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1、STATE OF SOCIAL PROTECTION REPORT 2025THE 2-BILLION-PERSON CHALLENGEState of Social Protection Report 2025This book,along with any associated content or subsequent updates,can be accessed at https:/ to see all titles in this series.State of Social Protection Report 2025The 2-Billion-Person Challenge

2、 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:www.worldbank.orgSome rights reserved1 2 3 4 28 27 26 25This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions.The findings,interpr

3、etations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank,its Board of Executive Directors,or the governments they represent.The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy,completeness,or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume resp

4、onsibility for any errors,omissions,or discrepancies in the information,or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information,methods,processes,or conclusions set forth.The boundaries,colors,denominations,links/footnotes,and other information shown in this work do not imply any j

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7、ns.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo.Under the Creative Commons Attribution license,you are free to copy,distribute,transmit,and adapt this work,including for commercial purposes,under the following conditions:AttributionPlease cite the work as follows:World Bank.2025.State of Social Protection Report 2025:Th

8、e 2-Billion-Person Challenge.Washington,DC:World Bank.doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-2156-1.License:Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGOTranslationsIf you create a translation of this work,please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:This translation was not created by The World Bank

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10、 by The World Bank.Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank.Third-party contentThe World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work.The World

11、 Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third-party-owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties.The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you.If you wish to re-use a component of the work,it

12、is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner.Examples of components can include,but are not limited to,tables,figures,or images.All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications,The

13、World Bank,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.ISBN(paper):978-1-4648-2156-1ISBN(electronic):978-1-4648-2157-8DOI:10.1596/978-1-4648-2156-1Cover illustration:Israel D.Melendez,World BankCover design:Ivanna Georgina Locomandis,World BankThe Library of Congress Contr

14、ol Number has been requested.v State of Social Protection Report SeriesThe State of Social Protection Report series examines global trends in the size,composition,and evolution of social protection systems.It documents advances and challenges in strengthening social protection across low-and middle-

15、income countries and discusses avenues to gradually close the coverage gap for the worlds poorest.This series expands on previous reports on the state of social safety nets to include analysis of social insurance and labor market programs to provide a complete picture of the social protection global

16、 landscape.The analysis presented in the series draws from the most up-to-date administrative and household survey data from the World Bank Atlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and Equity(ASPIRE).Titles in the Series2025State of Social Protection Report 2025:The 2-Billion-Person Chall

17、enge(2025),World Bank2018The State of Social Safety Nets 2018(2018),World Bank2015The State of Social Safety Nets 2015(2015),World Bank2014The State of Social Safety Nets 2014(2014),World BankviiContentsAcknowledgments xiAbout the Authors xvExecutive Summary xviiAbbreviations xxiiiIntroduction 1Stre

18、ngthening and Expanding Social Protection:Substantial Progress,but a Long Way to Go 4Four Policy Action Areas for More and Better Social Protection 7Speeding Up the Spread of Stronger and Better Social Protection 11About the Report and Data 12Notes 14References 15Chapter 1 The 2-Billion-Person Chall

19、enge 21Notes 27References 27Chapter 2 Assessing Country Performance 29Coverage:Noticeable Growth,but at Far Too Slow a Pace 30Adequacy:Low Benefit Levels with Limited Impact on Poverty 43Financing:Low Spending Compared to Needs 48Strengthening Systems for Shocks and Crises:Lessons from the COVID-19

20、Pandemic 52Notes 58References 59STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT 2025viiiChapter 3 Navigating Global Headwinds:Spending More and Better toStrengthen and Expand Social Protection 65Context Matters:A Simple Taxonomy of Potential Reforms 68Focusing Noncontributory Transfers on People Who Need Them Mos

21、t 70Harnessing the Unexploited Potential of Subsidy Reforms 73Strengthening Delivery Systems for Greater Shock Responsiveness andBetterSocial and Fiscal Policies 75Leveraging Social Protection to Promote Opportunities in the Labor Market 76Doubling Down on Resilience and Shock and Crisis Responsiven

22、ess 79Notes 82References 83Conclusion 89BoxesI.1 Social Protection Promotes Equity,Resilience,and Opportunities 32.1 As Countries Income Rises,More People Benefit from Social ProtectionInterventions 322.2 Women Are More Likely to Receive Social Protection Transfers Than Men 372.3 The Promise and Cha

23、llenges of Voluntary Social Insurance ContributorySchemes 402.4 On Average,Women Receive Smaller Transfer Amounts Than Men 453.1 Evidence-Based Policy Making Requires Better Data 783.2 Economic Inclusion Programs Provide a New Policy Tool for CreatingOpportunities and Building Resilience 80FiguresBI

24、.1.1 Social Protection Promotes Equity,Resilience,and Opportunities 41.1 Two Billion People in Low-and Middle-Income Countries Are MissedorInadequately Covered by Social Protection 221.2 The Coverage Gap Increases Substantially if China and India Are Excluded 241.3 The Coverage Gap Rises to Almost H

25、alf for Those in the PoorestQuintile 251.4 In Low-Income Countries,Coverage Gaps Reach 98percent among the Extreme Poor 262.1 Access to Social Protection Has Expanded Considerably over the PastDecade 302.2 Social Assistance Has the Greatest Coverage 32ConTEnTSixB2.1.1 As Country Income Rises,More Pe

26、ople Benefit from Social ProtectionInterventions 332.3 Large Social Protection Coverage Gaps Persist Even When Contributors to Social Insurance Are Counted 342.4 Continuous Investments in Flagship Programs Have Facilitated Substantial Expansions 352.5 Cash Transfers and School Feeding Have the Highe

27、st Rates of Coverageamong Social Assistance Programs 36B2.2.1 Women Are More Likely to Receive Social Protection Transfers Than Men 382.6 Outside Europe and Central Asia,Few People Contribute to SocialInsurance Programs 392.7 The Number and Types of Active Labor Market Programs Offered Vary by Count

28、ries Income Levels 422.8 Adequacy of Benefits Remains Low,Especially in Lower-Income Countries 442.9 The Poverty Impact of Social Assistance Is Stronger in High-IncomeCountries 45B2.4.1 Social Protection Transfers Received by Men Are Substantially Higher Than Those Received by Women 462.10 Social Pe

29、nsions and Unconditional Cash Transfers Are the Most Generous Social Assistance Transfers 472.11 Social Protection Spending Is Substantial but Does Not Meet Needs,Particularly in Low-Income Countries 492.12 Spending on Pensions Varies with Population Aging and Scheme Design 502.13 Low-Income and Fra

30、gile Countries Rely Heavily on International Grants 522.14 Social Protection Spending Increased Significantly during COVID-19 542.15 COVID-19 Spending Was Especially High for Social Assistance and LaborMarket Programs 552.16 Countries with Better Pre-COVID-19 Coverage and Higher SpendingWereBetter A

31、ble to Expand Both 573.1 Existing Social Assistance Is Only Moderately Pro-poor 713.2 Social Assistance Could Be More Effective with Stronger Pro-poor Focus 723.3 Even with Increased Poverty Focus,More Funds Are Needed to Cover the Poor in Low-Income Countries 73MapI.1 Two Billion People in Low-and

32、Middle-Income Countries Remain Uncovered or Inadequately Covered by Social Protection 2xiAcknowledgmentsThis report was prepared by the Atlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and Equity(ASPIRE)team from the Social Protection Global Department at the World Bank in coordination with the S

33、ocial Safety Nets,Labor and Skills,and Pensions and Social Insurance Global Solution Groups.The team was led by Emil Daniel Tesliuc(ASPIRE Program Manager),Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas(Senior Social Protection Specialist),and Jamele Rigolini(Senior Advisor,Social Protection)under the guidance of Iffath

34、Sharif(Global Director,Social Protection),Michal Rutkowski(formerGlobal Director,Social Protection),and Loli Arribas-Baos(Practice Manager,Social Protection).The report was authored by Emil Daniel Tesliuc,Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas,and Jamele Rigolini,with contributions by Colin Andrews,Eliana Carranz

35、a,Sarah Coll-Black,Ugo Gentilini,Melis Guven,Christina Louise Lowe,Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova,Yuko Okamura,and Victoria Strokova.The analysis in the report draws from a series of companion notes.The social protection note was authored by Emil Daniel Tesliuc and Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova,with contri

36、butions from Maria Belen Fonteez,Muhsine Senart,Ingrid Mujica,Johanna Estefania Andrango Brito,Xuejiao Xu,and Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas.The COVID-19 response note was authored by Emil Daniel Tesliuc and Maria Belen Fonteez,with contributions from Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas,Robert Palacios,Johanna Estef

37、ania Andrango Brito,and Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova.The safety nets note was authored by Yuko Okamura,Hrishikesh T.M.M.Iyengar,and Colin Andrews,with contributions from Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova,Muhsine Senart,Usama Zafar,Maria Belen Fonteez,Johanna Estefania Andrango Brito,Georgina Marin,and Claudi

38、a P.Rodriguez Alas.The labor note was authored by Eliana Carranza,Matteo Morgandi,and Diana Sverdlin Lisker,with contributions from Maria Belen Fonteez,Ingrid Mujica,and Samira Salwan.The pensions note was authored by Gonzalo Javier Reyes Hartley STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT 2025xiiand MiglenaA

39、bels,with contributions from Omar Arturo Nieto Martinez and Vikesh Ramesh Mahboobani Martinez.Thegender note was authored by Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas,Veronica Lopez,and Ingrid Mujica,with contributions from Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova and Johanna Estefania Andrango Brito.The authors recognize the ASP

40、IRE Team for their work collecting,reviewing,processing,curating,harmonizing,harvesting,and safeguarding the ASPIRE data as well as for their excellent support and research assistance:Johanna Estefania Andrango Brito,Guy Morel Kossivi Amouzou Agbe,Danilo Esteban Aristizabal Giraldo,Maria Belen Fonte

41、ez,Ola Hesham Moustafa Hossni,Wiem Jinzri,Veronica Lopez,Vikesh Ramesh Mahboobani Martinez,Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova,Ingrid Mujica,Omar Arturo Nieto Martinez,Bhavya Paliwal,Indhira Ramirez,Muhsine Senart,Leopoldo Tornarolli,Xuejiao Xu,and Usama Zafar.The report also greatly benefited from administr

42、ative support provided by Agnes Nderakindo Mganga and Angela Maria Rubio.The team is also deeply grateful for the guidance provided by the peer reviewers:David Coady(International Monetary Fund),Aline Coudouel,Carolina Diaz-Bonilla,Phillippe Leite,Anita Schwarz,Joana Silva,and Ruslan Yemtsov at the

43、concept stage and Brooks Evans(International Monetary Fund),Ugo Gentilini,Ruth Hill,Harry Edmund Moroz,and Joana Silva at the decision stage.The team thanks the many colleagues who provided valuable input and feedback throughout the process,including Afrah Alawi Al-Ahmadi,Mohamed Bubaker Alsafi Alme

44、nfi,Prospere R.Backiny-Yetna,Kathleen G.Beegle,Anna Tabitha Bonfert,Sarang Chaudhary,Ifeanyi Nzegwu Edochie,Elizabeth Mary Foster,Melis U.Guven,Alessandra Heinemann,Georgina Marin,Jos Montes,Minh Cong Nguyen,Clarence Tsimpo Nkengne,Victoria Strokova,and Mervy Ever Viboudoulou Vilpoux.The team also t

45、hanks Sergiy Radyakin and Zurab Sajaia for theirfruitful collaboration to enrich ADePT software functionalities to expand the level of analysis and automate the production of the indicators presented in the report.The team expresses its gratitude to the World Bank G2Px Initiative for their invaluabl

46、e support and collaboration in the data collection and analysis of the G2Px-ASPIRE indicators for the payment methods used by social assistance programs and for gender.The team also thanks the Social Protection practice managers for their continuous support:Paolo Belli,Anush Bezhanyan,Christian Bode

47、wig,Robert Chase,Yasser El-Gammal,Paolo Gottret,Camilla Holmemo,CemMete,Suleiman Namara,Stefano Paternostro,Cristobal Ridao-Cano,and William Wiseman.ACknowlEdgmEnTSxiiiThe team is also grateful to the ASPIRE regional focal points for their vital role in coordinating data collection efforts and suppo

48、rting data revisions and validations in each of their regions:Jumana Jamal Subhi Alaref,Luis Inaki Alberro Encinas,Santiago de la Cadena Becerra,Aissata Coulibaly,Malin Linnea Sofia Ed,Randa G.El-Rashidi,Renata Mayer Gukovas,Gracia(Grace)Hadiwidjaja,Pascal Jean Edouard Jaupart,Julian Alexander Kosch

49、orke,Phillippe George Leite,Mattia Makovec,Ailo Klara Manigat,Natalia Millan,Emma Mercedes Monsalve Montiel,Dalal Moosa,Mpumelelo(Lelo)Nxumalo,Ananda Paez Rodas,Juul Pinxten,Dhushyanth Raju,Luz Stella Rodriguez,and Anita M.Schwarz.Finally,the remarkable task of assembling global data showcased in th

50、is report would not have been possible without the support of country teams.The authors are grateful for these teams efforts in collecting,sharing,and validating detailed social protection data.Country team members include Adam Abdul-Rahaman,Nazly Amr Ismail Abdelazim,Aysenur Acar Erdogan,Fanen Ade,

51、Honor Agbobly-Atayi,Syud Amer Ahmed,Alban Alphonse Ahoure,Haleem Hassan Kashkol Al-Kazali,Jumana Jamal Subhi Alaref,Edita Alo,Tamires Amorim,Ignacio Apella,Giscard Assoumou Ella,Clemente Avila Parra,Ashiq Aziz,Nancy Banegas Raudales,Anna Baranova,Laura Bermeo,Gaston Mariano Blanco,Joachim Boko,Ioana

52、 Alexandra Botea,Nuria Branders,Barbara Cedillo,Maria Virginia Ceretti,Yoonyoung Cho,Sarah Coll-Black,Silvia Coni,Christabel E.Dadzie,Athanase Danhossou,Amiran Dateshidze,Alejandro de la Fuente,Mitja Del Bono,Giorgia Demarchi,Sirma Demir Seker,Dieynaba Diallo,Yordan Dimitrov,Hawa Diop,Bruno Fernando

53、 Domeniconi,Matthew Dornan,Souraya El Assiouty,Lire Ersado,Tehreem Fatima,Dossou Fiogbe,Jordi Jose Gallego-Ayala,Sylli Gandega,Sebastian Geschwind,Yashodhan Ghorpade,Vlad Alexandru Grigoras,Sarika Gupta,Nelson Gutierrez,Siddharth Hari,Zahidullah Hatam,Emma Wadie Hobson,Marijana Jasarevic,Sandor Kara

54、csony,Raphaela Karlen,Silima Keopaseuth,Amjad Zafar Khan,Issa Kiemtore,Bertila Kinga Mayin,Germain Kramo,Saleshni Lalji,Francesca Lamanna,Munkhzul Lkhagvasuren,Zaineb Majoka,Mahamane Maliki Amadou,Erkin Mamadaliev,Davy Christian Mandza Tsomo,Cynthia Gisele Marchioni,Fernando Marin Marin,Ursula Marti

55、nez,Kana Matsuno,Steisianasari Mileiva,Khalid Ahmed Ali Moheyddeen,Victoria Monchuk,Saint-Martin Mongan-Agbeshie,Miriam Montenegro,Vanessa Moreira da Silva,Juan Martin Moreno,Dare Joshua Moriyonu,Mack Capehart Mulbah,David NDri,Nga Thi Nguyen,Cynthia Nimo Ampredu,Kenichi Victor Nishikawa Chavez,Mong

56、olmaa Norjinlkham,Marina Novikova,Ornella Malanda Nsoki,Foluso Okunmadewa,Saidou Ouedraogo,Mirey Ovadiya,Jyoti Maya Pandey,Waqas Parasha,Kenia Parsons,Katerina STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT 2025xivRaquel Kimie Pereira,Katerina Petrina,Diana Pirjol,Snjezana Plevko,Josefina Posadas,Rafael David Pu

57、ebla Robles,Aneeka Rahman,Carson Rayhill,Breno Salomon Reis,Ruth Reyes Rodriguez,Mara Ra Lopez,Mostafa Amir Sabbih,Abla Safir,Rachmat Reksa Samudra,Cristian Camilo Sanin,Pascale Schnitzer,Natalie Vanessa Schwarz,Adedoyin Jack Joseph Segla,Elisa Beatriz Seguin,Nadia Selim,Cathy Seyam,Anupama Shakya,M

58、aheshwor Shrestha,Ivan Shulga,Julia Smolvar,Francisco Socias,Roberto Sormani,Shalika H.Subasinghe,Anna Sukhova,Victor Sulla,Endeshaw Tadesse,Sayba Yawai Tamba,Caroline Tassot,Cornelia M.Tesliuc,Francesco Tisei,Liidia Tkachenko,Florian Tomini,Julieta M.Trias,Sasun A.Tsirunyanm,Sousa Tsukada Lehman,Ub

59、ah Thomas Ubah,Silas Udahemuka,Urna Ulziikhuu,Nithin Umapathi,Maria Ustinova,Julian Antonio Valdes Ramirez,John Van Dyck,Frieda Vandeninden,Annie Charlene Pamela A.Vigan,Margaux Vinez,Cornelius Claus Von Lenthe,Ya Shin Wan,Dewen Wang,Sonam Wangdi,Ruth Wutete,Mahaman Achirou Yahaya Arde,Abdoulaye Mah

60、amat Younous,Nahla Zeitoun,Yixing Zhang,Linghui Zhu,and Roman Zhukovskyi.The team is grateful for the essential support provided in the editing,publication,and promotion of the report by Cindy A.Fisher,Amy Lynn Grossman,Adea Kryeziu,Fiona Mackintosh,Sonia Madhvani,Jewel McFadden,Matthew Naumann,and

61、Marcela Sanchez-Bender.xvAbout the AuthorsJamele Rigolini is the Senior Advisor for Social Protection and Labor in the World Banks Social Protection Global Unit.His areas of expertise include social protection,labor markets,skills and human capital,poverty,and climate change.Before joining the World

62、 Bank,he was an Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of Warwick,where he taught classes on development economics and economic growth.At the World Bank he has led flagship reports,lending operations,and technical assistance programs across several regions.He holds a diploma in physics f

63、rom the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and a PhD in economics from New York University.In addition to his policy work,he remains active in research and has published in leading academic journals.Claudia P.Rodriguez Alas is a Senior Social Protection Specialist in the World Banks Social Protec

64、tion Unit with the South Asia region.Her work at the World Bank has focused on developing global knowledge products related to social protection and co-leading the Atlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and Equity(ASPIRE).Before the latter role,she worked at the Superintendency of Pensi

65、ons in El Salvador,where she drafted regulations for the countrys newly reformed social security system.She also collaborates with nonprofit organizations to promote community outreach and immigrants rights in the Washington,DC,metropolitan area.She received her bachelors degree in economics from Mo

66、ntana State University,where she was a Fulbright Scholar.She also holds a masters degree in international development from American University.Emil Daniel Tesliuc is a Senior Economist with the Social Protection and Labor Africa 2 Unit at the World Bank.He has worked broadly across social protection

67、:on the design and implementation of social assistance programs,social care services,and employment support programs;digital service delivery;reducing error and fraud in social protection programs;and parametric reforms across social protection programs.He has experience STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion r

68、EPorT 2025xviin Europe and Central Asia,the Middle East and North Africa,and Sub-Saharan Africa.Before to moving to his current unit,he led the Atlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and Equity(ASPIRE),a global database that monitors the size and distributional performance of social pro

69、tection and labor programs in World Bank client countries.He holds a PhD in economics from the Bucharest University of Economic Studies and an MA in public policy from Princeton University.xviiExecutive SummaryOver the past decade,low-and middle-income countries have expanded social protection to co

70、ver a record 4.7 billion people.Three out of four people in these countries now live in households that either benefit from social protection transfers or have access to social protection through contributions.Accomplishing that has been no easy feat.However,despite the record increases in coverage,

71、1.6 billion people in low-and middle-income countries still have no access to social protection.For an additional 400 million people,the benefits these programs provide are so meager that they may not help recipients escape poverty or cushion the blow of unexpected shocks,protracted political and so

72、cioeconomic crises,or long-term economic and life cycle transitions.1Data from 73 low-,middle-and high-income countries examined for this report show that,between 2010 and 2022,social protection systems in these countries expanded their coverage by an average of 10percentage points,from 41 to 51 per

73、cent of these countries populations.Expansion was even greater among the poor in low-income countries,for whom coverage increased by an average of 17 percentage points.However,the journey is far from over.Despite significant progress,access to social protection remains an aspiration rather than a re

74、ality for far too many people.At current growth rates,it will take another 18 years for those living in extreme poverty to be fully covered by social protection programs and another 20 years for the poorest 20 percent of households in low-and middle-income countries to be covered.The situation is pa

75、rticularly dire in low-income countries,where,despite substantial increases in coverage,social protection systems reach only one in four people,on average.Even in lower-middle-income countries,social protection systems fail to reach more than half the population.STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT 202

76、5xviiiThese unreached households,often among the poorest,bear a disproportionate burden of constraints that prevent them from escaping poverty,weathering shocks and crises,and managing the uncertainties of a fast-changing world.Many of these households live in fragile,conflict-affected locations or

77、hunger hot spots that are concentrated in parts of the Middle East and North Africa,South Asia,and Sub-Saharan Africa.Policy Action AreasDrawing on the lessons from decade-long progress,this report highlights four policy action areas governments can embrace to maximize the benefits of adequate socia

78、l protection for all:1.Extending social protection to those in need2.Strengthening the adequacy of social protection support3.Building shock-proof social protection delivery systems4.Optimizing social protection financing.Extending Social Protection to Those in NeedSocial protection coveragefrom tar

79、geted cash transfers,disability benefits,and pensions to economic inclusion,active labor market programs,and unemployment benefitsis at its lowest levels where it is needed most:among the poorest households in poorer countries.Whereas social protection programs cover almost all the extreme poor in h

80、igh-income countries,coverage falls to an average of two-thirds of the extreme poor in lower-middle-income countries and just over a quarter in low-income countries.The path to higher levels of social protection will depend on each countrys context,capacity,and fiscal space.Given the size of the nee

81、ds and limited resources,low-income countries should focus on expanding noncontributory cash transfers and economic inclusion programs for the poor,which provide multifaceted support to poor households to sustainably increase their incomes and assets.These countries should also work toward ensuring

82、that cash transfer coverage can rapidly expand when shocks occur.In middle-income countries,closing remaining coverage gaps should remain a priority.At the same time,some of these countries may also have the capacity and resources to expand their offerings of social protection programs and invest in

83、 employment programs,social insurance(including the informal sector),and social services.Strong delivery systems,such as dynamic social registries,digital payment systems,and digital case management systems,will be essential to support ExECuTivE SummAryxixeffective and sustained expansions of social

84、 protection coverage.Robust and well-coordinated delivery systems ensure that assistance reaches those in need,when they need it.Such systems are essential during normal times,but they also support effective responses during shocks and crises.However,although some countries have made great strides i

85、n developing their social protection delivery systems over the past decade,others still lack basic elements such as social registries.Even in countries where these elements are in place,their coverage and performance continue to need improvement.Strengthening the Adequacy of Social Protection Suppor

86、tSocial protection often falls short of providing adequate support for beleaguered households,especially in low-income countries.Vast socioeconomic,geographic,and gender-based inequalities in the provision of social protection services leave the poorest and most vulnerable critically underserved.Soc

87、ial assistance,as opposed to other forms of social protection support,has been the main pillar for expanding protection worldwide,but transfers are often at low levels.In low-income countries,they represent,on average,11 percent of the already-meager income of the poor.Furthermore,vast disparities p

88、ersist within socioeconomic categories.For instance,although social protection programs generally cover a higher percentage of women than men,female beneficiaries tend to receive lower transfer amounts.Acrossasample of 27 countries,this report finds that,for every dollar in transfers received by men

89、,women receive only 81 cents.Strengthening the adequacy of social protection is,however,about a great deal more than just the generosity of benefits.Ultimately,social protection systems need to be able to provide targeted support to those in need,tailored to address their specific vulnerabilities,in

90、 a timely manner.No single program can achieve this.It is therefore important that,as countries develop,they expand the programs they offer over time.The offer and reach of labor market and employment programs,for instance,is limited in most countries,affecting the programs ability to support people

91、 in search of better employment opportunities.These programs reach on average 5 percent of the population;even in upper-middle-income countries,which tend to have greater coverage,spending on the programs is a mere 0.23 percent of their gross domestic product.Yet labor market and employment programs

92、 can give long-term boosts to peoples incomes andwell-being.Evaluations of economic inclusion programs in both low-and middle-income countries,for instance,have consistently demonstrated such programs ability to sustainably increase beneficiaries incomes and assets.STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT

93、2025xxSimilarly,social insurance still does not cover many people who have the ability to contribute,especially those in the informal sector.Although not covered in this report,effective social services play an essential role in addressing nonpecuniary sources of vulnerability.Integrating support ac

94、ross programs through effective case management is also essential.Because people often face multiple vulnerabilities,coordinated,multifaceted support through different programs often delivers superior impacts.But integration hinges,again,on solid delivery systems.Without real-time data,established r

95、eferral protocols,and solid governance structures,it is not possible to provide people with the support they need in a timely manner.Building Shock-Proof Social Protection Delivery SystemsDisasters,shocks,and protracted crises make poor people poorer and can plunge better-off households into poverty

96、.People also need support during life and economic transitions that affect their livelihoods,such as aging,digitalization,and the green transition.In the face of increasingly frequent shocks,crises,and transitions,governments are turning to their social protection systems to respond to local events

97、and global changes by boosting households resilience and delivering more timely and tailored support to affected households.The process of building shock-and transition-proof social protection delivery systems must therefore continue.During the COVID-19 pandemic,countries that invested more in stren

98、gthening their social protection systems could respond faster and more effectively.But strengthening systems is only half the job.Countries must continue to integrate adaptive and shock-responsive design features into existing programs by,for example,investing in early warning systems and dynamic so

99、cial registries that facilitate the rapid identification and enrollment of people when they need support,developing insurance products to be delivered through the social protection system,setting out rules to guide the expansion of programs into areas affected by shocks and crises,and making geograp

100、hical climate vulnerability into an eligibility criterion for support through cash transfers and labor market programs.Optimizing Social Protection FinancingNone of the previously mentioned reforms will be possible without adequate financing,yet fiscal spaces are often constrained,especially in low-

101、and lower-middle-income countries.Upper-middle-income countries spend more than 6 percent of their gross domestic product on social protection,compared with ExECuTivE SummAryxxi3.7 percent in lower-middle-income countries and less than 2 percent in low-income countries.Extending the shield of social

102、 protection to cover the 2 billion people who are either lacking coverage or inadequately covered will undoubtedly require increasing the financing envelope,particularly in poorer countries,via either increased domestic revenues or external financing.This implies that social protection financing nee

103、ds are central to fiscal policy reforms.Alongside expansion of program financing,in many countries,especially middle-income ones,substantial progress in extending coverage and improving adequacy could also be achieved by reallocating existing resources to benefit the poor and vulnerable.Improving th

104、e poverty targeting of existing social assistance programs,for instance,could virtually eliminate extreme poverty in half of the countries that have an extreme poverty head count below 20 percent.Similarly,replacing regressive subsidies with targeted transfers could generate fiscal space for social

105、protection while boosting efficiency and equity.Subsidies for fossil fuels,agriculture,and fisheries likely exceed$7 trillion worldwide annually(about 8 percent of global gross domestic product)and are often regressive,inefficient,expensive,and environmentally unsound.The mix of programs should also

106、 be improved to increase financing efficiency and maximize impacts.Social insurance should be expanded to cover both formal and informal workers who are able to contribute toit.Indoingso,it will be essential to keep under control social insurance subsidies and unfunded liabilities,to avoid crowding

107、out support for the poor and vulnerable through noncontributory programs financed through general taxation.Stronger links between social protection and labor market programs should also be established.An integrated social protection and labor market system that facilitates transitions to better jobs

108、 ensures greater financial stability for individuals and helps decrease prolonged dependence on noncontributory programs.Speeding Up the Spread of Stronger and BetterSocialProtection The time for investing in more and better social protection is now.Strong globalheadwinds from climate change,food in

109、security,conflict,and displacement challenges are picking up force,driving up levels of poverty and vulnerability and heightening demand for social protection and labor market programs.Emerging global trends are also affecting the demand for and composition of social protection services.Major popula

110、tion shifts STATE of SoCiAl ProTECTion rEPorT 2025xxiiare underway,manifesting themselves in the form of a youth bulge in some countries,rapid aging in many others,and internal and international migration along many corridors.Moreover,digital technologies,the changing nature of work,and the need for

111、 an accelerated green transition are leading to profound changes in employment that will require major investments in labor market programs.The shield of social protection has spread far and wide.It now covers more people than at any point in history.But that is of little consequence to the 2billion

112、 people who are either uncovered or inadequately covered.Note1.Inadequate coverage is measured in this report as the percentage of individuals in the poorest quintile of each country who receive a level of support lower than 20percent of the relative poverty line(in turn measured as per capita incom

113、e or consumption at the 20th percentile).xxiiiAbbreviationsDefinitionAbbreviationALMPactive labor market programASPIREAtlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and EquityGDPgross domestic productHIChigh-income countryLIClow-income countryLMIClower-middle-income countryMICmiddle-income coun

114、tryOECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentUMICupper-middle-income countryAll dollar amounts are US dollars unless otherwise indicated.1 IntroductionMore people now have access to social protection than at any point in history.Over the past decade,social protection has expanded to

115、cover a record 4.7 billion people in low-and middle-income countries.Three out of four people in these countries now live in households that either benefit from or contribute to social protection.The expansion has benefited countries and people at all income levels,from low-income countries(LICs)to

116、upper-middle-income countries(UMICs)and from poor households to the middle classes.In fact,the largest expansion has been among the extreme poor in LICs.1 In the past decade,LICs have managed to expand social protection coverage among their extremely poor populations by an average of 17percentage po

117、ints,against a global average of 11percentage points.The worlds poorest are benefiting from the expansion in social protection.The world is changing fast.Overlapping global crises are having catastrophic impacts on people and are disproportionately affecting poor and vulnerable populations.The COVID

118、-19 pandemic increased the global extremely poor population by more than 73 million people,marking the first rise in poverty of this scale in decades(Aguilar,Castillo,et al.2024;Aguilar,Diaz-Bonilla,etal.2024).More than 300 million people were still facing acute levels of food insecurity in 2023,a r

119、ise of almost 200 million people compared with pre-COVID-19 levels(WFP 2024).By 2030,up to 130million more people may fall into extreme poverty as a result of climate change,and up to two-thirds of the worlds extremely poor will live in countries characterized by fragility,conflict,and violence(Worl

120、d Bank 2020a,2020b).Moreover,global trends are also having a profoundly negative effect on peoples jobs and livelihoods.Demographic imbalances are leading to a shortage of labor in many high-income countries(HICs),and LICs have an untapped bulge in the young population,but global solutions have yet

121、to be harnessed to address aging populations,youth unemployment,and migration.Technological progress,digitalization,and the need to accelerate the green transition will State of Social Protection rePort 20252require massive programs to prepare workers to use new and swiftly changing technologies and

122、 to support those who are left behind by change.Amid a world in transition,effective social protection systems can help households and workers cope with shocks and crises,manage change,and take advantage of better employment opportunities.Social protection is more important and necessary than ever.D

123、espite marked progress in coverage,2 billion people in low-and middle-income countries remain uncovered or inadequately covered by social protection.About 1.6 billion people in LICs and middle-income countries(MICs)live in households that do not receive any social protection benefits and do not make

124、 any contributions toward future benefits(mapI.1).An additional 400 million people live in poor households that receive some benefit,but not enough to meet their needs.2 In relative terms,the coverage gap is particularly pronounced in LICs and lower-middle-income countries(LMICs),where social protec

125、tion either misses or inadequately covers more that 80 percent and 30percent of the populations,respectively.These households,often among the poorest segments of the population,lack the support necessary to escape poverty,weather shocks and crises,and seek better opportunities in the labor market in

126、 a time when the world is changing rapidly.MAP I.1 two Billion People in low-and Middle-income countries remain Uncovered or inadequately covered by Social ProtectionPeople lacking anysocial protection coveragePeople with inadequatesocial protection coverage IBRD 48643|FEBRUARY 2025827 m423 m341 m16

127、9 m115 m76 mSource:original map for this publication based on atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household survey data(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).Note:coverage consists of direct and indirect beneficiaries and social insurance contributors.Map is based on 130

128、 low-and middle-income countries.for methodology,please refer to tesliuc and Martinez cordova(2025).m=million.introdUction3This report documents advances in and challenges to strengthening social protection and labor systems in low-and middle-income countries and discusses ways to gradually close th

129、e coverage gap to protect the worlds poorest households.The report documents progress in regard to all three pillars of social protectionsocial assistance,social insurance,and labor market and employment programsand looks at both coverage and adequacy of benefits.3 In doing so,it aligns with the con

130、cept of universal social protection,which refers to a nationally defined system of integrated policies and programs that provide equitable access to social protection for all people,safeguarding them against poverty and risks to their livelihoods and well-being throughout their lives,and helping the

131、m to access productive work(USP2030,n.d.).The concept of universal social protection recognizes that comprehensive and effective coverage can be provided only through a system that combines and integrates support through both contributory and noncontributory schemes and through programs that enhance

132、 human capital,productive assets,and access to jobs(box I.1).BOX I.1 Social Protection Promotes equity,resilience,and opportunitiesSocial protection reduces poverty and protects people from shocks and crises.It also encourages people to take risks and helps societies adjust to structural shifts(figu

133、re BI.1.1).Through its wide-ranging instruments that encompass social assistance and care,social insurance,and labor market and economic inclusion programs,social protection has been shown to boost incomes,reduce poverty,and overcome economic and social inequalities around the world(for example,see

134、Banerjee etal.2024;Bastagli etal.2016;Lustig 2018;UNDESA 2018).When complemented by appropriate investment in service provision,social protection also helps build human capital,contributing to improved health and education outcomes(Arriagada etal.2018;Baird etal.2014;Bastagli,Hagen-Zanker,and Sturge

135、 2016;DeWalque etal.2017;Molina Milln etal.2019).Well-designed social protection can also increase access to employment,livelihoods,and labor market opportunities,particularly for the most disadvantaged(Andrews etal.2021;Armand etal.2020;Bruhn 2020;Escudero etal.2019;Jayachandran 2020;Kluve etal.201

136、9;Mathers and Slater 2014).Moreover,in recent years social protection has played a growing role in supporting people in preparing for,coping with,and adapting to micro-and macro-level shocks and protracted crises and in helping people adjust to long-term transitions and structural shifts,such as dig

137、italization,population aging,and the green transition(Ganong etal.2021;Hidrobo etal.2018;Hill,Skoufias,and Maher 2019;Ralston,Andrews,and Hsiao 2017;Ulrichs and Slater 2016).(continued)State of Social Protection rePort 20254BOX I.1 Social Protection Promotes equity,resilience,and opportunities(conti

138、nued)FIGURE BI.1.1 Social Protection Promotes equity,resilience,and opportunitiesSocialprotectionProviding insurance against and building the capacity to manage shocksRESILIENCEPromoting investments in human capital and helping men and women access productive workEQUITYReducing poverty and inequalit

139、y,promoting equality of opportunity,and addressing exclusionOPPORTUNITYSource:World Bank 2022b.Social protection also yields economic and social benefits at the community,national,and global levels.Well-designed and implemented social protection systems can facilitate the creation of productive asse

140、ts,stimulate local economies,improve the functioning of labor markets,and increase productivity and macroeconomic growth(Alderman and Yemstov 2013;Card,Kluve,and Weber 2018;Egger etal.2019;Escudero etal.2019;Thome etal.2016).Social protection can also promote social cohesion and social stability,par

141、ticularly in contexts of rapid structural change and large-scale shocks(Babajanian 2012;Loewe and Zintl 2021;Razavi etal.2020).Following the most significant scale-up of social protection in history during the COVID-19 pandemic,social protection is now also well-recognized by governments as an effec

142、tive tool for responding to and recovering from the profound social repercussions of macro-level economic shocks(SPIAC-B 2021).Strengthening and Expanding Social Protection:Substantial Progress,but a Long Way to GoIn the past decade,steady progress has been made toward expanding social protection co

143、verage in LICs and MICs,with the greatest progress being made in LICs.Data from 73 countries in the sample show that between introdUction5circa 2010 and circa 2022,4 the share of the population within a low-or middle-income country receiving any type of social protection benefit rose on average by 1

144、0percentage points,from 41 to 51percent.5 Social assistance has been the main pillar driving this progressive global expansion,bringing to fruition years of sustained investment and learning by national and international actors alike.The greatest growth in social assistance has been in LICs,which ha

145、ve more than doubled coverage(albeit from a very low base),and especially among the poor,among whom coverage increased by 17percentage points.Nevertheless,progress is slow compared with need.On average,social protection systems in LICs and LMICs provide no benefits of any kind to 75 percent and 58pe

146、rcent of their populations,respectively.Social insurance coverage remains limited in both LICs and LMICs(less than 2 percent and 8percent of the population,respectively,receives social insurance benefits),though it increases substantially in UMICs(26percent).At current expansion rates,it will take u

147、ntil 2043 for those living in extreme poverty in these countries to be fully covered and until 2045 for the poorest 20percent of households in each country to be covered.Vast geographic,socioeconomic,and gender-based inequalities in the provision of social protection services leave the poorest and m

148、ost vulnerable critically underserved.UMICs spend more than 6percent of their gross domestic products(GDPs)on social protection,compared with 3.7percent in LMICs and less than 2percent in LICs.Accordingly,social protection systems provide benefits to an average of 61percent of the population in UMIC

149、s,against 42percent in LMICs and 25percent in LICs.Thanks to the expansion of social assistance,social protection coverage tends to be higher among poor people than among the population as a wholebut social assistance benefits are less than those associated with social insurance.Although social prot

150、ection generally covers a higherpercentage of women than men,female beneficiaries tend to receive smaller transfers.Across a sample of 27 countries,this report finds that,for every dollar in transfers received by male beneficiaries,women beneficiaries receive only 81cents.Adding to the coverage chal

151、lenges,the adequacy of social protection benefits is often low.Even when poor households are covered by some type of social protection,the level of support that they receive is often meager,particularly in the case of social assistance.On average across all countries,social protection benefits const

152、itute only 27percent of the income(or consumption)of recipient households.This situation mainly reflects the low value of social assistance and labor market program transfers,which represent little more than a 10th(11 to 15percent)of beneficiaries income.State of Social Protection rePort 20256Labor

153、market programs are often too small to make a substantial dent in poverty or to improve access to productive work and emerging employment opportunities.Labor market programs represent less than 5percent of social protection spending,and no world region spends more than 0.3percent of its GDP on them.

154、Levels of spending and the number of programs offered are particularly meager in LICs,where public works and entrepreneurship support programs are the most common programs.Economic inclusion programs(comprehensive programs that address the multifaceted constraints that hinder the poor in accessing b

155、etter employment)are also emerging as a promising area of support in LICs and MICs;again,however,coverage and spending on these programs remains low.In LMICs,training programs are more prevalent,indicating a shift toward skills development.Once countries reach UMIC status,they tend to further expand

156、 their range of programs to include labor market services(for example,public employment services).HICs have the most diverse array of active labor market programs,with wage subsidies representing a significant component of their policy toolbox.The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the power of social p

157、rotection to protect people from shocks and crises.Average per capita social protection spending in countries peak COVID-19 response year increased by an average of 28percent over that in 2019.Emergency payments in that year reached 1.7 billion people in LICs and MICs,or about a fifth of the worlds

158、population,over half of whom were first-time recipients of social assistance.A COVID-19 surge in social protection spending occurred in all country income groups but was largest in absolute terms in HICs and UMICs,reflecting their greater fiscal and implementation capacity for scaling up.The pandemi

159、c illustrated the value of investing in shock-responsive systems that can quickly and efficiently expand during shocks and crises.This approach is known as adaptive social protection(Bowen etal.2020),and it aims to prepare and use social protection systems to enhance governments responses to shocks

160、and crises and to build the resilience of poor and vulnerable households.Those countries with the widest existing coverage and those that had invested in their social protection systems before the pandemic were better able to expand coverage during the shock.This was the case in regard to each of th

161、e three social protection pillars mentioned earlier in this introduction.Countries that had existing labor market programs in place,for instance,were able to use them as part of the COVID-19 response to recover faster,whereas countries with limited or weak systems faced greater challenges responding

162、 promptly and with a range of services that adequately addressed peoples needs.introdUction7Four Policy Action Areas for More and Better Social ProtectionThis report highlights four policy action areas governments can embrace to maximize the benefits of adequate social protection for all.The path to

163、 more and better social protection will depend on each countrys context,capacity,and fiscal space.Although the precise investments and reforms will have to be country specific,each path needs to lead to a social protection system in which support is targeted to peoples specific needs and vulnerabili

164、ties,tailored to peoples profiles,and delivered in a timely manner.Achieving this goal requires addressing issues related to coverage,service delivery,adequacy of benefits,program mix,shock responsiveness,and the financing required to deliver more and better social protection.Extending Social Protec

165、tion to Those in NeedSocial protection coverage is at its lowest levels where it is needed most:among the poorest households in poorer countries.Whereas social protection programs cover almost all the extreme poor in HICs,coverage falls to an average of less than two-thirds of the extreme poor in LM

166、ICs and just over a quarter in LICs.As noted,the path toward greater coverage will depend on each countrys context,capacity,and fiscal space.Most LICs have needs that far exceed their resources,as well as limited implementation capacity and a large informal sector,all of which can prevent them from

167、implementing large and effective contributory programs.Given this context,most of their efforts should be focused on supporting the poor through noncontributory cash transfers and economic inclusion programs.LICs should also work toward ensuring that cash transfer coverage can rapidly expand when sh

168、ocks occur.In most LMICs,large numbers of poor and vulnerable households continue to lack social protection;therefore,strengthening and expanding targeted noncontributory programs should remain a priority.At the same time,some LMICs may also have sufficient resources to invest in social services,emp

169、loyment programs,and social insurance,including for the informal sector.Finally,UMICs should close any remaining coverage gap but also broaden their program offerings to address the needs of a diverse population,move further into extending the coverage of social insurance,and expand their social ser

170、vices and labor market programs.Strong delivery systems will be essential to support effective coverage at scale.Robust and well-coordinated delivery systems,such as dynamic State of Social Protection rePort 20258social registries,digital payment systems,and digital case management systems,ensure th

171、at assistance reaches those in need,when they need it.Such systems are essential both during normal times and during economic crises,shocks,conflicts,and pandemics,helping households manage risk.They also allow for better-targeted fiscal and redistributive policies.Although many countries have made

172、great strides in developing their social assistance delivery systems over the past decade,other countries still lack basic elements such as social registries.Even countries with these elements in place continue to have a need to expand coverage,efficiency,and integration across social protection pil

173、lars.The delivery systems for social insurance are generally quite advanced,but coverage has historically been tied to formal employment,and rates of labor market formalization in LICs have been disappointingly slow(Ohnsorge and Yu 2021).The delivery systems for labor market programs are still very

174、limited outside higher-income countries,which hinders the ability of these programs to stimulate labor demand,enhance job quality and earnings,and respond effectively to the evolving demands and prospects of labor markets.Strengthening the Adequacy of Social Protection SupportLow levels of social pr

175、otection benefits affect peoples ability to escape poverty,manage risks,and embrace new opportunities.On average,social protection benefits amount to a quarter of beneficiaries income or consumption.Vast disparities in adequacy exist,however both across countries and across population groups.Social

176、assistance benefits,for instance,are a major source of support among the poor but provide relatively low benefits.In LICs,for example,social assistance transfers represent only 11percent of the already-meager income of the poor.Strengthening adequacy is also about expanding the programs offered.Ulti

177、mately,social protection systems need to be able to provide targeted support to those in need,tailored to address their specific vulnerabilities,in a timely manner.No single program can achieve this.It is therefore important for countries to expand their program offerings over time,as they develop.H

178、owever,in most LICs and LMICs,available programs remain limited and focused on social assistance.Labor,employment,and economic inclusion programs have the potential to play a much greater role in expanding labor market opportunities for marginalized groups.But low investments in these programsand th

179、eir limited integration with other pillars of the social protection systemlimit their ability to help marginalized groups find employment in the labor market.Labor and employment programs can be effective only if they operate at sufficient scale,are context specific,and introdUction9are tailored to

180、the specific profiles and needs of the populations they serve.Furthermore,social insurance still fails to cover many people who have the ability to contribute to it,and innovation and experimentation will be essential to extend the reach of social insurance to the informal sector.Finally,though not

181、covered in this report,effective social services play an essential role in addressing nonpecuniary sources of vulnerability.Integrating delivery systems across social protection pillars will also help deliver more effective support to people in need.Integrating support across programs through effect

182、ive case management,one-stop shops,dynamic social registries,common governance structures,and cross-sectoral referral systems can substantially enhance the impacts of the social protection system as a whole.Because people often face multiple vulnerabilities,coordinated,multifaceted support through d

183、ifferent programs often delivers superior impacts.However,in many countries fragmentation,rather than integration,continues to be the rule.Building Shock-Proof Social Protection Delivery SystemsDisasters,shocks,crises,and life and economic transitions can make poor people poorer and can plunge bette

184、r-off households into poverty.In the face of increasingly frequent shocks and crises and accelerating transitions,governments are turning to their social protection systems to respond to local events and global changes to boost households resilience and deliver more timely and tailored support to af

185、fected households.People also need support during life and economic transitions that affect their livelihoods,such as aging,digitalization,and the green transition.These transitions are usually less apparent than shocks and crises,because they happen gradually,over the course of many years.But their

186、 impact on peoples livelihoods and well-being is equally powerful.Expanding social protection,improving its adequacy,and strengthening systems for its delivery will also enhance its ability to support households through shocks,crises,and transitions.Large-scale social assistance programs enhance the

187、 ability of existing beneficiaries to cope with risks by providing them with predictable and adequate support;similarly,social insurance and employment programs help people navigate employment and productivity shocks and labor market transitions.Countries ongoing process of shifting to more dynamic

188、delivery systems is also providing a stronger foundation for shock responses,because it will facilitate the rapid identification and enrollment of people when they need support.State of Social Protection rePort 202510Although strong foundational systems are essential,adaptiveness also needs to be pu

189、rposively built in and used.Shifting from the ad hoc use of social protection systems for crisis and disaster response to a more prepared and risk-informed approach requires that governments pay attention to and invest in adaptive capacity.Major investments are needed in contingency budgeting,early

190、warning systems,the modification of targeting methods to factor in household vulnerability to shocks,and the expansion of social registries to cover high-risk households.Better planning mechanisms and pre-positioned risk financing are also essential to enable the system to be more responsive after a

191、 shock hits.Labor market and economic inclusion programs also need to be integrated into social protection responses to strengthen the resilience of peoples livelihoods to shocks.Optimizing Social Protection Financing Achieving more and better social protection will require increasing the financing

192、envelope,particularly in poorer countries,through either increased domestic revenues or external financing.Social protection spending is five times lower in LICs than in HICs.Moreover,whereas higher-income,stable countries have substantial domestic revenues,this is not the case in LICs and fragile a

193、nd conflict-affected countries,which rely on high levels of international support to consolidate and expand their nascent systems.However,especially in MICs,substantial progress in extending coverage and improving adequacy could be achieved even at current funding levels by reallocating existing res

194、ources to benefit the poor and vulnerable.Improving the poverty targeting of existing social assistance budgets,for instance,could virtually eliminate extreme poverty in half of the countries that have an extreme poverty head count below 20percent.Even in the 32 LICs and LMICs that face rates of ext

195、reme poverty of 20 to 80percent,ensuring that current social assistance resources have a stronger poverty focus could substantially reduce extreme poverty.Replacing regressive subsidies with targeted transfers is another way countries could generate fiscal space for social protection while boosting

196、efficiency and equity.Subsidies for fossil fuels,agriculture,and fisheries likely exceed$7 trillion(about 8percent of global GDP)annually and are often regressive,inefficient,expensive,and environmentally unsound(Damania etal.2023).The mix of programs offered should also be improved to increase fina

197、ncing efficiency and maximize impacts.Social insurance should be expanded to cover both formal and informal workers who can contribute to it.In doing so,it will be essential to keep social insurance subsidies and unfunded liabilities under control to avoid crowding out support for the poor and intro

198、dUction11vulnerable through noncontributory programs financed out of general taxation.Alongside this expansion,stronger links to the labor market should also be established.An integrated social protection and labor market system that facilitates transitions to better jobs ensures greater financial s

199、tability for individuals and helps decrease prolonged dependence on noncontributory programs.Speeding Up the Spread of Stronger and Better Social ProtectionGrowing headwinds of change demand both increased investment and a fundamental shift in approach to social protection,from short-term reactions

200、to proactive,long-term adaptation and from siloed actions to integrated agendas.Demand for social protection is bound to grow as countries must respond to overlapping challenges comprising a bulge in young populations in many LICs and rapidly aging populations in many HICs,increased migration flows,

201、technological change,the spread of fragility,and climate change.Social protection systems need to be fortified to fulfill routine demands more effectively while simultaneously strengthening their versatility and readiness to anticipate,absorb,and adapt to oncoming pressures.The adaptive capacity of

202、social protection systemsas well as their partnerships with humanitarian,climate change response,agriculture,and disaster response agenciesmust also be reinforced to meet the growing demands of climate change,food insecurity,and conflict and displacement(Bowen etal.2020;Costella etal.2023;FAO 2024;S

203、later 2024;WFP and FAO 2023).6 Active planning and investments at the global level are also needed to anticipate demographic,migratory,and technological shifts and support populations through them(ILO 2021;IOM 2024;UNDESA 2023).Finally,the very foundations of social insurances employment-based risk-

204、sharing model need to be carefully reconsidered given digitally accelerated changes in the world of work(Packard etal.2019).Even with increased investment and planning along these lines,fiscal and practical limits to what can be achieved through social protection alone make it essential for social p

205、rotection in any country to be positioned within an integrated multisectoral approach and supported by broader macroeconomic growth and progressive fiscal policy.Ultimately,social protection is a key force for promoting equity,opportunity,and resilience.However,in the face of the challenges ahead,it

206、 will be necessary for governments to take a panoramic view and to facilitate strategic collaboration with a far broader set of stakeholders in order to achieve social protections ultimate mission of effective,ongoing,and universal protection against risks and poverty,and the promotion of better emp

207、loyment opportunities.State of Social Protection rePort 202512About the Report and DataThis report is based on the latest update to the World Banks Atlas of Social Protection Indicators of Resilience and Equity(ASPIRE).It covers 153countries,consisting of 25 LICs,105 MICs,and 23 HICs that either are

208、 currently World Bank client countries or used to be and are still included in ASPIRE.To estimate the number of individuals missed by social protection systems(neither receiving benefits nor contributing to social insurance)plus those poor people who receive benefits but are inadequately covered,the

209、 report uses household survey data from 104 countries representing 96percent of the population in LICs and MICs,and it uses estimates for the remaining 4percent(26 countries).For the analysis of social protection performance indicators,including the share of population receiving social protection be

210、nefits,the report uses a smaller sample of 67 LICs and MICs.In addition,the report uses administrative data from 63 LICs and MICs on program-level spending for all large and medium programs.7 It also covers selected HICs still monitored by ASPIRE.Even though HICs are not the main focus of the report

211、,studying them allows the performance of social protection systems in MICs to be compared with a realistic benchmark of HICs,with which they may share some similarities.The report complements existing assessments of social protection systems with a focus on low-and middle-income countries,8 but with

212、 a more accurate identification and profiling of the recipients of social protection.Global analyses of social protection coverage are often based solely on administrative program-level data,which limit researchers ability to determine the socioeconomic profile of beneficiaries(such as their gender,

213、location,or poverty status),because global harmonized indicators provided by administrative data may not include such information.In contrast,ASPIRE data include both administrative program-level data and household survey data,and provide information about recipients income or consumption levels.Add

214、itionally,for the first time,they also include sex-disaggregated performance indicators based on household surveys for a subset of countries.These additions significantly broaden the analytical potential provided by ASPIRE.9Although the report encompasses the whole social protection system,it puts a

215、 strong focus on the needs of poor and vulnerable populations.Thanks to the use of household survey data,the report can identify the extent to which poor and vulnerable populations are benefiting from social protection and labor programs in respect to both coverage and level of support.The report pr

216、esents several data innovations.It is the first report in the World Banks State of Social Protection series(formerly the State of Safety introdUction13Nets series)that covers comprehensively not only social assistance but also labor market and social insurance programs.The report also quantifies for

217、 the first time the number of people living in households that contribute to social insurance but currently do not receive any benefit from it.In addition,it introduces for the first time a measure of inadequate coveragethat is,individuals living in poverty who receive social protection support amou

218、nting to less than 20percent of the poverty line in their respective countries.Finally for the first time,the report uses survey-based,individual-level information on recipients of social assistance to calculate sex-disaggregated indicators for a subset of countries.Despite improvements in data avai

219、lability,substantial data challenges remain,especially in regard to low-income countries and fragile contexts.Many countries do not have recent surveys to use in estimating social protection coverage;for others,existing surveys provide limited information on social protection.Accessing administrativ

220、e data may also be a challenge in certain countries.There is a need to increase the availability of data from both administrative sources and household surveys and to improve quality to enable more accurate and effective evidence-based policy making.The report draws from six companion technical note

221、s that analyze in greater depth different areas of social protection and labor systems,and describe in greater detail the methodology employed to build the indicators used in the report.The first note,“Mind the Gap:Coverage,Adequacy,and Financing Gaps in Social Protection for the Extreme Poor and th

222、e Poorest Quintile”(Tesliuc and Martinez Cordova 2025)looks at the entire social protection system as a whole.The second,“Adaptive Social Protection Agenda:Lessons from Responses to the COVID-19 Shock”(Tesliuc and Fonteez 2025)analyzes how social protection systems responded to the COVID-19 pandemic

223、.The third,“Wake-Up Call for Social Assistance?:Unfinished Mission to Reach the Poor and Beyond”(Okamura,Iyengar,and Andrews 2025)delves into the performance of social assistance systems.The fourth,“Optimizing Labor Market Programs and Strengthening Delivery Systems for Impact and Scale”(Carranza,Mo

224、rgandi,and Sverdlin 2025)analyzes the performance and challenges of employment and labor market programs.The fifth,“Riding the Demographic Wave:Pensions and Retirement Incomeinan Aging World”(Reyes Hartley,and Abels 2025)focuses on the largest social insurance program:pensions.Finally,the sixth note

225、,“Unlocking the Potential of Household Surveys to Measure Womens Access to Social Protection”(Rodriguez Alas,Lopez,and Mujica 2025)presents newly gender-disaggregated,survey-based social protection data for 27 countries.State of Social Protection rePort 202514Notes1.Extreme poverty is measured here

226、as the number of people living on less than$2.15 a day in 2017 dollars at purchasing power parity.2.Inadequate coverage is measured here as thepercentage of individuals in the poorest quintile of a country who receive a level of support lower than 20percent of the relative poverty line(measured in t

227、urn as per capita income or consumption at the 20thpercentile).3.Social assistance,also known as social safety nets,includes noncontributory(that is,tax-or donor-financed)cash or in-kind benefits for poor or vulnerable recipients as well as services.Social insurance includes contributory pensions an

228、d benefits(usually related to formal employment).Labor market programs include economic inclusion programs,active labor market programs,and unemployment insurance.Refer to Jorgensen and Siegel(2019)and World Bank(2022a)for detailed definitions.Because of a lack of relevant survey data,this report in

229、cludes only a limited discussion of social services.4.“Circa 2022”refers to data from 2022 or the most recent available year within the period 2015 to 2022.“Circa 2010”includes data from 2010 or any year available between the period 2006 to 2014.5.Coverage is defined here as the proportion of indivi

230、duals living in households that receive at least one social protection benefit.This section does not include contributors to social insurance schemes who do not receive benefits.6.Refer also to Overseas Development Institute,“Social Protection Responses to Forced Displacement,”https:/odi.org/en/abou

231、t/our-work/social-protection-responses-to-forced-displacement/.7.The precise population coverage varies by indicator and depends on the information available in household surveys.8.For example,the World Social Protection Reports(ILO 2021,2024)draw on rich and detailed administrative data to estimate

232、 the coverage,adequacy,and expenditure of social protection worldwide.Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Eurostat databases also provide extensive data on social protection expenditures,redistributive impact,and design parameters for programs in Organisation for Economic Co-o

233、peration and Development member countries and European Union member states,respectively.9.The measure of social protection coverage used in this report also differs from measures based on administrative program-level data.The report defines as covered all people living in a household in which at lea

234、st one member receives a social protection benefit,whereas measures of coverage based on administrative data focus on people who directly receive a benefit(or contribute to social insurance).Thus,social protection coverage in this report is generally greater than coverage measured solely using admin

235、istrative data.introdUction15ReferencesAguilar,R.Andres Castaneda,Adriana Castillo,Nancy P.Devpura,et al.2024.“March 2024 Update to the Poverty and Inequality Platform(PIP).”Global Poverty Monitoring Technical Note 36,World Bank,Washington,DC.https:/documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-r

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245、2516Bowen,Thomas,Carlo del Ninno,Colin Andrews,etal.2020.Adaptive Social Protection:Building Resilience to Shocks.International Development in Focus.Washington,DC:World Bank.https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33785.Bruhn,Miriam.2020.“Can Wage Subsidies Boost Employment in the Wake of an

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248、Framework and a Critical Review.”Climate Risk Management 40:100501.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2023.100501.Damania,Richard,Esteban Balseca,Charlotte de Fontaubert,et al.2023.Detox Development:Repurposing Environmentally Harmful Subsidies.Washington,DC:World Bank.http:/ Walque,Damien,Lia Fernald,Pau

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252、d Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2024.Social Protection as a Pathway to Sustaining Peace.Rome:FAO.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cc9175en.Ganong,Peter,Fiona Greig,Max Liebeskind,Pascal Noel,Daniel M.Sullivan,and Joseph Vavra.2021.“Spending and Job Search Impacts of Expanded Unemployment Ben

253、efits:Evidence from Administrative Micro Data.”Becker Friedman Institute for Economics Working Paper 2021-19,University of Chicago.https:/ Hoddinott,Neha Kumar,and Meghan Olivier.2018.“Social Protection,Food Security,and Asset Formation.”World Development 101:88103.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.

254、2017.08.014.introdUction17Hill,Ruth,Emmanuel Skoufias,and Barry Maher.2019.“The Chronology of a Disaster:A Review and Assessment of the Value of Acting Early on Household Welfare.”World Bank,Washington,DC.https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31721.ILO(International Labour Organization).20

255、21.World Social Protection Report 202022:Social Protection at the CrossroadsIn Pursuit of a Better Future.Geneva:ILO.https:/www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_817572/lang-en/index.htm.ILO(International Labour Organization).2024.World Social Protection Report 202426:Universal Social Protectio

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257、int/msite/wmr-2024-interactive/.Jayachandran,Seema.2020.“Microentrepreneurship in Developing Countries.”NBER Working Paper 26661,National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge,MA.https:/www.nber.org/papers/w26661.Jorgensen,Steen Lau,and Paul Siegel.2019.“Social Protection in an Era of Increasing Unc

258、ertainty and Disruption:Social Risk Management 2.0.”Social Protection and Jobs Discussion Paper 1930,World Bank,Washington,DC.https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31812.Kluve,Jochen,Susana Puerto,David Robalino,etal.2019.“Do Youth Employment Programs Improve Labor Market Outcomes?A Quanti

259、tative Review.”WorldDevelopment 114:23753.https:/www.iza.org/publications/dp/10263/do-youth-employment-programs-improve-labor-market-outcomes-a-systematic-review.Loewe,Markus,and Tina Zintl.2021.“State Fragility,Social Contracts,and the Role of Social Protection:Perspectives from the Middle East and

260、 North Africa(MENA)Region.”Social Sciences 10(12):447.https:/doi.org/10.3390/socsci10120447.Lustig,Nora.2018.Commitment to Equity Handbook:Estimating the Impact of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty.Washington,DC:Brookings Institution Press.https:/commitmentoequity.org/publications-ceq-handbook

261、.Mathers,Nicholas,and Rachel Slater.2014.“Social Protection and Growth:Research Synthesis.”Research Report,Overseas Development Institute,London.https:/odi.org/en/publications/social-protection-and-growth-research-synthesis/.Molina Milln,Teresa,Tania Barham,Karen Macours,John A.Maluccio,and Marco St

262、ampini.2019.“Long-Term Impacts of Conditional Cash Transfers:Review of the Evidence.”World Bank Research Observer 34(1):11959.https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34347.Ohnsorge,Franziska,and Shu Yu.2021.The Long Shadow of Informality:Challenges and Policies.Washington,DC:World Bank.https

263、:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35782.Okamura,Yuko,Hrishikesh T.M.M.Iyengar,and Colin Andrews.2025.“Wake-Up Call for Social Assistance?:Unfinished Mission to Reach the Poor and Beyond.”World Bank,Washington,DC.State of Social Protection rePort 202518Packard,Truman G.,Ugo Gentilini,Margare

264、t Ellen Grosh,etal.2019.“Protecting All:Risk Sharing for a Diverse and Diversifying World of Work.”World Bank,Washington,DC.http:/documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/9977415 68048792164/Protecting-All-Risk-Sharing-for-a-Diverse-and-Diversifying-World-of-Work.Ralston,Laura,Colin Andrews,and Allan Hsia

265、o.2017.“The Impacts of Safety Nets in Africa:What Are We Learning?.”Policy Research Working Paper 8255.WorldBank,Washington,DC.https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/28916.Razavi,Shahra,Christina Behrendt,Mira Bierbaum,Ian Orton,and Lou Tessier.2020.“Reinvigorating the Social Contract and S

266、trengthening Social Cohesion:Social Protection Responses to COVID-19.”International Social Security Review 73:5580.https:/doi.org/10.1111/issr.12245.Reyes Hartley,Gonzalo Javier,and Miglena Abels.2025.“Riding the Demographic Wave:Pensions and Retirement Income in an Aging World.”WorldBank,Washington

267、,DC.Rodriguez Alas,Claudia P.,Veronica Lopez,and Ingrid Mujica.2025.“Unlocking the Potential of Household Surveys to Measure Womens Access to Social Protection.”World Bank,Washington,DC.Slater,Rachel.2024.“Using a Capacity Cube Analysis to Understand Social Protection Delivery in Crises.”March 6,202

268、4.https:/www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/using-a-capacity-cube-analysis-to-understand-social-protection-delivery-in-crises/.SPIAC-B(Social Protection Interagency Cooperation Board).2021.“Key COVID-19 Lessons and Recommendations for Working towards Universal Social Protection.”SPIAC-B Joint Statement,October

269、2021.https:/www.social-protection.org/gimi/Media.action?id=18656.Tesliuc,Emil,and Maria Belen Fonteez.2025.“Adaptive Social Protection Agenda:Lessons from Responses to the COVID-19 Shock.”World Bank,Washington,DC.Tesliuc,Emil,and Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova.2025.“Mind the Gap:Coverage,Adequacy and Fi

270、nancing Gaps in Social Protection for the Extreme Poor and the Poorest Quintile.”World Bank,Washington,DC.Thome,K.,J.E.Taylor,M.Filipski,B.Davis,and S.Handa.2016.“The Local Economy Impacts of Social Cash Transfers:A Comparative Analysis of Seven Sub-Saharan Countries.”Food and Agriculture Organizati

271、on of the United Nations,Rome.https:/www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/1154dc4a-037a-47f0-855e-66abdea96d57.Ulrichs,Martina,and Rachel Slater.2016.“How Can Social Protection Build Resilience?.”Building Resilience and Adaptation to Climate Extremes and Disasters Working Paper,Overseas Development In

272、stitute,London.https:/cdn.odi.org/media/documents/11123.pdf.UNDESA(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs).2018.Promoting Inclusion through Social Protection:Report on the World Social Situation 2018.New York:UNDESA.https:/desapublications.un.org/publications/report-world-social-si

273、tuation-2018-promoting-inclusion-through-social-protection.introdUction19UNDESA(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs).2023.Leaving No One Behind in an Ageing World:World Social Report 2023.New York:UNDESA.https:/www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/launch-world-social-report-20

274、23.USP2030.n.d.“Together to Achieve Universal Social Protection by 2030(USP2030):ACall to Action.”USP2030,Geneva.https:/usp2030.org/wp-content/uploads/calltoaction_en.pdf.WFP(World Food Programme).2024.WFP Global Operational Response Plan 2024:Update#10.Rome:WFP https:/docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP

275、-0000156760/download/?_ga=2.208363154.1099595605.1717088170-1724551521.1717088170.WFP(World Food Programme)and FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2023.Hunger Hotspots.FAOWFP Early Warnings on Acute Food Insecurity:November 2023 to April 2024 Outlook.Rome:FAO.https:/doi.org/

276、10.4060/cc8419en.World Bank.2020a.Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2020:Reversals of Fortune.Washington,DC:World Bank.https:/www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity-2020.World Bank.2020b.“World Bank Group Strategy for Fragility,Conflict and Violence,20202025.”World Bank,Washingto

277、n,DC.https:/documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/844591582815510521/pdf/World-Bank-Group-Strategy-for-Fragility-Conflict-and-Violence-2020-2025.pdf.World Bank.2022a.“Charting a Course towards Universal Social Protection:Resilience,Equity,and Opportunity for All.”World Bank,Washington,DC.https:/openkn

278、owledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/84ba2380-624c-553a-b929-2882e72c7468.World Bank.2022b.Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2022:Correcting Course.Washington,DC:World Bank.https:/www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity.21CHAPTER 1 The 2-Billion-Person ChallengeThis report q

279、uantifies,for the first time,the household-level coverage gap of social protection systems(social assistance,social insurance,and labor market programs)across low-income countries(LICs)and middle-income countries(MICs).It looks at the beneficiaries of social assistance,social insurance,and labor mar

280、ket programs,and it also looksagain for the first timeat those who contribute to social insurance schemes.To do so,it uses household survey microdata to quantify the total level of support received by each household.Survey-based estimates of coverage and adequacy are an important complement to exist

281、ing program-level estimates from administrative data.1 They allow for a better characterization of the socioeconomic profile of beneficiaries(such as their gender,location,or poverty status)and account for resource sharing among household members.Of the 6.3 billion people in LICs and MICs circa 2022

282、,2 billion were missed or inadequately covered by social protection systems(figure 1.1).2 About 1.6billion people lived in households in which no members benefited from any social protection program or contributed to any social insurance scheme.In addition,close to 400 million people living in relat

283、ive poverty(those in the poorest quintile of each of the 130 countries examined for this report)received only meager benefits,constituting less than 20percent of the countrys poverty line for the poorest quintile.3State of Social Protection rePort 202522FIGURE 1.1 two Billion People in low-and Middl

284、e-income countries are Missed or inadequately covered by Social Protection3.31.71.51.00.80.40.21.60.50.10.020.80.36.30.62.92.801234567TotalLow incomeLower-middleincomeUpper-middleincomeBillions of people2billiona.Population in low-and middle-income countries,by country income level0.020.20.2SP benef

285、iciarySP beneficiary covered inadequately,Q1SI contributor,not SP beneficiaryMissed521662616337859852854296115430610472252645278206011821726418195571020406080100TotalLow incomeLower-middle incomeUpper-middle incomeEast Asia and PacificEurope and Central AsiaLatin America and the CaribbeanMiddle East

286、 and North AfricaSouth AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaPercent of total populationb.Percent of population in low-and middle-income countries,by countryincome level and regionSource:original figure for this publication based on atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household sur

287、vey data from 2022 or most recent available survey(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).Note:figure shows coverage of direct and indirect beneficiaries and social insurance contributors in 130 low-and middle-income countries.for methodology,please refer to tesliuc and Martinez cordova(2025).Q1=first(poo

288、rest)quintile;Si=social insurance;SP=social protection.the 2-Billion-PerSon challenge23Although the gap remained substantially higher in LICs,in absolute terms more people were not covered by social protection programs in MICs.The share of a countrys population missed by its social protection system

289、 was(and is)strongly related to its level of economic development.The most severe gaps appeared in LICs,where an average of 78percent of the population received no social protection benefits and an additional 3percent received inadequate benefits.In contrast,the social protection systems in upper-mi

290、ddle-income countries(UMICs)missed only 11percent of their populations and provided inadequate coverage to an additional 6percent.However,the picture changes radically when coverage gaps are measured in absolute terms(in other words,in millions of people).The absolute number of people not covered by

291、 social protection was substantially higher in MICs than in LICs(1.2 billion versus 500 million),which reflects the reality that many more people now live in MICs than in LICs(figure 1.1).In regard to regions,most failed to cover between 10 and 26percent of their total populations and provided inade

292、quate coverage to between 4 and 8percent.Sub-Saharan Africa was an outlier;71percent of the regions population was not covered,and an additional 5percent received inadequate coverage.Social insurance plays an important role in protecting formal workers from shocks and crises.Circa 2022,1 billion peo

293、ple living in households in LICs and MICs contributed to social insurance programs although not yet receiving any benefit from them yet.These people were concentrated in UMICs(figure1.1).Although social insurance coverage may be substantially lower than social assistance coverage(refer to chapter 2)

294、,as countries develop,it plays a growing role in protecting people from shocks and crises,highlighting the importance of taking a comprehensive and integrated approach to risk management.Coverage gaps become much more pronounced once China and India are excluded.Without data from China and India,the

295、 worlds two most populous countries,the coverage gap becomes substantially more pronounced,rising from 32 percent to 49percent(figure 1.2).The largest increase was in the share of population missed by social protection systems,which increased from 26 percent to 42percent,signaling the existence of a

296、 large gap in social protection coverage in many LICs and MICs.Social protection systems also failed to provide adequate coverage to close to half of all people living in the poorest quintile in the 130 LICs and MICs in the sample employed for this report.As many as 53percent of the 1.26billion peop

297、le in the poorest quintiles either were not covered by social protection(0.32billion people)or received inadequate coverage(0.35billion people;refer to figure 1.3).The share of people from the poorest quintile who were not covered or were inadequately covered was consistently higher than the global

298、average.The largest gaps were in LICs(95percent)and in Sub-Saharan Africa(94percent).State of Social Protection rePort 202524FIGURE 1.2 the coverage gap increases Substantially if china and india are excluded(Percent)SP beneficiarySP beneficiary covered inadequately,Q1SI contributor,not SP beneficia

299、ryMissed52166263813742a.All low-and middle-income countriesb.Low-and middle-income countriesexcluding China and IndiaSource:original figure for this publication based on atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household survey data for 2022 or most recent available surv

300、ey(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).Note:figure shows coverage of direct and indirect beneficiaries and social insurance contributors in 128 low-and middle-income countries.for methodology,please refer to tesliuc and Martinez cordova(2025).Q1=first(poorest)quintile,generated using pretransfer welfar

301、e;Si=social insurance;SP=social protection.Globally,88percent of the extreme poor were missed or inadequately covered by social protection(figure 1.4).Among the 73 countries with levels of extreme poverty of above 2percent,4 almost half a billion people were either missed or insufficiently protected

302、 while in extreme poverty.The most severe gaps existed in LICs(98percent)and Sub-Saharan Africa(97percent).As the income level of a country increases,the share of the extreme poor population missed by its social protection system falls,especially in UMICs;however,the share of those with inadequate c

303、overage increases,signaling a problem regarding adequacy of benefits in the 15 UMICs that have significant extreme poverty rates.These substantial gaps in social protection coverage negatively affect the ability of countries to reduce poverty,protect their populations from shocks and crises,and prom

304、ote employment opportunities.Coverage gaps have a disproportionate impact on poor and vulnerable populations,who have the greatest need for social protection services.In the effort to move toward universal social protection coverage,it is therefore important to make coverage of the most vulnerable p

305、opulations a priority.the 2-Billion-PerSon challenge25FIGURE 1.3 the coverage gap rises to almost half for those in the Poorest QuintileSP beneficiary,Q1SP beneficiary covered inadequately,Q1SI contributor,not SP beneficiary,Q1Missed,Q10.500.0030.250.250.090.0020.020.070.350.020.150.180.320.090.160.

306、061.260.120.580.560.67billion324072825177843326284512321146133293510243124840283164023612221542237100.20.40.60.81.01.21.4TotalLow incomeLower-middleincomeUpper-middleincomeBillions of people in poorest quintilea.Billions of people in low-and middle-income countriesin poorest quintile,by country inco

307、me level0102030405060708090100TotalLow incomeLower-middle incomeUpper-middle incomeEast Asia and PacificEurope and Central AsiaLatin America and the CaribbeanMiddle East and North AfricaSouth AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaPercent of total population in poorest quintileb.Percent of total population in low-an

308、d middle-income countriesin poorest quintile,by country income level and regionSource:original figure for this publication based on atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household survey data for 2022 or most recent available survey(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).No

309、te:figure shows coverage of direct and indirect beneficiaries and social insurance contributors in 130 low-and middle-income countries.for methodology,please refer to tesliuc and Martinez cordova(2025).Q1=first(poorest)quintile,generated using pretransfer welfare;Si=social insurance;SP=social protec

310、tion.State of Social Protection rePort 202526FIGURE 1.4 in low-income countries,coverage gaps reach 98percent among the extreme PoorSP beneficiary,XPSP beneficiary covered inadequately,XPSI contributor,not SP beneficiary,XPMissed,XP0102030405060708090100TotalLow incomeUpper-middle incomeEast Asia an

311、d PacificLatin America and the CaribbeanSouth AsiaPercent of population in extreme poverty1011636303430561221983251513212015214326142735211868836019393742571679Lower-middle incomeEurope and Central AsiaMiddle East and North AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSource:original figure for this publication based on

312、 atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household survey data for 2022 or most recent available survey(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).Note:estimates are based on observations from 73 countries that have extreme poverty rates of 2percent of the population or greater.f

313、igure shows coverage of direct and indirect beneficiaries and social insurance contributors.for sample size,please refer to tesliuc and Martinez cordova(2025).Si=social insurance;SP=social protection;XP=extreme poor(those living on less than$2.15 a day at purchasing power parity).The remainder of th

314、is report looks at the performance of social protection and labor systems at the country level and explores the challenges that countries face in strengthening these systems to better support their populations.Chapter 2 discusses the performance of social protection and labor systems in LICs and MIC

315、s and identifies some of the challenges that they face,and chapter 3 concludes by discussing policies and reforms to close the coverage gap and strengthen systems in these countries.the 2-Billion-PerSon challenge27Notes1.For example,the International Labour Organizations World Social Protection Repo

316、rts(ILO 2021,2024)draw on rich and detailed administrative data to estimate the coverage and adequacy of,and expenditure on,social protection worldwide.The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Eurostat databases also provide extensive data on expenditures on,redistributive impa

317、ct of,and design parameters for social protection in these organizations member states.2.“Circa 2022”refers to data from 2022 or the most recent available year within the period 2015 to 2022.“Circa 2010”includes data from 2010 or any year available between the period 2006 to 2014.3.The 20percent thr

318、eshold for inadequate benefits for the poor represents about half of the pretransfer additional income that poor households would need to reach the poverty line.4.The estimate covers 73 countries with an estimated 2022 extreme poverty level that was equal to or higher than 2percent of the population

319、,given the lack of reliable survey estimates in countries where extreme poverty is below this threshold.ReferencesILO(International Labour Organization).2021.World Social Protection Report 202022:Social Protection at the CrossroadsIn Pursuit of a Better Future.Geneva:ILO.https:/www.ilo.org/global/pu

320、blications/books/WCMS_817572/lang-en/index.htm.ILO(International Labour Organization).2024.World Social Protection Report 202426:Universal Social Protection for Climate Action and a Just Transition.Geneva:ILO.https:/www.ilo.org/publications/flagship-reports/world-social-protection-report-2024-26-uni

321、versal-social-protection-climate.Tesliuc,Emil,and Ana Sofia Martinez Cordova.2025.“Mind the Gap:Coverage,Adequacy and Financing Gaps in Social Protection for the Extreme Poor and the Poorest Quintile.”World Bank,Washington,DC.29CHAPTER 2 Assessing Country PerformancePolicy solutions are best identif

322、ied by delving into the performance of and challenges faced by country social protection systems.Although global population trends can be used to assess the magnitude of global challenges,they tend to be driven by a few large countries.As such,they may not be very useful for identifying common polic

323、y challenges across countries.Tobetter explain the common factors behind the substantial coverage gaps in low-income countries(LICs)and middle-income countries(MICs),this chapter explores the performance of and challenges faced by social protection systems in individual countries.Accordingly,the dat

324、a discussed in this section reflect cross-country averages(as opposed to population-weighted averages)to ensure that the analysis of systems in smaller countries is given equal importance to the analysis of those in more populous countries.This report assesses social protection systems along four di

325、mensions:coverage,adequacy,financing,and shock responsiveness(the ability to support people through shocks and crises).Whereas the first three dimensions have traditionally been used for sectorwide social protection analyses,the“shock responsiveness”or“adaptiveness”of social protection systems has g

326、rown in importance over the past decade.This growth occurred initially because of the rise of climate-related disasters and,more recently,because of the COVID-19 pandemic and the inflation crisis,which have resulted in dramatic and rapid expansion of social protection systems.Given the increasing im

327、portance of building adaptive systems,this report has added shock responsiveness as a cross-cutting theme.State of Social Protection rePort 202530Coverage:Noticeable Growth,but at Far Too Slow a PaceThere has been noticeable progress in expanding social protection coverage over the past decade in co

328、untries at all income levels,with the largest expansion observed among the poor in MICs and lower-middle-income countries(LMICs).In what follows,social protection coverage is defined on the basis of the number of people living in households in which at least one member receives benefits from any com

329、bination of social assistance,social insurance,or labor market programs.1 Across all countries in the sample,the share of people receiving social protection benefits grew from an average of 41percent in 2010 to 51percent a decade later(figure2.1).Theexpansion occurred in all country income groups bu

330、t was most pronounced in LICs,where coverage grew by 14percentage points,and even more among the poor and extreme poor(where it grew by 17 percentage points).Within countries,social protection continues to be progressively distributed,with coverage rates highest among those in the poorest quintile a

331、nd decreasing as household FIGURE 2.1 access to Social Protection Has expanded considerably over the Past Decade 4154591111112836435677827392935165702528284253626182898297980102030405060708090100TotalQ1XPTotalQ1XPTotalQ1XPTotalQ1XPTotalQ1XPTotalLow-incomecountriesLower-middle-income countriesUpper-m

332、iddle-income countriesHigh-incomecountriesCoverage(percentage of population)Circa 2010Circa 2022Source:original figure for this publication based on atlas of Social Protection indicators of resilience and equity(aSPire)household survey data(https:/www.worldbank.org/aspire).Note:“circa 2022”refers to

333、 data from 2022 or the most recent available year within the period 2015 to 2022.“circa 2010”includes data from 2010 or any year available between the period 2006 to 2014.figure shows coverage of both direct and indirect beneficiaries and is based on 73 observations,which include 67 low-and middle-income countries and 6 high-income countries monitored by aSPire.aggregated indicators have been calc