogotNote:Hotspots shown are statistically significant with 90%confidence levelSource:WRI,with data from Bogots Secretariat of Mobility.However,locations adjacent to speed camera locations(within 500 meters)also saw the highest statistically sig-nificant increase in motorcycle fatalities.This

264、 change could be observed geographically as statistically significant hot spots for motorcyclists changed locations in response to speed cameras.This effect was not seen for other vulnerable road users like pedestrians who saw an overall decrease in fatalities.This result suggests that all drivers a

265、nd motorcyclists may be adapting their behavior to known speed cameras by speed-ing up after the camera,resulting in new hot spots adjacent to such interventions.Thus,speed management for motorcy-cle safety needs to be a corridor-level or area-wide interven-tion to avoid such risk compensation behav

266、ior.FIGURE B6-2|Motorcyclists in Bogot,ColombiaSource:Segundo LpezSource:a.Lopez Valderrama et al.2023.km00.5Motorcycle HotspotsYear2015201820202021Speed camerasArterial roadsAv.BoyacaAv.CaliAv.AmricasAv.AmricasAv.1ro de MayoAv.VillavicencioAutopista SurNQSCL 1336|WRI.ORGRoad infrastructureRoad widt

267、h.Roadway width was significant in two cities analyzed(Buenos Aires and Nairobi)and wider roads are associated with increases in injuries.This may be due to increased filtering and weaving by motorcyclists and higher speeds on wider corridors with multiple lanes(Pea Cabra 2014).This variable also ai

268、med to be a proxy for traffic volume,which might also explain the result.Median openings.The presence of medians that separate traffic on central and service carriageways showed an associa-tion with increases in motorcycle victims and overall crashes in three of the cities.This might be connected to

269、 very wide medians in urban environments,which allow for uncontrolled merging at high speeds and poorly designed exits that induce serious conflicts.Blocks and traffic lights.More frequent intersections are associated with an increase in fatalities and injuries in five of the six cities.This may be

270、associated with an increase of con-flict points,particularly where vehicle turn movements may conflict with motorcycle movements(Jimnez Flrez 2015).This does not imply that smaller block sizes,traffic lights,or intersections should be avoided,because these elements have several safety benefits and h

271、elp manage speeds.It implies that road safety risks to motorcyclists are higher than for other users at these locations and highlights the need for a com-prehensive plan to ensure speeds and conflicts are managed at locations with high density of blocks.Even at traffic lights,poor compliance and hig

272、her speeds put vulnerable road users like motorcyclists at a higher risk than other motorists.FIGURE 9|Motorcycle use in Bogot,ColombiaSource:Segundo Lpez.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|37urban roads can increase speeds and road widths and thus pose a risk to other vulnerable users(

273、Turner et al.2024;Welle et al.2015).Pedestrian bridges.The models suggest an association with an increase in victims in Cali.This correlation could be attrib-uted to the fact that pedestrian bridges are often situated in areas resembling highway conditions,promoting higher speeds for all types of ve

274、hicles.Additionally,these bridges are typically located in areas with a high demand for cross-ings,and their efficacy is diminished in urban settings where pedestrians prefer at-grade crossings.This preference may lead to significant safety concerns if the road infrastructure is not appropriately de

275、signed for such crossings.Consequently,the findings underscore the potential hazards associated with placing pedestrian bridges in certain locations,emphasizing their limited effectiveness as a safety measure.Lane width.Results for lane width offered a mixed picture.The results were significant only

276、 in Cali and Buenos Aires,where wider lanes showed fewer fatalities.This could be because motorcycles filtering between lanes may be common in these cities(see Figure 9)and wider lanes allow motor-cycles to filter safely.Other studies have found similar results(Quistberg et al.2022).However,many roa

277、ds in Buenos Aires have a single wide lane along the side,commonly used for parking and utilities,and this lane is associated with increases in both injuries and fatalities.The impact of lane width on motorcycle safety may depend on how lanes are used in cities(Saini et al.2022)and not solely on the

278、 physical characteristics of the lane(Bocarejo Suescun 2012;Chu et al.2006).Lane widths may also be an area where designs that are beneficial to motorcyclists may be different from designs that are beneficial to other road users,since wider lanes on Motorcycle boxes.The presence of motorcycle boxes

279、in Bue-nos Aires is associated with a 6 percent increase in motorcycle injuries.This is aligned with literature,as this type of infra-structure might lead to an increase in serious crashes(Prez and Santamaria-Rubio 2019).However,due to the absence of data for comparison with other cities,recommendat

280、ions about motorcycle boxes are not presented in this report.Land use Higher population density and commercial land use.Dense urban areas and commercial zones are in general associated with increases in victims in four cities.These environments typically have higher risk exposure for all road users

281、and higher risk of conflicts.These conflicts can result in severe injury for motorcyclists who lack protection,even if speeds are typically lower in such areas.Income.In Bogot,roads in low-and middle-income-level neighborhoods saw an increased risk of motorcycle crashes.This effect corresponds direc

282、tly with worse outcomes at lower income levels.This result reflects additional exposure to risk in the most vulnerable neighborhoods,as infrastructure and maintenance are more likely to be of poorer quality in lower income areasareas where residents are also more likely to depend on motorcycle use,a

283、nd speed and other traffic regula-tions are not well-enforced.RecommendationsIn this section,we provide recommendations for implementing safer road infrastructure for motorcyclists based on the statistical models results.As part of a Safe System approach,safe roads and safe road design are among the

284、 essential areas of action for a road system that includes the safety of motorcyclists.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|41General principlesThe implementation of the interventions and recommenda-tions provided in this section should be guided by these general principles:Systemic chang

285、es have the most sustainable impact.Tackling motorcycle safety should not be a collection of disparate or isolated interventions.A Safe System approach is necessary to address road safety holistically.Give priority to locations where acting first could potentially save the most lives by avoiding ser

286、ious crashes and deterring risky behaviors on the road.This is something that becomes necessary in the context of low-and middle-income countries that have heavy demand but limited resources for road safety interventions.Data analyses,road safety audits,and evidence-based design are critical.Interve

287、ntions should not just be responsive to motorcyclist crash occurrence patterns.Data must be used in a proactive approach to save as many lives as possible before crashes can occur.Main takeawaysThere are five key takeaways from the research.They are:Tackling vehicle speeds is critical Consider the i

288、mpact of land use on road conflicts Minimize conflicts at intersections Consider road widths,median openings,and merging Combine actions for motorcyclist safety with actions for other road usersIn this section,each of these takeaways are discussed along with their implications for design,policy,and

289、implementa-tion.Recommendations for each of these takeaways are provided below.Key highlights:Vehicle speeds Higher free-flow speeds for all vehicles are the most significant risk factor associated with increases in motorcycle victims,according to the models.Improving motorcycle safety requires comp

290、rehensive speed management,with safe and context-appropriate operating speeds across the road network for all vehicles,not just motorcycles.Motorcycle hot spots tend to relocate when point-based measures are implemented,so comprehensive and area-wide speed control measures are more effective.FIGURE

291、10|Speed hump in BogotSource:Segundo Lpez.1.Tackling vehicle speeds is critical Vehicle speeds are a critical factor in preventing motorcycle crashes,injuries,and fatalities.Analysis consistently showed vehicle speeds to be one of the most fundamental risk factors for motorcycle safety.Higher free-f

292、low vehicle speeds in all six cities were associated with an increase in motorcycle-related injuries and fatalities.On average,a 10 km/h increase in free-flow vehicle speed resulted in an increase in injuries of up to 24 percent and in fatalities up to 31 percent.Speed is already universally recogni

293、zed in road safety research literature as a key risk factor,and the most significant one for all road users(Elvik 2005).Higher vehicle speeds increase the likelihood of collisions or a driver losing control of the vehicle and decrease the amount of time available to anticipate and react to road haza

294、rds.Higher speeds also increase the severity of a crash,with higher impact forces causing more severe injuries,especially for vulnerable road users,including users of motorized two-wheelers.The risk of collision is higher when vehicle speeds are unsuited for the road environment,such as in dense urb

295、an environments.For motorcyclists in the cities examined,more severe crashes also occur at night when congestion is lower,and as a result vehicles move at higher speeds.The implications of these findings for design,policy,and implementation are as follows:Speed management should target all vehicles

296、and not just motorcyclesTraditional approaches to motorized two-wheeler safety,especially through speed enforcement,have tended to focus on road user behavior by targeting motorcyclist behavior and speeds.However,our research shows that it is insufficient to Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastr

297、ucture|43tackle motorcycle speed in isolation because higher free-flow road speeds have a negative impact on motorcycle safety.To address motorcycle safety,it is necessary to get all motor vehicles to operate at safer speeds that are appropriate for a corridors built environment conditions.This call

298、s for better speed management policies and designing roads to align with safe speeds.Some European countries are now requiring Intelligent Speed Assist(ISA)systems and speed limiters in all vehicles to enable better compliance with speed limits.From a Safe System perspective,impact speeds should be

299、as low as possible to prevent traffic-related injuries and fatalities.Although the precise safe speed for motorcycles depends on the typical variables in a speed management strategycontext,road use,road quality,road users,and available infrastructure of the roadit can be observed that the rate of mo

300、torcycle fatalities increases considerably at free-flow speeds higher than 30 km/h.But in general,conclusions regarding the exact numerical relationship between speed and motorcycle safety cannot yet be drawn from the avail-able information.More research is needed about safe speeds under each type o

301、f road depending on its use and general characteristics.Evidence was found in all cities for the free-flow speed of all vehicles being associated with higher numbers of fatalities,injuries,and crashes.Speed management strategies are there-fore necessary because targeting speed measures for motorcy-c

302、les will not be sufficient to reduce road risk for all vulnerable road userssafe,well-designed infrastructure is crucial.FIGURE 11|Intersection in a low-income area in Bogot,ColombiaSource:Segundo Lpez.44|WRI.ORGSpeed interventions should be continuously distributedSpeed management and interventions

303、 are key for motor-cycle safety.While hot spot analysis is useful to identify and prioritize critical locations for motorcycle safety,this study shows that safe speeds need to be enforced on a larger scalecorridor-wide,area-wide,or citywide.Motorcycle hot spots are observed to relocate in response t

304、o point-based interven-tions due to risk compensation behavior such as speeding up after passing a speed camera(Lopez Valderrama et al.2023).Designing roads for target speeds is necessary,but other measures can be used,such as average speed enforcement or point-to-point speed enforcement,placing mul

305、tiple consecu-tive cameras or speed humps,designed for motorcyclists,with clear markings to achieve a target safe speed.Speed humps should be indicated with advanced warning,designed with appropriate area-to-width ratio,be clearly indicated,well-maintained,and properly spaced to encourage driving at

306、 the target speed(Welle et al.2015).Implementing speed humps is only recommended if road users are not surprised by these humps;they should be highly visible,on roads with street lighting and enough sight distance.In a Safe System approach,while the most critical corridors can be prioritized for spe

307、ed management,the end goal should be to keep speeds safe across the network,not only at specific locations.Safe speeds for roads where motorcycles are expected to be present may differ from currently acceptable definitions of safe speedsIn a Safe System approach to road safety,commonly accepted safe

308、 speed limits might have to be revised downward,espe-cially where motorcycle use is expected.Much of road safety literature on setting limits has focused on minimizing impacts The end goal should be to keep speeds safe across the network,not only at specific locations.on four-wheel occupants and/or

309、pedestrians,but research is minimal on setting safe speed limits for motorcycles,either in the context of LMICs or in countries where motorcycles are growing and a dominant mode of daily transportation.Current best practice suggests speeds should not exceed 50 km/h in urban areas on roads with junct

310、ions or where side collisions between vehicles are possible(WHO 2023).However,two-and three-wheelers do not have the same crash protections as four-wheelers,and survivability in such a collision may be closer to that of pedestrians.It may be necessary to reevaluate or reduce speed limits to protect

311、motorcyclists,especially in places with significant numbers of motorcycle users.In other words,safe speeds for motorcycles may be in many cases lower than the generally accepted speed limits,and high-speed roads may constitute high-risk environments for motorcyclists.Data from Germany sug-gest that

312、collisions with other vehicles or objects even at low speeds(below 30 km/h)may present a risk of moderate to severe injury to motorcyclists(Ding et al.2019).Similar research would be necessary in developing countries,where safe speed thresholds for all vehicles may be even lower than commonly recomm

313、ended speed limits due to poorer road safety infrastructure,postcrash emergency care,and vehicle crashworthiness.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|452.Consider the impact of land use on road conflicts Tackling motorcycle safety requires us to take a broader,area-wide approach.Three mai

314、n issues impacting motorcy-clist safety will be discussed in this section:1)dispersion of motorcycle-related crashes;2)influence of land use,built environment,and income level on motorcyclist casualties;and 3)displacement of motorcyclist hot spots.First,motorcycle crashes tend to be more geographica

315、lly dispersed when compared to crashes involving other modes of transport,and they tend to be more randomly distributed along the street network.Wider dispersion of motorcycle-related crashes is even more evident in the African cities analyzed,where street networks and road hierarchies are rela-tive

316、ly less developed and land-use patterns are mixed.A geo-graphic hot spot analysis also shows few or zero statistically significant motorcycle crash hot spots in Nairobi and Accra.Second,our research shows that motorcycle fatalities and injuries are influenced by land use and development factors.High

317、-speed major roads and arterials in areas with higher commercial land use and population densities had a nega-tive impact on motorcycle safety;for example,commercial land use and density were associated with an increase in risk of motorcycle fatalities.This is because dense commercial sectors genera

318、te more activity and hence more conflicts,as well as the convergence of different vehicle types on the same road,such as freight vehicles,public transport,bicycles,cars,and two-wheelers.Additionally,lower-income neighborhoods are associated with a higher risk of motorcycle fatalities and injuries du

319、e to higher exposure and poorer conditions of infrastructure.Low-income populations are more likely to use motorcycles as the main solution for their mobility needs,and more motorcycles are used in low-income areas for business,as delivery vehicles or to serve in public transportation capacities(Her

320、wangi et al.2015;PAHO 2018).In Cali and Bogot,all motorcycle hot spots were in lower-income areas.Riding on roads in Bogots lowest-income neighborhoods was associ-ated with a 44 percent increased risk of motorcycle fatalities.Third,motorcycle hot spots tend to relocate in response to point-based cou

321、ntermeasures such as camera enforcement,even when they have had a positive impact on safety for other road users.This can be attributed to the“Kangaroo effect,”which means that motorcyclists will compensate for enforcement mechanisms by speeding up more quickly than other road users after passing sp

322、eed-enforced locations.An analysis of speed camera enforcement undertaken in Bogot,for example,showed that while speed cameras had a positive impact on road safety by decreasing the number of fatalities by 21 percent,they also shifted motorcycle hot spots to other locations away from the cameras(Lop

323、ez Valderrama et al.2023)(see Box 6).The implications of these findings for design,policy,and implementation are as follows:Motorcycle safety needs to be addressed with comprehensive plans in a Safe System approach More research is needed to understand the extent of the interaction between variables

324、 analyzed such as speed and land use,population density,and income level.Nevertheless,it is necessary to incorporate those variables when planning motorcycle safety measures at a larger scale than the cor-ridor or intersection level.Land use and urban development patterns have an impact on motorcycl

325、e safety that goes beyond infrastructure deficits at any one location.Point-based countermeasures such as speed enforcement can be one element of a broader area-wide approach but will require tackling the issue of motorcycle safety on multiple fronts(Welle et al.2018).Key highlights:Land use Dense u

326、rban areas and areas of high commercial land use can have higher risk of conflicts.Low-income areas are also associated with a higher risk that a motorcyclist will be involved in a serious crash.These areas need a more comprehensive approach to managing speed and conflicts.Speed management should be

327、 comprehensive and area-wide.As part of any speed management initiative,speed limit settings,built environment characteristics,and functional road categorization must be linked.46|WRI.ORGFIGURE 12|Motorcyclists,cars,and public transit in a dense area in Bandung,IndonesiaSource:Vineet JohnBroader act

328、ions to prioritize motorcycle safety in the plan-ning and operations of roads in these areas may include:Implementing comprehensive speed management plans and setting urban speed limits that are appropriate for each zone and type of road environment in conjunction with infrastructure,enforcement,com

329、munication,and education.Paying special attention to minimizing conflicts and reducing speeds in dense urban environments with commercial activity.This would also require designing commercial areas for expected mobility needs that address the flow of heavy vehicles and urban freight deliveries that

330、minimize conflicts with two-wheelers,cyclists,and pedestrians.Reviewing investment in infrastructure for low-income neighborhoods and allocating resources equitably for high-quality mobility infrastructure in these lower income areas.Using data to direct improvements can also enable more equitable o

331、utcomes across the city.It is also important to improve maintenance and tackle road hazards,as these areas typically suffer from poor investment in maintenance and operations.Incorporating elements that foster motorcycle safety into road safety action plans,urban mobility plans,or any local planning

332、 instruments that can help achieve safe infrastructure design for two-wheelers,as well as other modes at a city scale.Many elements,such as curb-extensions and road width reductions to reduce pedestrian crossing distances,or designing safer at-grade crossings,have also been shown to improve motorcyc

333、le safety.Motorcycle safety and urban road infrastructure|473.Minimize conflicts at intersections The risk posed to motorcyclists at intersections may be higher than for other motorized road users because of increased physical vulnerability and increased exposure at conflict points.In general,intersections are complex locations where multiple traffic flows converge,leading to conflict points that