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1、The Ocean Economy to 2050The Ocean Economy to 2050This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The opinions expressed andarguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.This document,as well as any da

2、ta and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty overany territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant

3、Israeli authorities.The use ofsuch data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights,East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements inthe West Bank under the terms of international law.Note by the Republic of TrkiyeThe information in this document with reference to“Cyprus”relates to t

4、he southern part of the Island.There is no singleauthority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island.Trkiye recognises the Turkish Republic ofNorthern Cyprus(TRNC).Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations,Trkiyeshall preserve its

5、 position concerning the“Cyprus issue”.Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European UnionThe Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Trkiye.Theinformation in this document relates to the area under the effective control

6、 of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.Please cite this publication as:OECD(2025),The Ocean Economy to 2050,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/a9096fb1-en.ISBN 978-92-64-68843-8(print)ISBN 978-92-64-89474-7(PDF)ISBN 978-92-64-43413-4(HTML)Photo credits:Cover korkeng/S.Corrigenda to O

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12、3 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Foreword The ocean economy is a vital component of our global economy and policymakers require data-driven and evidence-based insights to guide their decision-making.The Ocean Economy to 2050 builds on a new quantitative and foresight analysis of potential pathw

13、ays for the ocean economys development,highlighting that a healthy ocean is crucial for climate and biodiversity processes,as well as for the economy.If the ocean economy were a country,it would be the fifth largest economy in the world.But the sustained growth and resilience of the ocean economy of

14、 the past 25 years is not set to continue.Growing pressures need to be tackled to keep the ocean economy on a path that contributes to sustainable economic development with employment that millions rely on.To move forward,science-based decisions and improved ocean management are neededonly a quarter

15、 of the ocean floor is mapped,very few countries have developed full scale marine spatial planning,and much remains to be discovered and protected in the deep sea.Harmful subsidies must end,in fishing for instance.Transitions to cleaner energy and greater use of digital technologies should be encour

16、aged,both are critical to mitigating climate change and boosting the productivity of ocean industries.Developing unbiased evidence to guide decisions on ocean management and governance will be key.This report builds on more than a decade of OECD ocean economy work,with statistical measurement and oc

17、ean science and innovation at its core,supported steadily by several countries.The OECD Ocean Economy Monitor programme supports informed decision-making on a global scale.It provides insights into the economy-,science-and innovation-related aspects of the ocean economy as well as its policy environ

18、ment.Leveraging harmonised country-level statistics from OECDs unique Inter-Country Input-Output(ICIO)tables and other quantitative and qualitative data sources,the Monitor currently tracks 33 ocean economic activities across 142 coastal countries,spanning more than 25 years.It forms an unprecedente

19、d source of new analysis to support evidence-based policies.The consistent measurement methods applied across countries are unlocking unparalleled opportunities to empower OECD member countries and partner economies with new evidence to support their strategic objectives and involvement in different

20、 multilateral processes.Through collaboration with OECD member countries and partner economies,the benefits of this work should be widely shared,enabling more countries to harness the potential of the ocean economy while safeguarding its long-term sustainability.4 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025

21、 Acknowledgements The Ocean Economy to 2050 publication is an output of the OECD ocean economy programme in the Science and Technology Policy(STP)Division of the OECD Directorate for Science,Technology and Innovation.The report was produced under the guidance of Claire Jolly by a team composed of Ja

22、mes Jolliffe,Claudia Abdallah,Barrie Stevens,Marit Undseth and Jeong-In Chang(as staff-on-loan from Korea Maritime Institute),all part of the Innovation Policies for Space and the Ocean Unit(IPSO).Sylvain Fraccola and Sebastian Ordelheide provided editorial and communications support.The authors are

23、 grateful to Kyriakos Vogiatzis(DSTI)for his administrative assistance.The OECD Ocean Economy Group is kindly supported by the following organisations:Department of Economy,Science and Innovation of Flanders(DESI),Belgium;Department of Fisheries and Oceans(DFO),Canada;Marine Institute,Ireland;Stazio

24、ne Zoologica Anton Dohrn(SZAD),Italy;Korea Maritime Institute(KMI),Korea;Research Council of Norway(RCN),Norway;the Directorate-General for Maritime Policy(DGPM)and Foundation for Science and Technology(FCT),Portugal;and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA),United States.The pro

25、gramme of work on ocean economy measurement and this report would not exist without the support,expertise and advice provided by the Steering Board of the OECD Ocean Economy Group.Current and past Steering Board members contributing to this work stream include:Gert Verreet(DESI,Flanders,Belgium);Nia

26、ll McDonough and Jenny OLeary(Marine Institute,Ireland);Zeba Ali,Sylvain Ganter,Todd Crawford,Alejandro DeMaio-Sukic and Robert Pascal(DFO,Canada);Jacoba Mol(Innovation,Science and Economic Development Canada);Marco Borra(SZAD,Italy);Jeong-In Chang(KMI,Korea);Christina Abildgaard and Kjersti Fjalest

27、ad(RCN,Norway);Conceio Santos(DGPM,Portugal);Sofia Cordiero and Victor Silva(FCT,Portugal);and Monica Grasso(NOAA,United States).The OECD data and analysis presented in this report is the result of active cooperation and exchanges with many national experts from national statistical offices,ocean sc

28、ientists and economists in public administrations,research institutes,universities,and industry representatives including particularly Martin Grimstad,Paul Sletten and Tor K.nestad(Statistics Norway,Norway),Cristina Ramos and Maria Angela Lobo and Cristina Neves(Statistics Portugal,Portugal),Connor

29、Franks and Edward Morgan(Bureau of Economic Analysis,United States),Gerry Brady(Central Statistics Office,Ireland),Jennifer Zhuang(NOAA,United States),Stephen Hynes(National University of Ireland,Ireland),Jan Mees and Chantal Martens(Flanders Marine Institute,Belgium),Eveline Buyck(Flanders Blue Clu

30、ster,Belgium),Byeong-Ho Lim,Soobin Jeong,Tae-Jin Kim,Janghan Kwon and SungEun Kim(Korea Maritime Institute),Roberto Cimino(Italian Blue Growth National technology Cluster),Mathias Jonas and Sam Harper(International Hydrographic Organization),Vidar Helgesen,Julian Barbiere,Alison Clausen and Emma Hes

31、lop(Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO).The report benefitted as well from the inputs of OECD experts,many of whom participated in internal technical seminars,larger workshops,and/or provided comments to drafts.They include Jerry Sheehan Director,Jens Lundsgaard,Deputy Director,Ale

32、ssandra Colecchia,Head of the STP Division,Alice Holt,Fernando Galindo-Rueda,Colin Webb and Norihiko Yamato(both from the Industry Dynamics and Globalisation Unit),Laurent Daniel and Emilie Berger(both from the Shipbuilding Unit),all from the 5 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Directorate of Scie

33、nce,Technology and Innovation;Claire Delpeuch,Will Symes and Fabiena Cerasa from the Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit in the Trade and Agriculture Directorate;Kumi Kitamori,Shardul Agrawala and Katia Karousakis from the Environment Directorate;Shashwat Koirala from the Development Co-operation Directo

34、rate;Juliette Lassman and Oriana Romano from the Water Governance,Blue and Circular Economy Unit in the Centre for Entrepreneurship,SMEs,Regions and Cities(CFE);Peter Haxton,Jane Stacey,Julie Reimann,Eva Katzer from the Tourism Unit in CFE.The team thanks all these individuals warmly for their suppo

35、rt.6 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Table of contents Foreword 3 Acknowledgements 4 Readers guide 10 Executive summary 16 1 Steering the ocean economy to be productive and sustainable 18 Introduction 19 The ocean economys performance between 1995 and 2020 20 How might the ocean economy grow in

36、the coming decades?27 What actions can policymakers take to set the ocean economy on a more sustainable pathway?32 References 36 2 Evolving policy context for the ocean economy 40 Introduction 41 Ocean governance in a complex and dynamic policy environment 41 Transformations of the ocean economy 47

37、Summary 54 References 54 3 The evolution of the ocean economy:empirical trends 1995 to 2020 63 Introducing new OECD international ocean economy statistics 1995 to 2020 64 The global ocean economy contributed consistent shares of global economic output and employment throughout the period 64 Global o

38、cean economic output was dominated by fossil fuel extraction and tourism,while overall employment was dominated by tourism 67 Countries in different regions differ in their reliance on the ocean economy 68 Ocean economy composition differs across regions with high output ocean economic activity grou

39、ps not necessarily generating high employment 71 High-income country dominance of the global ocean economy has diminished over time 72 China had the largest and fastest growing ocean economy for most of the period 75 Summary 76 References 76 7 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 4 Economic factors u

40、nderlying global ocean economy performance and its potential futures 78 Introduction 79 Simple measures of productivity indicate that most ocean economic activity groups performed well compared with the overall economy 79 More detailed measures of ocean economic activity group productivity require a

41、n understanding of the role of various factors beyond hours worked 80 Further evidence suggests a decline in multifactor productivity has slowed global ocean economy gross value added growth 83 Much ocean economic activity group growth is derived from capital investments unrelated to drivers of futu

42、re productivity like information technologies 84 The future ocean economy will be dominated by the same two activity groups that have traditionally held the largest shares should existing trends continue 86 Summary 90 References 91 5 The future ocean economy:A significant departure from historical t

43、rends 92 Introduction 93 Global forces shaping the long-term outlook for the ocean economy 93 The potential effects of a changing global context on the ocean economy 95 Summary 106 References 106 6 Alternative scenarios for possible futures of the ocean economy 110 Introduction 111 Likely impacts of

44、 combined shaping forces on key areas of the ocean economy over the next decades 111 Exploration of two possible scenarios for the ocean economy shaped by the pace of the global energy transition 120 Scenario 2.The Energy Transition Stalls 123 Summary 126 References 128 Tables Table 1.Ocean economic

45、 activity classification in the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor 12 Table 2.The OECD Inter-Country Input-Output(ICIO)database currently includes 76 countries with a“rest of the world”category 13 Table 3.United Nations regional groupings used in the report 13 Table 4.Other country groupings used in the rep

46、ort 14 Table 1.1.Status of selected multilateral agreements relevant to ocean governance as of January 2025 33 Table 2.1.Top 20 container companies 51 Table 3.1.Aggregate output in Eastern Asia and Europe was higher than all other regions as a share of the global ocean economy 70 Table 3.2.High-inco

47、me countries share of the global ocean economy weakened over time 73 Figures Figure 1.1.The global ocean economy provided between 3.0%and 4.0%of global economic output and between 3.5%and 4.7%of global employment annually from 1995 to 2020 20 Figure 1.2.Average ocean economy to overall economy share

48、s are mostly similar across regions,but some countries have large shares relative to their peers 21 8 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Figure 1.3.Global ocean economy output grew at 2.8%and employment at 0.4%on average between 1995 and 2020 22 Figure 1.4.Over 75%of global ocean economic growth is

49、 from countries in regions in Asia and the Pacific with more than 55%created by countries in Eastern Asia alone 23 Figure 1.5.Within the OECD,the United States had the largest ocean economy in absolute terms and Norway had the largest ocean economy as a proportion of its overall economy 24 Figure 1.

50、6.Two ocean economic activity groups dominate the global ocean economy:Offshore oil/gas extraction and offshore industry and marine and coastal tourism 25 Figure 1.7.Ocean economic activity groups generating high levels of gross value added do not necessarily create high employment and vice versa 26

51、 Figure 1.8.Economic growth in ocean economic activity groups outpaced average industry growth between 1995 and 2020 27 Figure 1.9.Isolated shaping forces are likely to have effects of different magnitudes on the future ocean economy 29 Figure 1.10.Important shaping forces suggest the future global

52、ocean economy will not grow as fast as historical precedents suggest and may even go backwards 30 Figure 3.1.The global ocean economy consistently generated 3.0%to 4.0%of global economic output and 3.5%to 4.7%of global employment 65 Figure 3.2.Economic growth in all-but-one ocean economic activity g

53、roup outpaced the average industry between 1995 and 2020 66 Figure 3.3.Activity groups that dominate global ocean economic output do not necessarily dominate global ocean economy employment 68 Figure 3.4.Countries in Northern Africa and Western Asia were more reliant on the ocean economy than countr

54、ies in other regions 69 Figure 3.5.Different regions are dominated by different ocean economic activity groups in both economic output and employment 72 Figure 3.6.Ocean economic output and employment are dominated by offshore oil and gas extraction and off shore industry and marine and coastal tour

55、ism respectively in all income groups 74 Figure 3.7.China has had the largest ocean economy in absolute terms since 2002 and Norway has the largest ocean economy as a proportion of its overall economy throughout the period 75 Figure 4.1.Gains in gross value added per hour worked in most ocean econom

56、ic activity groups have outpaced those made in the overall economy 80 Figure 4.2.A larger share of gross value added is on average attributable to capital than labour in roughly half the ocean economic activity groups 81 Figure 4.3.The value of intermediate goods and services represents a higher pro

57、portion of gross output than capital and labour in many ocean economic activity groups 82 Figure 4.4.The global ocean economy experienced negative growth in multifactor productivity on average over the time period 83 Figure 4.5.Much of the growth in ocean economic activity group labour productivity

58、is reliant on contributions from capital services unrelated to information and communication technology 85 Figure 4.6.Projections based on historical trends suggest production in most ocean economic activity groups may more than triple in real terms between 1995 and 2050 87 Figure 4.7.Historical tre

59、nds reflected in the baseline projection suggest the ocean economy could add USD 2.5 trillion more to the economy in 2050 than it did in 2020 88 Figure 4.8.Marine and coastal tourism or offshore oil/gas extraction and offshore industry continue to dominate the ocean economies in all regions in the w

60、orld in the baseline scenario 89 Figure 5.1.Assuming lower population growth creates small deviations from the baseline projection in most ocean economic activity groups 96 Figure 5.2.Should the effects of climate change suggested by recent literature be realised then all ocean economic activity gro

61、ups will be negatively affected relative to the baseline projection 99 Figure 5.3.Trade disruptions caused by geopolitical tensions estimated in the wider literature and applied to the ocean economy result in relatively small deviations from the baseline projection in most ocean economy activity gro

62、ups 101 Figure 5.4.Introducing a global energy transition drives major changes from the baseline projection in energy-related ocean economic activity groups 103 Figure 5.5.Catch-up investment in productive capital stock would have large positive effects on ocean economic activity groups relative to

63、the baseline projection 105 Figure 6.1.Global ocean economic growth is likely to slow down in an accelerated transition scenario 123 Figure 6.2.The global ocean economy growth slowdown would be even more pronounced in a stalled energy transition scenario and could lead to a period of contraction 126

64、 9 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Boxes Box 1.1.The ocean economy in figures 19 Box 2.1.Selected major multilateral efforts relevant for the ocean economy 42 Box 2.2.The oceans multifaceted commercial uses in selected figures 46 Box 2.3.Countries have different sovereign rights over maritime zo

65、nes 48 Box 6.1.Extreme weather and biodiversity loss will increasingly impact coastlines and coastal settlements 113 Box 6.2.Possible trends for maritime ports 115 Box 6.3.Advances in ocean science and technologies on the horizon 119 10 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Readers guide This readers

66、guide describes the ocean economy,provides a definition of ocean economic activities and introduces how they are measured in this report.It also provides the list of countries combined in the different regional and income groupings and a glossary of technical terms.What is the purpose of this report

67、 and who is it for?The Ocean Economy to 2050 report is a new OECD resource to enhance understanding of the evolving ocean economy landscape.It presents unprecedented data on the ocean economy covering almost three decades(1995-2020)for more than a hundred countries and thirty-three ocean economic ac

68、tivities.In addition,it provides a comprehensive analysis of possible projected growth trajectories,challenges,and opportunities within the global ocean economy over the next 25 years.Building on ten years of dedicated OECD ocean economy work(with the landmark 2016 report on The Ocean Economy in 203

69、0),and highlighting important OECD wide ocean work,this report aims to offer insights into how ocean economic activities can contribute to prosperity,employment,and innovation,while ensuring the conservation,restoration and sustainable use of marine ecosystems.By examining emerging trends,technologi

70、cal advances,and policy developments,the report seeks to inform stakeholders about possible future paths of the ocean economy All at a time when ocean health deterioration,climate change acceleration and biodiversity loss are increasingly affecting countries around the world.This report is intended

71、for a diverse audience including policymakers,industry leaders,researchers,and civil society organisations engaged in ocean-related activities.The report is structured in six chapters:Chapter 1 provides an overview of the main findings from the publication and key recommendations for policymakers.Ch

72、apter 2 provides the general context-setting for the rest of the publication,with a brief review of major evolving ocean policy landscape and governance issues that are impacting the ocean economy.Chapter 3 delivers new OECD statistics and analysis on ocean economic activities and their evolution ov

73、er recent decades.Chapter 4 identifies key factors of performance for the ocean economy.Based on these,it projects potential ocean economy growth to 2050 under the assumption that historical trends persist and establishes a theoretical baseline scenario used in the next chapters.Chapter 5 analyses h

74、ow major shaping forces could affect potential ocean economy trajectories o as describes how the historical record is not necessarily a good indicator of future ocean economic growth.11 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Chapter 6 explores further how combinations of several of these global shaping

75、 forces may affect specific areas of the ocean economy in the decades to come.It then outlines two future scenarios for the ocean economy differentiated by alternative approaches to the global energy transition.Basic concepts used in measurements of the international ocean economy in the OECD Ocean

76、Economy Monitor and featured in this report Ever since the 2016 release of The Ocean Economy in 2030(OECD,20162),the OECD has described the ocean economy as an interrelated system of two pillars:economic activity and the marine ecosystem assets and services that they rely on.Interlinkages between oc

77、ean economic activity and the marine environment are therefore a founding concept in analysis of the ocean economy:discussion of one pillar is incomplete without considering the effects that changes in it may have on the other.Although work is ongoing in various international fora to develop the sta

78、ndards and guidelines required to account for the marine environment,coherent cross-country statistics are not yet available.The quantitative elements of this report are therefore focused on statistics on ocean economic activities.The marine economic-environmental linkages described in this report u

79、se either ad-hoc data from external sources or are dealt with qualitatively.As and when internationally comparable statistics on marine environmental-economic linkages become available,the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor will expand to include them.This novel OECD programme provides a unique platform for

80、 measuring the global ocean economy over time using harmonised country-level statistics and other data sources.The OECD Blueprint for Improved Measurement of the International Ocean Economy(Jolliffe,Jolly and Stevens,20216)provides a definition of ocean economic activities for the purposes of scopin

81、g statistical measurement.The OECD Eight Lessons Learned from Comparing Ocean Economy Measurement Strategies Across Countries(Jolliffe and Jolly,20247)working paper uses principles from the system of national accounts to highlight commonalities and differences in approaches and provides recommendati

82、ons for integrating ocean economy measurements with national statistics.The OECD Ocean Economy Monitor applies definitions from the OECD Blueprint and many of the principles of national accounting from the OECD comparison of national approaches to the measurement of international statistics on ocean

83、 economic activities.Current scope and coverage of measurements of the international ocean economy in the OECD Ocean Economy Monitory and featured in this report Ocean economic activities are defined in the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor and this report according to the OECD Blueprint(Jolliffe,Jolly and

84、 Stevens,20216)as groups of establishments from any institutional sector engaging in the same or similar kinds of economic activity that:take place on or in the ocean produce goods and services primarily for use on or in the ocean extract non-living resources from the marine environment harvest livi

85、ng resources from the marine environment use living resources harvested from the marine environment as intermediate inputs would likely not take place were they not located in proximity to the ocean,or,gain a particular advantage by being located in proximity to the ocean The economic statistics pro

86、duced for the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor and presented in this report are currently harmonised across 33 individual ocean economic activities for 142 coastal countries between 1995 and 2020.Each ocean economic activity is measured as distinct from all others so that ocean 12 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 205

87、0 OECD 2025 economic activities can be aggregated into wider groupings called ocean economic activity groups.There are seven ocean economic activity groups and the economic statistics in this report are generally focussed on this level of aggregation.Estimates of the total ocean economy refer to the

88、 aggregation of all 33 currently measured ocean economic activities within a country.The links between the three levels of the hierarchy in the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor are presented in Table 1.Estimates of the global ocean economy in this report refer to the aggregation of all 33 currently measur

89、ed ocean economic activities in all countries.Table 1.Ocean economic activity classification in the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor Ocean economic activity Ocean economic activity group Total Marine fishing Marine fishing,marine aquaculture&marine fish processing Total ocean economy Marine aquaculture Ma

90、rine fish food processing Marine fish beverage processing Offshore oil&gas extraction Offshore oil/gas extraction&offshore industry Offshore industry Offshore wind electricity generation Offshore wind&marine renewables Marine renewable energies electricity generation Maritime shipbuilding Maritime s

91、hipbuilding&maritime equipment manufacturing Maritime equipment manufacturing Maritime transport Maritime transport&maritime ports Maritime ports Marine&coastal tourism:Accommodation Marine&coastal tourism Marine&coastal tourism:Food&beverage Marine&coastal tourism:Road&railway transport Marine&coas

92、tal tourism:Water transport Marine&coastal tourism:Air transport Marine&coastal tourism:Transport rentals Marine&coastal tourism:Travel agencies Marine&coastal tourism:Sport,culture&recreation Ocean research&development services Marine&maritime industry trade,transport&R&D services Marine fishing tr

93、ade services Marine fishing transport services Marine aquaculture trade services Marine aquaculture transport services Marine fish food processing trade services Marine fish food processing transport services Marine fish beverage processing trade services Marine fish beverage processing transport se

94、rvices Maritime shipbuilding trade services Maritime shipbuilding transport services Maritime equipment trade services Maritime equipment transport services The estimation procedure uses a range of internationally comparable datasets with country-level data drawn from the tables underlying the OECD

95、Inter-Country Input-Output(ICIO)database.The 2023 edition of the OECD ICIO tables(2023 edition)used for this analysis cover 76 economies,plus a category comprising“the Rest of the World”(Table 2).Given the consistent measurement method used across 13 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 countries,the

96、se statistics are can be aggregated to form estimates of the global ocean economy or further disaggregated to compare the size of ocean economic activities to each other or across countries.Table 2.The OECD Inter-Country Input-Output(ICIO)database currently includes 76 countries with a“rest of the w

97、orld”category Countries included in the ICIO database Australia,Austria,Belgium,Bangladesh,Bulgaria,Belarus,Brazil,Brunei Darussalam,Canada,Switzerland,Chile,China(Peoples Republic of),Cte dIvoire,Cameroon,Colombia,Costa Rica,Cyprus,Czechia,Germany,Denmark,Egypt,Spain,Estonia,Finland,France,United K

98、ingdom,Greece,Hong Kong,China,Croatia,Hungary,Indonesia,India,Ireland,Iceland,Israel,Italy,Jordan,Japan,Kazakhstan,Cambodia,Korea,Lao(Peoples Democratic Republic),Lithuania,Luxembourg,Latvia,Morocco,Mexico,Malta,Myanmar,Malaysia,Nigeria,Netherlands,Norway,New Zealand,Pakistan,Peru,Philippines,Poland

99、,Portugal,Romania,Russian Federation,Saudi Arabia,Senegal,Singapore,Slovakia,Slovenia,Sweden,Thailand,Tunisia,Trkiye,Chinese Taipei,Ukraine,United States,Viet Nam,South Africa Note:The OECD Inter-Country Input-Output(ICIO)tables serve as an international statistical framework,mapping the flows of pr

100、oduction,consumption,and investment within countries,as well as international trade in goods and services between countries.These flows are categorised by economic activity and country,providing a consistent and comprehensive global perspective.Source:To learn more,visit OECD(2025),OECD Inter-Countr

101、y Input-Output(ICIO)database.This internationally comparable approach does not account for all ocean economic activities included in every national ocean economy study,which are measured by individual countries using differing methodological approaches.For example,the OECD approach does not currentl

102、y include economic activity belong to the industrial category public administration and defence since there are no existing internationally comparable data sources from which these estimates could be derived.This category has been measured at the national level in some studies,such as the US Marine

103、Economy Satellite Account by the US Bureau of Economic Analysis and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.Some national studies might therefore present larger national ocean economies than presented in this report,because of the chosen scope,different coverage of activities and methodo

104、logical approaches.Country groupings used in the report Country groupings used in this report are based on either United Nations regional country groupings or World Bank country income groups.Income groupings change slightly every year and consequently cannot be detailed to the full extent in this d

105、ocument.Please refer to the World Bank World Bank Country and Lending Groups for the countries belonging to each group in each year.Table 3.United Nations regional groupings used in the report United Nations regional group Countries Eastern Asia China,Japan,Korea Europe Albania,Belgium,Bosnia and He

106、rzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,Malta,Monaco,Montenegro,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Russia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Ukraine,United Kingdom Latin America and the Caribbean Antigua and Barbuda,Argentina,Bahamas

107、,Barbados,Belize,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Costa Rica,Cuba,Dominica,Dominican Republic,Ecuador,El Salvador,Grenada,Guatemala,Guyana,Haiti,Honduras,Jamaica,Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,Peru,Saint Kitts and Nevis,Saint Lucia,Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,Suriname,Trinidad and Tobago,Uruguay,Venezuela Northe

108、rn Africa and Western Asia Algeria,Bahrain,Cyprus,Egypt,Georgia,Iraq,Israel,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Libya,Morocco,Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,Sudan,Syria,Tunisia,Trkiye,United Arab Emirates,Yemen Northern America Canada,United States South-eastern Asia and Oceania Australia,Cambodia,Fiji,Indonesia,Kiribat

109、i,Malaysia,Marshall Islands,Micronesia,Myanmar,New Zealand,Palau,Papua New Guinea,Philippines,Samoa,Singapore,Solomon Islands,Thailand,Timor-Leste,Tonga,Vanuatu,Viet Nam 14 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Southern Asia and Central Asia Bangladesh,India,Iran,Maldives,Pakistan,Sri Lanka Sub-Sahara

110、n Africa Angola,Benin,Cameroon,Comoros,Congo,Djibouti,Equatorial Guinea,Eritrea,Gabon,Gambia,Ghana,Guinea,Guinea-Bissau,Kenya,Liberia,Madagascar,Mauritania,Mauritius,Mozambique,Namibia,Nigeria,Sao Tome and Principe,Senegal,Seychelles,Sierra Leone,South Africa,Tanzania,Togo Source:See the United Nati

111、ons Regional groups of Member States for more details.Table 4.Other country groupings used in the report Countries grouping Countries OECD Australia,Austria,Belgium,Canada,Chile,Colombia,Costa Rica,Czechia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Israel,Italy,Japan,Korea

112、,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Mexico,Netherlands,New Zealand,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Slovak Republic,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Trkiye,United Kingdom,United States.EU 27 Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Croatia,Republic of Cyprus,Czech Republic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Irel

113、and,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Netherlands,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain and Sweden.G7 Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,United Kingdom,United States.G20 Argentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,China,France,Germany,India,Indonesia,Italy,Japan,Republic of Korea,Mexico,Russia,

114、Saudi Arabia,South Africa,Trkiye,United Kingdom,United States,the European Union,the African Union.Glossary of technical terms used in the report The following section presents the definitions of key economic terms found in this publication.Chained volume index:Measures changes in the quantity or qu

115、ality of goods and services produced over time independently of changes in the price level.Chained volume indices provide a more accurate measure of growth than fixed-base indices(often called constant prices)but are non-additive,meaning components of an aggregate cannot be summed up directly.Curren

116、t prices:Monetary value of goods,services,and assets at the time production takes place expressed as an absolute figure.Full-time equivalent(FTE)employment:Total annual hours worked in an industry divided by the average annual hours worked in full-time jobs in an industry.Gross output:Industry aggre

117、gate of the goods or services produced within establishments and made available for use outside of the producing establishment plus any goods and services produced for establishments own final use.Intermediate consumption:Industry aggregate of the goods and services consumed as inputs in production,

118、excluding fixed assets whose consumption is recorded as consumption of fixed capital.Gross value-added(GVA):Industry aggregate of the value of gross output less the value of intermediate consumption.Multi-factor productivity(MFP):An indirect measure of the efficiency with which multiple inputs,typic

119、ally labour and capital,are used to produce output in the production process.It reflects the portion of output growth that cannot be explained by the accumulation of these inputs alone.Changes in MFP capture factors such as technological advances,improvements in management practices,organisational c

120、hanges,and economies of scale.Single Input Factor Productivity(SFP):it measures how efficiently a single inputsuch as labour or capitalis used to produce output.It is a partial productivity measure that does not account for the combined effects of multiple inputs.Territorial sea:A belt of water whic

121、h extends up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline of a State and which is regarded as sovereign waters of that State.15 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Selected references of the readers guide:Jolliffe,J.,C.Jolly and B.Stevens(2021),“Blueprint for improved measurement of the international ocea

122、n economy:An exploration of satellite accounting for ocean economic activity”,OECD Science,Technology and Industry Working Papers,No.2021/04,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/aff5375b-en.Jolliffe,J.and C.Jolly(2024),“Eight lessons learned from comparing ocean economy measurement strategie

123、s across countries”,OECD Science,Technology and Industry Working Papers,No.2024/01,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/1cb42a67-en.Yamano,N.et al(2025),“Development of the OECD Inter Country Input-Output Database,2023 edition”,OECD Science,Technology and Industry Working Papers,OECD Publish

124、ing,Paris(forthcoming).16 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Executive summary The ocean economy is important for the global economy The ocean covers 71%of Earths surface,comprises 90%of the biosphere,provides food security for over three billion people,enables the transportation of over 80%of glob

125、al goods,and hosts sea cables carrying 98%of international Internet traffic.New OECD statistics and analysis reveal the vital role that the ocean plays in the economies and livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people.If considered a country,the ocean economy would be the worlds fifth-largest econo

126、my in 2019.From 1995 to 2020,it contributed 3%to 4%of global gross value added(GVA)and employed up to 133 million full-time equivalents(FTEs).The global ocean economy doubled in real terms in 25 years from USD 1.3 trillion of GVA in 1995 to USD 2.6 trillion in 2020,growing at an annual average rate

127、of 2.8%.Employment levels remained relatively constant,reaching a peak of 151 million Full Time Equivalents(FTEs)in 2006,falling to 101 million in 2020 due to COVID-19,with recovery since then.Over 75%of global ocean economic growth between 1995 and 2020 originated in countries in Asia and the Pacif

128、ic.Eastern Asia alone accounted for 56%of global ocean economy expansion,while Europe and North America experienced slower growth.The Peoples Republic of China,the United States,Japan,Norway,and the United Kingdom had the largest ocean economies in absolute terms on average over the period.However,c

129、ountries like Norway had the highest ocean-to-overall economy share,demonstrating regional disparities in reliance on the ocean economy.Tourism and offshore oil and gas extraction generated about two-thirds of total gross value added.However,workforce distribution varied widely.Marine and coastal to

130、urism was the largest employer,while offshore oil and gas extraction created high economic output but relatively low employment.Output from shipbuilding and offshore wind energy also expanded rapidly albeit from a smaller base.Major disruptions will reshape the ocean economy in the coming decades If

131、 historical trends were to continue,the global ocean economy could be nearly four times larger by 2050 than in 1995.However,various forces could slow or even reverse growth by 2050 if no policy actions are taken.Global shaping forces will impact ocean health and the ocean economy.Factors such as pop

132、ulation growth,climate change and other environmental pressures,trade and globalisation,the energy transition,technological advances,and geopolitical dynamics along with their interactions will shape ocean health and the future growth trajectory of the ocean economy.Qualitative and quantitative proj

133、ections highlight climate change,energy transitions,and advances in science,technology,and innovation as key drivers.Faltering productivity trends and digitalisation gaps will also shape the ocean economys future potential.While some ocean economic activities outpaced average industry growth between

134、 1995 and 2020,multifactor productivity declined in more than half the ocean economic activity groups analysed.The contribution of capital services to ocean economic growth was heavily tilted towards non-information and 17 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 communication technology assets providing

135、 some evidence that ocean economic activities are not making the most of powerful drivers of productivity to prepare for an increasingly automated future.Different pathways for a global energy transition will affect ocean economic growth in different ways.In an accelerated transition to low-carbon e

136、nergy,the ocean economy would continue to grow through 2050 to around 2.5 times the size it was in 1995.The composition of the ocean economy would change,with marine and coastal tourism remaining dominant and offshore oil and gas declining as a proportion of total ocean economy GVA.A stalled transit

137、ion scenario could lead to a decline in overall ocean economic activity from the level reached in 2020,mainly due to a combination of a lack of investment in productivity and increasing negative effects of climate change on many parts of the ocean economy.Four strategic priorities can help achieve a

138、 productive and environmentally sustainable ocean economy By strengthening ocean governance,promoting technological innovation,enhancing ocean data collection,and ensuring the inclusion of developing countries in global value chains,policymakers can lay the foundations for a future ocean economy tha

139、t is both economically vibrant and environmentally sustainable.Strengthening ocean governance and regulatory frameworks can be realised with the use of science-based ocean management tools that balance economic and environmental priorities such as maritime spatial planning and marine protected areas

140、.With national territorial claims expanding to over nearly 39%of the global ocean,national positions on ocean issues can be boosted by pragmatic international co-operation through agreements such as the WTO Fisheries Subsidies Agreement and the High Seas Agreement(BBNJ).These efforts can help close

141、regulatory and enforcement gaps(e.g.reforming harmful subsidies that often drive overfishing)and align economic incentives with sustainability goals.Promoting technological innovation and digital transformation.Governments should encourage public and private investment in ICT-driven solutions,automa

142、tion,and robotics to enhance productivity and competitiveness and reduce environmental externalities.This would involve strengthening workforce development programmes to upskill workers in key industries,preparing them for a more digitalised economy and supporting ocean economy innovation clusters t

143、o foster cross-industry and-sector collaboration and advances.Enhancing ocean observation data collection and scientific research.Expanding ocean knowledge is critical for science,conservation,and the economy.With only 25%of the seabed mapped,ocean exploration and observation networks should expand

144、using new digital technologies.These efforts should enhance science-based decision-making and resource management.To support these developments,better public and private ocean data accessibility policies will be essential.Expanding developing countries participation in the ocean economy while safegu

145、arding against environmental harms.With shifting demographics and evolving natural resource availability,developing countries can benefit from greater ocean economy participation.Achieving this will require integrated ocean strategies that place the conservation and sustainable use of the marine env

146、ironment as their primary objective.Policies like sustainable fisheries management and eco-friendly tourism incentives should be encouraged.Additionally,fostering new international partnerships will facilitate two-way knowledge-sharing while enhancing financial support and technology transfers.18 TH

147、E OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 This first chapter summarises the key findings and recommendations from this report on The Ocean Economy to 2050.The report underlines the ocean economys importance for the global economy over the last few decades,as well as its resilience,and highlights the pressin

148、g need to address structural vulnerabilities.Looking ahead,many of the major forces shaping the future of the ocean economy threaten to weaken both its growth and resilience.By strengthening governance,promoting technological innovation,enhancing data collection,and promoting the inclusion of develo

149、ping countries,policymakers can lay the foundations for an ocean economy that is both economically vibrant and environmentally sustainable.This coordinated approach will be critical to creating jobs,generating revenue,and ensuring long-term ocean health in an increasingly digital and interconnected

150、world.1 Steering the ocean economy to be productive and sustainable 19 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Introduction The ocean supports life on earth,representing 90%of the planets biosphere,covering about 71%of Earths surface and providing over half of the planets oxygen.It also plays a vital ro

151、le for the global economy.Ocean economic activities contribute to prosperity,with fisheries and marine harvesting supporting food security for over three billion people.Shipping and ports facilitate international trade with more than 80%of goods transported by sea,while undersea cables carry over 98

152、%of international Internet traffic,underpinning digital connectivity worldwide.Beyond these already impressive numbers,the ocean economy represents revenues and jobs for hundreds of millions of people.This chapter summarises the key findings and recommendations from the report on The Ocean Economy t

153、o 2050,which provides new OECD insights on the importance of ocean economic activities in the global economy.It also delivers sobering insights into potential future trends,as ocean health faces mounting pressures from overexploitation,environmental degradation,and climate change impacts,while the o

154、cean economy exhibits some structural vulnerabilities as well.A more sustainable future is possibleif policymakers leverage advances in science and innovation,and apply existing policy and regulatory instruments,to adopt practices that balance economic growth with conservation efforts.This Chapter d

155、elivers first unprecedented data on the ocean economys performance between 1995 and 2020.It then explores potential trajectories for the ocean economy evolution in the coming decades,highlighting some major shaping forces.It ends with proposed actions that policymakers could take to sustain ocean-ba

156、sed employment and revenue,while setting the ocean economy on more sustainable pathways.Box 1.1.The ocean economy in figures The global ocean economy represented 3%to 4%of the global overall economy annually between 1995 and 2020 The size of the ocean economy doubled in real terms from USD 1.3 trill

157、ion in 1995 to USD 2.6 trillion in 2020,accruing an annual average growth rate of 3%At its peak,the ocean economy employed 151 million FTE in 2006,gradually falling to 134 million FTE in 2019,and then to 101 million FTE in 2020,as COVID-19 restrictions set in.Recovery occurred since then.Marine and

158、coastal tourism and offshore oil and gas extraction were the two largest ocean economic activities.GVA generated by marine and coastal tourism reached a high of USD 789 billion in 2019,while offshore oil/gas and offshore industry peaked at USD 988 billion in 2020 Marine and coastal tourism was the l

159、argest employer in the ocean economy by a wide margin,with employment reaching a peak of 95 million FTE in 2003 before falling to 79 million FTE in 2019 Over 75%of global ocean economic growth is from countries in Asia and the Pacific with more than 55%created by countries in Eastern Asia alone Alth

160、ough high-income countries generated the most global ocean economy GVA,this dominance weakened over time with their share falling from 71%in 1995 to 52%in 2019 Eastern Asia and Southern and Central Asia were the largest employers in aggregate at regional level,with respective contributions of 29%and

161、 21%to global ocean economy FTE in 2019 Only a small share of FTEs in the global ocean economy were employed in high-income countries,ranging from 15%in 1995 to 12%in 2019 Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.20 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 The ocean economys performance between 199

162、5 and 2020 Between 1995 and 2020,the ocean economy contributed a sizable share of global economic output and provided a consistent source of prosperity for hundreds of millions of people.This section summarises the past performance of the global ocean economy,the factors that could threaten or stren

163、gthen its prospects,and projections of its potential through to 2050.The ocean economy is an important part of the global economy The global ocean economy generated USD 2.3 trillion of current price gross value added(GVA)and 102 million full-time equivalent(FTE)jobs in 2020(the latest year internati

164、onal statistics are available).The equivalent figures in 2019 the last year available before Covid-19 disrupted economies globally are USD 2.7 trillion in GVA and 133 million FTEs.Annually between 1995 and 2020,the global ocean economy contributed 3.0%to 4.0%of the total GVA in the overall global ec

165、onomy(Figure 1.1)and 3.5%to 4.7%of total FTEs.If considered a country,the global ocean economy would have been the worlds fifth largest economy in GVA terms in 2019(seventh in 2020)having risen from eighth in the 1995 ranking.Figure 1.1.The global ocean economy provided between 3.0%and 4.0%of global

166、 economic output and between 3.5%and 4.7%of global employment annually from 1995 to 2020 Global ocean economy gross value added and full-time equivalents shares of global overall economy gross value added and full-time equivalents Note:Total global gross value added in current price US dollars and e

167、mployment in full-time equivalents generated by ocean economic activities as a share of total global overall economy gross value added in current price US dollars and employment in full-time equivalents in each year.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.The median share of country-level ove

168、rall economy GVA and FTEs attributable to the ocean economy remained roughly similar across regions between 1995 and 2020(Figure 1.2).The lowest median ocean economy to overall economy GVA share is in Northern America(1.6%of overall GVA and 2.1%of overall FTE)and the highest FTE share is in South-ea

169、stern Asia and Oceania(7.6%of overall GVA and 7.3%of overall FTE).The relatively narrow range in median shares across regions masks noticeable country outliers(Figure 1.2).In Europe,for example,Norways ocean economy represents a much higher share of its 3.0%4.0%0.01.02.03.04.05.0Percentage sharesPan

170、el A.Gross value addedPeriod mean:3.4%3.0%4.0%0.01.02.03.04.05.0Percentage sharesPanel B.Full-time equivalentsPeriod mean:4.2%4.7%3.5%21 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 overall economy GVA(26.8%)and FTE(17.1%)than the average(3.1%of GVA and 4.0%of FTEs).The regions with the highest country-level

171、 ratios of ocean-economy to overall-economy GVA are Northern Africa and Western Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa,both of which contain ocean and overall economies that are dominated by offshore and terrestrial oil and gas extraction.The largest FTE shares on average over the period are found in Southern

172、Asia and Central Asia and South-Eastern Asia and Oceania where marine and coastal tourism dominate.Figure 1.2.Average ocean economy to overall economy shares are mostly similar across regions,but some countries have large shares relative to their peers Country-level total ocean economy to overall ec

173、onomy gross value added and full-time equivalents shares by region Note:Country-level total ocean economy gross value added and full-time equivalents shares of overall economy gross value added and full time equivalents are calculated first.The chart displays the minimum and maximum country-level sh

174、ares in each region and the median of the country-level shares in each region as well as the arithmetic means across countries over the whole period.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.Ocean economic output grew steadily between 1995 and 2020 and this growth was disproportionately generat

175、ed in Asia and the Pacific The global ocean economy as measured by real-terms GVA grew at an average rate of roughly 2.8%per year without experiencing any prolonged episodes of negative growth(Figure 1.3).This resulted in a doubling of real-terms GVA from USD 1.3 trillion in 1995 to USD 2.6 trillion

176、 in 2020.Global ocean economy employment remained relatively stable over the period,growing from 122 million FTE in 1995 at an average of 0.4%per year to 134 million in 2019(Figure 1.3).It suddenly dropped to 102 million in 2020 at the onset of Covid-19 restrictions,which notably hit tourism,but sta

177、rted to recover the following years.0.010.020.030.040.050.060.0Percentage sharesPanel A.Gross value added0.010.020.030.040.050.060.0Percentage sharesPanel B.Full-time equivalentsMinMedianMaxPeriod mean:6.2%Period mean:6.9%22 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Figure 1.3.Global ocean economy output

178、grew at 2.8%and employment at 0.4%on average between 1995 and 2020 Annual growth rates in global ocean economy real-terms gross value added and full-time equivalents Note:Annual percentage changes in total global ocean economy gross value added chained volumes and employment full-time equivalents.So

179、urce:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.The majority roughly 75%of growth in global ocean economy real-terms GVA between 1995 and 2020 was generated in regions in Asia and Pacific.Figure 1.4 plots average regional GVA shares of global ocean economy GVA against average regional ocean economy rea

180、l-terms GVA growth rates so that the area of each bar represents the contribution of each region to global ocean economy growth.The region with the highest average growth rate(given by the height of the bar)was South-Eastern Asia and Oceania.But this region represented a relatively small part of the

181、 global ocean economy(given by the width of the bar),leaving its weighted contribution to average ocean economy growth at 7.6%.Northern-America,on the other hand,represents a much larger portion of the global ocean economy but grew much slower than all other regions hence the flatter rectangle towar

182、ds the right-hand side of Figure 1.4.Although it did not possess the largest average growth rate,the region with the highest weighted contribution was Eastern Asia which generated 56.0%of global ocean economy growth on average over the period.3.0%4.0%-2.0-1.00.01.02.03.04.05.06.07.08.0Percentage gro

183、wth ratesPanel A.Gross value addedPeriod mean:2.8%-24.0-20.0-16.0-12.0-8.0-4.00.04.08.0Percentage growth ratesPanel B.Full-time equivalentsPeriod mean:-0.6%Pre-Covid period mean:0.4%23 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Figure 1.4.Over 75%of global ocean economic growth is from countries in regions

184、 in Asia and the Pacific with more than 55%created by countries in Eastern Asia alone Regional average total ocean economy real-terms growth weighted by the regional average share of global ocean economy real-terms gross value added Note:The area of each bar is proportional to the average of countri

185、es in each regions share of global ocean economy real-terms gross value added growth between 1995 and 2019.The regional 1995 to 2019 arithmetic mean of country-level total ocean economy real-terms gross value added plotted against the regional weighted average compound annual growth in total ocean e

186、conomy real-terms gross value added between 1995 and 2019.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.Some countries have large ocean economies while others are reliant on the ocean economy as a proportion of their overall economy In 2020,the countries with the largest ocean economies were the Pe

187、oples Republic of China(hereafter China)with 23.6%of global ocean economy current price GVA,Japan(7.1%),United States(7.0%),India(5.0%),and the United Kingdom(4.9%).As a comparison,China contributed 3.2%of global ocean economy current price GVA and ranked ninth in 1995.The highest-ranking countries

188、in 1995 were Japan(21.4%),United States(11.0%),United Kingdom(9.2%),Italy(5.6%)and Saudi Arabia(3.5%).On average over the period,Japan was the largest ocean economy with an average 1995 to 2020 share of global ocean economy current price GVA of 11.7%,followed by China(10.5%),United States(9.3%),Unit

189、ed Kingdom(7.6%)and Norway(5.3%).In real-terms gross value added,the United States was the OECD member country with the largest ocean economy between 2008 and 2020(Panel A of Figure 1.5).Pre-2008,the top position switched between the United Kingdom,Japan and the United States.The top five OECD membe

190、r country ocean economies in average real-terms GVA also includes Norway and Mexico.7.6 10.214.2 56.0 2.2 3.0 5.0 1.7South-eastern Asia and OceaniaSouthern Asia and Central AsiaEastern AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaNorthern Africa and Western AsiaLatin America and the CaribbeanEuropeNorthern America0123456A

191、verage regional total ocean economy gross value added percentage growthAverage regional percentage share of global ocean economy gross value added24 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 The largest OECD member country ocean economy as a proportion of its overall economy was Norway with 26.6%on averag

192、e between 1995 and 2020(Panel B of Figure 1.5).Iceland(average of 14.7%of overall economy GVA),Greece(7.7%),Mexico(7.2%)and Denmark(6.3%)also feature in the top five OECD member countries.Norways ocean economy reached a peak as a share of its overall economy in 2006 at 33.1%(the lowest share in Norw

193、ay was in 1995 at 20.5%).Icelands ocean to overall economy share dropped from a high of 21.8%in 1995 to a low of 10.0%in 2007 before levelling off to an average of 12.9%for the remainder of the period.All other top five OECD member countries shares remain roughly equal over the time period.Figure 1.

194、5.Within the OECD,the United States had the largest ocean economy in absolute terms and Norway had the largest ocean economy as a proportion of its overall economy Country-level total ocean economy real-terms gross value added and total ocean to overall economy gross value added shares Note:Coastal

195、OECD member countries are ranked according to their average total ocean economy real-terms gross value added and their ocean to overall economy current price gross value added shares across the period.Annual real-terms gross value added and ocean to overall economy shares for the top five countries

196、in this ranking are displayed in the charts.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.A diverse set of economic activities are included in the ocean economy The OECD Ocean Economy Monitor measures 33 individual ocean economic activities and provides seven separate activity aggregates called oce

197、an economic activity groups.The ocean economic activity groups marine and coastal tourism and offshore oil/gas extraction and offshore industry were the largest contributors to global ocean economy GVA between 1995 and 2020 together accounting for around two-thirds of the total in each year(Figure 1

198、.6).In annual terms,marine and costal tourism was the largest ocean economic activity group in global real-terms GVA between 1995 and 2019 when it hit a peak of USD 1.06 trillion.Real-terms GVA in the activity group then fell to USD 910 billion in 2020 because of the restrictions put in place during

199、 Covid-19.Conversely,offshore oil/gas extraction and offshore industry reached a peak in 2020 at USD 987.4 billion and replaced marine and coastal tourism as the largest ocean economic activity that year.020406080100120140160180USD billionsPanel A.Real-terms gross value addedUSAJPNGBRNORMEX051015202

200、53035Percentage sharesPanel B.Ocean to overall economy shares ofgross value addedNORISLGRCDNKMEX 25 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Figure 1.6.Two ocean economic activity groups dominate the global ocean economy:Offshore oil/gas extraction and offshore industry and marine and coastal tourism Fiv

201、e-year period average global ocean economic activity group real-terms gross value added Note:The arithmetic mean of global ocean economic activity group chained volume measures for each five-year period between 1995 and 2019.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.Ocean economic activity grou

202、ps generating high levels of GVA do not employ high levels of full-time equivalents.Differences in the average levels of real-terms GVA and FTE across ocean economic activity groups in different countries can be seen in Figure 1.7,where each point represents the average performance of a country for

203、a given ocean economic activity group.The oil and gas extraction and offshore industry group is represented by a noticeable cluster of orange diamonds positioned toward the upper-left of Figure 1.7.This indicates a combination of higher-GVA and lower-FTE levels compared to other ocean economic activ

204、ity groups and suggests this group generates substantial output but employs fewer workers relative to others.In contrast,marine and coastal tourism(yellowish squares)exhibits both high GVA and high FTE figures in general.Another cluster of green diamonds representing offshore wind and marine renewab

205、les is noticeable towards the bottom-left of Figure 1.7,underlining its current status as a low GVA and low FTE activity group.1 95034 406158 699187 994302 018774 211985 457016 97675 247106 866135 223459 648599 224 0 200 000 400 000 600 000 800 0001 000 000Offshore wind&marine renewablesMarine&marit

206、ime industry trade,transport&R&D servicesMaritime shipbuilding&maritime equipment manufacturingMarine fishing,marine aquaculture&marine fish processingMaritime transport&maritime portsOffshore oil/gas extraction&offshore industryMarine&coastal tourismAverage real-terms gross value added 1995-1999 20

207、00-2004 2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-201926 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Figure 1.7.Ocean economic activity groups generating high levels of gross value added do not necessarily create high employment and vice versa Average ocean economy activity group full-time equivalents and average ocean econ

208、omy activity group gross value added Note:The arithmetic mean of country-level ocean economy activity group full-time equivalents between 1995 and the arithmetic mean of country-level ocean economy activity group real-terms gross value added between 1995 and 2019.Only the 76 OECD Inter-Country Input

209、 Output Tables countries are included in the chart for clarity.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.Growth in many ocean economic activities outpaced average industry growth between 1995 and 2020 Real-terms GVA in most ocean economic activity groups grew at a faster rate than average indus

210、try growth in the wider economy each year between 1995 and 2020(Figure 1.8).Between 2008 and 2020,maritime shipbuilding and maritime equipment manufacturing performed particularly strongly growing at a rate three times higher than average industry growth at its top level in 2011.Maritime transport a

211、nd maritime ports,marine and maritime industry trade,transport and R&D services and offshore oil and gas extraction and offshore industry all consistently outperform average industry real-terms GVA growth.Marine and coastal Marine fishing,marine aquaculture&marine fish processingOffshore oil/gas ext

212、raction&offshore industryOffshore wind&marine renewablesMaritime shipbuilding&maritime equipment manufacturingMaritime transport&maritime portsMarine&coastal tourismMarine&maritime industry trade,transport&R&D services 0 0 1 10 100 1 000 10 000 100 0001 000 000 0 0 1 10 100 1 000 10 000 100 000Avera

213、ge real-terms gross value added in millions USD(log scale)Average full-time equivalents in thousands(log scale)Marine fishing,marine aquaculture&marine fish processingOffshore oil/gas extraction&offshore industryOffshore wind&marine renewablesMaritime shipbuilding&maritime equipment manufacturingMar

214、itime transport&maritime portsMarine&coastal tourismMarine&maritime industry trade,transport&R&D services 27 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 tourism did not distinguish itself from average industry growth until 2010 when it begins to pick up.However,marine fishing,marine aquaculture and marine f

215、ish processing grew at a rate roughly equivalent to average industry growth throughout the period.Real-terms gross value added in offshore wind and marine renewables increased dramatically from 2000 when industrial production from the activity group is first recorded in the OECD Ocean Economy Monito

216、r.Offshore wind and marine renewables real-terms GVA grows from USD 38.2 million in 2000 to USD 4.6 billion in 2020 exhibiting an average annual growth rate far beyond all other ocean economic activity groups and the average industry in the overall economy.Figure 1.8.Economic growth in ocean economi

217、c activity groups outpaced average industry growth between 1995 and 2020 Global ocean economic activity group real-terms gross value added index and global weighted average industry real-terms gross value added index Note:Gross value added chained volume indexes with a reference year of 2015 set so

218、that 1995 equals 100 in Panel A and 2020 equals 100 in Panel B are calculated for each ocean economic activity group and the average industry.The weighted industry average is measured by calculating relevant industry group level real-terms growth rates,weighting each industry group by the share of i

219、ts contribution to total overall economy gross value added,and chaining together.Panel B is based on 2020 because it is the first year in which offshore wind and marine renewables begins to produce gross value added according to the OECD Ocean Economy Monitor.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,Januar

220、y 2025.How might the ocean economy grow in the coming decades?If historical trends were to continue,the global ocean economy could become four times larger in real terms by 2050 than it was in 1995.Productivity analysis outlined in Chapter 4 serves as the foundation for 1 10 100 1 000 10 000 100 000

221、1 000 00010 000 000Gross value added real-terms index(log-scale)Panel B.Offshore wind&marine renewablesAverage industry real-termslevel 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900Gross value added real-terms indexPanel A.All ocean economic activity groups except offshore wind&marine renewablesAverage indu

222、stry real-termslevelMarine&coastal tourismMarine&maritime industry trade,transport&R&D servicesMarine fishing,marine aquaculture&marine fish processingMaritime shipbuilding&maritime equipment manufacturingMaritime transport&maritime portsOffshore oil/gas extraction&offshore industryOffshore wind&mar

223、ine renewables28 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 a baseline projection of the future ocean economy through to 2050.The contribution of various input factors information and communication technology(ICT)capital services,non-ICT capital services,the education composition of the labour force and mu

224、ltifactor productivity to GVA growth are estimated.Past trends in these contributions are then used in a projection model that estimates real-terms GVA growth through to 2050.However,analysis of the forces shaping future ocean economic growth outlined below suggest basing projections solely on the h

225、istorical record would lead to overly optimistic growth trajectories.Pressures on the ocean economy will likely grow in the coming decades Most ocean economic activities should continue benefitting from underlying economic and social trends in the next two decades.However,even with innovations on th

226、e horizon to face some of these challenges,pressures are mounting on many fronts for the ocean and several ocean economic activities.In all scenarios,ocean economy growth will be affected and may eventually decline if no actions on improving ocean governance are taken.The policy frameworks and gover

227、nance mechanisms for the ocean and the ocean economy have been strengthening over the past decade at both national and international levels.However,as strategic and economic interests in the ocean continue to expand,so do the challenges of co-operation and effective management of this global commons

228、(Chapter 2).The increasing territorial claims over ocean watersnow encompassing approximately 39%of the global ocean under some national sovereign rightsalong with the expansion of illicit activities at sea,are transforming the ocean into an increasingly competitive environment.A range of critical i

229、ssuesfrom safeguarding freedom of navigation,regulating greenhouse gas emissions from ships,and combating illicit activities such as illegal,unreported,and unregulated(IUU)fishing,drug trafficking,and industrial pollution from both land and maritime sourceswould require increased attention from poli

230、cymakers at different levels and in coordination.Without actions,these challenges could become ever more complex and intertwined,threatening not only further ocean health but also economic activities.The rapid expansion and concentration of ocean industries,coupled with overfishing,expanded biologic

231、al and mineral extraction,and continued harmful subsidies in fishing in particularrisk exacerbating environmental externalities globally.The rapid expansion and concentration of ocean industries,coupled with insufficient regulatory oversightresulting in overfishing,unsustainable biological and miner

232、al extraction,and continued harmful subsidiesrisk exacerbating environmental externalities globally.These impacts extend beyond coastal areas,potentially undermining the long-term viability of key ocean economic activities in some countries,such as artisanal capture fisheries and marine and coastal

233、tourism(Chapter 2).Growing climate change effects(sea level rise,acidification,changing fish stocks patterns)will affect not only ocean health and its biodiversity,but also industries faced with growing risks of extreme weather and sea level rise impacts(growing threats to infrastructure at sea:oil

234、and gas rigs,offshore wind,aquaculture and ports,as well as capture fisheries)(OECD,20221;OECD,20162).Increased terrestrial pollution(plastics,chemicals,waste management)will be impacting several ocean-based industries,particularly those relying on living resources(capture fisheries)and pristine env

235、ironment(coastal and marine tourism).The amount of plastic entering the environment annually by 2040 is for instance expected to nearly double compared to 2022 if there are no policy reorientations(OECD,20243).Furthermore,the ocean economy risks missing out on potential productivity gains from major

236、 economic transformations expected in the decades to come.Investment in the ocean economy has been tilted away from information and communication technologies(ICTs)and towards capital 29 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 such as machinery and equipment.But ICTs can drive efficiency gains and the f

237、ailure to integrate advances in the underlying technologies may over time lead to serious loss of competitiveness.Recent scientific and economic literature have been used to recognise differences in the magnitude of the potential effects of various shaping forces on the future global ocean economy.F

238、igure 1.9 displays the results of this modelling work.Each shaping force is considered in isolation,all else remaining equal,and compared to the baseline projection which assumes that historical trends persist.The shaping force with the largest upside potential on the global ocean economy is an incr

239、ease in capital services productivity across ocean economic activity groups.The shaping force with the largest downside concerns the effects of climate change on income.Figure 1.9.Isolated shaping forces are likely to have effects of different magnitudes on the future ocean economy Global ocean econ

240、omy real-terms gross value added under the influence of isolated shaping forces relative to the baseline projection Note:Gross value added chained volume indexes for the overall economy are calculated under various assumptions outlined in Chapters 4 and 5.The relative index is calculated as the rati

241、o of each shaping force(Chapter 5)chained volume index to the baseline projection(Chapter 4)chained volume indexes setting the baseline projection chained volume indexes equal to 0.The lines represent the mean projected gross value added chained volume indexes calculated from the sum of projected gr

242、owth in hours worked and the components of labour productivity.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.Different approaches to the energy transition may drive substantial changes in future ocean economic growth Building on the analysis of major shaping forces,two possible scenarios for the fu

243、ture of the ocean economy are explored based on alternative global energy transition pathways.In the first scenario,the energy transition accelerates through to 2050.In the second scenario,the transition barely progresses until the end of the period(as detailed in Chapter 6).In both scenarios,global

244、 ocean economy GVA growth results in an ocean economy that is larger in real-terms than it was in 1995 when the historical period begins 2.5 times larger than 1995 under an accelerated transition and 1.5 times larger under a stalled transition(Figure 1.10).The global ocean economy could grow around

245、40%higher than its 2020 level by 2050 under an accelerated transition-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.10.00.10.20.30.40.5Deviation from baselinePopulationTrade disruptionClimate changeEnergy transitionCapital servicesPositive effectNegative effectBaselineInvestment in productivity would have powerful positive eff

246、ects on the future global ocean economy compared with historical trends.However,various other shaping forces suggest a much less favourable outlook for the global ocean economy relative to historical trends.30 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 scenario.In a stalled energy transition scenario,globa

247、l ocean economic activity would decline to end the period around 20%lower than it was in 2020.The alternative scenarios also drive important differences in the composition of the ocean economy.In the accelerated transition scenario,a pronounced shift away from offshore oil and gas extraction reduces

248、 the activitys share of total global ocean economy GVA from a third in 2020 to one-fifth in 2050.In a stalled transition,the effect goes in the other direction and offshore oil and gas extraction increases its share of the total ocean economy to become the dominant activity around 2030.In the accele

249、rated transition scenario,marine and coastal tourism remains the dominant ocean economy activity group through to 2050.But a stalled transition would reduce its share substantially as offshore oil and gas extraction expands.Offshore wind and marine renewables expand at a much faster rate in the acce

250、lerated transition,arriving in 2050 with a share 21 times larger than in 2020 as compared with a three-fold increase in the stalled transition.Figure 1.10.Important shaping forces suggest the future global ocean economy will not grow as fast as historical precedents suggest and may even go backwards

251、 Global ocean economy real-terms gross value added indexes according to three projection scenarios Note:Gross value added chained volume indexes(1995=100)for the global ocean economy are calculated under the assumptions given in Chapter 4 for the baseline projection and Chapters 5 and 6 for the acce

252、lerated and stalled transition scenario projections.Each line represents the mean predicted value from the relevant projection.Source:OECD Ocean Economy Monitor,January 2025.0100200300400Real-terms gross value added indexHistorical trends continueAccelerated transitionStalled transitionReal-terms le

253、vel in 1995Real-terms level in 2020Baseline projection assumes historical productivity trends continue,but there are reasons to believe this is optimistic.Effective use of capital provides important upside but negative effects from committed climate change and the curtailing of offshore oil and gas

254、to meet Net Zero reduce ocean economy performance below the baseline in an accelerated energy transition scenario.However,greater downside risk lies in a stalled energy transitionscenario where few capital productivity gains are generated,geopolitical conflicts reduce trade,and climate change effect

255、s go unchecked,leaving the ocean economy of 2050 around the real-terms level it was in 2013.31 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 Stronger climate,biodiversity,and energy policies are key to the ocean economys future Climate change mitigation and adaptation,and the conservation and sustainable use

256、of biodiversity including marine ecosystems,alongside support for the energy transition,are policy priorities that extend well beyond the ocean economy itself(OECD,20244).However,as seen in the different scenarios,climate change and energy transition pathways could impact deeply the growth of the oc

257、ean economy under different assumptions,as compared to historical trends with even the possibility of an eventual decline in global ocean economic activity.Successfully developing a resilient and more productive ocean economy will depend largely on the worlds ability to control climate change and mi

258、tigate its worst effects,by enhancing biodiversity conservation,sustainable use and restoration as well,and harnessing the expected transformation of the global energy system.The ocean plays a crucial role in climate regulation,absorbing approximately 25%of global carbon emissions,with stored carbon

259、 locked away in seafloor deposits for potentially hundreds of years(IPCC,20215).This process is supported by a diverse range of marine species,from plankton to mesopelagic fish,which help sustain carbon sequestration(IPBES,20196).However,while this absorption is part of the climates natural cycle,th

260、e current levels of emissions are increasingly disrupting the ecological functions of marine organisms,threatening biodiversity and the ecosystem services it provides,but also different ocean processes including ocean circulation(Mercator,20257).Continued commitment to curb overall carbon emissions

261、will be necessary,as the impacts of climate change increasingly compromise ocean health and the ocean economic activities that depend on it,as shown in this report.Eutrophication and acidification are placing increasing pressure on marine ecosystems;while rising temperatures,sea levels and extreme w

262、eather patterns further exacerbate these challenges,posing various degrees of risk to key activities such as shipping,fisheries,coastal tourism,and port infrastructure.Every incremental increase in temperature compounds these risks,underscoring the need for decisive action.The consequences will be p

263、articularly severe for coastal communities and low-income countries in particular lacking finance for adaptation.Preventing the rapid loss of biodiversity,including species and marine ecosystems such as mangroves,salt marshes,coral reefs,and seagrassdriven by human activities particularly in populat

264、ed coastal areas will be vital.Accelerated loss threatens not only critical roles of these ecosystems in regulating water quality,acting as carbon sinks,and providing coastal defences but also disrupts key ocean-based economic activities,including fishing and coastal tourism that provide food securi

265、ty and livelihoods.Widespread pollution,from plastics but not only,also contributes to these losses(OECD,20258).Deep sea ecosystems and their role in supporting marine food webs and climate processes are also only starting to be understood,thanks to improved ocean and seabed exploration and mapping(

266、Levin,20219).Conservation,sustainable use as well as restoration policies with enforcement mechanisms,are needed to support these valuable ecosystems.Steering the global energy and transportation system on a path to transition to low-carbon emissions would improve ocean health,despite a reliance on

267、fossil fuels for the foreseeable future(IEA,202410).An acceleration would mitigate long-term climate change impacts,while adaptation strategies could be implemented in parallel to prepare for accelerated changes in ocean conditions.Science and technology,and particularly digitalisation have a role t

268、o play in this transition,enabling more efficient and sustainable ocean management.Addressing these challenges requires sustained and targeted public and private investments,which not only support economic resilience but also generate long-term benefits for societies and businesses alike 32 THE OCEA

269、N ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 (OECD,202111;OECD,202512).Overall,encouraging the use of advanced technologies to reduce emissions and enhance energy efficiency would strengthen the long-term performance of ocean economic activities,while meeting wider climate and biodiversity goals.What actions can pol

270、icymakers take to set the ocean economy on a more sustainable pathway?The report highlights both strengths and vulnerabilities of the ocean economy.While ocean economic activities have outpaced overall economic growth for the past two decades,several structural weaknesses remain and will only grow i

271、n view of mounting pressures.Productivity growth has been sluggish in many ocean economic activities,and serious challenges lie ahead in terms of ocean health,governance,and digitalisation.A combination of stronger governance mechanisms,responsible business practices,and scientific innovation can co

272、ntribute to have economic activities coexist better with the oceans health,ensuring that the ocean remains a global common for future generations while supporting sustainable economic growth.Four main strategic orientations for targeted policy interventions are needed:1.Strengthening governance fram

273、eworks and collaboration 2.Promoting technological innovation and digital transformation 3.Enhancing sustained ocean observations and scientific research to develop knowledge on ocean processes and improve management 4.And expanding the integration of developing countries in the ocean economy 1.Stre

274、ngthening governance frameworks and collaboration To harness the economic potential of the ocean and ensure conservation,sustainable use and restoration of marine ecosystems,critical ocean governance and regulatory frameworks need to be put in place(OECD,20162).Few countries have comprehensive ocean

275、 strategies,and priorities for the ocean economy vary widely depending on cultural and socio-economic contexts.The oceans cultural significance,strategic role,and economic importance differ for example between different small developing island states in the Caribbean and Pacific on the one hand,and

276、countries with vast but underutilised coastlines on the other.In most cases and as a first step,encouraging improved policy coherence by refining and harmonising existing sectoral policies can effectively address complex ocean governance challenges,leveraging synergies and managing trade-offs(OECD,2

277、02513).Given the numerous challenges in ocean management highlighted in this reportfrom balancing competing commercial uses and enhancing a countrys position in the global ocean economy to combating illicit activities at seakey pragmatic actions to strengthen national ocean governance would include:

278、Establishing science-based ocean management frameworks:Over 70 countries have already developed some level of marine spatial planning(MSP)to address growing conflicts of usage along their coasts and beyond(e.g.balancing artisanal fishing ground,marine aquaculture,shipping corridors and marine protec

279、ted areas)and controlling better their waters.As a growing number of sea basins suffer from combinations of challenges,from agricultural runoffs and land-based pollution to excessive industrial ocean activities,the most effective ocean management systems are the ones based on the best available scie

280、nce,setting up control and enforcement mechanisms(Troya,Ansong and OHagan,202314).This is particularly important for marine protected areas,which provide the most socio-economic benefits when they are fully protected and monitored properly(Pike et al.,202415).More countries are moving beyond MSP to

281、implement“sustainable 33 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 ocean plans”,so that improved ocean management benefit their economic and sustainable development(Ocean Panel Secretariat,202116).Strengthening engagement in multilateral co-operation to enhance national strategic positioning:Consensus can

282、 be hard to reach internationally on many issues,however groups of like-minded countries can effectively advance a global ocean health agenda by ensuring that several key multilateral agreements come into force.International agreementssuch as the high seas governance agreement(BBNJ),the World Trade

283、Organizations(WTO)Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies,decarbonisation frameworks under the International Maritime Organization,and treaty efforts to curb plastic pollution should provide eventually transparent,enforceable rules and strengthen national strategic positioning.Several agreements are open f

284、or signature and ratification(Table 1.1).Their rapid or delayed implementation will affect the future of the ocean economy,including further national and commercial investments in selected ocean economic activities.Addressing and reducing regulatory gaps:Countries can use a range of regulatory instr

285、uments to support efficient natural resource management,with the OECD providing illustrations and tracking of these instruments for the benefit of users(OECD,202517).Reforming subsidies that risk encouraging unsustainable or illegal,unreported,and unregulated(IUU)fishing in the absence of effective

286、management,as well as investing in improving the monitoring,control and surveillance of fishing fleets are both fundamental to sustainable fisheries.Combating IUU fishing should continue with ongoing discussions at WTO and OECD contributing to this effort(OECD,202518).There are as yet no global guid

287、elines for countries engaging in seabed mining in national waters(usually in shallow waters),from sand to critical minerals,but the OECD has developed“Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas”,which provides advice as they apply to a

288、ll mineral supply chains(OECD,201619).For deep sea mining in the high seas,precautionary approaches should be applied by all to avoid irreversible damage to the ocean environment,as discussions continue within the International Seabed Authority membership.Foster proactive public-private dialogue:Gov

289、ernments should set clear policy signals and align economic incentives with sustainability objectives to encourage responsible business practices,while maintaining oversight to ensure that private-sector innovation advances social and environmental priorities.Some companies already align around comm

290、on sustainability principles(UN Global Compact,201920).As seen in Chapter 2,industry concentration plays a significant role in many ocean economic activities,with a few major players accounting for the majority of revenue generation.This is evident across sectors such as shipping,offshore oil and ga

291、s,and cruise tourism,where large corporations dominate the market.This can be an opportunity for encouraging responsible business practices amongst their peers.Table 1.1.Status of selected multilateral agreements relevant to ocean governance as of January 2025 Agreement Number of Signatures Number o

292、f Ratifications (Needed for entry into force)United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS)168 168(In force since 1994)Agreement under UNCLOS on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction(BBNJ Agreement)107 16(60 needed)World Tr

293、ade Organizations Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies 115 91(111 needed)34 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 2.Promoting technological innovation and digital transformation Technological progress is a critical lever for closing productivity gaps in the ocean economy and preparing it for a digital fut

294、ure,while using advances to improve in parallel the knowledge base on ocean processes and how they are impacted by ocean economic activities and other pressures.This is a message from the analysis of the performance of ocean economic activities in recent decades(Chapter 4).Policymakers should drive

295、investments in advanced technologies while also encouraging private actors to continuously upgrade workforce skills and capabilities.Invest in advanced technologies:Policymakers should drive investments in advanced technologies,notably as part of support programmes to help different industries trans

296、ition to low carbon emissions.Much R&D is still needed in many industries including marine aquaculture,energy production and shipbuilding(OECD,202521).Further investment in ICT-intensive capital,automation,robotics,and digital solutions should be explored,as they can boost productivity as well.Stren

297、gthen workforce development in the ocean economy:Policymakers should encourage with private actors the development of long-term pipelines of talent,skills and knowledge in ocean domains of expertise,while implementing comprehensive up-skilling and re-skilling programmes(OECD,201922).Several countrie

298、s have also set up fast-track apprenticeship schemes,contributing to retain and make better use of the experience of older workers,while enhancing on-the-job training(Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment,202323).Regular updates of education curricula to equip workers with the tools needed f

299、or a more automated,digital world are also increasingly necessary in almost all ocean economic activities,from shipbuilding to ports operations and marine aquaculture.In addition,safety aspects will remain crucial in many ocean economic activities,from artisanal fishermen to ocean manufacturing.For

300、example,the move from conventional engine design to alternative fuel systems in shipping(especially ammonia)requires not only new engineering and maintenance expertise but also safety protocols for fuel handling.Leverage maritime clusters and innovation hubs:Policymakers should encourage the develop

301、ment and optimisation of maritime clusters and technology hubs to promote cross-industry synergies,reduce shared costs,and improve competitiveness.OECD work on ocean innovation networks has shown the advantages of cross-industry platforms for joint pre-competitive innovation(OECD,201922).Optimising

302、current practices in OECD countries would involve revisiting existing industry clusters to unlock further their potential and consider establishing new networks where gaps exist,while facilitating further exchanges among researchers from different disciplines and industry leaders.In the context of g

303、eopolitical tensions,governments must strengthen international frameworks to secure and manage technology and financial flows,ensuring access to advanced solutions.3.Enhancing sustained ocean observations and scientific research Effective decision-making in the ocean economy depends on robust,real-t

304、ime data.Strengthening ocean observation systems is crucial to addressing data gaps that limit the capacity to monitor ocean health and inform policy.Expand ocean observation networks and ocean data accessibility to inform science-based policies and sustainable management practices:ocean observation

305、s provide critical data that enhance public safety,economic efficiency,and environmental stewardship(OECD,201922).By delivering public information on coastal waters and beyond,the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA),in close coordination with private actors,informs for example d

306、ecision-making for activities such as marine navigation,fisheries management,and defence,by offering insights into ocean conditions that affect operational planning and safety measures 35 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 (Stevens,Jolly and Jolliffe,202124).Publicly-funded ocean observing networks

307、 contribute as well essential data that are then reused in many commercial products and services,multiplying the economic benefits from ocean observing(Rayner,Gouldman and Willis,201925;Jolliffe and Aben Athar,202426).Ocean data will increasingly feed new“ocean digital twins”to inform better decisio

308、n-makers,connecting oceanographic data to biodiversity hotspots and real-time traffic(Mercator,20257).Governments should invest in sustained ocean observation systems to ensure comprehensive coveragefrom seabed initial mapping to the monitoring of marine ecosystems.Joint programmes for under-observe

309、d regions such as the Southern Ocean should be as well receive more support to advance knowledge on major ocean processes(Clem et al.,202427).Promote transformative research and technologies for the ocean:In view of the many challenges,policymakers should encourage science,technology,and innovation

310、policies that prioritize ocean health and sustainable ocean uses(IOC-UNESCO,202428).This was reaffirmed at key international ministerial conferences,including the OECD Science and Technology Policy Ministerial Conference in April 2024,to better address major societal challenges such as climate chang

311、e and biodiversity loss.The OECD Agenda for Transformative Science,Technology and Innovation Policies provides a framework that would be conducive to raise the visibility of the benefits of ocean science and innovation(OECD,202429;OECD,202430).4.Expanding the integration of developing countries in t

312、he ocean economy With shifting demographics and evolving natural resource availability,many developing countries will stand to gain from greater participation in the ocean economy,and their experiences would benefit the broader community.Policy measures should support these countries in leveraging o

313、cean-based activities for sustainable growth,while protecting the marine environment on which they depend.Adopt integrated ocean strategies:Developing countries,as most of the advanced economies before them,stand to benefit from developing long-term national ocean economy strategies that balance eco

314、nomic growth with ecosystem integrity(OECD,20162).Several emerging economies have already developed or are working on long-term ocean strategies.However,few low-or lower-income countries are following suit.Also,many developing countries still need to integrate monitoring frameworks to deliver on the

315、ir objectives(OECD,202531).Lower barriers to growth:Developing countries should ideally implement as well cross-sectoral policiesincluding marine spatial planning,improved fisheries management,and sustainable tourism incentivesto improve policy coherence and set conducive environments for sustainabl

316、e growth(OECD,202513).The aims are to reduce access barriers related to finance and technology,and to improve access to policy evidence using such tools as ocean thematic accounting frameworks(Jolliffe,Jolly and Stevens,202132).On financing,development assistance should be steered to support these f

317、rameworks as recommended in the forthcoming OECD Guidance for Development Partners(OECD,202531).In parallel,there are opportunities to build or strengthen maritime clusters and ocean innovation networks in developing regions through joint publicprivate initiatives and capacity-building programmes(OE

318、CD,201922).Foster partnerships between developing and advanced economies:Continue to foster partnerships through multilateral forums and expert exchanges,thereby facilitating the transfer of knowledge,technology,and best practices.Financing issues will remain key and the OECD Guidance for Developmen

319、t Partners to enable a sustainable ocean economy transition in developing countries provides advice and recommendations to ensure that the ocean-related support is well-targeted,effective,and coherent(OECD,202531).The report The Ocean Economy to 2050 identifies both the decades-long resilience of th

320、e ocean economy and the pressing need to address its structural vulnerabilities.By strengthening governance,promoting 36 THE OCEAN ECONOMY TO 2050 OECD 2025 science and technological innovation,enhancing data collection,and ensuring the inclusion of developing countries,policymakers can lay the foun

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