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1、Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsTommaso Demozzi,Barbara Pia Ober,Ana Prieto Lpez,Ludovic Larbodire,Maria Ana BorgesAlberto Arroyo Schnell,editorCOMMON GROUND ON FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS SERIES NO.1About IUCNIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and ci

2、vil society organisations.It provides public,private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,ha

3、rnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and around 16,000 experts.It is a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,tools and inter

4、national standards.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,local communities,Indigenous Peoples Organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable develop

5、ment.Working with many partners and supporters,IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide.Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities,these projects work to reverse habitat loss,restore ecosystems and improve peoples well-bei

6、ng.www.iucn.orghttps:/ the IUCN Common Ground on Food and Agricultural SystemsThe IUCN Common Ground on Food and Agricultural Systems series documents the importance of sustainable agriculture and food systems,feed the dialogue between agriculture and conservation actors,and help them balance human

7、well-being,natural resources and life on Earth.This report focuses on Nature-based Solutions(NbS)in the agricultural context.The aim is to provide experts and policymakers with ideas,recommendations and concrete uses for NbS,ultimately helping to outline a potential path for a more sustainable and j

8、ust future.The Common Ground on Food and Agricultural Systems series ambitions to explore the complex relationships between nature,agriculture and agri-food systems to inform policies and better address food security,climate change and nature conservation challenges.Common Ground on Food and Agricul

9、tural Systems Series No.1Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsTommaso Demozzi,Barbara Pia Ober,Ana Prieto Lpez,Ludovic Larbodire,Maria Ana BorgesAlberto Arroyo Schnell,editorThe designation of geographical entities in this publication,an

10、d the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views

11、 expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Government of France and

12、 the French Development Agency(AFD);Ministry of Environment,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(Sida);the Swiss Age

13、ncy for Development and Cooperation(SDC)and the United States Department of State.This publication has been made possible in part by funding from the Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries,Food Security,and Nature of the Netherlands.The work on case studies has been possible with funding from the French

14、Development Agency(AFD).Published by:IUCN,Gland,SwitzerlandProduced by:IUCN European Regional Office,Brussels,BelgiumCopyright:2024 IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorise

15、d without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.Recommended citation:Demozzi,T.,Ober,B.P.,Prieto Lpez

16、,A.,Larbodire,L.,Borges,M.A.,(2024).Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based Solutions.Arroyo Schnell,A.(ed.).IUCN Common Ground on Food and Agricultural Systems Series No.1 Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.ISBN:978-2-8317-2305-1(PDF)978-2-8317-2306-8(print)DOI:https:/doi.org/10.2305/EZVW9195Cover photo:Aggel

17、iki Tsiona,UnsplashLayout by:Imre Sebestyn,jr./Unit GraphicsCopy-edited by:Diarmaid CuanachinPrinted by:Media Process(SA)The text of this book is printed on FSC mix coated silk paper,135 gr.vSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsContentsContentsForeword.viiExecutive summary.viiiAcknowled

18、gements.xAcronyms .xi1.Introduction.12.The transition toward sustainable agriculture.53.What are Nature-based Solutions?.93.1.History of the concept and IUCNs leadership.93.2.Theoretical overview.114.Applying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture.154.1.Criterion 1:NbS effectively address s

19、ocietal challenges.184.2.Criterion 2:Design of NbS is informed by scale.194.3.Criterion 3:NbS result in a net gain to biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.204.4.Criterion 4:NbS are economically viable.234.5.Criterion 5:NbS are based on inclusive,transparent and empowering governance processes.254.6.

20、Criterion 6 and 7:NbS equitably balance trade-offs and are managed adaptively .274.7.Criterion 8:NbS are sustainable and mainstreamed within an appropriate jurisdictional context.295.Aligning sustainable agriculture with the IUCN Global Standard for NbS.375.1.Agroecology.385.2.Nature-inclusive agric

21、ulture.415.3.Permaculture .425.4.Biodynamic agriculture .445.5.Organic farming .455.6.Conservation agriculture .475.7.Regenerative agriculture.485.8.Carbon farming .495.9.Climate-smart agriculture .505.10.High-nature value farming .51viSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsContents5.11.L

22、ow external input agriculture.535.12.Circular agriculture .535.13.Ecological intensification.555.14.Sustainable intensification .566.Case studies:Examples of the use of IUCN Global Standard for NbS in agriculture.596.1.Biodiversity loss and protection of cultural heritage(Lemnos Island,Greece).596.2

23、.Environmental degradation and poverty(Lachu Ecoregion,Guatemala).626.3.Climate change and biodiversity loss(Kangchenjunga,Nepal).646.4.Grassland degradation and desertification(Ganjia,China).667.Conclusions and recommendations.69References.72viiSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsFore

24、wordForewordVirginijus Sinkeviius Member of the European Parliament and former EU Commissioner for Environment,Oceans and Fisheries(20192024)Biodiversity and climate are deeply intertwined.For biodiversity to thrive,we need a stable climate and to keep the climate stable,one important element is kee

25、ping global biodiversity in a healthy state.This fundamental realisation should run through all our thinking about nature and climate,and underpin our determination to act strongly for climate and nature.Our food system depends on biodiversity,clean water and air,and healthy soils.It cannot withstan

26、d an unstable climate.This means that long-term food security is profoundly dependant on the health of our environment,and that our social and economic goals will not be achieved if we continue to allow nature to decline.The EU is strongly committed to a fair transition to sustainable food systems,a

27、nd to a future that reconciles its food security,climate,biodiversity and socio-economic objectives.That transformation will depend on joint solutions across sectors.The European Green Deal is a growth strategy for that process of change,delivering a sustainable future,where agricultural production

28、and nature go hand in hand.Nature-Based Solutions can bring a triple win to people starting with farmers to our planet and to our economy.And with the adoption of the IUCNs Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions for the agricultural sector,the world now has an important instrument to drive the c

29、oncept forward and enable much wider uptake on the ground.The report that follows helps highlight the immense potential of Nature-Based Solutions.By combining a rigorous theoretical analysis with real-world case studies,it offers concrete recommendations to policymakers,and points farmers towards so

30、lutions that tackle environmental challenges and that can be realistically implemented on the ground.Solutions that bring us closer to the future we want:a stable climate,healthy biodiversity and a food system firmly anchored in sustainability.viiiSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsEx

31、ecutive summaryExecutive summaryUnsustainable agricultural practices are among the main causes of biodiversity loss,climate change,and pollution globally.It is thus essential to integrate environmental conservation practices in the agriculture sector when looking at pathways for a sustainable future

32、.In this context,Nature-based Solutions(NbS)could be a critical tool for improving the status of productive landscapes.Their potential to provide a“triple-win”for people,planet,and economy makes them a valuable pathway for farmers,businesses,and conservationists.NbS is now a widely used concept in m

33、any sectors and among decision-making bodies,however it needs a clear and robust base,using the best available information.This publication focuses on the relationship between sustainable agricultural practices and the concept of Nature-based Solutions,and specifically the applicability of the IUCN

34、Global Standard for NbS(IUCN,2020a)in agricultural contexts.The aim is to provide experts and policymakers with ideas,recommendations,and concrete uses for these tools,in order to outline a potential path to a more sustainable future for the agricultural sector.For this report,an analysis of the ali

35、gnment of different approaches to sustainable agriculture(Ober&Arroyo Schnell,2020)with the criteria of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS was carried out.It is important to underline that NbS characterises an intervention in its different dimensions.Therefore,a specific sustainable agriculture practi

36、ce or approach cannot be considered as a Nature-based Solution as such,as it will depend on the way it is implemented.We can only affirm whether it aligns or not align with the criteria of the IUCN Global NbS Standard.It is also important to note that in most cases the approaches considered,even if

37、they do not align perfectly with criteria of the NbS standard,would be a better alternative to many modern conventional farming practices.A first conclusion of the report relates to the level of importance that environmental targets particularly those pertaining to biodiversity conservation should h

38、ave in relation to the concept of NbS in the agricultural sector.When implementing NbS,it is critical to ensure the adequate fulfilment of the biodiversity net gains and ecosystem integrity requirements.The analysis shows that a group of sustainable agriculture approaches analysed(agroecology,nature

39、-inclusive agriculture,regenerative agriculture,biodynamic agriculture,and organic farming)place biodiversity at the core of their theoretical basis.The focus is not only on preserving,but also enhancing biodiversity.These approaches look at the broader landscape,take economic dimensions into consid

40、eration,and can be applied relatively easily at scale.They show strong alignment with the criteria of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS,and with the concept of Nature-based Solutions when implemented correctly on the ground.In any case,to better align the approaches with the criteria of the IUCN NbS

41、Global Standard for NbS,and to promote in general the uptake of NbS in agriculture,several measures should be considered for each sustainable agriculture option.For instance,to enhance biodiversity net gain and ecosystem integrity farmers can implement some transversal practices that have been ident

42、ified as sustainable in the relevant literature,such as crop rotation,the ixSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsExecutive summaryinclusion of cover and companion crops,mixed crop and intercropping,reduction of synthetic pesticide and mineral fertiliser use,no or minimal tillage,lower l

43、ivestock densities,managed grazing,free range,crop diversification,mixing farming and forestry,mixed crop and animal farming,nutrient balancing,recovery and reuse,the inclusion of landscape elements such as hedgerows and flower strips,and agroforestry or ecosystem restoration.Moreover,to support the

44、ir economic viability,public and private investors can prioritise the deployment of NbS over conventional farming solutions.Financial instruments that cater to the longer NbS timeframe should be made available,making it easier to transition investors mindsets from short-term temporary fixes to long-

45、term solutions.In this context,and as part of this measure,harmful agricultural subsidies should be redirected to benefit NbS and smallholder farmers.This might be done through granted public support and easier access to grant mechanisms as well as loans to cover any additional investment needs in t

46、he application of NbS.Indeed,a set of nature positive incentives,redirected from the current unsustainable subsidies schemes,could boost the market competitiveness of an NbS intervention.In addition,there are multiple case studies that can serve as governance best practices to farmers and other stak

47、eholders.These include the multi-stakeholder dialogue processes,the respect for the principle of Free Prior and Informed Consent(FPIC),the coordinated decision-making process,and others.These are diverse scenarios that can help farmers to determine which governance model(s)might suit them best.Polic

48、y will play a fundamental role in the promotion of Nature-based Solutions in agriculture.In this context,it would be useful to consider a specific stream of work on agriculture and Nature-based Solutions under the three Rio Conventions.Furthermore,to fully implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodi

49、versity Framework(KMGBF),and in particular the targets where NbS are explicitly mentioned(Targets 8 and 11),the integration of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS would strengthen the scientific basis of the targets through the monitoring,reporting,and reviewing mechanisms of the KMGBF itself.In the Eu

50、ropean Union,which aims to be a leader in environmental issues especially after the launch of the European Green Deal in 2019,and where the Common Agricultural Policy plays a key role in the agricultural governance of its 27 Member States,a strengthening of policy coherence in the different componen

51、ts of its European Green Deal and beyond would be very beneficial for the integration of Nature-based Solutions.With regard to the future EU Common Agricultural Policy,a stronger integration of NbS in the next Multiannual Financing Framework beyond 2027 would be needed.The IUCN Global Standard for N

52、bS can be useful here,as a key tool in ensuring that the necessary safeguards for the implementation of NbS are respected.Finally,it is important to emphasise that this report responds to the request of IUCN Members,as expressed in IUCN Resolution 7.007,calling on the Secretariat of IUCN to seek rel

53、evant funds and prepare a report on agroecological practices as Nature-based Solutions.Following this Resolution,IUCN recommends to its Members and key international organisations active in this field(FAO,IPBES,IPCC,the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition(HLPE),the Internation

54、al Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative(IPSI),and others to use this publication as a key source for future discussion on Nature-based Solutions in agriculture.xSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsWe wish to express our sincere gratitude to our peer r

55、eviewers,Mena Grossmann,Mark Bryer,and Angela Andrade Perez,whose expertise and guidance helped to support and shape our work in this endeavour.We wish to thank our colleagues,Susanna Gionfra,Diarmaid Cuanachin,Maria Nuez Rodriguez,Zo Zrn,Margaux Ysebaert,Tom Brooks,Nicholas Macfarlane,Radhika Murti

56、,Charles Karangwa,Dorsa Sheikholeslami,Anna Cantafora,Silvia Cardellino,Simon Julien,Mercedes Muoz Caas,and Jonathan Davies,who dedicated time and effort in order to make this publication possible.Finally,we would like to express our gratitude to Jabier Ruiz Mirazo,Bob Tansey,Marion Picot,Marilda Dh

57、askali,and Anne van Doorn,for their helpful inputs in the early stages of the development of this publication.This publication has been made possible due to the support from the Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries,Food Security and Nature of the Netherlands.The work on case studies has been possible w

58、ith funding from the French Development Agency(AFD).xiSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsAcronyms Acronyms AFOLU Agriculture,Forestry,and Other Land UseCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCCFC Community Cloud Forest ConservationCCHA Community Controlled Hunting AreasCCICED China Cou

59、ncil for International Cooperation on Environment and DevelopmentCOP Conference of the PartiesCPI Climate Policy InitiativeCSA Climate-smart agricultureDG AGRI Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development(European Commission)DG CLIMA Directorate-General for Climate Action(European Commi

60、ssion)DG RTD Directorate-General for Research and Innovation(European Commission)EAT-Lancet EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systemEC European CommissionEEA European Environment AgencyEFNCP European Forum on Nature Conservation and PastoralismEIP-AGRI Agricultural Europea

61、n Innovation Partnership(European Commission)EMF Ellen MacArthur FoundationENACT Enhancing Nature-based Solutions for an Accelerated Climate TransformationERA-NET European Research Area NetworksEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFOLU Food and Land Use Coaliti

62、onFPIC Free Prior and Informed ConsentGEF Global Environment FacilityGHG Greenhouse gasGPD Gross Domestic ProductHNV High Nature ValueHPLE High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and NutritionICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain DevelopmentIDDRI Institute for Sustainable Developm

63、ent and International RelationsIFAD International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture MovementsIIED International Institute for Environment and DevelopmentIISD International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentILO International Labour OrganizationI

64、PBES Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem ServicesIPBES-FOOD International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food SystemsIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIPSI International Partnership for the Satoyama InitiativeITPS Intergovernmental Technical Panel on SoilsxiiSustain

65、able agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsAcronyms IUCN International Union for Conservation of NatureIUCN CEM IUCN Commission on Ecosystem ManagementIUCN WCC IUCN World Conservation CongressIUCN WCPA IUCN World Commission on Protected AreasKMGBF Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity FrameworkLEIA L

66、ow external input agricultureLPU Laboratorio di Permacultura UrbanaMedINA Mediterranean Institute for Nature and AnthroposNbS Nature-based SolutionsNBSI Nature-based Solutions IntiativeNGO Non-governmental organisationNOLs Non-operating landownersNRGF Natural Resource Governance FrameworkOAP Organic

67、 Action PlanOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPFM Participatory Forest ManagementROAM Restoration Opportunities Assessment MethodologySCBD Secretariat of the Convention on Biological DiversitySDG Sustainable Development GoalSMART Specific,Measurable,Attainable,Realistic and

68、Timely(targets)STAR Species Threat Abatement and RestorationTNC The Nature ConservancyTYFA Ten Years for AgroecologyUN United NationsUN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEA

69、United Nations Environment AssemblyUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP WCMC UNEP World Conservation Monitoring CentreUNEP-IEMP UNEP International Ecosystem Management PartnershipUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeWCS Wildlife Conservation SocietyWUR Wageningen Univ

70、ersity&ResearchWWF World Wide Fund for NaturePhoto Suzanne D.Williams/xivSustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsAcronyms Photo Amany Firdaus/1Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsIntroduction1.Introduction1 IUCN(2021b).Sustainable Agriculture and Land Health Initiative Conser

71、vation Tool.Initiation Note 28/04/2021 Agriculture is an essential human activity.It provides the food,feed,and fibre we need,it sustains our economies and shapes our landscapes,while supporting rural communities.It is a fundamental part of our cultural heritage.Our history is closely tied to agricu

72、lture,and many consider our relationship with the land to be spiritual(Verschuuren et al.,2021).In spite of this,the decoupling of agriculture from natures regenerative cycles is now contributing to an increasing ecological imbalance which now threatens the health of our ecosystems,and ultimately ou

73、r own wellbeing(EEA,2023;IPES-FOOD,2016).Scientific evidence indicates that unsustainable agriculture and land use changes are significant drivers of this unprecedented loss of biodiversity(Benton et al.,2021).Agriculture relies on healthy,resilient,and well managed ecosystems.For example,almost 75%

74、of the worlds crops that produce fruits and seeds for human consumption depend,at least in part,on pollinators(FAO,2018b).It is because of this reliance and impact on nature that food is considered by many to be the single strongest lever for the optimisation of human health and environmental sustai

75、nability(EAT-Lancet,2019).A shift towards a more environmentally friendly food system through better agricultural practices is therefore necessary if we are to achieve the goal of living in harmony with nature(CBD,2010).Led by its science-based approach,IUCN has been working on mainstreaming biodive

76、rsity conservation in all sectors,including agriculture.In 2021,the Sustainable Agriculture and Land Health Initiative was launched in order to boost the implementation of IUCNs agricultural programme across its activities1.The Initiative built on decades of expertise and on key IUCN publications,in

77、cluding Common Ground(Larbodire et al.,2020)and Approaches to Sustainable Agriculture(Ober&Arroyo Schnell,2020).This report is a continuation of these efforts,as reflected also in recent IUCN resolutions(see box below).The report aims to provide insights to readers including policymakers on the inte

78、rlinkages between sustainable agricultural practices and Nature-based Solutions(NbS).IUCN defines Nature-based Solutions as“actions to protect,sustainably manage,and restore natural or modified ecosystems,that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively,simultaneously providing human well

79、-being and biodiversity benefits”(IUCN Members Assembly,2016).Therefore,NbS are a key ally in the fight against biodiversity loss and climate change,as well as a valuable tool for sustainable development(IUCN,n.d.-a,Hallstein&Iseman,2021).In an agricultural context,the UN Food and Agriculture Organi

80、zation(FAO)stated that NbS are cost-effective interventions with the capacity to enhance resilience in agriculture and food production,while mitigating the effects of climate change and support ecosystem restoration(Iseman&Miralles-Wilhelm,2021).Just as an example,in Europe,rewetting 3%of the EUs dr

81、ained peatlands in agricultural areas could reduce agricultural GHG emissions by 25%(Birdlife International et al.,2022)and positively contribute to ecosystem restoration.2Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsIntroductionAnswering the Resolutions of the IUCN World CongressAt the World C

82、onservation Congress in Marseille in 2021,IUCN Members adopted two Resolutions related to Nature-based Solutions:Resolution 7.007 on Developing agroecological practices as nature-based solutions(IUCN Members Assembly,2020a)and Resolution 7.060 on Promotion of the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-base

83、d Solutions(IUCN Members Assembly,2020b).These two resolutions form the basis of this report,in particular Resolution 7.007.In fact,the latter calls on the IUCN Secretariat to seek relevant funds and prepare a report on agroecological practices as nature-based solutions(NbS).It is important to note

84、that this Resolution focused solely on agroecological practices,while this study looks at the broader concept of sustainable agriculture.The authors believe that a more comprehensive approach,while maintaining a significant focus on agroecology,would better answer the Resolution by reflecting the ne

85、ed for diversity according to the different contexts.By doing so,the NbS concept is mainstreamed across sustainable agricultural discourse,thus promoting wider uptake while partly answering to the Congress resolutions.It is important to stress that neither sustainable agriculture nor Nature-based So

86、lutions can solve the ongoing environmental crisis in isolation.Effective and inclusive conservation measures,a drastic cut in emissions,and a shift towards nature-positive practices across all sectors are essential elements for a sustainable future.Policymakers should not search for a single silver

87、 bullet,which in some cases could exacerbate the polycrisis(Bateman&Balmford,2023),rather they should seek to implement a plethora of cross-cutting and holistic measures.In the case of food systems,for example,the Food and Land Use Coalition identified ten critical transitions necessary to transform

88、 food and land use,including an enhanced conservation of natural ecosystems,healthier diets,and fostering local circular food economy models(Pharo et al.,2019).The reasoning for the focus on Nature-based Solutions in this report is two-fold:on the one hand,NbS could be a critical ally in improving t

89、he status of productive landscapes.Their potential to offer a“triple-win”for people,planet and economy makes them a valuable pathway for farmers,businesses,and conservationists.On the other hand,they are now a wide-spread concept in many sectors and among decision-making bodies.As a result,a clear a

90、nd robust conceptual base is needed,using the best available information.This report also aims to help in this regard,in the context of the transformative change needed for the agriculture sector.3Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsIntroductionRationale of the reportThis report focuse

91、s on the relationship between sustainable agricultural practices and the concept of Nature-based Solutions(NbS),and specifically the applicability of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture.IUCN began the process of applying the Standard in different sectors through several publications such

92、 as Integrating Nature-based Solutions into policies for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction(Bisaro&Meyer,2022),Planning and delivering Nature-based Solutions in Mediterranean cities(IUCN,2021c),Decent work in Nature-based Solutions 2022(ILO,UNEP&IUCN,2022),Nature-based solutions f

93、or climate change mitigation(UNEP&IUCN,2021),and Aquaculture and Nature-based Solutions(Le Gouvello et al.,2022).This report follows this line and aims to provide clarity on Nature-based Solutions as they relate to agriculture.The aim is to provide experts and policymakers with ideas,recommendations

94、 and concrete uses for these tools,ultimately helping to outline a potential path for a more sustainable future for the agricultural sector.This report looks at the sustainable agricultural approaches and practices identified in the IUCN publication Approaches to sustainable agriculture(Ober&Arroyo

95、Schnell,2020)in the light of the criteria of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS(IUCN,2020a).It is essential that the criteria established by IUCN are followed and assessed rigorously,in order to avoid potential misinterpretation or misuse of the concept of NbS.This publication is a step in that direct

96、ion.A series of case studies from all over the world have been integrated to show how NbS can address concrete challenges,providing the reader with real life examples of the multiple benefits of Nature-based Solutions.By its nature,this is a theoretical exercise,as the implementation on the ground o

97、f these practices may differ from the principles upon which they are built.Each intervention is context specific,thus it is not possible to assess a priori whether a particular sustainable agricultural approach is a Nature-based Solution.This report highlights synergies between each approach and the

98、 IUCN Global Standard for NbS,and identifies areas that might need complementary measures in order to bring each approach closer to the concept of Nature-based Solutions.In addition to this report,the IUCN agriculture guidance for the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions will soon be rele

99、ased.This guidance will provide practitioners and project developers with the means to apply the Standard as it would apply to agricultural interventions on the ground.As a result,these two IUCN resources will complement each other by promoting the uptake of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS in agric

100、ultural contexts.4Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsIntroductionPhoto Elle Leontiev/5Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsThe transition toward sustainable agriculture2.The transition toward sustainable agricultureThe ontological discussion concerning sustainable agricul

101、ture has been active for some time.Several institutions and intergovernmental organisations have,over the years,developed various definitions and principles for this branch of agriculture.The most quoted examples are the FAO definition from 1988(FAO,1988)and the subsequent FAO principles from 2014(F

102、AO,2014),the Royal Societys principles from 2009(The Royal Society,2009),as well as the internationally agreed FAO 10 elements of agroecology(FAO,2018).Elsewhere,there is the report Agroecological and other innovative approaches by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of th

103、e Committee on World Food Security(HLPE,2019),the academic work done by Gliessman and Engless(2007),and the nine specific objectives of the reformed EU Common Agricultural Policy,proposed by the European Commission in 2018(DG AGRI,n.d.).Recently,IUCN contributed to this debate with the publication o

104、f two reports in 2020,titled Common ground(Larbodire et al.,2020)and Approaches to sustainable agriculture(Ober&Arroyo Schnell,2020),both of which have moved the debate forward by mapping a series of agricultural practices that can be considered sustainable.The latter publication identifies 14 appro

105、aches to sustainable agriculture(detailed in Chapter 5),as well as a list of agricultural practices that can be considered sustainable.The approaches identified were:AgroecologyCarbon farmingNature-inclusive agricultureClimate-smart agriculturePermacultureHigh nature value farmingBiodynamic agricult

106、ureLow external input agricultureOrganic farmingCircular agricultureConservation agricultureEcological intensificationRegenerative agricultureSustainable intensificationThe list of sustainable agricultural practices included:Crop rotation(FAO,n.d.-e):The practice of alternating the species or famili

107、es of annual and/or biannual crops grown on a particular field in a planned pattern or sequence so as to break weed,pest,and disease cycles,and to maintain or improve soil fertility and organic matter content.The inclusion of cover and companion crops(FAO,n.d.-e):Cover crop:A crop grown to prevent s

108、oil erosion by covering the soil with living vegetation and roots 6Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsThe transition toward sustainable agriculturethat hold on to the soil.Cover crops are also grown to help maintain soil organic matter and increase nitrogen availability(green manure c

109、rop),and to“hold on”to excess nutrients(a catch crop)still in the soil,following an economic crop.Other benefits of cover crops include weed suppression and attraction of beneficial insects.Companion crop:One temporary crop planted between rows of another temporary crop.Mixed crop and intercropping(

110、FAO,n.d.-e):Growing two or more crops in the same field at the same time.The reduction of synthetic pesticide and mineral fertiliser use.No or minimal tillage(FAO,n.d.-e):The conservation agriculture practice of drill-seeding with no prior tillage of soil.Lower livestock densities,managed grazing,fr

111、ee range:allowing animals to roam and move freely,thus creating a renewable cycle wherein the needs of one element are met by the waste of another(Ober&Arroyo Schnell,2020).Crop diversification(FAO,n.d.-e):Species diversification through varied crop associations and/or rotations(involving annual and

112、/or perennial crops including trees).Mixing farming and forestry:agroforestry can be found under this category.Agroforestry is defined as“a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials are deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/o

113、r animals,in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence”.The three main types of agroforestry systems are agrisilvicultural systems,silvopastoral systems,and agrosylvopastoral systems(FAO,2015).Mixed crop and animal farming:Mixing within crop and/or animal systems refers to conditions whe

114、re multiple cropping is practised,often over time,or where different types of animals are kept together,mostly on-farm(FAO,n.d.-c).Nutrient balancing,recovery and reuse:“The nutrient balance is defined as the difference between the nutrient inputs entering a farming system(mainly livestock manure an

115、d fertilisers)and the nutrient outputs leaving the system(the uptake of nutrients for crop and pasture production)”(OECD,n.d.).Nutrient recovery has been defined as the proportion of nutrients supplied that is taken up by the crop in above-ground parts(WUR,2019).Inclusion of landscape elements:Inclu

116、ding non-productive elements such as hedgerows and flower strips on farmlands to boost biodiversity and ecosystem services(Ober&Arroyo Schnell,2020).These 14 approaches and the list of sustainable practices detailed above are to be considered the basis of this report and of IUCNs understanding of wh

117、at is most often considered as sustainable agriculture.Following these examples,it is worth noting that there is a wide spectrum of sustainable agricultural practices that can help to increase farmers resilience to the threats posed by climate change and biodiversity loss.According to the FAO,the ad

118、option of NbS interventions that protect natural resources and biodiversity can support the transformation of current agri-food systems into nature positive production systems,while supporting farmers(Iseman&Miralles-Wilhelm,2021).NbS can be applied,inter alia,for soil health,climate change mitigati

119、on and adaptation,enhancing water quality,biodiversity benefits as well as agricultural production and supply chains to achieve net-zero environmental impacts while achieving food and water security and meet climate goals(Miralles-Wilhelm,2023).7Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsThe

120、transition toward sustainable agricultureNature-based Solutions are context and location dependent,it is therefore important for this report to investigate several approaches practices which can be applied to the variable contexts in which NbS may be implemented.What can work in one country or regio

121、n might not be the suitable in another.Nevertheless,all the agricultural practices outlined here are,in most cases,more sustainable than conventional ones.Photo Luke Besley/8Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsThe transition toward sustainable agriculturePhoto Lucas Van oort/9Sustainab

122、le agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsWhat are Nature-based Solutions?3.What are Nature-based Solutions?3.1.History of the concept and IUCNs leadership2“The Ecosystem Approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land,water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable

123、 use in an equitable way.The Ecosystem Approach places human needs at the centre of biodiversity management.It aims to manage the ecosystem,based on the multiple functions that ecosystems perform and the multiple uses that are made of these functions.The ecosystem approach does not aim for short-ter

124、m economic gains,but aims to optimise the use of an ecosystem without damaging it.”(SCBD,n.d.).Nature-based Solutions is an umbrella term that draws on a wide range of pre-established concepts”.This includes primarily the Ecosystem-based Approach2,but also ecological engineering,forest landscape res

125、toration,ecological restoration and eco-disaster risk reduction(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016;Seddon et al.,2020b).The term first appeared in a 2008 report by the World Bank titled Biodiversity,Climate Change,and Adaptation Nature-Based Solutions from the World Bank Portfolio(MacKinnon,Sobrevila&Hickey,

126、2008).This was the first time that the term entered the scientific and policy discourse.It was an attempt to create an overarching term capable of highlighting the role of nature in the fight against climate change.In the World Bank report one subchapter is dedicated to climate adaptation in agricul

127、tural landscapes,in which initiatives to adapt to changing weather patterns by using agrobiodiversity resources are outlined(MacKinnon,Sobrevila&Hickey,2008).Since its conception,the International Union for Conservation of Nature has been a leader and a pioneer in this field.NbS were first included

128、in an IUCN official document in a 2009 Members briefing in preparation for the 15th Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC COP15)(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016;IUCN,2009).There IUCN identified NbS as“a global policy priority for the UNFCCC”and calle

129、d for the inclusion of Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA)in the adaptation framework of the post-2012 climate change agreement(IUCN,2009).Shortly after,Nature-based Solutions were incorporated in the IUCN 2013-2016 Programme Area“Deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate,food and

130、 development”(IUCN,2012).IUCN acknowledged that food security,climate change,and economic and social development have a deep impact on the status and trends of ecosystems,species,and genetic resources(IUCN,2012).As an action for that programmatic period IUCN stated that it would:“Identify opportunit

131、ies to pilot ecosystems-based approaches in conjunction with established food security strategies,enhancing the stability of production and utilisation”.Once again,it is clear that NbS have been associated with food systems since their earliest developments.Between 2009 and 2014 there were other key

132、 milestones for the development of Nature-based Solutions(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016).In 2010 the joint report Natural Solutions:Protected areas helping people cope with climate change was launched(Dudley et al.,2010),and in 2014 a workshop 10Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsWhat are

133、 Nature-based Solutions?on Nature-Based Solutions in a BiodivERsA context was organised(BiodivERsA,2014).In 2015,the European Commission(EC)defined NbS as:“Solutions that are inspired and supported by nature,which are cost-effective,simultaneously provide environmental,social and economic benefits a

134、nd help build resilience.Such solutions bring more,and more diverse,nature and natural features and processes into cities,landscapes and seascapes,through locally adapted,resource-efficient and systemic interventions.”(EC,n.d.;Maes&Jacobs,2017).The scientific expertise of IUCN,the political will to

135、elevate Nature-Based Solutions to the forefront of environmental policy discourse,and the work of IUCN Members led to the adoption of a formal definition at the World Conservation Congress in 2016.Through Resolution 6.069,IUCN Members voted to define NbS as“actions to protect,sustainably manage,and

136、restore natural or modified ecosystems,that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively,simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits”(IUCN,2016).Complimentary to this decision,IUCN also published its ground-breaking report Nature-based Solutions to address global so

137、cietal challenges where the concept was further elaborated,and practical case studies were presented(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016).While IUCNs definition focuses on well-managed or restored ecosystems in any NbS,the European Commission definition is broader and covers solutions inspired and supported b

138、y nature(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016).The operationalisation of both definitions,however,stresses the importance of biodiversity(Sowiska-wierkosz&Garca,2022).Indeed,the ECs understanding of NbS underscores that“Nature-based Solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of eco

139、system services”(EC,n.d.).Later,in 2020,IUCN continued to pave the way towards broader uptake,a deeper scientific understanding,and a clearer implementation of NbS through the release of the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions(IUCN,2020a).Building on the principles from its earlier publi

140、cations,IUCN developed a user-friendly framework for the verification,design and scaling up of NbS.This internationally recognised standard answered two fundamental questions from the international community of practitioners and policy makers.On one hand,it provided more clarity on the concept by el

141、aborating 8 criteria to determine whether an action can be considered an NbS.On the other hand,through the Guidance for using the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions(IUCN,2020b),it created a roadmap for practitioners to implement and assess NbS.Lastly,an international resolution was adop

142、ted at the Fifth Session of the United Nations Environment Assembly in March 2022(UNEA,2022).After extensive negotiations Member States agreed on a multilateral definition of Nature-based Solutions:“actions to protect,conserve,restore,sustainably use and manage natural or modified terrestrial,freshw

143、ater,coastal and marine ecosystems,which address social,economic and environmental challenges effectively and adaptively,while simultaneously providing human well-being,ecosystem services and resilience and biodiversity benefits.”Much of the wording used here is based on the IUCN definition,albeit w

144、ith an enhanced focus on sustainable use and economic challenges.IUCN welcomed this decision(Pea Moreno,2022)and applauded the Parties for acknowledging the need to strengthen the joint climate-biodiversity agenda through the implementation of NbS at scale.11Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based

145、SolutionsWhat are Nature-based Solutions?3.2.Theoretical overviewAccording to the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions,an intervention must address one of these seven societal challenges while not hindering the achievement of the others in order to be considered an NbS(IUCN,2020a):climate

146、 change adaptation and mitigation;disaster risk reduction;reversing ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss;human health;socioeconomic development;food security;and,water security.Furthermore,if the societal challenge concerns ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss,the intervention must add

147、ress an additional societal challenge from the list.This criterion has been included to avoid every conservation action being automatically considered a Nature-based Solution(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016).Furthermore,Nature-based Solutions should not be confused with nature-derived and nature-inspired

148、solutions.The former does not rely on functioning ecosystems,but derives energy from natural resources:one example is wind farms.The latter includes materials,structures and systems that are inspired by biological processes(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016),for example biomimicry.Fig.1 Defining Nature-base

149、d Solutions12Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsWhat are Nature-based Solutions?In the early stages of the conceptual development of NbS,before the development of the Guidance for using the IUCN Global Standard for NbS(IUCN,2020b),BiodivERsA ERA-NET proposed a typology of Nature-based

150、 Solutions interventions(Eggermont et al.,2015).It is built on two gradients:on one axis there is the level of engineering applied to biodiversity and ecosystem,on the other the level of enhancement of ecosystem services achievable by the NbS is highlighted.Three types of NbS were identified:Type 1:

151、no or minimal intervention in ecosystems,the goal is to maintain and enhance the delivery of ecosystems services within and outside preserved ecosystems.Type 2:this refers to the development of management practices that create multi-functional ecosystems and landscapes(extensively or intensively man

152、aged)that are deemed sustainable.In this category,the authors included“innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multifunctionality”and linked the typology to concepts like natural systems agriculture and agroecology.Type 3:includes heavily modified or novel ecosystems and it

153、is frequently linked to concepts such as green and blue infrastructure.This typology stipulated that while Type 1 Solutions are aligned with the IUCN definition,Type 2 and 3 Solutions needed to show that they contribute to biodiversity conservation and ecological connectivity.It must be mentioned th

154、at this typology came before the Guidance for using the IUCN Global Standard for NbS(IUCN,2020b).These three typologies have subsequently evolved,for example Type 1 Solutions now need to address another societal challenge to be considered an NbS by IUCN.This classification system was highly influent

155、ial and was later adapted to the particular context of agriculture in a joint FAO-TNC publication(Iseman&Miralles-Wilhelm,2021)and by some academic papers(Simelton et al.,2021).A further consideration is that NbS are defined as“actions”,thus the omission of an action(e.g.avoided deforestation)cannot

156、 be considered an NbS within the meaning of the IUCN definition.Nature-based Solutions are not substitutes nor alternatives to nature conservation,they can,however,be complementary actions to conservation efforts.Moreover,biodiversity protection is deeply embedded in the concept of NbS,therefore act

157、ions that do not maintain or enhance biodiversity,or set and monitor biodiversity outcomes,cannot be considered Nature-based Solutions(Sowiska-wierkosz&Garca,2022).This principle is necessary for the prevention of improper implementation of NbS.Through this,any disregard of the scientific criteria u

158、nderpinning the concept is avoided and provides a more complete understanding of NbS as an answer to some critics who consider NbS to be a potential distraction from climate action.Indeed,in recent years two opposing narratives surrounding NbS have been identified by scholars:“NbS leveraging the pow

159、er of nature”and“NbS as a dangerous distraction”(Melanidis&Hagerman,2022).While this study would fit in the former narrative,highlighting the potential that NbS have in bridging biodiversity and climate considerations with the agricultural discussion,it is important to acknowledge the criticisms.Tho

160、se who doubt NbS view them as a tool for greenwashing and as a way to allow destructive practices and power-relations to continue under the guise of sustainable actions(Melanidis&Hagerman,2022).However,if Nature-based Solutions are applied in compliance with the IUCN definition,principles,and tools,

161、as well as 13Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsWhat are Nature-based Solutions?the IUCN Global Standard for NbS,the conceptual ambiguity that gives rise to such concerns can be mitigated.The concept of NbS and the science surrounding the term is constantly evolving;thus,the lack of d

162、etailed criteria for NbS is being solved through a growing body scientific literature(Sowiska-wierkosz&Garca,2022),in particular the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions.Photo From Marwool/14Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsWhat are Nature-based Solutions?Photo Billsalaza

163、r/15Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.Applying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricultureTo ensure that Nature-based Solutions deliver to their full potential and are not misused,IUCN developed the IUCN Global Standard fo

164、r NbS in 2020.The Standard builds on the IUCN NbS definition and on the eight underlying principles outlined in IUCNs publication“Nature-based Solutions to address global societal challenges”of 2016(Cohen-Shacham et al.,2016).The goals of the Standard are manifold.It aims to provide a common underst

165、anding of what NbS are,to ensure that the implementation of NbS is carried out systematically,to promote a transparent deployment process,and to accelerate policy development.Furthermore,the Standard provides a learning framework capable of improving the application of NbS over time while fostering

166、rich academic debate on the topic(IUCN,2020a).The Standard currently has two functions:to guide the design of an NbS,and to provide a means of verifying that the design of a particular solution meets the IUCN criteria in order to be considered an NbS.The IUCN Global Standard for NbS is not a silver

167、bullet,nor is it a one-size fits all solution that can be applied indiscriminately to all contexts.IUCN stresses that it is aimed at promoting a wider uptake,while improving design and execution,instead of demanding the achievement of specific results(IUCN,Fig.2 The interlinkages of the eight Criter

168、ia of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS16Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture2020a).It is designed for national,regional,municipal,and local governments,planners,businesses,donors,financial institutions including development banks

169、and non-profit organisations.Each NbS is context-specific,it needs to take the ecological composition of the location in which it will be implemented,the actors and right holders that must be involved in the designation and management process,and the cultural background of the entire socio-economic

170、system into consideration(IUCN,2020a).The Standard includes eight criteria and twenty-eight indicators(which can be assessed as insufficient,partial,adequate,or strong),these are:1.NbS effectively address societal challenges1.1.The most pressing societal challenge(s)for rights-holders and beneficiar

171、ies are prioritised1.2.The societal challenge(s)addressed are clearly understood and documented1.3.Human well-being outcomes arising from the NbS are identified,benchmarked and periodically assessed2.Design of NbS is informed by scale2.1.The design of the NbS recognises and responds to interactions

172、between the economy,society and ecosystems2.2.The design of the NbS is integrated with other complementary interventions and seeks synergies across sectors2.3.The design of the NbS incorporates risk identification and risk management beyond the intervention site3.NbS result in a net gain to biodiver

173、sity and ecosystem integrity3.1.The NbS actions directly respond to evidence-based assessment of the current state of the ecosystem and prevailing drivers of degradation and loss3.2.Clear and measurable biodiversity conservation outcomes are identified,benchmarked and periodically assessed3.3.Monito

174、ring includes periodic assessments of unintended adverse consequences on nature arising from the NbS3.4.Opportunities to enhance ecosystem integrity and connectivity are identified and incorporated into the NbS strategy4.NbS are economically viable4.1.The direct and indirect benefits and costs assoc

175、iated with the NbS,who pays and who benefits,are identified and documented4.2.A cost-effectiveness study is provided to support the choice of NbS including the likely impact of any relevant regulations and subsidies4.3.The effectiveness of the NbS design is justified against available alternative so

176、lutions,taking into account any associated externalities4.4.NbS design considers a portfolio of resourcing options such as market-based,public sector,voluntary commitments and actions to support regulatory compliance5.NbS are based on inclusive,transparent and empowering governance processes5.1.A de

177、fined and fully agreed upon feedback and grievance resolution mechanism is available to all stakeholders before an NbS intervention is initiated5.2.Participation is based on mutual respect and equality,regardless of gender,age or social status,and upholds the right of Indigenous Peoples to Free,Prio

178、r and Informed Consent(FPIC)5.3.Stakeholders who are directly and indirectly affected by the NbS have 17Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculturebeen identified and involved in all processes of the NbS intervention5.4.Decision-making p

179、rocesses document and respond to the rights and interests of all participating and affected stakeholders5.5.Where the scale of the NbS extends beyond jurisdictional boundaries,mechanisms are established to enable joint decision-making of the stakeholders in the affected jurisdictions6.NbS equitably

180、balance trade-offs between achievement of their primary goal(s)and the continued provision of multiple benefits6.1.The potential costs and benefits of associated trade-offs of the NbS intervention are explicitly acknowledged and inform safeguards and any appropriate corrective actions6.2.The rights,

181、usage of and access to land and resources,along with the responsibilities of different stakeholders,are acknowledged and respected6.3.The established safeguards are periodically reviewed to ensure that mutually agreed trade-off limits are respected and do not destabilise the entire NbS7.NbS are mana

182、ged adaptively,based on evidence7.1.A NbS strategy is established and used as a basis for regular monitoring and evaluation of the intervention7.2.A monitoring and evaluation plan is developed and implemented throughout the intervention lifecycle7.3.A framework for iterative learning that enables ad

183、aptive management is applied throughout the intervention lifecycle8.NbS are sustainable and mainstreamed within an appropriate jurisdictional context8.1.The NbS design,implementation and lessons learnt are shared to trigger transformative change8.2.The NbS informs and enhances facilitating policy an

184、d regulation frameworks to support its uptake and mainstreaming8.3.Where relevant,the NbS contributes to national and global targets for human well-being,climate change,biodiversity and human rights,including the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples(UNDRIP)All of the criter

185、ia of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS are fundamental,meaning that all of them must be met for an intervention to be considered a Nature-based Solution in accordance with IUCN.By nature,sustainable agriculture tackles different societal challenges(Criterion 1)and is informed by the scale and jurisd

186、ictional context in which it operates(Criteria 2 and 8).Criterion 3 on biodiversity net-gain and ecosystem integrity,Criterion 4 on economic viability,and Criterion 5 on inclusive governance reflect the three key dimensions of sustainable development.At the same time,while implementing an NbS it is

187、important to consider the trade-offs between the primary goal and other benefits(Criterion 6);as well as ensuring an adaptive management plan(Criterion 7).Practitioners looking for a more technical instrument for the implementation of agricultural NbS can refer to the IUCN guidance for NbS in agricu

188、lture for projects,due to be published in 2025.18Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.1.Criterion 1:NbS effectively address societal challengesStatistics regarding the extent of the biodiversity crisis indicate that we are at a c

189、ritical juncture.For example,there are one million species at risk of extinction(IPBES,2019)and there has been a 69%average decline in wildlife populations over the past fifty years(WWF,2022).Equally,data on the impact of unsustainable agricultural practices reflect this global trend,while receiving

190、 more limited attention.For instance,between 18 and 33%of agricultural lands currently have insufficient biodiversity to provide key ecosystem services,such as pollination,biological pest control,climate regulation,and the prevention of soil erosion,nutrient loss,and water contamination(SCBD,2022).T

191、he reliance on reduced biodiversity for the provision of food,feed,and fibre makes the food system extremely vulnerable to threats such as pests,pathogens,and climate change,posing a serious risk of global food security(IPBES,2019).Criterion 1 of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS states that NbS shou

192、ld be developed to address specific societal challenges.It includes three indicators:C-1.1.The most pressing societal challenge(s)for rights-holders and beneficiaries are prioritised C-1.2.The societal challenge(s)addressed are clearly understood and documented C-1.3.Human well-being outcomes arisin

193、g from the NbS are identified,benchmarked and periodically assessedLooking at the list of societal challenges that NbS address(climate change adaptation and mitigation,disaster risk reduction,ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss,human health,socio-economic development,food security and water

194、security),it is clear that sustainable agricultural practices could potentially address most of them.For indicator 1.1.,it is important,that an inclusive consultation process with all right-holders and beneficiaries is carried out,when designing an intervention(in line also with Criterion 5 and 7).A

195、t the same time,it is key that an NbS intervention defines clear targets for human well-being outcomes,in line with Indicator 1.3.With regards to Indicator 1.2,the scientific evidence on the impacts of unsustainable agriculture on our planet is well documented.From the soil below us to the air we br

196、eathe,agriculture has deep impacts on nature at all levels.Soil biodiversity is negatively impacted by the industrialisation of agriculture and the increase in inputs in order to maintain the current level of productivity.According to the FAO,33%of land is moderately to highly degraded(FAO&ITPS,2015

197、)and on the current trajectory 90%of all soils are set to be degraded by 2050(FAO,2022c-e).This is due to,amongst other causes,acidification and chemical pollution of soils.In addition,microplastic contamination on land is estimated to be 4 to 32 times higher than in the ocean and it is estimated th

198、at farmlands in Europe and North America alone have an estimated yearly input of 63,000-430,000 and 44,000-300,000 tonnes of microplastics,respectively(Gionfra,2018).Fertilizer use has increased by a factor of five between 1961 and 2018 worldwide,and pesticide use has doubled since 1990(Benton et al

199、.,2021).It is estimated that if current trends in land use change,urbanisation,pollution(especially from pesticides and fertilisers),climate change,and invasive alien species continue,around 40%of insect species will at risk of extinction in the next few decades(Benton et al.,2021;Snchez-Bayo&Wyckhu

200、ys,2019).The contamination of the agricultural land,coupled with the ongoing climate crisis and soil degradation,will decrease the resilience of our soils and cause a decline in agricultural productivity,modify the plant species mix and contribute 19Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based Solutions

201、Applying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricultureto the decline of biodiversity(IPCC,2019).However,good soil and landscape management can address these threats while providing extensive environmental,social,and economic benefits.In September 2020,IUCN published a report titled“Common Ground”(

202、Larbodire et al.,2022),which aimed to highlight the potential of soil and landscape biodiversity in the fight against climate change and biodiversity loss.Recent reports have shown that food production is the primary cause of biodiversity loss globally.This is primarily due to land-use change,with c

203、ropping and animal husbandry occupying almost 50%of the total habitable land(Benton et al.,2021).Unsustainable food systems are responsible for 80%of deforestation(IPBES,2019;UNCCD,2022b).The current food system has changed the composition of our planet and dramatically altered the fragile balance o

204、f the planets ecosystems.Presently,farmed animals account for 60%of global mammal biomass,compared to the 4%representing the total biomass of all wild mammals.Beyond mammals,farmed chickens represent 57%of all bird species by mass(Benton et al.,2021).Additionally,the global decline in farmland birds

205、 can be attributed partly to the intensive model of agriculture.In Europe the decline has been around 17%since the year 2000(Eurostat,2021).Globally,only 9 of the 382,000 species of vascular plants account for over 66%of all crop production by weight.Moreover,26%of the 7,745 local breeds of livestoc

206、k are classified as at risk of extinction(Blanger&Pilling,2019).The effect that agriculture has on water resources must also be mentioned.70%of freshwater use is dedicated to agriculture and in many cases chemical run-off from excessive inputs at farm level can negatively impact wildlife.Since the 1

207、970s,an 84%decline in freshwater species population has been recorded(WWF,2022).Lastly,agriculture,forestry,and other land use(AFOLU)is one of the main contributors to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions,with an estimated contribution of 23%to the total,and this is projected to increase.The emiss

208、ions deriving from animal-based foods account for 75%of that figure.These data directly correlate with the impacts of climate change on agriculture.Globally,26%of the total loss and damage from climate-related disasters are within the agricultural sector(Carter et al.,2021).Furthermore,extreme weath

209、er events,global warming,and changes in precipitation patterns have and will continue to affect food security with increasing frequency and intensity,endangering the stability of the food supply chain.In addition,the increasing atmospheric CO2 levels can also lower the nutritional quality of crops(I

210、PCC,2019).4.2.Criterion 2:Design of NbS is informed by scaleCriterion 2 looks at the social and ecological interactions within which an NbS intervention is designed and implemented.The three indicators for Criterion 2 are:C-2.1.The design of the NbS recognises and responds to interactions between th

211、e economy,society and ecosystems C-2.2.The design of the NbS is integrated with other complementary interventions and seeks synergies across sectors C-2.3.The design of the NbS incorporates risk identification and risk management beyond the intervention site20Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based

212、 SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricultureOn indicator 2.1,it is important to keep in mind that in the agricultural context each agroecosystem is a crucial piece of a more complex mosaic of diverse land uses and its management can and does directly affects their surroundings.

213、For that reason,a landscape approach is not only needed but necessary.In this regard,the report“Foodscapes:Toward Food System Transition”by The Nature Conservancy and partners is quite interesting(Bossio et al.,2021).In their analysis,the authors define foodscape as:“a geographic location characteri

214、sed by a distinct combination of food production management characteristics,and the biophysical attributes of the wider land-and seascapes within which it is embedded.The foodscape,as a unit,encourages an integrated perspective,and mapping foodscapes based on globally available data sets provides a

215、spatially explicit platform for interventions”(Bossio et al.,2021).This understanding is clearly in line with the principles underpinning Criterion 2.In addition,the Foodscapes report states that Nature-based Solutions are central to a sustainable transition in our food systems and have the potentia

216、l to transform the worlds foodscapes,helping restore ecological function and the resilience on land and at sea(Bossio et al.,2021).For indicator 2.2.the Guidance for using the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions(IUCN,2020b)interestingly mentions the coupling of NbS interventions with sus

217、tainable agricultural practices to better address food security.It also uses the example of nutrient recycling when looking at how some interventions must be managed at both intervention and landscape level.The last indicator in this criterion aims to ensure that risk identification and risk managem

218、ent beyond the intervention are duly taken into account.Since Nature-based Solutions are context-dependent,failing to consider their negative externalities across scales might hinder their success and might increase the vulnerability of some stakeholders.Here the integrity of the IUCN Global Standar

219、d for NbS becomes fundamental and the Criterion 2 considerations are integrated in the assessments of Criterion 3,4,5,6,and 8.4.3.Criterion 3:NbS result in a net gain to biodiversity and ecosystem integrityHealthy ecosystems are at the core of healthy agriculture.In implementing an NbS in an agricul

220、tural context,biodiversity,including agrobiodiversity,must be at the core of the intervention.The NbS must not only provide a net biodiversity gain,they must also set and monitor biodiversity conservation outcomes(Sowiska-wierkosz&Garca,2022).This is particularly important in light of the impact con

221、ventional agriculture has on agroecosystems and biodiversity in general.Furthermore,as it will be explained later in this section,ecosystem integrity is of paramount importance for this criterion,especially since agroecosystems are just one component of a much more complex and diverse landscape.The

222、explanation of Criterion 3 in the IUCN Guidance to the Global Standard for NbS(IUCN,2020b)states that:“NbS should aim to conserve or restore ecosystem integrity and avoid further simplifying an ecosystem(such as replacing natural mixed woodland with a monoculture tree plantation).NbS depend on the e

223、cological condition of the supporting ecosystems;therefore,it is in the interest of the NbS practitioner 21Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricultureto ensure that implementation measures will,at the least,maintain the ecological integr

224、ity of the target area over the long term.”This explanation underscores how,in IUCNs conceptualisation of Nature-based Solutions,conserving nature is fundamental.The criterion is divided into four indicators:C-3.1.The NbS actions directly respond to evidence-based assessment of the current state of

225、the ecosystem and prevailing drivers of degradation and loss C-3.2.Clear and measurable biodiversity conservation outcomes are identified,benchmarked and periodically assessed C-3.3.Monitoring includes periodic assessments of unintended adverse consequences on nature arising from NbS C-3.4.Opportuni

226、ties to enhance ecosystem integrity and connectivity are identified and incorporated into the NbS strategy In the first indicator,IUCN acknowledges that due to their high costs,surveys and data collection about baselines and ecosystems services are often focused only on certain indicators(IUCN,2020b

227、).In the further implementation of NbS globally,it will be key for developed countries to provide financial,technical,and technological assistance to developing country.Limited capacity to gather key data could potentially hinder the uptake of NbS.As a result,capacity development should be at the he

228、art of NbS financing.On the other hand,in scenarios where resources allow for solid data collection,it is important to ensure the reliability of the scientific assessment at the basis of Criterion 3.To guide practitioners in this initial stage of NbS deployment,IUCN has developed assessment criteria

229、,requiring certain sets of data.This includes structural information of the ecosystem,species composition,information on key ecosystem functions,key aspects of the physical environment,connectivity,external threats to the ecosystem and risk of collapse for ecosystems,as well as existing/ongoing cons

230、ervation interventions for the species and ecosystems at risk in the landscape/seascape.Assessing the impact of Nature-based Solutions on biodiversity will require sound methods.According to an upcoming IUCN Europe report on biodiversity assessment methods for agriculture,many methods have been deve

231、loped to assess biodiversity status and the impact of human activities,including agriculture.However,while they might be useful for some purposes such as public awareness or helping businesses and farmers to track their progress towards sustainability transition,most of them are not well-suited to a

232、ssess NbS,as they do not consider biodiversity significance,and many do not have validation systems in place.An exception is the Species Threat Abatement and Restoration(STAR)metric(Hawkins et al.,2023;IUCN,n.d.-b),a bottom-up method that allows to assess the impact and effectiveness of biodiversity

233、 conservation actions.This could be very useful to assess the impact of NbS on biodiversity,specifically their contribution to reducing species extinction risk.This type of assessment is applicable at different levels:site,company,or country level.To support this work IUCN will continue to develop k

234、ey supporting publications and tools,such as the Land Health Monitoring Framework(Dussn Lpez,2023).Moreover,IUCN tools and standards are fundamental in these monitoring and assessing endeavours,in particular the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and of Ecosystems,and the IUCN Global Ecosystem Typo

235、logy.In addition,those seeking to implement an NbS can use available datasets or information that have been compiled for other purposes.In Europe,for example,the European Environment Agencys State of Nature report collects a vast array of relevant data 22Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based Solu

236、tionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculturethat can be disaggregated to national and sometimes regional levels.3 In other regions of the world,reporting is derived from the UN Convention on Biological Diversity,through the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans(NBSAPs),w

237、hich can also be helpful in fulfilling indicator 3.1.Data from different agricultural institutions,such as FAO or the International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD),could also be of help in setting this baseline.If the NbS intervention aims to restore an ecosystem,the FAO,IUCN Commission on E

238、cosystem Management and the Society for Ecological Restoration recently released the publication on“Standards of practice to guide ecosystem restoration”(Nelson et al.,2024).This document provides key recommendations to maximise restoration outcomes for nature and people,including in production ecos

239、ystems.Indicator 3.2 stresses the importance of establishing conservation targets,through an inclusive and transparent process.As a minimum each target regarding conservation and/or restoration should outline specific measurable variable(s)associated with the management target(e.g.number of species/

240、ha,%canopy cover);action(e.g.increase,decrease,or maintain);quantity,and time-period.In addition,the more these targets are aligned with existing regional or international commitments,the easier it will be for the NbS to achieve Criterion 8(NbS are sustainable and mainstreamed within an appropriate

241、jurisdictional context)simultaneously.The challenge of developing farm-based targets could be overcome by not only looking at the individual farm level but as an entity in a wider ecosystem and to link their performance with regional or national targets.Indicator 3.3 focuses on monitoring the possib

242、le negative impacts of NbS 3 This data is collected on the basis of reporting requirements under the Birds and Habitats Directives.deployment.According to the guidance of IUCN(2020b),monitoring and evaluation plans should mention:the amount and sources of funding for each component of the monitoring

243、 programme,the design for data collection,the method of data collection,the replication needed to determine the effects of management interventions,frequency and duration of monitoring;the types of analysis that will be used to evaluate the effects of management;the location and protocols for managi

244、ng and creating a permanent archive of data;the manner in which lessons learned will be shared.In the agricultural context,this information could be gathered by individual farmers and shared through pre-existing networks,farming organisations and cooperatives.Lastly,indicator 3.4 places an added emp

245、hasis on connectivity.This component reflects the deep linkages which NbS have with the concept of green and blue infrastructures.It also highlights the importance of ecological corridors and ecosystem integrity for biodiversity.There is a growing body of literature researching the role of agroecosy

246、stems in habitat connectivity,for example through spatial mapping models(Suraci,2023),agroecological approaches(WWF,2021),or by analysing the role of constructed wetlands(Ferreira et al.,2023).Since agricultural expansion is one of the main drivers of habitat loss and fragmentation(Tilman et al.,201

247、7),this indicator is particularly important in planning and implementing Nature-based Solutions in agricultural landscapes.The impact that agriculture has on biodiversity and its reliance on healthy ecosystems makes it so that Criterion 3 gains a prominent role in this context.Nature-based Solutions

248、 that fail to comply with this criterion cannot qualify as such.23Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.4.Criterion 4:NbS are economically viable4 True Cost Accounting in food and agriculture internalises negative and positive ext

249、ernalities.Our food systems have in many instances detrimental conse-quences on environmental and human health,but these impacts are not accounted for(Sustainable Food Trust,n.d.).In recent years,several initiatives have begun working on this issue in order to shed a light on the nexus between the g

250、lobal agri-food sector externalities and biodiversity.One notable example is the work by the Global Alliance for the Future of Food and UN Environment Programme on the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for Agriculture and Food Initiative and the TEEBAgriFood Framework(Global Alliance for the

251、Future of Food,n.d.).To be considered a Nature-based Solution,interventions must be economically viable,as indicated in Criterion 4 of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS.Farmers,landowners,and other agricultural stakeholders require solutions that not only address environmental or societal challenges,

252、but that also provide lasting economic stability.For that,there is the need for a shift in thinking from short-term to long-term planning.Indeed,the goal of NbS is not only to provide immediate benefits and impact,they must also aim to be economically viable beyond the timeframe of the initial inter

253、vention(IUCN,2020b).The IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions captures the need for economic viability through Criterion 4,which in turns includes four indicators:C-4.1.The direct and indirect benefits and costs associated with the NbS,who pays and who benefits,are identified and documente

254、d C-4.2.A cost-effectiveness study is provided to support the choice of NbS including the likely impact of any relevant regulations and subsidies C-4.3.The effectiveness of the NbS design is justified against available alternative solutions,taking into account any associated externalities C-4.4.NbS

255、design considers a portfolio of resourcing options such as market-based,public sector,voluntary commitments and actions to support regulatory complianceCritics have raised the concern that NbS present high upfront costs and short-term risks,which act as a barrier to NbS adoption and promote more env

256、ironmentally damaging business as usual practices(Iseman&Miralles-Wilhelm,2021).The arguments,however,fail to consider that the repercussions of biodiversity loss and climate change are already having a detrimental impact on business.In the agricultural sector,continuing harmful practises will negat

257、ively impact farmers and their economic stability world-wide.For example,it is estimated that the global loss of pollinators would lead to a drop of USD235 billion to USD577 billion in annual agricultural output(IPBES,2019),as 75%of all crops rely on pollinators(FAO,2018b).NbS should thus be seen as

258、 an investment rather than a cost.Currently,NbS are heavily underfunded(Seddon et al.,2020a):despite providing around one third of the climate change mitigation required,estimates calculate that only 3%of climate financing is currently directed towards Nature-based Solutions(IUCN,2021;Macquarie et a

259、l,2020).The Executive Director of UNEP,Inger Andersen,called for a threefold increase in finance for Nature-based Solutionsin order to meet global environmental targets(UNFCCC,2022a).Within our economic system there are several tools that could scale up the deployment of Nature-based Solutions and e

260、nsure that environmental conservation receives the necessary funding.A reform in tax policy geared towards biodiversity conservation,green financial instruments,true cost accounting4,benefit-sharing mechanisms,philanthropy,and certification schemes are all instruments that could contribute to fillin

261、g the biodiversity finance gap,which currently stands between USD598824 billion per year(Deutz et al.,2020).However,the single-most impactful reform would be to 24Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculturerework governmental subsidies t

262、o take better account of biodiversity.Indeed,governments could support NbS in agriculture by repurposing subsidies to encourage sustainable management practices,support training programmes and help to secure tenure rights(Miles et al.,2021).This last point is critical,especially for Indigenous peopl

263、e(IP),as some experts have outlined how unclear tenure rights could pose a major risk to indigenous peoples themselves and for investment(FAO,2022b).NbS operate in a broader economic context,therefore through the redistribution of existing harmful subsidies and the establishment of new financial mec

264、hanisms,the short-term costs of NbS could be mitigated if not abated.National and subnational spending on activities harmful to biodiversity is around USD274542 billion per year(in 2019)and that is two to four times higher than biodiversity conservation spending(Deutz et al.,2020).In the agricultura

265、l sector alone around USD 700 billion is paid out in subsidies each year,but only around 15%of this amount positively impacts natural capital,biodiversity,long-term job stability,or livelihoods(UNCCD,2022b).An OECD analysis found that across 54 economies,USD345 billion in agricultural support(201720

266、19 average)was provided every year for activities that undermine the sectors sustainability(OECD,2021).The Dasgupta Review found that subsidies which are harmful to the environment vastly outweigh those that benefit it,and that further reporting on these governmental support measures is needed in or

267、der to truly understand their environmental impact(Dasgupta,2021).The newly adopted Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework took an important step towards tackling the issue on unsustainable subsidies.Target 18 reads:“Identify by 2025,and eliminate,phase out or reform incentives,including sub

268、sidies,harmful for biodiversity,in a proportionate,just,fair,effective and equitable way,while substantially and progressively reducing them by at least 500 billion United States dollars per year by 2030,starting with the most harmful incentives,and scale up positive incentives for the conservation

269、and sustainable use of biodiversity”(CBD,2022).Implementation of this target will be challenging,however several initiatives are already making progress,such as the OECDs efforts in identifying and assessing subsidies and other incentives harmful to biodiversity(Matthews&Karousakis,2022).It is impor

270、tant to note that the figures indicated largely refer to the Global North.It would therefore be important for wealthier nations to support the financing of NbS in the Global South through existing instruments such as the Global Environment Facility and the newly established Global Biodiversity Frame

271、work Fund(GEF,2023).This transformative change,however,should not be considered a burden,but as an economically and financially wise decision for the long-term.For each dollar invested in ecosystem restoration the return in economic benefits has been calculated at around between USD 7-30(Verdone&Sei

272、dl,2017).Moreover,recent studies have highlighted that the returns from a regenerative restoration economy,that would tackle the environmental crises of today,are estimated to be USD125-140 trillion annually,almost one and a half times the global GDP(Benton et al.,2021).Transitioning to a more susta

273、inable agricultural model is necessary and one of the most promising ways to achieve this is by working together with nature and harnessing its potential.Healthy ecosystems are the only way to ensure a future for the agricultural sector.25Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying th

274、e IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.5.Criterion 5:NbS are based on inclusive,transparent and empowering governance processesSmall farms are quickly disappearing.A study conducted by the European Parliament projected a decrease in the number of EU farms from 10 to 4 million by 2040,with in

275、creases in farm size and/or farming intensity as dominant adaptation strategies for those farms which remain(Rossi,2022).According to the FAO,70%of all agricultural land is already held by only 1%of farmers,indicating a disproportionate division of resources(FAO,2021).Simultaneously,most of the agri

276、-related subsidies that were described in the previous chapter tend to favour larger companies and one particular model of conventional agriculture.For example,in the European Union,80%of the EU money for agriculture goes to the largest 20%of farmers(HU,2019).To transition towards a sustainable food

277、 system,it is important to ensure that smallholder farmers are central to the new model and that their rights are upheld.Guaranteeing the right distribution of resources is not only a matter of social justice,it is also key for environmental justice.The effects of the ongoing environmental crisis wi

278、ll have disproportionately and uneven impacts on vulnerable groups and nations.Those in the Global South are more likely to suffer from climate change and biodiversity loss.Smallholder farmers in these regions often have limited adaptation capacity due to low education levels,low income,limited land

279、 areas,and poor access to technical assistance,market and credits,and often have a chronic dependence on external support(Vignola et al.,2015).Criterion 5 of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS takes these issues into consideration and aims to ensure that the development and management of Nature-based

280、Solutions is inclusive,transparent and does not reinforce power asymmetries(IUCN,2020b).No Nature-based Solution should contribute to the marginalisation of specific sections of the population,it should become a tool for the co-creation of joint governance mechanisms.In several agricultural producti

281、on systems worldwide,the power relations between different stakeholders involved in the value chain are often asymmetrical and unfair(Foote,2021).The indicators of Criterion 5 are:C-5.1.A defined and fully agreed upon feedback and grievance resolution mechanism is available to all stakeholders befor

282、e an NbS intervention is initiated.C-5.2.Participation is based on mutual respect and equality,regardless of gender,age or social status,and upholds the right of Indigenous Peoples to Free,Prior and Informed Consent(FPIC).C-5.3.Stakeholders who are directly and indirectly affected by NbS have been i

283、dentified and involved in all processes of the NbS intervention.C-5.4.Decision-making processes document and respond to the rights and interests of all participating and affected stakeholders.C-5.5.Where the scale of the NbS extends beyond jurisdictional boundaries,mechanisms are established to enab

284、le joint decision-making of the stakeholders in the affected jurisdictions.If there are indigenous peoples and marginalised groups identified during stakeholder mapping,then the principle of Free Prior and Informed Consent must be upheld.Existing tools developed by international institutions such as

285、 the UN CBD Akw:Kon Voluntary Guidelines(SCBD,2004),the Mootz Kuxtal Voluntary Guidelines(SCBD,2019)or the CFSs Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure(FAO,2022a)should be taken into consideration.If the farm transcends national boundaries,then the design of 26Sustainable agricu

286、lture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculturethe NbS should take into consideration based on legislation at both the national and regional levels(e.g.EU acquis).In any case,existing tools such as the IUCN Natural Resource Governance Framework(NRGF)(Springer

287、,Campese&Nakangu,2021)can also contribute to the better achievement of Criterion 5 when implementing interventions.The complexity of applying this criterion,especially in the agricultural sector,usually increases with the scale of the planned NbS intervention.If we look at the deployment of an Natur

288、e-based Solution on a single privately-owned farm,the percentage of adherence to the IUCN Global Standard for NbS could be close to 100%.In the hypothetical case of a single smallholder dairy farmer in the Italian alps:The feedback and grievance resolution mechanism required by Criterion 5.1 would b

289、e a relatively easy exercise,as well as ensuring the participation of all relevant stakeholders(indicators 5.2 and 5.3).It would be important as mentioned above that all stakeholders from the value chain who interact with the farmer are also mapped and informed.The decision-making processes will res

290、pond to the right of the interested party,as the farmers would decide for themselves to adopt the NbS,thus adhering to Criterion 5.4.Criterion 5.5.on transboundary jurisdiction would be not applicable.The situation would of course be different in a much more interconnected and complex scenario.The c

291、ase studies included in the sections below show the potential of an inclusive multi-stakeholder dialogue in a such a complex scenario,and how the governance process embedded in the IUCN Global Standard for NbS can be respected.Lastly,it is important to acknowledge the key role that smallholder farme

292、rs,especially women(Hallstein&Iseman,2021;IFAD,2023),and indigenous people play in conserving biodiversity.Due to the dominant industrial agricultural system,traditional ways of farming and seed keeping are under increasing pressure(Fernandez-de-Larrinoa,2022).The combination of agroecological pract

293、ices with community seedbanks can contribute greatly to halting biodiversity loss and mitigating climate change,preserve traditional knowledge,foster collective actions,and promote socio-economic development.A good example of their potential contribution can be found in the example of Community Seed

294、 Banks in China(Reid et al.,2018).At CBD COP 15 in Montral,leading organisations,including,the United Nations Environment Programme International Ecosystem Management Partnership(UNEP-IEMP),signed the Montreal Declaration On Small-Scale Women Farmers for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use

295、(Andes et al.,2022).Amongst the key asks of this declaration there was the request to“Meaningfully integrate support for agroecological approaches,safeguards to stop land grabs,effective land reform,and appropriate funding for sustainable rural development and smallholder womens organisations across

296、 the post-2020 biodiversity targets”.While this may represent only the beginning of a decade long process,it highlights once again the importance of an inclusive governance process in implementing global strategies,a key pillar of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS.27Sustainable agriculture and Nature

297、-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.6.Criterion 6 and 7:NbS equitably balance trade-offs and are managed adaptively Criteria 6 and 7 are often analysed together due to the strong interlinkages between trade off-analyses and the need for an adaptive management pl

298、an for Nature-based Solutions interventions.For example,the IUCN publication Aquaculture and Nature-based Solutions(le Gouvello et al.,2022),jointly addresses these two criteria and Criterion 8 on mainstreaming.In this report,however,the authors decided to separate Criterion 8 due to the increasing

299、recognition of NbS in the international policy scenario.The three indicators of Criterion 6 are:C-6.1.The potential costs and benefits of associated trade-offs of the NbS intervention are explicitly acknowledged and inform safeguards and any appropriate corrective actions.C-6.2.The rights,usage of a

300、nd access to land and resources,along with the responsibilities of different stakeholders,are acknowledged and respected.C-6.3.The established safeguards are periodically reviewed to ensure that mutually-agreed trade-off limits are respected and do not destabilise the entire NbS.The field of agricul

301、tural trade-off analysis has been widely investigated by scholars over the years.These analyses initially focused only on agro-economic outcomes but have now expanded to incorporate social and environmental and social outcomes at regional and continental scales(Kanter et al.,2018).Nevertheless,while

302、 there is a vast body of literature on different trade-offs between land-use conversion,agri-environmental measures,payment for ecosystem services,few of these studies have included NbS(Miralles-Wilhelm,2023).More importantly,the application of the trade-off analysis tools in decision-making has bee

303、n limited(Kanter et al.,2018).In planning an NbS intervention in an agricultural context,it is key to acknowledge that the nature of the trade-offs depends on location-specific natural,social and cultural conditions that place constraints on the inputs and outputs of an agricultural system(Breure et

304、 al.,2024).Similar to Criterion 5,Indicator 6.2 has been established to ensure that the rights of stakeholders are upheld.Several studies point out the need to co-develop an inclusive trade-off analysis to avoid power asymmetries(Kanter et al.,2018),to increase the legitimacy of the findings(Breure

305、et al.,2024),and to increase its utility to inform practical decision making(Klapwijk et al.,2014).A transparent and inclusive process will also ensure that all views are duly incorporated in the intervention,seen that benefits from NbS are prioritised differently by different groups of people(Miral

306、les-Wilhelm,2023).Indicator 6.3 focuses on a continuous review process to ensure that safeguards are respected and provides the link to Criterion 7 on adaptive management.The indicators of the latter are:C-7.1.An NbS strategy is established and used as a basis for regular monitoring and evaluation o

307、f the intervention C-7.2.A monitoring and evaluation plan is developed and implemented throughout the intervention lifecycle C-7.3.A framework for iterative learning that enables adaptive management is applied throughout the intervention lifecycleAt the beginning of the section on Criterion 7 in the

308、 IUCN Guidance to the NbS Standard(IUCN,2020b)there is a clear link between adaptive management and indicator 2.3(The design of the NbS incorporates risk identification and risk management beyond 28Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricul

309、turethe intervention site)and 3.3(Monitoring includes periodic assessments of unintended adverse consequences on nature arising from the NbS).Indeed,the adaptive management plan needs to consider that trade-offs occurring within agricultural systems,span across time and spatial scales,and between ac

310、tors(Klapwijk et al.,2014).In an agro-ecosystem,correctly understanding these dynamics is central to achieving a sustainable and food secure future(Klapwijk et al.,2014).Indicators 7.1 and 7.2 provide a continuous feedback loop enabling users to learn and adapt the NbS intervention(IUCN,2020b).This

311、is critical in dynamic agricultural landscapes.For example,in an analysis on agro-environmental trade-offs in the Argentinean Chaco,researchers have found that land-use strategies found optimal at one point in time could be detrimental in case of landscape change,and that adaptive strategies are nee

312、ded to analyse and manage trade-offs between agriculture and biodiversity(Macchi et al.,2020).Lastly,it is worth re-emphasising the need of an iterative learning framework in monitoring the NbS intervention(Indicator 7.3).The conceptual model developed by Kanter et al.(2018)provides an interesting e

313、xample of this adaptive management(Figure 3).The first part of the diagram focuses on a stakeholder-informed decision-making process,in this case about sustainable agricultural intensification.The second section of the diagram depicts a mechanism through which outputs of this process are translated

314、into scenarios,identifying appropriate indicators,data and models to carry out the trade-off analysis(Kanter et al.,2018).To note the curved arrow which indicates the regularity and iterative nature of this process.Fig.3.Conceptual framework for stakeholder engagement and trade-off analysis(TOA)deve

315、loped by Kanter et al.(2018)29Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agriculture4.7.Criterion 8:NbS are sustainable and mainstreamed within an appropriate jurisdictional context5 In response to global environmental challenges,governments founde

316、d three“Rio Conventions”at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil.These are the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC),the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD).In the international science-policy deb

317、ate,Nature-based Solutions have gained prominence due to their ability to break the silos that have historically inhibited the efforts of the environmental movement to engage in cross-sectoral integrated solutions.In 2019,the landmark IPBES Global Assessment endorsed NbS,recognising their potential

318、contribution to addressing both climate change and biodiversity loss,and deemed land-use actions“indispensable”in this context(IPBES,2019;Seddon et al.,2020b).To ensure that their transformative potential is harnessed and continues over time,Criterion 8 of the IUCN Global Standard for NbS focuses on

319、 mainstreaming in the jurisdictional context.The indicators for this criterion are:C-8.1.The NbS design,implementation and lessons learnt are shared to trigger transformative change C-8.2 The NbS informs and enhances facilitating policy and regulation frameworks to support its uptake and mainstreami

320、ng C-8.3.Where relevant,the NbS contributes to national and global targets for human well-being,climate change,biodiversity and human rights,including the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples(UNDRIP)On the first indicator,a growing body of literature,projects,and interventi

321、ons on the ground is testifying to how NbS have the potential to conserve biodiversity,reduce emissions,ensure socio-economic stability for farmers and improve the overall health of our planet(UNCCD,2017b).Disseminating scientific results,project outcomes and lessons learned from NbS implementation

322、is paramount.For that reason,there are already several platforms that have built very useful databases,amongst them are NetworkNature and Panorama Solutions.Nature-based Solutions are being discussed and referred to increasingly in the international policy context.Across the three UN Rio Conventions

323、5,NbS feature predominantly in the Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC).However,thanks to the work of IUCN and other stakeholders,NbS have recently also gained an important spotlight within the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)and in the Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD).Fo

324、r a deeper analysis of the international policy scenario in which NbS are framed,in line with indicators 8.2 and 8.3.,the following sections look at NbS across the issues of climate,desertification,and biodiversity policy.To conclude,the chapter includes a brief overview of the European Union policy

325、 on NbS,seen the ever-growing importance of the topic within the EU.Climate The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The international climate action community has acknowledged the value of Nature-based Solutions on several occasions.The two most cited cases are the inclusion of NbS

326、 as one of the actions agreed at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit(Climate Action Summit,2019;IISD,2019)as well as their mention in the Climate Change and Land Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC,2019;Seddon et al.,2020a).In both cases,Nature-based Solutions are mentioned wi

327、thin the wider context of the adaptation of food systems to climate change.Furthermore,in 2021,an 30Sustainable agriculture and Nature-based SolutionsApplying the IUCN Global Standard for NbS to agricultureIPCC-IPBES joint workshop on biodiversity and climate change,which used the IUCN definition as

328、 its basis for the Nature-based Solutions discussion,highlighted the role that NbS can play in shaping integrated policies and initiatives(Melanidis&Hagerman,2022;Prtner et al.,2021).Under the COP21 Paris Agreement,Parties agreed to hold global warming well below the 1,5/2C mark,recognised in severa

329、l articles(Art.4,Art.5,Art.6,Art.7,Art.8,and in the preamble)the importance of healthy ecosystems and conserving biodiversity in the fight against climate change(Seddon et al.,2019;UNFCCC,2015).Moreover,of the 122 Nationally Determined Contributions(NDC)submitted in 2021 in compliance with the Paris

330、 Agreement,over 80%included the protection and restoration of ecosystems and 41%mention Nature-based Solutions(ENACT Partnership,n.d.).In addition,some studies show that Nature-based agricultural practices were mentioned as adaptation measures in 40 NDCs(Seddon et al.,2020b).This positive trend of i

331、ncreasing recognition of NbS is also acknowledged by a WWF study that saw the number of NDCs explicitly mentioning NbS increase from 43 to 50 out of 55 Parties analysed in May 2021(Bakhtary,Elbrecht&Haupt,2021a).In 2021,another WWF study made several links between sustainable agriculture and NbS and

332、 concluded that enhanced NDCs should identify the co-benefits of NbS for climate change,including desertification,food security and livelihoods of local communities(Bakhtary,Elbrecht&Haupt,2021b).However,researchers have pointed out that despite these positive signs,the potential of NbS is not fully

333、 unlocked in the Parties NDCs,especially in those of the Global North,and their implementation lacks clear goals and targets in many instances(Seddon et al.,2019;Seddon et al.,2020b;Schulte et al.,2020).During COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh,IUCN,the Egyptian Presidency,and the German Government launched the ENACT Initiative.ENACT aims to coordinate global efforts to address climate change,land,and ecosy