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1、Air Quality Management in EU Member States Governance and Institutional Arrangements:International Experience and ImplicationsPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedAir Quality Management in EU Member States1Governance and Inst

2、ItutIonal arranGements:InternatIonal experIence and ImplIcatIonsNovember 2024Europe and Central Asia Region Environment&Governance Global Practice1 This report was prepared by a team of World Bank experts from Governance and the Environment,Natural Resources and Blue Economy Global Practices.It was

3、led by Pedro Arizti(Senior Public Sector Specialist)with Silvia Calderon(International Consultant)and John Murlis(International Consultant).The report was prepared under the guidance of Sameer Akbar(Senior Environmental Specialist)and Reena Badiani-Magnusson(Program Leader),with contributions from K

4、las Sander(Senior Environmental Economist),Maja Murisic(Senior Environmental Economist),Davide Zucchini(Senior Public Sector Specialist),and Urvashi Narain(Lead Economist).The report was peer reviewed by Kai Kaiser(Senior Public Sector Specialist),Nick Menzies(Senior Public Sector Specialist),Ana Lu

5、isa Gomes Lima(Senior Environmental Economist),Elena Strukova Golub(Senior Environmental Economist),and Kseniya Lvovsky(International Expert).The country assessments were developed by Silvia Calderon(Austria,Germany,Sweden,Estonia,Slovenia),Jolanta Blazaite(Lithuania),Mihovil karica(Croatia),Andrzej

6、 Halesiak(Poland),John Murlis with Vasil Borislavov Zlatev(Bulgaria),and Andrei Moarcas(Romania).The report received valuable inputs from:Alexandru Cosmin Buteica and Dimitrie Mihe(Romania);Ivana Ivicic(Croatia);Eolina Petrova Milova(Bulgaria);Christian Nagl and Katharina Isepp at Environment Agency

7、 Austria;Heidi Koger and Kadri Tamm at the Estonian Environment Agency;Loreta Jovaiien from the Ministry of Environment in Lithuania;pela ohar,Tanja Bolte,and Tanja Kolesa from the Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Energy and the Slovenian Environment Agency in Slovenia,and;Johan Genberg Safon

8、t and HelenaSabelstrmfrom the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency(Naturvrdsverket).Son Le and Margaux Jeanne Salmon Genel(Consultants)provided support in collecting data and preparing the air quality data visualizations.The document was edited by Patricia Carley and proofread by Jeremy White.Dis

9、claimer 2024 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW,Washington DC 20433 Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank.The findings,interpretations,and con-clusions expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views

10、of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denomi-nation,and other information shown in any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World B

11、ank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.Rights and PermissionsThe material in this work is subject to copyright.The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge,this work may be reproduced,in whole or in part,for noncommercial purp

12、oses as long as full attribution to this work is given.AttributionPlease cite the work as follows:“World Bank.2024.Air Quality Management in EU Member States;Governance and Institutional Arrangements:International Experience and Implications.World Bank.”Any queries on rights and licenses,including s

13、ubsidiary rights,should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher,The World Bank,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;fax:202-522-2422;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.Disclaimer of ContentPlease be advised that the analytical work presented in this report was primarily conducted during 2022 and

14、2023.Certain aspects,including institutional arrangements as well as legal and regulatory mechanisms,may have since changed in the countries covered by this study.Cover design and layout:kuna zlatica,www.kunazlatica.hrTable of contentsAbbreviations and Acronyms 6Executive Summary 81.Introduction 192

15、.Background:Air Quality in Europe 222.1.Efforts to reduce air pollution in Europe 242.2.The state of air pollution today:major pollutants and sources 272.3.Major regimes to address air pollution:UNECE Convention and EU directives 302.4.Assessing country performance in implementing EU policies 322.5.

16、Air quality and governance challenges in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania 333.Methodology 374.International Experience and Emerging Trends 434.1.Legal and regulatory framework 444.2.Committed executive 504.3.Nested planning 524.4.Horizontal and vertical coordination 534.5.Accountability and trans

17、parency 545.Key AQM Strengths and Weaknesses in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania 595.1.Legal and regulatory framework 605.2.Committed executive 625.3.Nested planning 645.4.Horizontal and vertical coordination 665.5.Accountability and transparency 675.6.Main AQM governance weaknesses in Bulgaria,C

18、roatia,Poland,and Romania 696.Recommendations 736.1.Legal and regulatory framework 746.2.Committed executive 756.3.Nested planning 776.4.Institutional(horizontal and vertical)coordination 786.5.Accountability and transparency 796.6.Specific recommendations by country 84Annex 1.Methodological Approac

19、h and Framework 94Annex 2.AQM Case Studies and International Trends 110Annex 3.Institutional Arrangements for AQM in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania 132Annex 4.National Contexts for Air Quality Governance:Pollution Sources,Emission Reductions,and Progress toward Ambient Air Quality Targets 142Ta

20、ble 1.Governance and Institutional Framework for Air Quality Management 39Table 2.AQM Framework and EU Air Policy 41Table 3.Emerging Trends across Client and Comparator Countries and Policy Recommendations 80Table a1.1.Air Quality Performance of Comparator Countries 95Table a1.2.Governance and Insti

21、tutional Framework for Air Quality Management 98Table a1.3.AQM Framework:Attributes,Components,and Questions Adjusted for the EU 105Table a2.1.Summary of the Institutional Features across Countries and Attributes 125Figure 1.Preventable Deaths(per 100,000 inhabitants)from PM2.5 Exposure 24Figure 2.T

22、rends in EU-27 Emissions 25Figure 3.Three-Year Average of Annual Mean PM2.5(201820)26Figure 4.Contributions to EU-27 Emissions(2020)28Figure 5.Percentage of the EU Population Exposed to PM2.5 Levels(201820)29Figure a4.1.Share of the EU Urban Population Exposed to Air Pollutant Concentrations above C

23、ertain EU Standards and WHO Guidelines in 2021 144Figure a4.2.EC Assessment of Confidence in the Attainment of National Emissions Reduction Commitments for the Client Countries 146Figure a4.3.Trends in Annual Mean Concentrations of PM2.5(left)and PM10(right)in Different Categories of Monitoring Site

24、s in Bulgaria 148Figure a4.4.Exceedances of the U.S.Air Quality Index 50(left)and the WHO Guideline PM2.5 Daily Value for Bulgaria,201923 148Figure a4.5.Geographic Distribution of Annual Mean PM2.5 and Seasonal Variation in Exceedances of Short-Term Limit Values for PM10 and Nitrogen Dioxide in Bulg

25、aria 149Figure a4.6.Total Annual Emissions of PM2.5,Nitrogen Oxides,Ammonia,and Sulfur Dioxide for Bulgaria,200521,with the Contributions from Major Source Sectors 151Figure a4.7.Bulgaria:Emissions Commitments 154Figure a4.8.Trends in Annual Mean Concentrations of PM2.5(left)and PM10(right)in Differ

26、ent Categories of Monitoring Sites in Croatia 155Figure a4.9.Exceedances of the U.S.AQI 50(left)and the WHO Guideline PM2.5 Daily Value for Croatia,201923 155Figure a4.10.Geographic Distribution of Annual Mean PM2.5 and Seasonal Variation in Exceedances of Short-Term Limit Values for PM10 and Nitrog

27、en Dioxide in Croatia 156Figure a4.11.Total Annual Emissions of PM2.5,Nitrogen Oxides,Ammonia,and Sulfur Dioxide for Croatia,200521,with the Contributions from Major Source Sectors 157Figure a4.12.Croatia:Emissions Commitments 159Figure a4.13.Trends in Annual Mean Concentrations of PM2.5(left)and PM

28、10(right)in Different Categories of Monitoring Sites in Poland 160Tables,Figures,and BoxesAir QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS4Figure a4.14.Exceedances of the U.S.AQI 50(left)and the WHO Guideline PM2.5 Daily Value for Poland,201923 160Figure a4.15.Geographic Distribution of Annual Mean PM2.5

29、and Seasonal Variation in Exceedances of Short-Term Limit Values for PM10 and Nitrogen Dioxide for Poland 161Figure a4.16.Total Annual Emissions of PM2.5,Nitrogen Oxides,Ammonia,and Sulfur Dioxide for Poland,200521,with the Contributions from Major Source Sectors 163Figure a4.17.Poland:Emissions Red

30、uction Commitments 164Figure a4.18.Trends in Annual Mean Concentrations of PM2.5(left)and PM10(right)in Different Categories of Monitoring Sites in Romania 165Figure a4.19.Exceedances of the U.S.AQI 50(left)and the WHO Guideline PM2.5 Daily Value for Romania,201923 166Figure a4.20.Geographic Distrib

31、ution in Romania of Annual Mean PM2.5 and Seasonal Variation in Exceedances of Short-Term Limit Values for PM10 and Nitrogen Dioxide 166Figure a4.21.Total Annual Emissions of PM2.5,Nitrogen Oxides,Ammonia,and Sulfur Dioxide for Romania,200521,with the Contributions from Major Source Sectors 168Figur

32、e a4.22.Romania:Emissions Reduction Commitments 169Box 1.Policy Instruments for Air Quality Management 46Box 2.Market-Based Instruments for AQM 47Box 3.Air Pollution and Climate Change:From Co-Benefits to Coherent Policy 48Box 4.Air Quality Information Available via Public Portals in the Case Study

33、Countries 55Box 5.Components of Robust Air Quality Information Systems 57Box 6.Underpricing of Pollution 61Box a1.1.Definitions 96Box a1.2.Air Quality Management in Europe:A Comparative Analysis of Airshed Approaches 101Box a2.1.AQM Institutional Arrangements in the European Union 122Tables,Figures,

34、and boxes5Abbreviations and AcronymsAAQD Ambient Air Quality Directive(EU)AQI Air Quality IndexAQM Air Quality ManagementAQP Air Quality Plan(EU)AQS Air Quality SystemARSO Slovenian Environment AgencyBMU Ministry for Environment,Nature Conservation,and Nuclear Safety(Germany)CAB County Administrativ

35、e Board(Sweden)EC European CommissionEEA European Environment AgencyEPA Environmental Protection Agency(Lithuania,Romania,Sweden)EQO Environmental Quality Objective(Sweden)ETS Emissions Trading SystemEU European UnionGHG Greenhouse GasIG-L Immissionsschutzgesetz Luft(Federal Law on Ambient Air Quali

36、ty,Austria)LRTAP Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ConventionMESD Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development(Croatia)MoEW Ministry of Environment and Water(Bulgaria)NAPCP National Air Pollution Control Programme(EU)Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS6NAQIP National Air Quality Impro

37、vement Program(Bulgaria)NEC National Emissions Ceiling Directive(EU)NGO Nongovernmental OrganizationNMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic CompoundNRRP National Recovery and Resilience PlanPM Particular MatterSNEGICA National System for the Evaluation and Integrated Management of Air Quality (Romania)UB

38、A German Environment AgencyUNECE United Nations Economic Commission for EuropeVOC Volatile Organic CompoundWHO World Health OrganizationabbreviaTions and acronyms7Executive SummaryOver the past three decades,emissions of air pollutants have fallen across Europe.In the period between 2005 and 2020,em

39、issions of all major air pollutants in the European Union(EU)fell by between 10 and 80 percent.Although reduced emissions have led to air quality improvements,some regions of the EU still experience high levels of pollutant concentrations,making air pol-lution the largest environmental health risk i

40、n Europe.In 2020,exposure to concentrations of particulate matter(PM),nitrogen dioxide,and ozone resulted in 309,000 premature deaths.Pollution levels remain high in certain regions within the EU,such as northern Italy and East-ern Europe.Annual average concentrations of PM2.5,the most harmful pollu

41、tant for human health,exceed the recommendation of the World Health Organization(WHO)by a factor of five in multiple Eastern EU countries,including the four client countries covered in this report.Many cities in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania also report concentrations of PM10,ozone,nitrogen di

42、oxide,and benzoapyrene(BaP)above EU target and limit values.Accounting for variations across the client countries,the main sectors contributing to poor air quality are residential,commercial,and institutional combustion,road transport,energy supply,and agriculture.The use of biomass and solid fossil

43、 fuels for heating and cooking in residential,commercial,and institutional buildings is responsible for high particulate matter concentrations in all four states,while old fleets and low uptake of electric vehicles in the road transport sector contribute to high levels of nitrogen dioxide,non-methan

44、e volatile organic compounds(NMVOCs),and ozone.The use of sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power stations and other large industries is still a relevant source of sulfur dioxide pollution in Romania and Poland;agriculture,through the production and use of animal manure and artificial fertilizers,is

45、 by far the largest source of ammonia in these two countries,as in Bulgaria and Croatia.A common feature of most of these sources is that they consist of numerous small entities,in-cluding individual households,and have proved difficult to regulate.EU air quality,emissions,and source legislation has

46、 been transposed into national legislation in the four countries,providing a governance framework that has led to considerable progress on air quality.However,existing institutional arrangements still face challenges in ensuring compliance with EU norms and in effectively implementing measures that

47、address the main causes of pollution.For example,legal frameworks lack the authority and incentives by which local governments can implement emissions reduction measures in the residential and trans-port sectors and sanctions to punish offenders.Institutions responsible for air quality man-agement(A

48、QM)at the national and local level lack adequate technical and financial resources or political leadership to enforce unpopular measures.Municipal air quality plans(AQPs)are too general,and their implementation and impact go unmonitored.Moreover,coordination between national and local governments is

49、 weak,and public participation in the AQM policy cycle is undermined by barriers to accessing information on air pollution.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS8Climate and air pollution policies are often treated separately,resulting in tensions and missed opportunities for more cost-effective

50、 outcomes.In most client countries,responsibilities for air quality and for climate are divided amongst institutions,hindering efforts to co-develop integrated policies.As a result,trade-offs arise between mitigation and AQM,meaning that air pollution policies do not effectively contribute to climat

51、e goals and vice versa.By implement-ing targeted,integrated AQM and climate policy tools,countries can achieve more coherent policy outcomes,reduce costs at both the institutional and industry levels,and drive better results for both climate and air quality.The objective of this technical note is to

52、 inform the governments of Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania about ongoing efforts and opportunities to strengthen AQM governance to achieve better air quality in these countries.To this end,the note develops a framework by which to assess institutional capacity for effective and efficient AQM.The

53、 framework consists of 16 components organized around five attributes and a set of guidance questions to carry out the assessment.The framework has been developed based on international experience,with a view to the dis-tinct challenges faced by each country,such as population and land size,geograph

54、ic diversity,idiosyncrasies of public administration,and general social dynamics.As such,the framework can be adapted and applied in a wide variety of country settings.The attributes are also in-tended to be as mutually exclusive as possible.Emerging evidence from countries with various maturity lev

55、els of air quality planning and management suggests that recommendations for the four client countries can be built on the following governance and institutional attributes:(i)a legal and regulatory framework,(ii)a committed executive2,(iii)nested planning,(iv)horizontal and vertical coordination,an

56、d(v)accountability and transparency.This technical note applies this framework to other select countries in the EU to distill emerg-ing lessons and developments in AQM.Relevant trends in institutional arrangements for AQM are presented for the following countries as case studies:Austria,Estonia,Germ

57、any,Lithuania,Slovenia,and Sweden.A summary of the main trends in these countries is outlined in the box below:2 This refers to an executive branch that is fully committed to reforming and enhancing the efficiency of the countrys air quality management system.For more details,see the methodology sec

58、tion.execuTive summary9International Trends in AQMLegal and regulatory framework A legal framework is in place,consisting of national standards for ambient air quality and sector pollution control,with a clear mandate to protect the health of the population in accordance with WHO guidelines.The fram

59、eworks content includes clear roles and responsibilities for each level of government.Enforcement and compliance mechanisms are in place that cover jurisdictions,companies,and/or citizens,using a variety of instruments.The framework allows for both command-and-control and market-based instruments fo

60、r enforcement and policy implementation.It establishes pollution reduction targets for key pollutants.Air quality standards are regularly reviewed and revised.The legal framework integrates climate and air quality policies by establishing common objectives,targets,and tools.Committed executive A lon

61、g-term AQM strategy is in place,championed at the highest level,with a clear strategic vision that has well-defined objectives,indicators,and targets,and is backed by sufficient medium-term budgetary funding.The integration of air quality and climate policies is ad-vancing and potential tensions are

62、 being managed.Across sector ministries,air quality concerns are integrated into sector strategies,and there are policies and programs in place to incentivize the adoption of cleaner technolo-gies and procedures.Diverse policy and legislative instruments are in place to incentivize compliance and pe

63、-nalize noncompliance.Technical capacity across the relevant government agencies and coordination bodies is adequate.Executive institutions have the power to influence and convene sectoral departments on air quality strategy and implementation.Nested planning There has been a formal designation of a

64、n AQM unit.Planning is mandatory and contains targets,prioritized actions,and clearly assigned roles and fund allocations.There are official air quality planning and management units at multiple jurisdiction levels that take into consideration the flux of pollutants across borders,where relevant.A f

65、ormal process is in place to classify regions that are out of compliance.A nested and well-correlated vertical planning process is informed by independent,timely,and high-quality scientific research and data.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS10Institutional coordination A coordination mechan

66、ism is in place with a strong mandate and effective political lead-ership to oversee progress and implementation.The mechanism can carry out horizontal and vertical coordination and has some level of fiscal and administrative autonomy and decision-making power.Its main functions include monitoring a

67、ir quality,advising on plans,coordinating and monitoring actions,and pooling scientific research.Coordination exists between climate and air policies.This mechanism often has broad participation,including the scientific community,private sector,and civil society,and participants generally disclose a

68、ll data.In federations,formal mechanisms at the central executive level(housed at the cabinet office)that have autonomy tend to be the most effective coordination bodies.Accountability and transparency There is a robust air quality monitoring and emissions information system in place.Emissions from

69、stationary sources are captured and reported regularly.There are web-based platforms that perform real-time monitoring and provide publicly available data on the state of air quality,including an air quality index(AQI).Audit,control,and accountability institutions examine AQM plans,programs,and data

70、.Applying this same AQM governance framework and using emerging international trends as benchmarks for good practices,country-level assessments of Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania revealed a number of key strengths and weaknesses in AQM governance in these countries:Legal and Regulatory Framework

71、.All four countries have transposed EU air quality directives into national legislation,although with several major shortcomings.Legal and regulatory frame-works formally define AQM roles and responsibilities,yet challenges persist in the interpreta-tion and execution of power division(distribution

72、of authority).Enforcement tools are present in all AQM legal and regulatory frameworks,but are generally insufficient or ineffective.Local transboundary cooperation to manage air quality is either absent from the regulatory frame-work or has never been implemented.Multiple policy tools have been int

73、roduced by national AQM legislation,but greater interaction with economic instruments must be put in place.Committed Executive.A long-term vision for AQM has generally been agreed upon through dedicated AQPs and the National Air Pollution Control Programme(NAPCP),although some AQPs have expired and

74、AQP measures are rarely integrated with climate policies.All of the countries save Bulgaria have dedicated national funding mechanisms for environmental prior-ities,including AQM.Nevertheless,air pollution has lost importance on their political agendas,and high-level government officials almost neve

75、r act as champions of existing policies.Their national and local institutions lack proper capacities to implement and enforce AQM policies and regulations.execuTive summary11Nested Planning.Multi-stakeholder participation in the preparation of AQPs and reporting requirements enrich the AQM planning

76、process.However,geographic areas subject to air quality monitoring and assessment differ from the areas where AQM planning takes place.Few regions with transboundary pollution systematically study pollutant fluxes using airshed approaches and then draw on that information to inform AQM at the local

77、level.Municipalities lack adequate capacities to prepare AQPs,resulting in documents with low quality and weak implementation.Harmonization between national and local air quality policies,programs,and plans must be improved.Horizontal and Vertical Coordination.High-level coordination bodies for AQM

78、are absent or have been created,but have not reached their full potential.Vertical coordination in all countries remains weak,leading to the unharmonized implementation of air quality policies at the local level.Accountability and Transparency.All of the countries save Romania have comprehensive air

79、 quality monitoring networks,centralized databases,and publish information on the state of air quality.Control institutions oversee state agencies compliance with national and interna-tional AQM legislation,while civil society demands state accountability in air quality matters,although public parti

80、cipation in policy design is far from optimal.However,the air quality monitoring system fails to comply with EU directives in all four states,and the data produced and published is incomplete and inaccessible to the public.After reflecting on international experience and the specific political and i

81、nstitutional con-text across the assessed client countries,the following common policy recommendations on strengthening AQM have been drafted for the consideration of the governments of Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania.3 3 The recommendations presented in this technical note do not arise from det

82、ailed quantitative analysis(source apportionment by country and air pollution hot spots).Therefore,the report does not provide an in-depth discussion of specific policy instruments,including both command-and-control measures and market-based instruments,in relation to each countrys unique circumstan

83、ces.This aspect of policy analysis is outside the scope of the paper,and readers should be aware that a comprehensive evaluation of the adequacy of policy instruments is not included.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS12Summary of Common Reform Options and RecommendationsLegal and regulatory

84、framework Recommendation 1.Implement strategies to improve and harmonize the manner in which current AQM legislation is interpreted by national,subnational,and local governments.Foster legal discussions between the different levels of government to agree on a common interpretation of the legislation

85、 and to identify areas that require amendments.Recommendation 2.Strengthen enforcement mechanisms by improving regulatory authorities monitoring and sanctioning capacity.Propose and discuss possible amend-ments to current legislation to introduce the legal authority to audit the regulated entities a

86、nd sanction noncompliant parties.Recommendation 3.Propose amendments to current AQM legislation to explicitly demand coordination and cooperation between jurisdictions in cases of local transboundary pollution.Establish clear legal mandates to draw,implement,and co-finance joint AQM plans that addre

87、ss cases of local transboundary pollution.Recommendation 4.Enhance existing policy tools for AQM,including command-and-control,market-based,and enforcement tools.Combine policy tools to manage air quality across sectors and levels of government.Pay special attention to phasing out or repurposing fos

88、sil fuel subsidies,increasing alternatives to fossil fuel consumption and technologies,and introducing air pollution charges.Committed executive Recommendation 5.Strengthen narratives on the links between AQM and other priority policy areas while elevating the role of local champions.Strengthen poli

89、tical links be-tween AQM and other current policy priorities,such as addressing climate change,reduc-ing fossil fuel dependency,accessing new markets,and creating green jobs.This should be combined with finding new champions among specific subnational leaders who have been exposed to and managed cri

90、tical pollution episodes.Recommendation 6.Update national AQM planning instruments to renew the govern-ments long-term vision on air quality and to establish synergies with climate policies.Update existing NAPCP or nation-wide AQM policies to renew the countrys long-term goals,harmonize existing sec

91、toral policies,and adopt more ambitious targets.Develop an integrated air quality and climate change approach to achieving coherent policy objec-tives through the implementation of packages of targeted AQM and climate policy tools.Recommendation 7.Enhance AQM staff capacity,particularly at the local

92、 level,by appointing fully AQM-dedicated experts.Equip local authorities with dedicated and ex-pert personnel and technical resources to adequately monitor and enforce air pollution policies and legislation.execuTive summary13Nested planning Recommendation 8.Strengthen approaches that integrate AQM

93、planning instruments among national and subnational authorities and jurisdictions where transboundary pollution is an issue.Introduce airshed approaches into existing AQM planning instru-ments and establish joint commissions between affected jurisdictions to adopt coordi-nated action plans.Recommend

94、ation 9.Build municipal capacity to prepare AQPs and monitor their imple-mentation.Train local staff in airshed planning,strategy,and monitoring through technical assistance and capacity-development programs targeting local authorities.Monitor AQP implementation systematically.Recommendation 10.Impr

95、ove harmonization and alignment between national and local AQM planning instruments.Prepare guidelines for local authorities to harmonize local AQM plans with national and regional ones.Assess and address existing gaps in different planning instruments contributions to achieving the national vision.

96、Institutional coordination Recommendation 11.Empower existing bodies or create new high-level coordination bodies with the participation of central and subnational governments and high-level political leadership.Enhance or set up coordination bodies to monitor the implementa-tion and allocation of r

97、esources to enact the national AQM vision,foster collaboration,and promote the importance of AQM across sectors,in cooperation with existing climate coordination mechanisms.Recommendation 12.Set up a multi-stakeholder platform to improve dialogue,informa-tion exchange,and coordination between centra

98、l and local governments and other key stakeholders.Ensure that this platform increases collaboration between central and local administrations and also promotes knowledge exchange and discussions with academic and private sector actors on AQM regulation and policy implementation.Accountability and t

99、ransparency Recommendation 13.Strengthen and expand the air quality monitoring system.En-sure that regulations establish adequate guidelines and requirements for the air quality monitoring network to comply with EU regulations and to strengthen its interactions with climate information,including gre

100、enhouse gas inventories.Support central government agencies in operating centralized databases that integrate multiple measuring points and are capable of informing the public on the state of air quality via user-friendly portals.Ensure that quality and assurance tools provide transparency and owner

101、ship of data and that the AQI is updated to reflect health criteria.Recommendation 14.Enhance public participation along the AQM planning and policy implementation cycle.Ensure and foster public participation in and oversight of plans and policy implementation through streamlined and accessible part

102、icipation mechanisms that also allow the public to report violations.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS14Using the same structure of the five AQM attributes,this note has also identified country-specific recommendations that have been categorized into four tiers based on their priority level

103、 and time frame for implementation:top/short term,top/medium term,secondary/short term,and secondary/medium term.Summary of Recommendations for Each Client CountryBulGarIa Top Priority/Short Term Discuss the need to create a comprehensive funding program for emissions reduction and air quality impro

104、vement(committed executive).Empower the Ministry of Environment and Water(MoEW)to support municipalities in their design and implementation of local AQPs,National Air Quality Improvement Programs(NAQIPs),and the NAPCP(committed executive).Ensure funding to upgrade and expand of the monitoring networ

105、k to guarantee real-time data and coverage for critical pollutants such as PM2.5(accountable institutions).Continue strengthening the Environment Agency,the MoEW,and the capacity of larger cities to implement an AQI to support public awareness campaigns(accountable institutions).Top Priority/Medium

106、Term Assess whether the countrys Clean Ambient Air Act provides enough of a legal basis to support municipal implementation of local AQPs and NAQIPs,and if necessary,propose amendments to strengthen incentives for municipalities to implement these programs(legal and regulatory framework).Carry out a

107、 review to determine if the legal framework for the low emissions zones must be amended to include a clearer legal basis for enactment and enforcement mechanisms,control,monitoring,and sanctions(legal and regulatory framework).Revise legislation relating to the distribution and sale of fuels in the

108、domestic sector to ensure environmental standards are promulgated and enforced(legal and regulatory framework).Strengthen capacities in the MoEW,scientific community,and academic institutions for air quality modeling and source apportionment at the national and regional levels(nested planning).Once

109、AQPs are established,maintain local AQP councils with a mandate to monitor and provide advice during AQP implementation(nested planning).Secondary Priority/Medium Term Re-launch the National Air Quality Council to raise high-level political awareness(vertical and horizontal coordination).execuTive s

110、ummary15croatIaTop Priority/Short Term Rebuild high-level political leadership on air quality(committed executive).Inform the public more effectively about their rights(accountable institutions).Top Priority/Medium Term Amend existing legislation to fully comply with the EU Industrial Emissions Dire

111、ctive and the Seveso III Directive(legal and regulatory framework).Amend the Air Protection Act to clarify the roles and responsibilities for AQM and to in-troduce incentives and sanctions in order to enable local governments to implement local AQPs(legal and regulatory framework).Consider the desig

112、n of different instruments for the allocation and use of funds to help leverage other funding sources(committed executive).Strengthen local capacities to lead the air quality planning process(nested planning).Secondary/Short Term Update and publish the National Air Quality Report for 2022 and 2023 a

113、nd incentivize the publication of local AQPs and other government programs(accountable institutions).Secondary/Medium Term Set up an Air Quality Management Committee with resources to improve the coherence and appropriate sequencing of various sectoral interventions(vertical and horizontal coordinat

114、ion).polandTop Priority/Short Term Harmonize national and regional solid fuel boiler standards and adjust the sulfur content allowed for household coal use to comply with EU standards(legal and regulatory framework).Strengthen the Ministry of Climates capacities to prepare uniform guidance for AQP p

115、reparation and regulation compliance,and increase funding for municipalities(committ-ed executive).Work with local municipalities to incentivize greater allocation of technical resources to improve AQM(committed executive).Transition to a more health-based approach to the dissemination of air qualit

116、y information,and improve the AQI to strengthen its health criteria(accountable institutions).Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS16Top/Medium Term Assess the state of the current legislations compliance with international agreements(legal and regulatory framework).Amend the Environmental Prot

117、ection Law to introduce incentives and sanctions for local governments(legal and regulatory framework).Strengthen AQP preparation guidelines and make them legally binding(nested planning).Establish a program to co-fund the expansion,operation,and maintenance of local meas-uring points and monitoring

118、 stations(accountable institutions).Secondary/Short Term Review the state of implementation of the Clean Air Program and prepare an action plan(committed executive).Establish an annual peer learning platform for key regional stakeholders involved in AQM to exchange experiences and lessons learned(ve

119、rtical and horizontal coordination).Secondary/Medium Term Revisit the division of responsibilities between the Ministry of Climate and the Plenipo-tentiary for the Clean Air Program(vertical and horizontal coordination).romanIaTop/Short Term Establish a government commission to follow up on infringe

120、ments of EU air legislation and to coordinate the countrys response and compliance(legal and regulatory framework).Use the recent submission of the NAPCP to renew high-level political leadership on AQM(committed executive).Strengthen the Environmental Guards enforcement capacities(committed executiv

121、e).Modify the National Environmental Fund programs to improve their impact on air quality(committed executive).Launch a comprehensive program to re-build Romanias air quality information system(accountable institutions).Install a web-based portal with real-time information for public consultation,an

122、d develop an AQI based on health criteria(accountable institutions).Strengthen national and local capacities for air quality modeling and forecasting as key inputs to AQPs(accountable institutions).Design and implement a transparency and accountability strategy to strengthen public participation alo

123、ng the AQP policy cycle(accountable institutions).execuTive summary17Top/Medium Term Amend current legislation to increase sanctions on noncompliant public authorities and emissions sources(legal and regulatory framework).Update Government Decision 257/2015 on the Methodology for Developing AQPs to

124、include clear steps to ensure coordination and harmonization with the NAPCP and other relevant national policies(nested planning).Secondary/Medium Term Improve the capacity building of national and local authorities to oversee the experts hired to develop studies for AQPs,and review whether the Nati

125、onal Register of Certified Experts is being too restrictive by limiting the expertise needed for robust studies and plans(nested planning).Re-energize the central coordination unit with high-level recognition and adequate resourc-es,and set out the institutional structure for coordinating national-a

126、nd local-level actions to ensure that air pollution hotspots are addressed(vertical and horizontal coordination).Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS1801Introduction19Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS1.IntroductionAir pollution is critically important both to people and to the broader

127、 environment.The World Health Organization(WHO)recently identified air pollution as a major environmental risk factor in noncommunicable disease in humans worldwide,ranking alongside smoking,poor diets,and inactivity.However,air pollution stands out as the one risk factor over which individuals have

128、 no control.There are individual remedies to reduce other sources of risk,such as giving up smoking or getting more exercise;however,everyone must breathe the air,and yet has little control over the pollution it contains.Beyond its impacts on human health,air pollution is a major factor in the degra

129、dation of the natural environment,which is also directly relevant to human well-being and even survival,from food sources to protection against natural disasters.Air pollution is also a significant factor in global economics,in that there are considerable costs associated with both the harm it cause

130、s and the actions required to reduce it.This report is about crucial aspects of air quality management(AQM)and the governance and institutional arrangements needed to develop and implement effective policies and measures to combat air pollution and improve air quality.European Union(EU)legislation o

131、n air quality and emissions and pollution sources,described in section 2 below,provides an overarching AQM governance framework for EU member states.However,some members still face gaps in the implementation of this legislation,and their institutional arrangements could be reformed to improve the ef

132、fectiveness of their air quality policies.This technical note responds to this need with the specific objective of informing the governments of Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania about ongoing efforts and opportunities to strengthen their own AQM governance in order to achieve better air quality in

133、 these countries.Through its work worldwide on AQM,the World Bank has identified a set of key governance and institutional factors that have an impact on overall AQM performance.Some factors are fiscal,such as underinvestment in planning,monitoring systems,analysis,and other technical capacities.Oth

134、ers are legal,including outdated environmental regulatory frameworks,lack of enforcement,and inadequate sanctions.There are also important governance and administra-tive factors,including ineffective leadership on air quality issues,weaknesses in coordination machinery,disconnects between central pl

135、anning and local implementation,and a lack of stakeholder and public participation.A lack of climate and air pollution policy coordination also impacts the ability to achieve sustainable outcomes.Finally,economic instruments to incentivize the adoption of needed measures are generally insufficiently

136、 used.By identifying these factors,a coherent framework has been developed to assess the insti-tutional capacity for effective and efficient AQM.This framework consists of 16 components organized around five attributes,and a set of guidance questions to carry out the assessment.The framework is desc

137、ribed in section 3 below and further detailed in Annex 1.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS20This report applies the assessment framework to distill common and emerging trends in AQM,using detailed case studies of six selected countries:Austria,Estonia,Germany,Lithuania,Slovenia,and Sweden.I

138、t draws conclusions about what institutional arrangements,practices,and behaviors serve to improve air quality governance,and which work against effective AQM performance.Summaries of the six case study countries can be found in Annex 2 of this doc-ument,and the main trends in air quality governance

139、 observed in those case studies,which can serve as benchmarks for the four client countries,are outlined in section 4 below.More thorough descriptions of the case studies are presented in a companion paper.The report also includes the findings of individual assessments of the four client countries:B

140、ulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania.Section 5 presents a summary of the strengths and weaknesses of AQM in these four countries,while Annex 3 provides brief summaries of the full country studies that are contained in a separate document.Finally,section 6 of the report offers general recommendations a

141、nd policy reform options for all four countries,in addition to country-specific recommendations that address issues particular to each state.inTroducTion2102Background:Air Quality in EuropeAir QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS222.Background:Air Quality in EuropeThis section outlines the main is

142、sues associated with air pollution in Europe,including its impacts and current trends in air quality.It also describes cooperative ventures across Europe that have culminated in overarching legal regimes for air protection,the implementation of policies and measures in a number of individual Europea

143、n countries,and subsequent progress on the stated objectives.Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are emitted into the air and dispersed by wind.Trends in air pollution are tracked by measuring the amount of the harmful substance emitted,known as emissions,and their concentration in the air,

144、which is the measure of air quality.A reduction in the ambient concentration of an air pollutant,or an improvement in air quality,is the result of falling emissions levels,meaning that emissions reductions are one of the key measures of air quality improvement.However,managing air pollution through

145、emissi-ons reductions is a complex challenge that requires a full understanding of the contributions of the many sectors that must be involved to address the problem.Investment time horizons beyond the life of individual interventions and a long-term approach to planning and prioriti-zation are also

146、 needed.According to an assessment by the European Environment Agency(EEA),air pollution led to a significant number of premature deaths in the 27 EU member states in 2020.Exposure to concentrations of fine particulate matter(PM)and nitrogen dioxide above WHOs most recent 2021 guideline levels are e

147、stimated to have resulted in 238,000and 49,000 premature deaths,respectively.Acute exposure to ozone is estimated to have caused 24,000 deaths.As serious as these impacts are,the death estimates alone do not provide any data on the harm caused by years of exposure to air pollution in the form of chr

148、onic diseases and other ailments.In addition to the human suffering,the burden of air pollutionassociated disease places con-siderable strains on health care systems,with both human and economic costs on societies and their constituent families and individuals.The air pollutionrelated welfare costs

149、for the Europe and Central Asia region are estimated to amount to 410 percent of GDP.However,health impacts are not uniform across Europe.Figure 1 shows the estimates of preventable deaths due to exposure to PM2.5.There are considerable variations in excess mortality across the EU,with higher levels

150、 in the eastern regions,Italy,and southern Spain.Nevertheless,as the map in Figure 3 shows,PM2.5 levels in this area are broadly within EU limits,which suggests that the current EU limit value for PM2.5,an annual mean of 25 g/m3,does not provide uniform health protection across the EU.background:air

151、 QualiTy in europe23Air pollution also has serious effects on the natural and built environments,including crop yields.Perhaps the most serious of these is the impact on the natural environment,as hu-manity depends on the services ecosystems provide,such as food and water.In 2020,the EEA determined

152、that 75 percent of the ecosystem of the 27 EU members remained unprotected against the impacts of nitrogen pollution(eutrophication),and that nearly half of the forest across 35 European countries was unprotected against ground-level ozone.2.1.Efforts to reduce air pollution in EuropeOver the past t

153、hree decades,emissions of air pollution have generally fallen across Europe.In the period between 2005 and 2020 alone,emissions of all major air pollutants in the EU fell by between 10 and 80 percent,depending on the pollutant,as the EEA chart in Figure 2 illustrates.The figure also shows that,over

154、this period,the total GDP of the EU rose by over 10 percent,indicating that the downward trend in air pollution was not caused by an economic contraction and that GDP growth can be achieved without adding to the air pollution burden.Figure 1.Preventable Deaths(per 100,000 inhabitants)from PM2.5 Expo

155、sureSource:EEA;https:/discomap.eea.europa.eu/.exposure to pm2.5preventable deaths per 100k inhabitants90 30055 9045 5535 4525 350 25Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS24Note,however,that this is an average of emissions across countries and covers only the EU.Even within the EU,there is consid

156、erable geographic variation in ambient pollution levels.The map in Figure 3 is of average annual mean ambient levels of a specific pollutantfine partic-ulate matter,found to be the single greatest threat to human health(see paragraph 8 above).The eastern parts of the EU tend to have higher levels,an

157、d there is also a marked north-to-south trend toward a higher amount.Although it does not stand out as clearly in the map,the pollution levels of fine particulate matter tend to be higher in urban areas than in rural ones;emissions from residential and commercial buildings dominate,and the denser po

158、pulations in cities and towns tend to produce more from the use of solid fuels,especially poor-quality fuels burned in inefficient stoves and ovens,in the eastern areas of the EU.There are also con-siderable temporal differences in pollution levels,with typically higher levels in winter when demand

159、for heating is greater.The immediate cause of the decrease in air pollution and the general improvement in air quality in the EU in recent decades is the systematic reduction of emissions.4 However,this has not come about by accident,but is rather the result of 50 years of cooperation between the na

160、tion states of Europe,both inside and outside the EU,in strategic agreements to reduce national emissions of air pollution and to improve air quality.The decrease was accomplished mainly through the creation of emissions standards for major pollution sources,such as power stations,and for individual

161、 products,such as road transport vehicles.4 Although this may seem like a tautology,it must be noted that emissions reductions do not always lead to improved air quality.In fact,total air emissions reductions can happen alongside deteriorating air quality in some locations,because air quality is hea

162、vilyinfluenced by the size/height of a source and its location.Emissions from small sources influence air quality and population exposure much more than the same quantity of emissions from large sources.This may lead to a situation in which significant emission reductions from large sources result i

163、n total emissions in the area being reduced,while growth in emissions from small sources would still lead to a deterioration in air quality.Figure 2.Trends in EU-27 EmissionsSource:EEA,“Sources and Emissions of Air Pollutants in Europe,”https:/www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-202

164、2/sources-and-emissions-of-air.Note:NH3=ammonia;CH4=methane;NMVOC=non-methane volatile organic compound;CO=carbon monoxide;BC=black carbon;NOx=nitrogen oxides;and SO2=sulfur dioxide.2005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020140%120%100%80%60%40%20%0%background:air QualiTy in eu

165、rope25Figure 3.Three-Year Average of Annual Mean PM2.5(201820)Source:EEA;https:/discomap.eea.europa.eu/.Cooperation has thus been critically important in European environmental policy.Coopera-tion on this issue has ensured uniform aims for health protection and ensured that products traded and used

166、in Europe have a common level of environmental performance.It has also been vital in ensuring that regulations for large emitters and products are effective across the EU-27,and that progress in air quality improvement is reported to uniform and respected standards.Cooperation is also cost effective

167、 in that research and administrative costs for the necessary institutions can be shared.Improvement in air quality has also been enabled by the development of new and cleaner technologies.For example,devices for scrubbing the(smoke)stack emissions from power stations are currently in use,and emissio

168、n control mechanisms are now fitted to all road trans-port vehicles sold in the EU.This is in large part due to the pressure to save energy in buildings and transport,which reduces the demand for energy and,in consequence,the emissions of by-products related to energy use.It is due also to pressure

169、from civil society for better pro-tection of health and the broader natural environment.Reductions in industrial emissions and economic restructuring are significant contributors to air quality improvements.Industrial emissions of all pollutants has decreased in the EU since 2010.The industrial sect

170、or in Europe has become less emissions-intensive following gains in energy efficiency and the greater adoption of abatement technologies.The offshoring of heavy-pollutant and energy-intensive manufacturing industries such as textile and metal pro-duction are also a root cause for industrial pollutio

171、n decreases.5 Economic restructuring in the early 90s,especially in Eastern European countries,led to a significant reduction in industrial 5 European Environmental Agency.“Industrial pollutant release to air Europe”.https:/www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/industrial-pollutant-releases-to-ai

172、rannual averaGe concentratIon of pm2.5(g/m)In 3 years averaGe(20182020)very poor(25)18 2515 1814 1512 1510 127 105 72 51 2very good(1)Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS26fuel consumption.In addition,many Western European countries have seen an increase in the participation of less polluting

173、service industries,at the expense of a decline in manufacturing.2.2.The state of air pollution today:major pollutants and sourcesFrom among the wide range of substances that are considered air pollutants and are regu-lated as such,several stand out as especially harmful.WHO has identified air pollut

174、ants that are of most concern from the perspective of human health,and has set guideline values for the ambient levels that air protection policy should aim for.The three that cause the greatest number of deaths annually are fine particulate matter,nitrogen dioxide,and ozone.These are represented in

175、 Figure 4,which shows emissions and the sources that give rise to them:particulate matter is shown by the size fractions PM2.5 and PM10(particulate matter that is smaller than 2.5 and 10 microns in diameter,respectively),and nitrogen dioxide by NOx,the term for nitrogen oxides as a whole.In the EU,t

176、he largest single source of particulate matter is the use of fossil fuels for heating and cooking in residential,commercial,and institutional buildings.A significant portion of ambient PM2.5 is of a secondary nature,being formed in the air from emitted SOx,NOx,and ammonia.The largest single source o

177、f nitrogen dioxide is mo-tor vehicles(road and non-road).Ozone is not directly emitted,but is rather formed through reactions between non-methane volatile organic compounds(NMVOCs)and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight.The main sources of NMVOCs are road transport,solvents used in industria

178、l processes,and consumer products such as glues and paints.In addition to pol-lutants that harm human health,there are others that cause damage to crops and the natural environment through acid deposition or excess fertilization,known as eutrophication.background:air QualiTy in europe27The three mos

179、t significant pollutants in this category are sulfur dioxide,nitrogen oxides,and ammonia.The main source of sulfur dioxide is the use of sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power stations and other large industries,as well as in manufacturing and the residential sector.As noted above,motor vehicles ar

180、e the largest single source of nitrogen oxides.Ag-riculture,through the production and use of animal manure and artificial fertilizers,is by far the greatest source of ammonia.Considering their cumulative impacts on air pollution,the sectors in Figure 4 that make the greatest contributions to emissi

181、ons across all pollutants are agriculture and the residential,commercial,and institutional sectors.6 The common feature of these is that they are made up of many small entities,including individual households,and have proved difficult to regulate.WHOs guidelines for air pollution levels in Europe be

182、low which exposure would not cons titute a significant public health risk were published in 2000.7 The guidelines have been regularly updated,most recently in 2021,and continue to provide a basis for setting air pollutant stand-ards to protect public health and to eliminate or reduce exposure to haz

183、ardous pollutants.As 6 The residential,commercial,and institutional sectors refer to emissions generated in buildings.For example,air emissions from the institutional sector stem from such activities as heating,cooling,and lighting within institutions that include hospitals,schools,government buildi

184、ngs,and prisons.7 WHO,Air Quality Guidelines for Europe,Second Edition,WHO Regional Publications,European Series 91(Copenhagen:World Health Organization,Regional Office for Europe,2000),https:/www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289013581.Figure 4.Contributions to EU-27 Emissions(2020)Source:EEA,“Co

185、ntributions to EU-27 Emissions of BC,CO,NH,NMVOCs,NOx,Primary PM,Primary PM.,SO and CH from the Main Source Sectors in 2020,”https:/www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/contribution-to-eu-27-emissions/#tab-googlechartid_googlechartid_googlechartid_chart_1111.Note:BC=black carbon;CO=carbon monoxide;

186、NH3=ammonia;SO2=sulfur dioxide;and CH4=methane.agricultureenergy supplyresidential,commercial and institutionalmanufacturing and extractive industrynon-road transportroad transportwastebcconh3nmvocnoxpm2.5pm10so2ch40%20%40%60%80%100%Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS28such,the guideline valu

187、es are a benchmark for protection against air pollution across Europe.However,although emissions and ambient levels of pollution have generally fallen,the guide-lines themselves have changed in the light of emerging evidence of the health effects of air pollution.This is illustrated by the revised r

188、ecommended threshold(2021)for PM2.5,which has fallen to 5 g/m3 from the previous assessment of 10 g/m3.In the 2021 update,WHO notes that this will be challenging,and a series of interim targets are suggested,ranging up to 35 g/m3.The current situation in the EU is shown in Figure 5,showing a map of

189、the share of the popu-lation in EU member states exposed to levels of particulate pollution above the revised WHO guideline.The figure indicates that most people in the EU are in fact exposed to levels above the guideline,demonstrating the need to revisit current air quality limit valuesthe European

190、 Commission(EC)has proposed compliance with the 10 g WHO guideline by 2030and the need to do more to significantly reduce air pollution emissions.Figure 5.Percentage of the EU Population Exposed to PM2.5 Levels(201820)Source:EEA;https:/discomap.eea.europa.eu.Note:AQGs=Air Quality Guidelines.%populat

191、Ion exposed to pm2.5 levels aBove who aqGs thresholds In 3 years averaGe 20182020 95 100 90 95 80 90 50 80 25 500 25background:air QualiTy in europe292.3.Major regimes to address air pollution:UNECE Convention and EU directivesFollowing many years of research into its origins,effects,and ways to red

192、uce it,air pollution is sufficiently well understood for AQM to have become established practice at the national and local level.However,the emerging understanding that air pollution problems were on a scale beyond the nation state led to increasing demands for an international approach,and regimes

193、for international cooperation on the issue subsequently emerged.The two major instruments for air pollution management in Europe are the United Nations Economic Com-mission for Europe(UNECE)and the EU.UNECEs air protection policy originally focused on the problems of transboundary and long-range air

194、 pollution in Europe,highlighted notably by the acid rain problems of the 1970s.The members of UNECE have since spread beyond the EU,embracing Russia to the east and the United States and Canada to the west.The main vehicle for air pollution management under UNECE is the Convention on Long-Range Tra

195、nsboundary Air Pollution(LRTAP Conven-tion).Parties to the Convention have agreed on several measures to reduce the impact of air pollution in the form of protocols for the reduction of national emissions of air pollutants.In the most recent,the 1999 and 2012 Gothenburg Protocols,the parties agreed

196、to reduce the major emissions responsible for environmental acidification,eutrophication,and damaging health effects.Progress toward the target emissions levels is closely monitored,with support and advice for parties that have difficulty in attaining them.The lack of actual sanctions on members red

197、uces tensions that might otherwise arise and leads to relatively constructive engagement,both within and outside the EU.The aim of the EUs environmental policy is to achieve its zero-pollution vision for 2050.Part of this is a comprehensive clean air policy based on three pillars:ambient air quality

198、 standards,reduced air pollution emissions,and emissions standards for key sources of pollution.The clean air policy is closely linked to the EUs aim for a zero-carbon future and to other energy and health and welfare policies.The link between promoting air protection,reducing the ex-posure of EU re

199、sidents to air pollution,and pursuing the net zero-carbon policy is particularly important,as the target is frequently the same:the use of fossil fuels.There is thus a common cause between the delivery of climate and air protection policies in the movement to net zero.Although almost all EU member s

200、tates had AQM systems to protect occupational and public health before the formation of the EU or before their accession to it,these systems often took many different forms and were of varying effectiveness.Thus,in the interest of ensuring common standards of health protection,the EU has developed a

201、 collective regime for air quality,enshrined in the Ambient Air Quality Directive(AAQD).The AAQD contains a set of air quality standards for the most significant air pollutants in the form of a limit value on the ambient concentration of each pollutant within a certain time frame,measured as an annu

202、al or daily average.8 To ensure that measurements are as comparable as possible among member states,there are requirements for standard monitoring protocols and the placement of monitoring sites.8 The current set of limit values can be found at European Commission,“EU Air Quality Standards,”https:/e

203、nvironment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-quality-standards_en.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS30The basic requirement of the AAQD is that member states must define zones and agglomer-ations within their borders and assess air quality in each using the standard methodology.Wher

204、e it appears that the measured levels of air pollution currently exceed the limit values or are expected to exceed them in the future,the zone or agglomeration is designated an Air Quali ty Management Area.An improvement plan should then be prepared,containing policies and measures that can be expec

205、ted to bring the area into compliance with the limit values.The policies and measures required are to be reported to the EC as an Air Quality Improvement Plan.Considerable progress has been made on this goal,and air quality across Europe has gen-erally improved because of the implementation of the A

206、AQD.Persistent problems remain in the case of fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide,which are due to the use of solid fuels in residential heating and aging road transport fleets,respectively.The AAQD works through local governments to address areas of excess pollution following the implement

207、ation of measures taken at the national level.The EU,as a party to the LRTAP Convention,provides this framework through the emissions reductions required under the Gothenburg Protocol.9 The 2016 National Emissions Reduction Commitments(NEC)Directive sets emissions reduc-tion commitments for member s

208、tates for five major air pollutants:nitrogen oxides,NMVOCs,sulfur dioxide,ammonia,and fine particulate matter(PM2.5)for 2020 and 2030.The 2020 targets were designed to meet the Gothenburg Protocol commitments,and the 2030 targets to make a further contribution to air quality by reducing health impac

209、ts by 50 percent as compared to 2005.The NEC Directive also requires member states to draw up National Air Pollution Control Programmes(NAPCPs)that outline how emissions reductions are to be achieved.Reporting emissions as an indicator of progress toward targets is a vital part of the NEC Directive,

210、emphasizing the importance of emissions inventories as a tool in national and EU emissions reduction procedures.In addition to the five main pollutants,reports are required to show progress in reducing the emissions of several other key pollutants,including carbon monoxide,particulate pollution,and

211、heavy metals.Member states are also required to assess of the consequences of emissions reductions on air quality improvements as a link to the AAQD.There are other EU measures that,although not aimed directly at air pollution,make signifi-cant contributions toward better air quality.In particular,t

212、he European Green Deal aims to deliver a carbon neutral future for the EU.This will include many measures beneficial to air quality,including the reduction of energy demand in residential,commercial,and institutional buildings through improved insulation.This indicates that there is substantial bene

213、fit to be gained from the convergence of the agendas for air quality and climate protection.It should be noted that much of the EUs contribution to reducing air pollution owes its existence to a somewhat unrelated aim the need to ensure the integrity of the single market by removing barriers to trad

214、e.For example,vehicles used within the EU have to be made according to common,agreed-upon standards.This means that controls on vehicle ex-haust emissions are required to respond to the need for product standards so that vehicles 9 EEA,“Directive(EU)2016/2284 of the European Parliament and of the Co

215、uncil of 14 December 2016 on the Reduction of National Emissions of Certain Atmospheric Pollutants,”Official Journal of the European Union,December 14,2016,https:/eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016L2284.background:air QualiTy in europe31circulate freely throughout the EU,and

216、 EU directives toward this goal have been set based on the market integrity articles in the EU Treaty.Control of emissions from power stations and other large combustion plants,however,was designed in direct response to environmental problems stemming from transboundary pollution and was agreed upon

217、 under specific envi-ronmental articles.2.4.Assessing country performance in implementing EU policiesAir protection ultimately depends on the implementation of the agreements and directives described above.Regardless of how comprehensive and robust strategies,action plans,pro-tocols,and directives m

218、ay be,air protection depends on the implementation of policies and measures within individual EU member states and parties to the LRTAP Convention.According to an assessment of progress on air pollution reduction targets made by the EEA in 2021,13 member states have met their respective 202029 natio

219、nal emissions reduction commitments for each of the five main pollutants,while 13 others failed to do so for at least one of the five.For one member state,the status is unknown because its national inventory was not reported.The greatest challenge has been in achieving reductions in ammonia emission

220、s,for which the agriculture sector is the main source.Ten members had to cut their 2021 emissions levels to fulfill their 202029 reduction commitments.The EEA also notes that ammonia emissions have only slightly decreased in many member states since 2005,and have actually increased in some cases.The

221、 EEA estimates that further emissions reductions for almost all pollutants for 2030 and beyond will be a significant challenge for most EU countries,and that the reduction rate for some pollutant emissions is now leveling off.The one notable exception is sulfur dioxide,with many countries already co

222、mpliant with the 2030 reduction commitment.This assessment suggests that some EU members have experienced significant challenges in implementing EU air legislation that have impacted their AQM performance,and that there is a long way to go before the targets provided in the strategic instruments for

223、 air pollution reduction can be achieved throughout Europe.There is therefore considerable interest in understanding these challenges and in supporting member states efforts to address them.The role of each member state will therefore be crucial in achieving EU air pollution goals.Although the EU ha

224、s provided robust and ambitious structures for reducing air pollution by common consent,the implementation of agreed measures by member states,notably the NEC Directive and the AAQD,remains the critical success factor.There are currently serious short-comings,as many member states are experiencing d

225、ifficulties in planning and implementing the necessary policies and measures.Weakness in governance and ineffective institutional arrangements,along with chronic underinvestment,are major factors.Nevertheless,as the EU works toward its zero-pollution aim,there are significant opportunities for syner

226、gy between programs to reduce air pollution and programs to implement the aim of net-zero carbon.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS32In sum,the EU has a long history of emissions source management stemming from the need for uniform standards across member states to secure a level playing fie

227、ld for industry and to provide an equal measure of protection of public health.There are therefore controls on emissions from the largest industrial plants,power stations,and road transport vehicles.Many of the main pollution sources will be impacted by the zero-pollution strategy,but the process of

228、 maintaining regulatory control is likely to continue,although with new challenges during the transition period to maintain the integrity of the single market and to afford uniform pro-tection to EU residents.2.5.Air quality and governance challenges in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and RomaniaAir quality

229、,emissions,and source legislation in the EU has been transposed into national legislation in Bulgaria,Croatia,Poland,and Romania,providing a governance framework that has led to considerable progress on air quality.However,existing institutional arrange-ments still face challenges in ensuring compli

230、ance with EU norms and effectively implementing measures that address the main causes of pollution.For example,legal frameworks lack the authority and incentives for local governments to implement emissions reduction measures in the residential and transport sectors and the sanctions to punish offen

231、ders.Institutions responsible for AQM at the national and local levels do not have adequate technical and finan-cial resources or the political leadership to enforce unpopular measures.Municipal air quality plans(AQPs)are too general,and their implementation and impact go unmonitored.Moreover,coordi

232、nation between national and local governments is weak,and public participation in the AQM policy cycle is undermined by barriers to accessing information on air pollution.This subsection summarizes the main challenges associated with air pollution and air quality governance in these four client coun

233、tries.The following summary table utilizes in advance the framework described in detail in section 3,which is built on five attributes of governance:(i)a legal and regulatory framework,(ii)a committed executive,(iii)nested planning,(iv)horizontal and vertical coordination,and(v)accountability and tr

234、ansparency.It is presented here as a brief overview of several conceptual and analytical points that are developed in subsequent sections of the report.More information on AQM governance in each of the countries can be found in section 5 and Annex 3.In addition,Annex 4 describes pollution sources,em

235、i ssions reductions efforts,and progress toward ambient air quality targets in the four states in greater detail.background:air QualiTy in europe33BulGarIaaIr qualIty challenGesGovernance challenGesEmissions of particulate matter from solid fuel heaters in homes,nitrogen oxides from traffic and home

236、 heaters,and ammonia from agriculture must all be reduced to meet EU air quality limit values and emissions reduction commitments.Legal and regulatory framework:There are generally insufficient incentives,sanctions,and authority in existing regulatory frameworks for local governments to implement em

237、issions reduction measures in the residential and transport sectors.The legal framework for inspection,monitoring,and enforcement requires strengthening.Regulations for domestic fuel quality are in place but not effectively enforced at the local level.Committed executive:The national government stru

238、ggles to allocate sufficient resources for municipalities to implement residential heating and transport measures to reduce particulate matter and nitrogen oxide emissions.Municipal institutions are under-resourced,and local leadership struggles to enact effective pollution control measures and achi

239、eve public buy-in.Nested planning:There is a lack of incentives for regional air quality modeling and weak local capacity to prepare robust AQPs.Coordination:Achieving effective multi-level governance for AQM in Bulgaria has proven to be a significant challenge,and the National Air Quality Council f

240、or coordination across government has yet to begin functioning.Reduction measures require integrated project management and information systems to facilitate coordination among the actors involved.Horizontal coordination could be enhanced to improve the effectiveness of measures to reduce ammonia em

241、issions.Accountable institutions:The monitoring network must be modernized,and public awareness of the links between air quality and health benefits must be strengthened.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS34croatIaaIr qualIty challenGesGovernance challenGesThe most pressing air pollution prio

242、rity is to address ambient particulate matter,which will mainly require action to reduce emissions from solid fuel household heaters.To secure the EU emissions reduction commitments for nitrogen oxides and to reduce ambient nitrogen dioxides,transport fleet emissions will have to be reduced.Legal an

243、d regulatory framework:There have been shortcomings in the transposition of EU directives and legislation,and the legal assignment of roles and responsibilities is unclear.Committed executive:Air quality is not recognized as an especially important policy area within critical parts of government.Nes

244、ted planning:Municipal AQP measures lack specificity,are not monitored,and often fail to address the main pollution sources.Plans must include and enact special measures in areas where fuel and heating appliance standards are not leading to pollution reductions.Coordination:Vertical coordination is

245、formal and hierarchical,without a permanent body or platform to bring together national and subnational institutions and actors.Accountable institutions:Transparency on AQPs and data can and should be improved.polandaIr qualIty challenGesGovernance challenGesThe major cause of noncompliance with EU

246、legislation is particulate air pollution,PM10 and PM2.5.Benzo(a)pyrene concentrations are also higher in Poland than in other EU countries.The main source of pollution is residential heating with solid fuels.Other sources include commercial heating with wood or other biomass,motor vehicle exhaust(es

247、pecially from diesel engines),industrial emissions,and forest fires.Legal and regulatory framework:The AQM regulatory framework in Poland is comprehensive but is not fully aligned with international conventions.Also,some standards must be strengthened and harmonized with EU benchmarks,and the implem

248、entation of AQPs should be legally incentivized.Committed executive:Institutional roles and responsibilities for AQM must be clarified.There is a lack of decisive political leadership to implement an energy transition and plans to phase out coal.Nested planning:AQPs are uneven,reflecting the variabi

249、lity of funding and technical expertise across regions.Coordination:Coordination between government institutions must be strengthened,as some of the roles assigned to the Plenipotentiary for Clean Air could also be considered duties of the Minister of Environment.Accountable institutions:Civil socie

250、ty participation lacks an institutional framework,and information access must be improved.background:air QualiTy in europe35romanIaaIr qualIty challenGesGovernance challenGesDespite good performance in reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from large power plants and heavy industr

251、y,Romania continues to experience high levels of ambient nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter in urban areas.In the case of nitrogen oxides,further reductions within the passenger car fleet would make a significant contribution and seem feasible.In the case of particulate matter,action will fall

252、mainly on the residential sector with the replacement of stoves and boilers.Legal and regulatory framework:Legal sanctions for noncompliance on the part of public authorities and emissions sources are ineffective.Committed executive:There is a lack of sufficient personnel,technical capacity,and fund

253、ing for the Environmental Guard and the authorities that perform inspections.Air pollution problems have an insufficiently high profile at the top levels of government.Nested planning:Local AQPs are not harmonized with the NAPCP.Coordination:Vertical and horizontal coordination in the AQM system nee

254、ds improvement.The central planning/coordination unit for air quality is an excellent initiative,but inadequate resources and influence make it less effective than it could and should be.Accountable institutions:Public access to air quality information is difficult,and the information provided is in

255、sufficient and outdated.Many monitoring stations do not comply with EU standards.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS3603Methodology37Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS3.MethodologyThis section outlines the overarching methodology used to determine the specific govern-ance and institut

256、ional structures needed to ensure successful AQM.This report uses an EU adapted version of the Governance and Institutional Framework for Air Quality Management developed in 2021 under the World Bank project,“Governance and Institutional Arrangements:International Experience and Implications for Ind

257、ia.This framework has been developed based on international experience,with a view to the distinct challenges faced by each country,such as population and land size,geographic diversity,idiosyncrasies of public administration,and general social dynamics.As such,the framework can be adapted and appli

258、ed in a wide variety of country settingsThe analysis framework identifies key features of an effective air quality governance structure,highlighting the presence and functionality of institutional arrangements,processes,and mechanisms that promote successful AQM.The framework consists of five key at

259、tributes that have been determined to be critical to AQM:a legal and regulatory framework,a committed executive10,nested planning arrangements,horizontal and vertical institutional coordination,and accountability and transparency.Each of these attributes contains specific components and a set of que

260、stions to guide the assessment,as shown in Table 1.The framework has been used to identify trends and best practices in a set of relevant com-parator countries.11 Adapting some of the most relevant best practices to client countries realities can guide potential improvements in existing AQM governan

261、ce frameworks in these countries.It is important to note that the recommendations presented in this technical note do not arise from detailed quantitative analyses(source apportionment by country and air pollution hot spots).Therefore,the report does not provide an in-depth discussion of specific po

262、licy instruments,including both command-and-control measures and market-based instru-ments,in relation to each countrys unique circumstances.This aspect of policy analysis is outside the scope of the paper,and readers should be aware that a comprehensive evaluation of the adequacy of policy instrume

263、nts is not included.10 This refers to an executive branch that is fully committed to reforming and enhancing the efficiency of the countrys air quality management system.11 Comparator countries were selected based on their proximity to the client countries and their better air quality performance,as

264、 measured by average annual PM2.5 concentrations.See Annex 1.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS38Table 1.Governance and Institutional Framework for Air Quality ManagementattrIButescomponentsleGal and reGulatory frameworkSeries of laws,acts,and regulations for defining the mandate for effecti

265、ve AQM,setting the countrys air quality standards,assigning the required institutional roles and responsibilities,establishing compliance,creating reporting and enforcement mechanisms,addressing transboundary air pollution,and adhering to international commitments.Legal framework Roles and responsib

266、ilities Enforcement mechanisms Transboundary mandate and international commitmentscommItted executIveStrength of the executives commitment to the AQM agenda revealed by the existence of a clear and publicly available vision and strategy backed by adequate resources,policy instruments,and incentives,

267、with capabilities in place to provide assurance that the strategy will be implemented to meet its targets.Track record of effective enforcement.Strategic vision Funding allocations Incentives Government capacitynested plannInGQuality and effectiveness of AQM planning instruments at different levels

268、of government.Planning process Independent and evidence-based expert advice horIzontal and vertIcal coordInatIonExisting functional arrangements to coordinate AQM stakeholders across sectors(horizontal)and between different levels of government(vertical).This attribute includes a description of the

269、membership,functions,tools for effective program/project management,and overall effectiveness of the coordination mechanisms.Political leadership Membership to match Functional reach and powers Independent fundingaccountaBIlIty and transparencyMechanisms to disclose information,track and evaluate pr

270、ogress,promote public and private sector participation,and hold institutions to account through adequate evidence/databases,information disclosure,and established channels for recourse.Transparency:data generation and disclosure Auditing,monitoring,and evaluation Citizen participation Legal recourse

271、meThodology39As noted,the methodological approach begins by adapting the existing Bank framework to reflect specific institutional developments arising from country implementation of EU air policy.The EU has a comprehensive air policy supported by multiple legal instruments,with the objective of pur

272、suing a zero-pollution ambition to protect the health and well-being of Eu-ropeans.EU air policy consists of directives and regulations issued by the European Parliament and the Councils adoption of standards,emissions limits,and policy instruments to improve air quality.There are three main regulat

273、ory pillars supporting the policy.First,the AAQD,which establishes standards of air quality,requires specific actions to improve air quality in noncom-pliant regions,and sets common rules for air quality monitoring and for the transparency of information.Second,the NEC Directive,establishes emission

274、s reduction commitments for member states based on the implementation of their NAPCPs,with descriptions of the policies and measures required for attainment alongside strong scientific evidence from projections,inventories,and other analytical and reporting tools that they will deliver.Finally,the E

275、U has a set of source pollution legislation defining emissions and energy-efficiency targets and standards for key pollution sources,including industry,vehicles,and fuels.12 The chart below summarizes the main pillars of EU air policy.12 A list of the EU source pollution legislation can be found her

276、e.Pillars of EU Air PolicyamBIent aIr qualIty dIrectIve Protect citizens from the harmful effects of air pollution on health and the environment Define common methods to monitor and assess air quality Establish standards of air quality to achieve across the EU Ensure that information on air quality

277、is made public Design and implement air quality plans Maintain good air quality,improve it where it is not goodnatIonal emIssIons ceIlInG dIrectIve Establish emissions reduction commitments for member states anthropogenic emissions Define reduction commitments Elaborate accurate projections Establis

278、h National Air Pollution Control Programmes Ensure monitoring and reportingsource-specIfIc emIssIons standards Control pollution directly at the source Industrial Emissions Directive Medium Combustion Plan Directive Eco-design Directive Energy efficiency Euro and fuel standards OtherAir QuAlity MAnA

279、geMent in eu MeMber StAteS40The Governance and Institutional Framework for Air Quality Management can be adapted to highlight institutional arrangements that are particular to the European context,acknowl-edging countries that go beyond EU legislation requirements.This is achieved by identifying ele

280、ments in EU air policy that respond directly to one or more of the frameworks attributes and components outlined above and evaluating them to determine if the existing questions capture EU policy developments.For example,the AAQD sets binding air quality standards on all member states with a clear m

281、andate to protect the health of the population.Some of these standards consider the exposure of the population to certain pollutant concentrations.In this case,the framework is adapted by modifying the questions that elaborate on the legal framework component of the legal and regulatory framework at

282、tribute.The modification aims to identify the legal instrument through which the Air Quality Directive was transposed into national legislation and assess whether the country has adopted more stringent standards.Finally,by identifying certain elements in EU air policy that exemplify ways in which to

283、 develop AQM governance framework,the methodology avoids becoming an EU legislation compliance checklist.Table 3 displays the main elements of EU air policy in relation to the components and attributes of the Banks Governance and Institutional Framework for Air Quality Management.Table 2.AQM Framewo

284、rk and EU Air PolicyGovernance and InstItutIonal framework for aIr qualIty manaGementelements In eu aIr polIcy present In theframeworkLegal and Regulatory Framework Legal framework Roles and responsibilities Enforcement mechanisms Transboundary mandate and international commitments Standards for air

285、 quality health Designation of appropriate bodies or authorities for air quality assessment and management Mandate to cooperate in cases of transboundary air pollution AQPs for regions breaching standards NAPCPs Source-specific emissions standardsCommitted Executive Strategic vision Funding allocati

286、on Incentives Government capacity AQPs for regions breaching standards Political emissions reduction targets NAPCPs meThodology41Nested Planning Planning process Independent and evidence-based expert advice Areas for air quality assessment and management AQPs for regions breaching standards Short-te

287、rm action plans for areas at risk of exceeding thresholds NAPCPs Cost-effective reduction potential in all sectors and optimization of national emissions reductionsVertical and Horizontal Coordination Political leadership Membership to match Functional reach,powers to match,effective program/project

288、 management Independent funding Cooperation with other EU members Mandate to cooperate between member states in cases of transboundary air pollution Establishment of coordination mechanisms between member statesTransparency and Accountable Institutions Transparency of data generation and disclosure

289、Auditing,monitoring,and evaluation Citizen participation Legal recourse Common methods to monitor,measure,and assess air quality National emissions inventories National emissions projections Information on air quality that must be made public Mandatory member state reports on compliance with the AAQ

290、D and the NEC Directive Commissions legal action instruments against members in violation of EU legislation EU legislation does not require member states to adopt a prescribed AQM governance sys-tem.However,the existing framework remains a valid tool to assess the institutional structure built by ea

291、ch country to govern air quality.Adapting the framework then focuses on reviewing the questionnaire to eliminate redundant questions,introducing new ones reflecting imple-mentation of EU legislation,and adjusting others to the European context.Annex 1 shows the modifications made to the questionnair

292、e.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS4204International Experience and Emerging Trends43Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS4.International Experience and Emerging TrendsFor each of the frameworks five attributes outlined above,this section summarizes the un-derlying institutional arrang

293、ements for AQM in six case study countries:Austria,Estonia,Germany,Lithuania,Slovenia,and Sweden.More information can be found in Annex 2 and in the detailed companion report on the case studies.The examples used are not meant to be portrayed as ideal cases and do not constitute full assessments of

294、the country systems in question.They were instead developed to capture what seem to be useful institutional arrange-ments,functions,and processes that can inspire institutional strengthening for structural and policy changes and reforms in the client countries.This section identifies common elements

295、 across the case studies,allowing them to be grouped as basic elements that should be present in any AQM governance structure.It also includes a list of emerging trends that were identified as being at the forefront of current institutional arrangements.4.1.Legal and regulatory framework BasIc eleme

296、ntsIn all six countries studied,national legal frameworks transpose EU ambient air and emis-sions ceilings directives,setting source-specific emissions standards and,in some cases,more stringent standards for certain pollutants.National legal frameworks that address air quality and adequately adopt

297、EU ambient air legislation provide the de jure basis for making policy on and implementing air quality standards,and for achieving air quality goals.All coun-tries under study transposed EU ambient air and emissions ceilings directives into their legal frameworks as required by EU legislation.Adopti

298、ng EU directives takes different shapes and forms in response to each countrys constitutional and legal structure.For example,Austria,Germany,and Estonia adopted the EU air directives by issuing parliamentary acts.Other countries,such as Sweden and Slovenia,passed secondary legislation,e.g.governmen

299、t or ministerial ordinances.In Lithuania,air quality standards are set jointly by the environment and health ministries.All six countries have adopted EU air quality standards,though some countries,such as Austria,have more stringent benchmarks.Internal regulations may also set higher standards.For

300、example,pollution permits in Austria and Sweden can be more stringent than national regulations.13The legal and regulatory framework clearly distributes roles and responsibilities between central government and subnational authorities.A clear distribution of roles and respon-sibilities is linked to

301、greater efficiency and complementarity in AQM policy implementation.The description of the roles and responsibilities of different state actors is common practice in all AQM legislation under study.Some legislation provides greater detail in the distribution of roles and responsibilities than others

302、.For instance,Austrias Federal Law on Ambient Air 13 However,in the case of directives limiting emissions from products,including road transport vehicles,EU members must adopt EU norms and cannot unilaterally impose higher environmental standards.Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS44Quality(I

303、mmissionsschutzgesetz-Luft IG-L)contains a list of measures to improve air quality with the responsible actors attached.Swedens Air Ordinance distributes competences be-tween central,regional,and municipal governments.In Germany,legislation indicates that air pollution control management is shared b

304、etween the federal government,which is in charge of enacting legislation,and state and local governments,which lead policy implementation.In Lithuania,the national-level institutions provide regulation and guidance,while subnational authorities are responsible for measures to ensure good air quality

305、.Estonias AQM legislation allocates most responsibilities to central government institutions,but gives some competenc-es for pollution control to local authorities.Slovenias legislation also assigns the bulk of AQM responsibilities to the central government,although a lack of clarity exists in certa

306、in areas,such as which entities are responsible for implementing AQPs.Legal frameworks establish a combination of policy tools for AQM,including com-mand-and-control,market-based instruments,and enforcement tools.The use of a variety of policy instruments allows states to incentivize pollution contr

307、ol through different and com-plementary methods,while providing more flexibility to regulated entities.All countries under study have a toolbox of policy instruments to manage air quality across sectors and levels of government,with differences in the relevance of each instrument in curbing air poll

308、ution.The most common command-and-control tools are found in the licensing and permitting systems.Subnational governments typically have at their disposal such instruments as restricting vehi-cle circulation,establishing low-emissions zones,demanding the use of diesel particle filters,determining sp

309、eed limits,and banning open burning.However,difficulties exist in enforcing these command-and-control measures,especially in the commercial and residential building sectors,as well as in the control of quality standards for fuels and appliances used for heating.All countries also use environmental a

310、nd pollution charges,yet fossil fuel subsidies remain high,and discussion on repurposing or eliminating them is quite limited.14 Enforcement tools,such as fines,penalties,prosecution of violators,and plant closure or machinery confiscation,are also commonly established in all legal frameworks under

311、study.14 According to the EEA,fossil fuel subsidies as a percentage of GDP for each case study are:Germany 0.41,Lithuania 0.34,Sweden 0.16,Austria,0.08,and Estonia 0.14.inTernaTional experience and emerging Trends45Box 1.Policy Instruments for Air Quality Management15The use of a wide range of instr

312、uments in environmental policy allows the state to incentivize pollution control through different and complementary methods,while providing more flexi-bility to regulated entities.Policy instruments for AQM include:Command-and-control:This is the most common form of environmental regulation and req

313、uires a regulating entity to specify the actions a polluter must take to control pollution.Command-and-control can take many forms,including determining maximum pollution le vels and specifying the types of equipment companies must install to control pollution.However,command-and-control regulation

314、lacks mechanisms to equalize the marginal cost of reducing pollution among polluters.Environmental permits and licenses allow the regulator to establish the specific command-and-control actions for an industrial facility to be allowed to operate.Other command-and-control actions to reduce air pollut

315、ion include restricting vehicle circula-tion,establishing low-emissions zones,demanding the use of diesel particle filters,introducing speed limits,and banning open burning.Economic or market-based instruments:This type of policy instrument introduces an economic cost on pollution or an economic ben

316、efit for abatement,allowing the market to reach optimum levels of pollution control.These instruments aim to change the incentives of economic agents so that individual decisions take environmental concerns into account.The most common economic instruments for AQM are tradable emissions permits,envi

317、ronmental subsidies for clean technology,pollution fees and charges,and taxes.Enforcement tools:These are tools that the regulator uses to ensure full compliance with en-vironmental regulation.Enforcement usually has two components:auditing regulated entities and applying penalties on noncompliant a

318、ctors.Economic fines and penalties for exceeding emissions limits,plant closure or equipment confiscation,and prosecution and imprisonment of violators are examples of enforcement tools.Litigation and public recourse:Individuals or organizations are entitled and able to bring le-gal cases against th

319、e state or private entities for the violation of clean air rights or air quality legislation.15 Adapted from C.D.Kolstad,Environmental Economics(Oxford,UK:Oxford University Press,2000).Air QuAlity MAnAgeMent in eu MeMber StAteS46The legal framework includes specific legislation on the use of market-

320、based instruments,such as environmental taxes and pollution charges.Market-based instruments apply the polluter pays principle through which pollution has an economic cost and its reduction an economic benefit,allowing the market to reach optimum levels of pollution/abatement.Aus-tria,Germany,Lithua

321、nia,Slovenia,and Estonia have specific legislative instruments estab-lishing environmental charges corresponding to the polluter pays principle.In Austria,the 2022 Ecological Tax Reform introduced a national carbon cap and trade system.In Estonia,the 2006 Environmental Charges Act established air po

322、llution taxes and a carbon tax,and in Slovenia,the 1997 Pollution Taxes Decree created a carbon tax.Through a dedicated legal act in 2018,Lithuania introduced additional taxation on polluting cars.A one-time progressive tax applies when regis tering cars and light trucks with emissions higher than 1

323、30 g/km CO2.Germany launched its own national emissions trading system(ETS)for heating and transport fuels in 2021.Sweden,however,has established multiple pollution charges through various pieces of legislation.Box 2.Market-Based Instruments for AQM16Tradable permits:A tradable permit allows a pollu

324、ter to buy and sell the right to pollute.Trad-able permits are part of cap-and-trade systems or emissions trading systems(ETS),in which regulated facilities have a cap on the level of pollution allowed;and if pollution is higher than the cap,they can purchase tradable permits issued by the regulator

325、.The United States was the first country to establish a market-based cap-and-trade system to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions in 1995.Through this scheme,the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency sets a cap on overall emissions while allowances are allocated to regulated units that may choose between s

326、aving or selling them as long as they hold sufficient allowances at the end of the period to cover their allocated levels.Other regions,such as the EU,subsequently established an ETS for greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions,with positive effects on curbing air pollution.Environmental fees/charges/taxes and

327、subsidies:Environmental fees/charges/taxes involve paying a charge for a unit of pollution generated to internalize the social cost of pollution in a private polluter,thereby incentivizing emissions reductions.Environmental taxes have the ad-ditional purpose of raising fiscal revenues,which can be t

328、hen used to further combat pollution.Environmental subsidies aim to reduce the final cost of clean technologies in order to incentiv-ize their use.They have a negative fiscal effect.For AQM,fees/charges/taxes can be imposed on emissions of air pollutants,carbon emissions,and fossil energy produced a

329、nd consumed.16 Ibid.inTernaTional experience and emerging Trends47emerGInG trendsThe legal framework integrates climate and air policies by setting common objectives,targets,and tools.Synergies between climate and air policies are needed to manage potential tensions and maximize benefits on both fro

330、nts.Climate is becoming a priority in the EU environmental policy agenda,and countries are establishing policy tools that contribute to both air pollution control and climate mitigation.In Sweden,preceding the adoption of the 2018 Climate Policy Framework,parliament called for greater integration be

331、tween climate and air policies.One result from this integration is that the countrys NAPCP identifies the climate policys contri-bution to emissions ceilings targets.Estonias AQM regulatory framework integrates climate by regulating atmospheric emissions from stationary and mobile sources for climat

332、e change mitigation and ozone layer protection.This integration also enables installations applying for an environmental permit to concurrently make progress in accessing greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions allowances.Lithuanias NAPCP,adopted in 2019,and successive strategic docu-ments position the clean a

333、ir agenda as part of the countrys effort to mitigate climate change.Box 3.Air Pollution and Climate Change:From Co-Benefits to Coherent Policy The World Bank 2022 publication“Air Pollution and Climate Change:From Co-Benefits to Co-herent Policy”highlights the potential benefits of a joint response to climate protection and AQM.It indicates the substantial synergies that can be realized through mea