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1、INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATUREOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsBen Jobson,Aonghais Cook,Claire Fletcher,Leon Bennun,Lucy Murrell,Rachel Asante-Owusu,Qiulin LiuAbout IUCNIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and ci

2、vil society organisations.It provides public,private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,ha

3、rnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and some 16,000 experts.It is a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,tools and interna

4、tional standards.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,local communities,Indigenous Peoples Organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable developme

5、nt.Working with many partners and supporters,IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide.Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities,these projects work to reverse habitat loss,restore ecosystems and improve peoples well-being

6、.www.iucn.org https:/ The Biodiversity ConsultancyThe Biodiversity Consultancy is a specialist consultancy in biodiversity risk management.We work with sector-leading clients to integrate nature into business decision-making and design practical environmental solutions that deliver nature-positive o

7、utcomes.We provide technical and policy expertise to manage biodiversity impacts at a project level and enable purpose-driven companies to create on-the-ground opportunities to regenerate our natural environment.As strategic advisor to some of the worlds largest companies,we lead the development of

8、post-2020 corporate strategies,biodiversity metrics,science-based targets,and sustainable supply chains.Our expertise is applied across the renewable energy sector,including hydropower,solar,wind,and geothermal,where we specialise in the interpretation and application of international finance safegu

9、ards.https:/ https:/ for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsBen Jobson,Aonghais Cook,Claire Fletcher,Leon Bennun,Lucy Murrell,Rachel Asante-Owusu,Qiulin LiuThe designation of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expr

10、ession of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflec

11、t those of IUCN or other participating organisations.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Government of France and the French Development Agency(AFD);Ministry of Environm

12、ent,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(Sida);the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC);and the United

13、States Department of State.This publication has been made possible in part by funding from EDF Renouvelables,lectricit de France(EDF),Energias de Portugal(EDP),Eni S.p.A,Equinor ASA,Iberdrola Renovables International SAU,Shell International Petroleum Mij Bv Holland,and TotalEnergies.Published by:IUC

14、N,Gland,Switzerland and The Biodiversity Consultancy,Cambridge,UK Produced by:IUCN Global Climate Change and Energy Transition Team and The Biodiversity Consultancy Copyright:2024 IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for education

15、al or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.Recom

16、mended citation:Jobson,B.,Cook,A.,Fletcher,C.,Bennun,L.,Murrell,L.,Asante-Owusu,R.,Liu,Q.(2024).Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,and Cambridge,UK:The Biodiversity Consultancy.Copy-editing and layout:Diwata HunzikerCover photo:Photo

17、voltaic panels and wild flowers/Inacio PiresOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsiiiList of figures and tables vAcronyms viGlossary viiAcknowledgements viii1 Introduction 11.1 The renewable energy transition 11.2 Purpose of this document 11.3 The context for

18、biodiversity enhancement 2 1.3.1 Biodiversity enhancement and the mitigation hierarchy 2 1.3.2 Enhancement,ecosystem services,and nature-based solutions 4 1.3.3 Enhancement and the nature positive concepts 51.4 The business case for biodiversity enhancement 62 Opportunities for effective enhancement

19、 72.1 Solar 72.1 Onshore wind 82.1 Offshore wind 103 Considerations for effective enhancement 143.1 Understanding what constitutes biodiversity enhancement 143.2 Understanding the potential risks and unintended consequences 143.3 Spatial conflicts and other trade-offs 143.4 Competing priorities and

20、cost effectiveness of actions 154 Good practice principles for enhancement 164.1 Target biodiversity enhancement actions on biodiversity directly linked to associated with,or affected by the project 164.2 Consider approaches for biodiversity enhancement early in the project cycle 164.3 Ensure biodiv

21、ersity enhancement measures are evidence-based 174.4 Establish biodiversity baseline at an early stage in the project cycle 174.5 Ensure biodiversity enhancement measures are in addition to any measures proposed in relation to mitigating impacts according to the mitigation hierarchy 174.6 Ensure bio

22、diversity enhancement actions are measurable with clearly defined goals and outcomes 194.7 Identify and scope biodiversity enhancement measures through a collaborative and participatory process of stakeholder engagement 19Table of contentsivOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar

23、energy developments4.8 Plan to implement biodiversity enhancement measures within a timeframe relevant to the project concerned 204.9 Ensure appropriate management,monitoring,and reporting requirements are implemented for biodiversity enhancement measures 204.10 Plan for biodiversity enhancement out

24、comes to be sustained in the long term,and ideally in perpetuity,to deliver a lasting legacy from a project 205 Integrating biodiversity enhancement into a project 216 Case studies 22Case study 1:Biodiversity enhancement at La Mtairie solar project(Gien,France)22Case study 2:Biodiversity enhancement

25、 of peatland by onshore wind energy developers(Scotland)23Case study 3:Bonete solar plant(Albacete,Castilla La Mancha,Spain)24Case study 4:Oyster tables at Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind Farm 26 References 27Annex 37Tabulated summary of existing approaches to biodiversity enhancement 37Opportunit

26、ies for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsvFigure 1 Biodiversity enhancement vs other actions to mitigate and remediate impacts on biodiversity 3Figure 2 Examples of opportunities for biodiversity enhancement opportunities at PV solar developments 9Figure 3 Possible biodive

27、rsity enhancement measures for an onshore wind farm in a Nordic forest environment 11Figure 4 Examples of opportunities for biodiversity enhancement(or Nature Inclusive Design)at offshore wind developments 13Figure 5 Integrating biodiversity enhancement into the project planning cycle 21Figure 6 La

28、Mtairie solar farm in an area of natural ponds,forest,and agricultural land implementing mitigation hierarchy actions to their fullest extent to mitigate and remediate impacts 22Figure 7 Biodiversity enhancement measures created additional habitats in the form of wetlands,pollinator habitat,hedgerow

29、s to complement and enhance existing biodiversity features in the landscape 22Figure 8 Bonete Solar Plant location 24Figure 9 Little bustard(Tetrax tetrax)within Bonete Solar Plant 25Figure 10 Bird nest at Bonete Solar Plant 25Figure 11 Wildflower habitat under panels 25Figure 12 European wildcat(Fe

30、lis silvestris)25Figure 13 Oyster tables prior to deployment in Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind Farm 26Figure 14 Oyster table in situ within the Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind Farm 26Table 1 An illustration of mitigation hierarchy actions vs biodiversity enhancement actions for an onshore wind

31、farm 3Table 2 Documented examples of biodiversity enhancement opportunities in relation to onshore wind and solar energy 10Table 3 Guiding principles for biodiversity enhancement in wind and solar projects 18List of figures and tablesviOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energ

32、y developmentsAMCP Arkansas Monarch Conservation PartnershipCSRD Corporate Sustainability Reporting DirectiveESRS European Sustainability Reporting StandardsEU European UnionKMGBF Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity FrameworkGHG Greenhouse gasGRI Global Reporting InitiativeHa HectareIUCN Internatio

33、nal Union for Conservation of NatureKBA Key Biodiversity AreaMH Mitigation HierarchyMW MegawattNbS Nature-based SolutionsNG Net GainNGO Non-governmental organisationNNL No Net LossNPI Net Positive ImpactNTZ No-trawling zoneOWF Offshore wind farmPHASE Pollinator Habitat Aligned with Solar EnergyPV Ph

34、otovoltaicRSPB Royal Society for the Protection of BirdsSAC Special Area of ConservationSDG Sustainable Development GoalSPA Special Protection AreaSPIES(DST)Solar Park Impacts on Ecosystem Services(decision support tool)SPA Special Protection AreaSTAR Species Threat Abatement and Restoration(Metric)

35、TBC The Biodiversity ConsultancyTES Techno-ecological synergyTNC The Nature ConservancyTNFD Taskforce on Nature-related Financial DisclosuresWDKBA World Database of Key Biodiversity AreasWDPA World Database on Protected AreasWECAT Wind Energy Condor Action TeamAcronymsOpportunities for enhancing bio

36、diversity at wind and solar energy developmentsviiGlossaryAgrivoltaicsPairing solar energy generation with agricultureAdditional conservation actionsMeasures taken that have positive,but difficult to quantify,effects on biodiversityConservoltaicsPairing solar energy generation with biodiversity cons

37、ervationEcosystem servicesThe benefits that people derive from ecosystems.Categorised into provisioning services(e.g.food,water,medicine),regulation services(e.g.climate regulation,flood control),cultural services(e.g.recreation),and supporting services(e.g.nutrient cycling,habitat provision).Ecovol

38、taicsPairing solar energy generation with biodiversity conservation and the delivery of ecosystem servicesFloatovoltaicsSolar photovoltaic system installation over water bodies,such as canals or reservoirsKunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(KMGBF)Adopted during COP 15 and sets out a suite

39、 of goals and targets for overall biodiversity outcomes by 2030 and 2050HibernaculumThe place in which an animal seeks refuge can be natural or artificial in the case of the provision of additional shelter for batsMicroclimateA fine-scale climate variation that deviates from the background atmospher

40、e,at least temporarily(Pincebourde&Woods,2020)MicrohabitatA localised and small scale environment that supports a distinct flora and fauna(Shi et al.,2016)Mitigation hierarchyThe sequence of actions to anticipate and avoid impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services;and where avoidance is not pos

41、sible,minimise;and,when impacts occur,rehabilitate or restore;and where significant residual impacts remain,offset(CSBI&TBC,2015).Nature positiveThere is no single agreed definition several are in use.The Nature Positive Initiative defines it as halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 on a 2020 baselin

42、e and achieve full recovery by 2050.According to the UK Council for Sustainable Business,“a nature-positive approach goes beyond reducing and mitigating negative impacts on nature as it is a proactive and restorative approach focused on conservation,regeneration,and growth”(zuErmgassen et al.,2022,p

43、.3).Nature-based SolutionsActions to address societal challenges through the protection,sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems,benefiting both biodiversity and human well-being through the services they provide(IUCN,2020).No Net LossThe point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity ar

44、e balanced by measures taken through the application of the mitigation hierarchy,so that no losses remainNet Positive ImpactThe point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity are outweighed by measurable outcomes from actions taken in accordance with the mitigation hierarchy to achieve sustainable b

45、iodiversity gains.SwardAn established expanse of grasses,legumes and other species which are close-growing and form a dense stand that covers the ground.viiiOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsThe following people have made contributions to the contents of t

46、his publications as the participants of the IUCN Promoting Nature-friendly Renewable Energy Developments project:Simona Albanese(Eni Plenitude),Tris Allinson(BirdLife International),Audrey Bard(Equinor),Joyce Boekestijn(Shell),Guillaume Capdevielle(TotalEnergies),Astrid Delaporte-Sprengers(TotalEner

47、gies),Melanie Dages(EDF Renewa-bles),Steven Dickinson(TotalEnergies),Gustavo Estrada(Eni),Alessandro Frangi(EDF Renewables),Monica Fund-ingsland(Equinor),Agathe Jouneau(EDF Renewables),Marine Julliand(TotalEnergies),Peter Marcus Kolderup Greve(Equinor),Larissa Leitch(Shell),Adele Mayol(TotalEnergies

48、),Bruce McKenney(The Nature Conservancy),Thomas Merzi(TotalEnergies),Marta Morichini(Eni),Rhiannon Niven(BirdLife International),Paola Maria Pedroni(Eni),Magali Pollard(TotalEnergies),Howard Rosenbaum(Wildlife Conservation Society),Jose Rubio(Fauna&Flora International),Eldina Salkanovi(Shell),Libby

49、Sandbrook(Fauna&Flora International),Ariane Thenaday(TotalEnergies),Marcus van Zutphen(Shell),Claire Varret(EDF),Hafren Williams(Fauna&Flora International),Margherita Zapelloni(Eni Plenitude)Disclaimer BirdLife International chose not to receive funding for its contribution to this project,as per th

50、eir Working with Business Framework.AcknowledgementsOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments11.1 The renewable energy transitionThe need to transition to a lower carbon,nature-safe renewable energy-based economy is more urgent than ever(WWF&BCG,2023;WWF&TBC,2023

51、).The Paris Agreement sets a stringent target of limiting global warming to 2C above pre-industrial levels by 2050,1 thus emphasising the necessity of urgent,rapid,and extensive renewable energy adoption to achieve this goal.Delays in implementing low carbon energy solutions as part of the transitio

52、n from fossil fuels to renewable energy will severely hinder progress towards this goal.In parallel,the recently adopted Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(KMGBF)has the overall vision of achieving full recovery of nature by 2050.KMGBF aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030,t

53、o sustain a healthy planet,whilst delivering benefits essential for human well-being and economic prosperity for all people.Global climate and nature goals highlight that the transition to low-carbon energy cannot occur in isolation,nor in a vacuum achieving them both requires combining efforts to r

54、educe greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions with biodiversity conservation and ensuring they are mutually beneficial(action on climate is not necessarily inherently good for biodiversity(Dunne,2022).Furthermore,lack of access to energy remains a critical challenge in many countries,subjecting many people to

55、a life of poverty.In 2023,at the halfway point for achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),the world was not on track to achieve SDG7.Addressing this challenge,therefore,through the rapid deployment of renewable energy is paramount to ensuring access to affordable,reliable,sustainable

56、,and modern energy for all(IEA,2023;IAE etal.,2023;Roser,2020).All of this implies the need to transform the way societies are operating to address the current biodiversity and ecosystem 1 To achieve the Paris Agreement goal,greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and declin

57、e 43%by 2030.However,global GHG emissions continue to increase,for various reasons(IPCC,2023a).2 Note that the KMGBF does not specifically include the term nature positive,and there is no single agreed definition for this concept.Although several are in use(e.g.see zu Ermgassen et al.,2022).IUCN is

58、developing a quantitative methodology to help companies,governments and civil society assess opportunities and risks,set targets,measure progress,and deliver nature-positive impacts(IUCN,2022).collapse and work towards a just and nature positive future.2 However,whilst large-scale decarbonisation of

59、 global power infrastructure is essential to meeting climate goals,it must not happen at the expense of nature(Gasparatos etal.,2017;TNC,2021)especially as this would likely reduce the efficacy of decarbonisation efforts.1.2 Purpose of this documentWell planned solar and wind energy developments hav

60、e the potential to enhance the condition of habitats and associated biodiversity and increase carbon sequestration,beyond the mitigation or project-related impacts.Thus,the concept of biodiversity enhancement has gained increasing recognition in recent years as a means for the renewable energy secto

61、r to contribute to these broader positive outcomes.This document provides an overview of potential opportunities for biodiversity enhancement for wind and solar developments,bringing together information on good practice principles,case studies from industry practice,and a summary of existing approa

62、ches to biodiversity enhancement.It is intended as a compendium summary resource for developers,combining a variety of diffuse information from literature and community of practice.The examples included are indicative of opportunity and potential.They are not exhaustive,nor are they intended as reco

63、mmendations(robust context-specific assessment and feasibility study is always required to identify appropriate actions).Neither is this document intended to inform future regulations or requirements.Above all,this resource is designed to encourage ideas and progress in a rapidly advancing field of

64、biodiversity management.1 Introduction2Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments1.3 The context for biodiversity enhancement1.3.1 Biodiversity enhancement and the mitigation hierarchyMany renewable energy developers are now setting project level goals for biodive

65、rsity,which may depend on the requirements and views of regulators,financiers,and stakeholders(Bennun etal.,2021).Typically,these goals are for measurable NNL or NPI(also referred to as Net Gain),met through the rigorous application of the mitigation hierarchy.The mitigation hierarchy is a well-esta

66、blished sequential and iterative set of four actions to address the negative impacts of developments on biodiversity:avoid,minimise,restore,and offset(Bennun etal.,2021;CSBI&TBC,2015).Biodiversity enhancement is additional to the mitigation hierarchy.It has been defined as genuine improvement of the

67、 natural heritage interest of a site or area through better management,or the addition of new or better habitats or features than currently present(Rajvanshi etal.,2011,p.182).It represents conservation actions that can be taken to further benefit biodiversity,beyond those gains required to meet NNL

68、 or NPI objectives directly linked to project impacts.Thus,by definition,enhancement contributes to the sum of biodiversity gains delivered by a project.This means that when NNL has been achieved through the mitigation hierarchy,and provided that there are no obligations to achieve a specified quant

69、ity of gain with respect to project impacts(e.g.legislation requiring offsetting or compensation),enhancement actions contribute to net gains.Enhancement actions can also contribute to gains under voluntary NPI commitments,depending on how the voluntary commitment is defined.Enhancement actions are

70、usually taken at the project level(i.e.within the boundaries of a solar or wind farm)to restore or create natural or semi-natural habitats and/or to benefit key target species.Biodiversity enhancement measures need not necessarily target the same features directly or indirectly impacted by a project

71、(i.e.the features to which NNL/NPI targets relate),although ideally,enhancement should still focus on components of biodiversity that are connected to the project that is,directly linked to,associated with,or affected by a particular project(Rajvanshi et al.,2011).In other words,enhancement actions

72、should target features present in the project area and surrounding landscape or seascape context,whether they are directly or indirectly impacted by a project.When planning,enhancement measures should be considered separately from actions to address the direct,indirect,and cumulative impacts of deve

73、lopment.Once projects have implemented actions in line with the mitigation hierarchy designed to deliver NNL or NPI,enhancement measures are the extras that could be delivered to increase biodiversity gains and contribute further to the global goal of halting and reversing biodiversity loss.This wil

74、l require careful consideration,since the actions involved may be similar.In some cases,the same action can support both mitigation and then further enhancement outcomes(see Table 1),and in other cases they may conflict with impact mitigation.For example:X Measures in line with the mitigation hierar

75、chy will be required to achieve NPI for a wind farm with residual collision impacts on raptors.At the same wind farm project site,creation of wildflower meadows for pollinators could constitute a biodiversity enhancement measure that is not related to the residual impact of the wind farm.X Conversel

76、y,enhancing the habitat within the wind farm might not be appropriate because it could result in making the site more attractive to those at-risk birds or bats(e.g.Roeleke etal.,2016).Hence,in most cases,developers should prioritise on-site enhancement,but there may be some instances where measures

77、beyond the project site are more appropriate.Effective enhancement requires a good understanding of the biodiversity baseline,including the species and habitats that are,or were,present,and the ecosystem services delivered at the project site and surroundings.To be able to demonstrate positive outco

78、mes for the intended biodiversity features,both project Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments3impact mitigation measures and biodiversity enhancement measures should be monitored in relation to this baseline.Biodiversity enhancement measures are also differen

79、t to additional conservation actions,which themselves fall outside the mitigation hierarchy.Additional conservation actions are difficult to quantify because they are often not in situ or direct measures on the ground,and instead are supporting,enabling,and awareness-raising actions like educational

80、 campaigns,novel research and development,or policy changes.Enhancement actions,on the other hand,directly address the state or condition of a biodiversity feature on the ground,are measurable,and often similar or same actions as those designed to mitigate impacts(see Figure 1 and Table 1).Table 1 A

81、n illustration of mitigation hierarchy actions vs biodiversity enhancement actions for an onshore wind farmMITIGATION OF PROJECT-RELATED IMPACTSBIODIVERSITY ENHANCEMENTMITIGATION MEASUREOUTCOMEENHANCEMENT MEASUREOUTCOMEAvoidance by design:designing project layout and configuration to avoid specific

82、high value habitat within a project boundaryReduced residual direct footprint impact on specific high value habitatOn-going restoration and protection of these avoided high value habitat areas to improve condition and biodiversity valueContributes to positive biodiversity outcomes for a habitat asso

83、ciated with the project site,after action in line with the mitigation hierarchy to address project-related impactRestoration of on-site habitat areas temporarily disturbed by construction activitiesReduces projects residual adverse impacts on biodiversityRestoration of habitat within the site perime

84、ter that has not been impacted by project activities but has been degraded by previous activities on the land(e.g.agriculture)Contributes to positive biodiversity outcomes for a habitat associated with the project siteRestoring natural habitat beyond the site boundary to encourage species at risk of

85、 project impacts away from the siteReduces projects residual adverse impacts on biodiversitySame action contributes to positive biodiversity outcomes for a biodiversity linked to/associated with the project,but not impacted by the projectOffsetting the physical loss of habitat cleared for project in

86、frastructure through on-going restoration offsets and protection of areas of the same habitat type that are at risk of future loss elsewhere,on or off site(averted loss)Compensating for projects residual adverse impacts on biodiversityRestoration and averted loss actions beyond the project site boun

87、dary but within the same ecological context,for features not impacted by the project,or for which NNL/NPI has been achieved via the mitigation hierarchyContributes to positive biodiversity outcomes for features associated with the project site,after action in line with the mitigation hierarchy to ad

88、dress project-related impactSource:Authors.Mitigation and remediation of projects impactsBiodiversity enhancementActions to mitigate project-related impacts through avoidance,minimisation,restoration and offsetsMeasurable benefits conferred on impacted and non-impacted features linked to the project

89、 and the project ecological contextActions taken after mitigating project-related impacts,including nature-inclusive design and actions for biodiversity co-benefits.Figure 1 Biodiversity enhancement vs other actions to mitigate and remediate impacts on biodiversity Source:Authors.4Opportunities for

90、enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsOpportunities for biodiversity enhancement vary according to the state of biodiversity at the project site.A development in a degraded area,such as unproductive agricultural land,is likely to provide greater opportunities for biodiversity e

91、nhancement than more intact landscapes,such as natural habitats.3 Enhancement is focused on biodiversity,but can often create additional benefits through improving provision of ecosystem services(Section 1.3.2).Examples of biodiversity enhancement include nature-inclusive design features that are se

92、lected to provide additional conservation benefits rather than to mitigate for project impacts.In summary,biodiversity enhancement can be defined as(Figure 1):X Conservation actions,usually taken at the project-level,that measurably improve biodiversity after,and additional to actions taken in line

93、with the mitigation hierarchy.1.3.2 Enhancement,ecosystem services,and nature-based solutionsThe definition of ecosystems considers both organisms and the environments within which they occur(Tansley,1935).With increasing recognition of the importance of ecosystem services(the benefits that ecosyste

94、ms provide to people(Neugarten et al,.2018),the concept of nature-based solutions(NbS)has developed.NbS are actions to address societal challenges through the protection,sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems,benefiting both biodiversity and human well-being through the services they p

95、rovide(IUCN,2020).Ecosystem services are typically categorised into four groups:1)Provisioning services:products obtained from ecosystems(e.g.food,fresh water,medicinal resources);2)Regulating services:benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes(e.g.climate regulation,flood control,

96、disease regulation);3 Examples of terrestrial natural habitats are mapped through the SBTN Natural Lands Map 2020 v14 Semeraro et al.(2020)present a conceptual framework for designing green infrastructure looking at solar PV systems in synergy with ecosystem services.A case study from Italy shows th

97、e framework increases solar energy production and improves/increase several ecosystem services.5 https:/iucn.org/our-work/nature-based-solutions3)Cultural services:non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems(e.g.recreation,spiritual benefits);and 4)Supporting services:services that are neces

98、sary for the production and maintenance of all other ecosystem functions(e.g.nutrient cycling,habitat provision).Biodiversity enhancement measures in wind and solar projects may often also constitute NbS,since actions that enhance ecosystem services can also address key societal challenges,4 Example

99、s include:mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration;contributing to human health through enhancing ecosystem intactness;increasing food security through enhancing pollination services;increasing water security through restoration of riparian habitats;preventing natural disasters through

100、 the enhancement of habitats ability to withstand landslides or floods,and countering biodiversity loss itself.5 Properly managed efforts to enhance biodiversity both in terms of actions related to natural or semi-natural habitats,as well as species,will inherently strengthen the resilience of ecosy

101、stem and their capacity to deliver services essential to people.Recognising the importance of biodiversity enhancement to the provision of NbS,the TRANSEATION project funded by the European Unions Horizon Europe innovation programme highlights the important role blue-grey infrastructure,such as offs

102、hore wind farms,can play in protecting and restoring the health of our marine ecosystems through enhancing nature-based solutions.Similarly,the Pollinator Habitat Aligned with Solar Energy project(PHASE)in the United States aims to investigate the ecological and economic benefits as well as performa

103、nce impacts of co-located pollinator plantings at large,utility-scale photovoltaic(PV)facilities in more detail.Onshore,the potential for enhancing natural vegetation to provide pollination services for surrounding agricultural areas has been widely recognised(Armstrong etal.,2021;Semeraro Opportuni

104、ties for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments5etal.,2018;Walston etal.,2018,2021,2023;Wit&Biesmeijer,2020).Biodiversity enhancements may also provide direct management benefits for renewable energy projects,by improving efficiency and reducing maintenance costs and impacts.So

105、me examples include:X The use of nature-inclusive design for scour protection at offshore wind farms to create reef substrate and reduce the negative impacts of scouring(Lengkeek etal.,2017).X Restoration of natural vegetation to moderate run-off and erosion damage in areas subject to intense season

106、al rainfall,reducing costs for maintenance of access roads and onshore turbine foundations.X Restoration of native vegetation,improving the efficiency of solar panels by reducing the temperature beneath them,and also acts to stabilise the soil,reducing dust,and therefore the amount of water needed t

107、o keep solar panels dust free and functioning optimally(Al-Dousari etal.,2020;Chemisana&Lamnatou,2014;Macknick et al.,2013).1.3.3 Biodiversity enhancement and the mitigation hierarchyIn parallel with the KMGBF(see Section 1.1),the nature positive concept has emerged as an inclusive and ambitious ral

108、lying call that aligns with the KMGBF(Booth et al.,2024).Nature is often used as a shorthand for biodiversity,but it is a broader concept that also encompasses non-living components,such as climate,air,soil,and water.Conservation and business forums are increasingly converging on the concept of natu

109、re positive(zuErmgassen et al.,2022)to achieve the 2030 and 2050 goals of the KMGBF,and drive transformative change in the relationship between business and nature.There is no single agreed definition of the term,and several are in use.In line with the KMGBF,the Nature Positive Initiative defines it

110、 as“halt and reverse nature loss by 2030 on a 2020 baseline and achieve full recovery by 2050”(Nature Positive Initiative,2023).The UK Council for Sustainable Business defines the concept as“a nature-positive approach that puts nature and biodiversity gain at the heart of decision-making and design.

111、It goes beyond reducing and mitigating negative impacts on nature as it is a proactive and restorative approach focused on conservation,regeneration,and growth”(zu Ermgassen et al.,2022,p.3).Debate continues on what nature positive means for business(Milner-Gulland,2022;zu Ermgassen etal.,2022),wher

112、e it is generally viewed as a broad societal goal to which businesses and civil society can contribute,rather than a specific project or organisational-level objective(Booth etal.,2024).The idea of nature positive emerges from the urgent need to conserve and restore nature with widespread recognitio

113、n of the pace at which species and ecosystems are disappearing and the scale of risk this poses to business and society(see Dasgupta,2021;IPBES,2022;WWF,2022).Nature positive moves beyond traditional corporate approaches,such as NNL or NPI of biodiversity in three main ways(TBC,2022):i)a broader sco

114、pe,encompassing all of a companys value chain and integrating all of nature;ii)clearer alignment with global goals requiring absolute improvements in the state of nature,not just slowing down its loss;and iii)emphasis on both mainstreaming nature in corporate structures and processes,and broader,tra

115、nsformational systems change that goes beyond any single company.Application of the mitigation hierarchy is central to a nature positive approach(Maron etal.,2023;White etal.,2024).This means strongly prioritising impact avoidance and minimisation,whether at project,landscape or systems levels.To me

116、et the GBF and nature positive goals for nature recovery,further conservation actions will also then be needed to obtain an overall net gain of biodiversity.As such,biodiversity enhancement is entirely aligned with a nature positive approach providing that it is additional to,not an alternative to,a

117、pplication of the mitigation hierarchy(Maron etal.,2023;White etal.,2024).Luxton etal.(2024)outline a range of potential environmental,social,and design-based risks associated with the adoption of current nature positive aspirations.Renewable energy projects aiming to contribute to nature positive o

118、utcomes through biodiversity enhancement measures will need to consider many of these risks,including the ecological risks of restoration failure due to 6Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsenvironmental drivers,limits to ecological and technical feasibility

119、 of enhancement measures,and the sufficiency of scientific knowledge needed to implement plans.1.4 The business case for biodiversity enhancementBiodiversity enhancement is of growing importance to project developers,for reasons in addition to biodiversity benefits.Biodiversity enhancement measures

120、are one of the non-price criteria which are increasingly being used to distinguish between projects proposed as part of competitive renewable energy leasing rounds(WindEurope,2020).For example,the tender criteria for the IJmuiden ver Alpha(Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland,2023a)and IJmuiden ve

121、r Gamma(Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland,2023b)offshore wind farms in the Netherlands included a requirement for measures to increase the habitat available for species native to the North Sea.Similarly,in Scotland,proposals for onshore wind farms will only be supported where it can be demonstr

122、ated that they will conserve,restore and enhance biodiversity,including nature networks,so they are in a demonstrably better state than without intervention(Scotlands Nature Agency/Buidheann Ndair na h-Alba,2024).Beyond the requirements introduced by bidding criteria,some biodiversity enhancement me

123、asures may also offer the potential to reduce operational management costs and/or increase efficiency.Businesses are increasingly being required to report on and disclose their interactions with nature and biodiversity,including risks,impacts,and opportunities for action which encompasses biodiversi

124、ty enhancement.For example:X In Europe,there is a mandatory requirement for companies subject to the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive(CSRD)to report according to European Sustainability Reporting Standards(ESRS),including ESRS E4 on Biodiversity and Ecosystems.ESRS E4 includes a requirem

125、ent to disclose policies adopted to“address production.or consumption from ecosystems that are managed to maintain or enhance conditions for biodiversity,as demonstrated by regular monitoring and reporting of biodiversity status and gains or losses”(EFRAG,2022,p.9).X There are also several voluntary

126、 frameworks and standards driving voluntary reporting and disclosure,for which there are increasing expectations for company alignment:z Companies aligning with the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures(TNFD)are recommended to disclose nature-related opportunities,including enhancement a

127、ctions beyond the management of impacts such as conservation,restoration and nature-based solutions(TNFD,2023,p.27).TNFD sectoral guidance for Electric utilities and power generators mentions examples of on-site habitat enhancement for pollinators at wind and solar farms(TNFD,2024).z The Global Repo

128、rting Initiative(GRI)standard 101 on Biodiversity requires organisations to report on how they apply the mitigation hierarchy,which in addition to actions for avoidance,minimisation,restoration,rehabilitation and offsets also includes transformative actions and additional conservation actions.GRI 10

129、1 notes that additional conservation actions can be taken to create a positive impact on biodiversity beyond the management of the organisations negative impacts.(GRI,n.d.,effective from January 2026)Furthermore,for the increasing number of developers aiming to contribute to societal nature positive

130、 ambitions,biodiversity enhancement is a clear contribution beyond legislative or finance-linked requirements,or voluntary targets,for NNL or NPI of biodiversity.Biodiversity enhancement activities are a demonstrably proactive commitment to go beyond the minimum requirements and contribute to nature

131、 recovery,and they can provide ecosystem services benefits for project stakeholders(Section 1.3.2).Demonstrating that developments are bringing about positive changes for nature at the local level can bring significant benefits in terms of enhanced engagement and relationships with stakeholders.Cons

132、equently,such measures can be highly effective for increasing stakeholder buy-in and reducing opposition to renewable energy projects related to perceived impacts on biodiversity.Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments72.1 SolarCurrently,there is a growing evid

133、ence base on solar energy and the effectiveness of biodiversity enhancement,with most information coming from many countries,including Australia,Canada,Spain,UK,and USA(BoscarinoGaetano etal.,2024).Solar projects located on transformed or degraded land offer opportunities for restoration,either of n

134、atural or semi-natural habitats(e.g.the restoration of pollinator habitats under and around solar panels,increasing native plant diversity(Evans et al,.2023;Peschel,2010).There are opportunities for the industry to contribute to nature recovery at scale,especially with the development of integrated

135、policies focusing on the nexus between climate,nature,and land-use(Carvalho etal.,2024).Revegetation of areas beneath and around solar panels can increase biodiversity and create corridors for wildlife movement and dispersal,especially if fences are designed to allow movement of mammals and reptiles

136、.Depending on vegetation management practices,solar developments can support higher levels of biodiversity than the surrounding arable landscape,when sited on agricultural land.This has been assessed at several sites across the UK for plants,birds,and invertebrates with higher diversity found at sol

137、ar developments than the surrounding agricultural land(Carvalho etal.,2021;Montag et al.,2016).Thus,biodiversity enhancement at solar projects can directly improve ecosystem services and Nature-based Solutions that benefits the wider landscape(as outlined in Section 1.3.2).The term ecovoltaics is in

138、creasingly used to describe a dual land use approach of combining measures for biodiversity and solar power generation.In general,approaching solar array design and operation using an ecologically informed ecovoltaics approach(co-prioritising ecosystem services and energy generation)can bring multip

139、le benefits for climate,biodiversity,and the restoration of degraded lands(Sturchio&Knapp,2023).At the same,when considering the concept of ecovoltaics,it is helpful to differentiate between biodiversity enhancement actions and mitigation hierarchy actions,which are the actions most often implemente

140、d and described(Ljungstrm&Hrnelius,2023).The concept of conservoltaics pairing solar projects with biodiversity conservation has also been proposed to identify opportunities to directly incorporate both opportunities for solar energy generation and biodiversity conservation(Nordberg&Schwarzkopf,2023

141、).A third term is also in use agrivoltaics pairing solar projects with agriculture.Ecovoltaics,conservoltaics,and agrivoltaics can deliver various co-benefits for solar energy and biodiversity.These include land sparing,water use efficiency and water quality improvements,mass soil stabilisation and

142、erosion control,and the maintenance of soil fertility,flood prevention,photovoltaic(PV)module efficiency in warm climates,as well as re-established wildflower meadows for grazing and increasing pollination services.Biodiversity enhancement measures offer an opportunity to bolster regenerative approa

143、ches that help ensure long-term sustainability of production systems,maintaining soil health and reducing the need for external inputs and the risk of environmental pollution.Solar panels can also lead to the creation of a range of microhabitats that can provide optimal conditions for some species.F

144、or instance,for flora in a dryland ecosystem of the United States,the partial shading by solar panels delayed blooming and was shown to increase floral abundance during the late-season for pollinators(Graham etal.,2021).Overall,the presence of solar farms in agricultural landscapes may increase the

145、structural diversity of habitats and increase avian diversity overall(Jaruka et al.,2024).In terms of bird nesting habitat,some incidental observations of generalist species of birds nesting under or on solar panels have been made.However,during a comparative study of 11 PV solar farms in the UK,gro

146、und-nesting skylarks tended to use undeveloped control plots more than the solar farms(Montag et al.,2016).This is presumably due to their requirements for open uninterrupted landscapes 2 Opportunities for effective enhancement8Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy develo

147、pmentsand the need to see predators approaching which is likely to be similar for many grassland specialists.Case studies of solar PV over canals and hydroelectric reservoirs have demonstrated enhanced photovoltaic performance due to the cooler microclimate,as well as reduced evaporation and potenti

148、ally the mitigation of excessive aquatic weed growth(Hernandez et al.,2019;McKuin etal.,2021).There are many possible opportunities for biodiversity enhancement at solar farms(Table2).Figure 2 summarises suitable ecological enhancements for a solar farm.6 7 In many cases,effective conservation actio

149、ns from other non-renewable energy contexts will be appropriate biodiversity enhancement measures for solar developments.For example,the creation of ponds for amphibians(Smith et al,2020)or the installation of nesting boxes and hibernacula that benefit a variety of bird,bat,amphibian,reptile,and ins

150、ect species,as well as marsupials(Berthier et al.,2012;BoscarinoGaetano etal.,2024;Lindenmayer et al.,2009;Pschonny et al.,2022;Sutherland et al.,2018).The effectiveness of bird boxes is well known,for example.They have been shown to increase the breeding success of the Eurasian oopoe(Upupa epops)in

151、 Central Europe(Berthier etal.,2012)and increase the number of breeding female soprano pipistrelle bats(Pipistrellus pygmaeus)in Spain(Flaquer etal.,2006).Specifically for solar energy,research is being conducted in the US to determine the suitability of releasing burrowing owls(Athene cunicularia)a

152、t solar farms(rsted,2023),since this species is often rescued from development projects under US federal government permits and translocated to release sites with provision of artificial subterranean nest boxes.Benefits to pollinators are some of the most frequently implemented biodiversity enhancem

153、ent actions at solar farms(Armstrong et al.,2021;Blaydes et al.,2021,2022;Walston et al.,2023).Whilst more research is required to fully understand the potential for biodiversity enhancement at solar farms to benefit species and habitats beyond flora 6 Please see Solar Energy UK(2022)for more inform

154、ation.7 Tussocky field margins are areas where grass grows in clumps,bunches or tufts,or areas where thick masses of grass and other plants grow together.They provide essential habitat for invertebrates,and cover for and nesting sites for small mammals,as well as habitats for amphibians and reptiles

155、.8 For more information,please see:https:/9 https:/www.miga.org/sites/default/files/2019-09/Excelsior%20CHA%20Final%2029%20August%202019.pdf and pollinators,there is a range of opportunities and several examples are available,including EDF Renewables exploring positive impacts of solar energy in the

156、 UK(Scully,2022),RWE piloting the creation of favourable conditions for biodiversity at solar farms in Poland(RWE,2024),Regener8 Powers habitat creation in the UK(Regener8 Power,2021-2023)and the ecovoltaics approach in Sardinia(Regener8 Power,2021).2.2 Onshore windOnshore wind farms present similar

157、 opportunities for habitat restoration to solar energy(Table 2),but often across larger areas and with fewer practical constraints.Individual wind turbines are widely spaced,leaving more opportunity for enhancement of the land in between.Some restoration measures may be implemented to compensate for

158、 loss of habitat due to roads and turbine pads,but additional areas for enhancement should be available,especially in projects sited on formerly degraded lands.Most positive biodiversity actions for onshore wind tend to have been linked to impact mitigation,remediation,or offsetting actions;for exam

159、ple,contributions to breeding,and release of 35 California condors(Gymnogyps californianus)through the Wind Energy Condor Action Team(WECAT)programme.8 However,some mitigation measures designed to minimise bird and bat collisions may also represent biodiversity enhancement to some extent.For example

160、,increasing habitat attractiveness away from wind turbines to minimise potential black harrier collisions(Simmons et al.,2020);Excelsior Wind Farm9 represents both a mitigation measure and an additional conservation outcome.In certain regions,it may be possible to demonstrate biodiversity enhancemen

161、t through relatively passive means.For example,in the Gobi Desert,it has been demonstrated that wind dynamics downstream of turbines can alter local environmental conditions 9Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsFigure 2 Examples of opportunities for biodiver

162、sity enhancement opportunities at PV solar developments Source:Solar Energy UK(2022,pp.2425)Sustainable ecological enhancements for a solar farm10Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsto such an extent that they improve habitat conditions and ecosystem functio

163、ns without active management(Xu et al.,2019).These enhancements are relatively small scale(40-90m downstream).However,over large numbers of turbines and on top of additional active restoration,they may lead to more significant ecosystem recovery.Importantly,these impacts are difficult to predict pri

164、or to construction and will vary from site to site with wake effects not only increasing but also potentially decreasing vegetation greenness(Diffendorfer etal.,2022).Figure 3 summarises potential generic biodiversity enhancement measures for an onshore wind farm.For more information on this figure,

165、see Svegborn(2024).Many of these conservation measures are well tested actions that would also be effective at solar farms.2.2 Offshore windThe potential opportunities for offshore wind and biodiversity enhancement linked to the introduction of new structures below the sea surface in the marine envi

166、ronment have long been recognised(Inger et al.,2009).There is growing evidence of increases in fish abundance and epibenthic diversity within operational offshore wind farms(Methratta&Dardick,2019;ter Hofstede et al.,2022).However,it is unclear whether this reflects the establishment of new populati

167、ons,or a re-distribution of existing populations.For changes to reflect a net positive impact relative to the pre-project baseline,and therefore to represent biodiversity enhancement,any measures taken need to result in the MEASURE*TECHNOLOGYSeeding with a diverse mix of native and locally appropria

168、te flora species including wildflowers and non-vigorous grasses*Onshore wind and solarSeeding of crops to provide food for wild birdsOnshore wind and solarConservation management of grassland to produce a diverse sward(e.g.using periodic pulse grazing)Onshore wind and solarAvoiding vegetation cuttin

169、g or grazing during spring to allow plants to flower and set seed,providing a longer foraging period for pollinatorsOnshore wind and solarMinimising chemical control of weeds and seed bare areas to prevent weed colonisationOnshore wind and solarMaintenance and creation of hedgerows increasing connec

170、tivity across the site.Avoid trimming hedgerows during the bird breeding season(often legally required)Onshore wind and solarMaintenance of open ground managed for ground-nesting birds or bare ground for invertebratesOnshore wind and solarUse of exclusion fencing where appropriate to prevent browsin

171、g and grazing of recovering woodland(e.g.deer fencing)Onshore wind and solarCreation of new habitats,such as ponds or wetland scrapesOnshore wind and solarInstallation of bird and bat boxes or reptile and amphibian hibernaculaOnshore wind and solarRestoring areas of dry and degraded peatlands(e.g.th

172、rough peat hag reprofiling and damming gullies)Onshore wind and solarEnhancement of wildlife corridors and landscape connectivity focusing on riparian zones,project boundaries,access easements,steep slopes or rocky areasOnshore wind(and solar where relevant)Use of exclusion fencing where appropriate

173、 to prevent browsing and grazing of recovering woodlandOnshore wind and solarInstallation of reptile and amphibian hibernaculaOnshore wind and solarProvision of refuges for wildlife using deadwood,rockOnshore wind and solarRemoval of invasive or non-native species(if not already required by project)

174、Onshore wind and solarProtecting wildlife from negative interactions with peopleOnshore wind and solarTable 2 Documented examples of biodiversity enhancement opportunities in relation to onshore wind and solar energy*Note the suitability of enhancement measures will vary considerably across geograph

175、ies and local experts should always be consulted when selecting appropriate and effective measures at a site.*For example,in the UK:https:/www.suffolkbis.org.uk/sites/default/files/PDFs/2013%2003%20Notes%20RSPB%20solar%20enhancement%20talk%20notes.pdf;and in Australia:https:/cpagency.org.au/wp-conte

176、nt/uploads/2024/05/Better_Biodiversity_on_Solar_Farm_Guide_May_2024.pdf Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments11Figure 3 Possible biodiversity enhancement measures for an onshore wind farm in a Nordic forest environment Source:Svegborn(2024,Figure 6.2,p.52)est

177、ablishment of new populations or measurable increase in existing populations.10 There has been substantial interest in understanding how new physical structures introduced into the marine environment could be adapted to offer opportunities for biodiversity enhancement(Figure3),particularly in the No

178、rth Sea(e.g.Inger etal.,2009).This interest has increased as regulators have introduced non-price criteria into offshore wind tenders and leasing rounds,often with a focus on biodiversity(see Section 1.3).A recent review grouped measures for delivering nature-inclusive design for offshore wind farm

179、into five broad groups:i)fish hotels/cage-type structures;ii)adapted rock protection measures;iii)reef-type structures and concrete blocks;iv)mattresses;and v)water replenishment holes(Crown Estate Scotland&Xodus,2024).A key area for biodiversity enhancement in relation to offshore wind farms relate

180、s to scour protection.Conventionally,scour protection has been formed from two layers a lower layer with coarse gravel,topped with an armour layer made from larger rocks(Glarou et al.,2020).However,by incorporating rock with a greater range of sizes,it is possible to increase habitat heterogeneity,i

181、ntroducing 10 Beyond the gains required to address any project-related adverse impacts.11 For example,operated by RWE,Shell,and EDF.crevices and other structures offering shelter to a range of species.While not explicitly identified as biodiversity enhancement,many early offshore wind developments a

182、pplied similar measures.As monitoring data have been collected from operational wind farms,evidence has accumulated to support hypotheses surrounding the value of the heterogenous habitat introduced by carefully considered scour protection design,leading,for example,the Atlantic cod(Gadus morhua)to

183、take advantage of new opportunities for shelter and foraging(Lindeboom et al.,2011).Developers have highlighted the potential for habitat creation around turbine foundations and scour protection as a positive impact associated with offshore wind farms(Vaissire et al.,2014).As our understanding of th

184、e influence of scour and turbine structures on fish and benthic species has improved,developers and other companies are increasingly offering bespoke approaches to take advantage of this.Companies are trialling artificial structures made from a range of materials,including concrete and steel,designe

185、d to mimic natural reefs with a variety of holes,crevices and hollows to attract marine life.These are being trialled and considered for use at several offshore wind farms.11 As well as the size and shape of structures used for scour protection,careful thought is now also 12Opportunities for enhanci

186、ng biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsbeing given to the materials used.For example,marble has been shown to be associated with a higher prevalence of tube dwelling organisms,concrete is linked with free-living epi/endobiotic and crevice dwelling organisms,and granite has been found t

187、o be effective for establishing communities of shellfish,such as the flat oyster(Ostrea edulis)(Kingma etal.,2024;Tonk etal.,2020).Settlement of shellfish may be further enhanced through the incorporation of mussel shells,or other chalk-rich substrates,within the scour protection(Tonk etal.,2020).Be

188、yond designing underwater structures to encourage larval settlement and attract marine species,the potential to actively introduce target species is increasingly being considered(e.g.Kamermans et al.,2018).A key early focus for these efforts has been the establishment of flat oyster populations in o

189、perational offshore wind farms(Bos et al.,2023a),which has been piloted at locations including Gemini(Sas&Didderen,2019)and Borssele III and IV of BlauWind12(Kamermans etal.,2018)wind farms in the North Sea.In general,the importance of ecosystem restoration is increasingly recognised.For example,in

190、the Humber Estuary,seagrass restoration is being undertaken in conjunction with the re-establishment of native oyster populations.13 In addition to forming a biogenic reef that will support a range of marine wildlife,as filter feeders the oysters will help to achieve the improved water quality neede

191、d to maintain healthy seagrass.A similar approach is being trialled in Taiwan with attempts to encourage coral larvae to attach and grow on turbine foundation jackets.14 The aim of measures such as these is not simply to establish new,self-sustaining populations of the species concerned,but to enhan

192、ce the surrounding ecosystem,enabling it to support a broader range of marine species including fish,mammals and birds.Such effects may be further enhanced through the exclusion of fisheries from the footprint of the wind farm,creating a de facto marine protected area and providing spillover 12 Desi

193、gning wind and solar projects to protect biodiversity:https:/ In the first phase of the project,30 ha of seagrass meadow will be restored,aiming to provide habitat to support native oysters that will be released in the second half of the project:https:/ Growing corals on offshore wind turbines:https

194、:/ to improve neighbouring fisheries(Coates etal.,2016;Dunkley&Solandt,2022).Broadly,there are four design variables which could be used to optimise scour protection for better biodiversity outcomes(Lengkeek etal.,2017):1)Adding larger structures to create holes(12 m)and crevices which will provide

195、shelter for large mobile species such as the Atlantic cod(Gadus morhua).2)Adding smaller structures than conventional scour protection to create small holes(a few centimetres)and crevices in which sediment can settle.This improves the habitat of egg,larvae or juvenile life stages of many species as

196、well as improve the habitat quality of smaller species,such as rock gunnel(Pholis gunnellus)and the shore clingfish(Lepadogaster lepadogaster).3)Providing or mimicking natural substrate chemical properties to improve habitat suitability for target species and facilitate settlement and growth.For exa

197、mple,chalk-rich substrate,such as concrete with added chalk or natural shells,improve settlement of European flat oyster(Ostrea edulis L.)larvae.4)Active introduction of specimens of target species to enhance establishment of new populations.Many biodiversity enhancement measures proposed,whether ap

198、plied to scour protection,the turbine foundations,or other underwater infrastructure(such as protective enclosures to offer shelter and protection for young fish),fit within one or more of these categories(Figure 4).13Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsFigu

199、re 4 Examples of opportunities for biodiversity enhancement(or Nature Inclusive Design)at offshore wind develop Sourcements Source:OCEaN(2024)14Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsAs well as a series of opportunities,there are challenges for delivering meani

200、ngful biodiversity enhancement at wind and solar farms and an appreciation of these can support better planning and more successful outcomes.In general,there is a lack of guidance specific to biodiversity enhancement practices and can be especially difficult in jurisdictions lacking clear biodiversi

201、ty strategies and governance.Direction can be taken from countries with clearer expectations,including compensation or incentivisation for projects with biodiversity enhancement outcomes(CAN Europe,2023).Considerations for effective biodiversity enhancement should include:X Understanding what consti

202、tutes biodiversity enhancement.X Understanding the potential risks and/or unintended consequences of biodiversity enhancement.X Managing spatial conflicts and other trade-offs.X Competing priorities and cost effectiveness of biodiversity enhancement.3.1 Understanding what constitutes biodiversity en

203、hancementThis begins with being able to demonstrate the additionality of these actions above and beyond those mitigation requirements to compensate for the direct impacts of the project itself.Clarifying which actions are additional conservation actions above these mitigation measures will enable de

204、velopers to consider actions more broadly in relation to their nature positive ambitions and without the constraint of being linked to a particular impact.This can enable more innovative approaches that can be designed in relation to broader priorities at the landscape or seascape scale.Challenges i

205、n maintaining both mitigation and enhancement-related gains exist,especially for offshore wind where regulations may require the removal of infrastructure(including that associated with an increase in biodiversity)during decommissioning.3.2 Understanding the potential risks and unintended consequenc

206、esIt is important to be aware of potential unintended consequences of enhancement measures,which may place barriers to future efforts.Whilst many measures may be tried and tested in other contexts,there is still a lack of information about implementation at wind and solar farms,and a need for knowle

207、dge sharing.Unintended consequences may undermine the efficacy of enhancement measures,such as the attraction of birds and bats vulnerable to collisions through the creation of feeding or breeding habitat,or via the potential for the establishment of non-native species(e.g.De Mesel et al.,2015).Ther

208、e is also the potential to create conflict with surrounding landowners by attracting,or providing a refuge for species of problem animals(Rajvanshi etal.,2011).This may also pose an additional safety and practical management consideration for site workers,should shaded areas(for example,under solar

209、panels in desertic areas)attract venomous snakes,spiders or scorpions to project sites.3.3 Spatial conflicts and other trade-offsTrade-offs between competing land and sea uses can present challenges for renewable energy and biodiversity enhancements(Battersby,2023;Nordberg et al.,2021).Many of the a

210、reas suitable for renewable energy projects are suitable for multiple other uses that provide both environmental and social benefits,such as conservation grazing,fishing and aquaculture,and seaweed farming or bioenergy.Overlapping priorities to tackle climate change through the energy transition,ens

211、ure food security and mitigate biodiversity loss(OECD,2020)leads to a risk that biodiversity enhancement 3 Considerations for effective enhancementOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments15may displace these other activities.For example,artificial reef structure

212、s sited away from the turbine base may preclude bottom-towed fishing activity.Furthermore,there are risks activities elsewhere in the landscape potentially constraining or undermining site-level enhancement actions.For example,herbicide and pesticide drift or run-off can impact non-target species in

213、 adjacent landscapes.This means that there are often regulatory restrictions on what biodiversity enhancement measures can be applied and where these can be located,as well as specific criteria in renewable energy tenders specifying the type of enhancement that can be considered such as the IJmuiden

214、 ver Alpha and Gamma tenders(Section 1.3.3).3.4 Competing priorities and cost effectiveness of actionsWhile biodiversity enhancement can improve stakeholder engagement,there are often conflicting interests among different stakeholders,and relatively low political priority may be given to biodiversit

215、y enhancement.Alongside insufficient funding,likely reflective of low political priority,these aspects are seen as the key socio-political barriers to ecological restoration in Europe and also likely to apply to biodiversity enhancement at wind and solar farms(CortinaSegarra etal.,2021).Access to fu

216、nding reflects a key challenge for biodiversity enhancements,given the relatively high costs associated with many active restoration measures(Brancalion et al.,2019;Daz-Garca etal.,2020).At any rate,cost-effective biodiversity enhancement can be achieved through passive restoration or sharing costs

217、with other developers in a region to promote biodiversity recovery at scale(e.g.European flat oyster reefs).Furthermore,implementing a combination of enhancement measures within the infrastructure of the project(e.g.scour protection and cable matrasses)can benefit both the project and local biodiver

218、sity.As more projects start to integrate biodiversity enhancement measures and nature-inclusive design,costs will inevitably fall.In many offshore wind markets,however,one challenge is still the lack of suppliers to develop and supply commercial-scale enhancement technologies such as the structures

219、that promote artificial reef development around scour protection for offshore wind farms.Power-generating windmills/Terrance Emerson16Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsRecommendations relating to biodiversity enhancement are increasingly being included in

220、the guidance issued to developers by government regulators(e.g.NatureScot/Ndar Alba,2024;Ministry of Housing,Communities&Local Government,2012),or provided by trade bodies(e.g.Solar Energy UK,2022)and academic researchers such as the Nature+Energy project of MaREI of Ireland(SFI,n.d.).However,many o

221、f these documents merge recommendations on both mitigation hierarchy actions and biodiversity enhancement actions,leading to difficulties in differentiating between mandatory mitigation and remediation requirements and the voluntary additional actions developers could take to enhance biodiversity.Ba

222、sed on the available literature and resources,a series of good practice principles for biodiversity enhancement are summarised in Table 3.Further information is provided in the following sections.4.1 Target biodiversity enhancement actions on biodiversity directly linked to,associated with,or affect

223、ed by the projectIn contrast with avoidance,minimisation,restoration and offsets under the mitigation hierarchy,biodiversity enhancement can target any features connected to the project and the project ecological context.Ideally,selection of biodiversity enhancement measures will prioritise species

224、of conservation concern or habitats with unfavourable status within the development footprint,but the scope can be broader and need not be limited to priorities identified through the projects environmental impact assessment,for example.Enhancement contributes to improving the resilience of the ecos

225、ystem impacted by a development(Rajvanshi et al.,2011).In doing so,it improves the capacity of that ecosystem to absorb pressures,including those associated with the development concerned.Thus,identifying what features to focus on could be informed by local biodiversity action plans and/or species-s

226、pecific initiatives.This might include threatened species that utilise the broader project area but are not impacted by the project.Biodiversity enhancement measures should initially be at the site level within the footprint of the development itself or the area of influence.However,there may be cir

227、cumstances where this is not appropriate(Section 1.3.1),and opportunities should be identified elsewhere within the landscape.For example,if a development is in an area of habitat which is already in good condition,opportunities for effective enhancement may be limited.Similarly,there is a need to e

228、nsure that enhancement measures are complementary to the projects other actions and do not undermine or conflict with existing mitigation actions.For example,if habitat improvement within the footprint of a wind farm risks attracting bird and bat species,and increasing their risk of collision with t

229、urbines,alternative options should be identified.Consequently,the identification of suitable biodiversity enhancement measures should be made on a site-by-site basis,ensuring that they are appropriate for the landscape and seascape within which they are being implemented,and targeting naturally occu

230、rring and priority habitats and species.4.2 Consider approaches for biodiversity enhancement early in the project cycleIt is important that biodiversity is considered at an early stage in the project cycle(Rajvanshi etal.,2011).Many measures to enhance biodiversity can take several years to become e

231、stablished,and for positive impacts to become apparent.This is particularly true in degraded habitat and less productive ecosystems(Bullock etal.,2011).4 Good practice principles for enhancementOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments17PRINCIPLERATIONALE1Target

232、biodiversity enhancement actions on components of biodiversity directly linked to,associated with,or affected by the projectBiodiversity enhancement should target features present in the project area and surrounding landscape or seascape context,whether or not they are directly or indirectly impacte

233、d by a project.Enhancement can improve ecosystem resilience and the ability of that ecosystem to absorb pressures,including those associated with the project concerned.Targeted enhancement,after impact-related goals(NNL/NPI)are met,maximises the value to project-relevant ecosystems.2Consider approac

234、hes for biodiversity enhancement early in the project cycleMany biodiversity enhancement measures will require careful planning to implement and are likely to require time to become established.Successful biodiversity enhancement measures are likely to be those with a good grounding in science and e

235、vidence.This provides confidence that biodiversity enhancement measures can deliver the expected positive outcomes for biodiversity within the lifetime of the project.3Ensure biodiversity enhancement measures are evidence-based4Establish biodiversity baseline at an early stage in the project cycleTo

236、 measure progress and demonstrate efficacy and success of biodiversity enhancement measures it is necessary to compare post-implementation biodiversity conditions to pre-implementation,baseline conditions.5Ensure biodiversity enhancement measures are additional to any measures proposed in relation t

237、o mitigating impacts according to the mitigation hierarchyRestoration and offsetting should be targeted at the residual impacts associated with a project.Biodiversity enhancement should deliver gains that are additional to those required under the mitigation hierarchy.6Ensure biodiversity enhancemen

238、t actions are measurable with clearly defined goals and outcomes.Quantifiable targets are required to demonstrate biodiversity gains associated with enhancement measures.Enhancement outcomes can include better ecosystem management,improved protection,enhanced areas for biodiversity conservation,and/

239、or improved ecosystem services.7Identify and scope biodiversity enhancement measures through a collaborative and participatory process of stakeholder engagement.A stakeholder-inclusive approach will help to ensure that biodiversity enhancement is targeted effectively,take local objectives and regula

240、tions into consideration,reduce conflicts,and improve confidence and buy-in.Stakeholder types include relevant government agencies,conservation NGOs,civil society organisations,scientific and academic institutions,individual experts and specialists,and local communities and indigenous peoples.Partne

241、rships with local organisations can help with the delivery and monitoring of proposed enhancement measures.8Plan to implement biodiversity enhancement measures within a timeframe relevant to the project concernedBiodiversity enhancement measures can take time to establish,and may be disrupted by,e.g

242、.construction activities.Consequently,it is important that they take place at an appropriate time in the project life cycle and are given sufficient time to establish.9Ensure appropriate management,monitoring and reporting requirements are implemented for biodiversity enhancement measuresEffective m

243、anagement and monitoring is key to measuring the efficacy of any implemented biodiversity enhancement measures.The outputs from this monitoring should be disseminated widely so that lessons can be learned for future projects.10Plan for biodiversity enhancement outcomes to be sustained in the long-te

244、rm,and ideally in perpetuity,to deliver a lasting legacy from a projectPlan for biodiversity enhancement outcomes to be sustained in the long-term,and ideally in perpetuity,to deliver a lasting legacy from a projectTable 3 Guiding principles for biodiversity enhancement in wind and solar projects18O

245、pportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsAccordingly,to maximise the gains from any biodiversity enhancement measures,it is important that these should be considered and implemented at the earliest stage possible in the project cycle.Ideally,measures should be dep

246、loyed prior to the construction of any project.In many cases,however,this may not be practical,for example in situations where restored habitat may be damaged by construction activity and/or where enhancement measures are dependent on the availability of project infrastructure,such as scour protecti

247、on.4.3 Ensure biodiversity enhancement measures are evidence-basedThe design of biodiversity enhancement measures should be evidence-based to ensure resources are deployed with higher likelihood of successful conservation outcomes.Anumber of resources are available which developers could consult in

248、order to facilitate this.These include:X IUCNs Species Threat Abatement and Restoration(STAR)metric(IUCN,n.d.;Turner,2024):This can enable developers to quantify the potential contributions that species threat abatement and habitat restoration activities within and across their projects can offer to

249、wards reducing global species extinction risk.X The Conservation Evidence Initiative(Conservation Evidence,n.d.):This initiative includes an assessment of the likely evidence for,and efficacy of,3,690 actions proposed to conserve biodiversity,for example evidence on creating artificial reefs.15 X Th

250、e Restore Innovation(2024):16 This is a data driven platform currently compiling over 70 examples of nature-inclusive design solutions for offshore wind.Resources such as these can support the identification of potential options for biodiversity enhancement and help to assess the potential efficacy

251、of these options.However,the potential for innovation and improving the evidence base for 15 For more information,please see:https:/ For more information,please see:https:/ measures that are based on sound ecological principles should be encouraged.For example,at present,the Conservation Evidence In

252、itiative highlights that there is no evidence with which to assess the efficacy of maintaining or restoring strips of undisturbed habitat between solar arrays for reptile populations.In this light,biodiversity enhancement at renewable energy projects has the potential to improve the evidence base fo

253、r measures such as these.4.4 Establish biodiversity baseline at an early stage in the project cycleRegardless of the approach(es)adopted to deliver biodiversity enhancement,it is essential to assess their efficacy.This requires comparing the condition of biodiversity values pre-and post-implementati

254、on of any enhancement.Having identified potential enhancement measures,the baseline condition of the biodiversity feature(s)that these measures target should be established in order to facilitate this comparison(Robert,2024).The baseline should reflect conditions prior to the implementation of any e

255、nhancement measures and the construction of the project concerned.4.5 Ensure biodiversity enhancement measures are in addition to any measures proposed in relation to mitigating impacts according to the mitigation hierarchyAs highlighted in Section 1.2.2,biodiversity enhancement should be additional

256、 to any measures proposed in relation to restoration and offsetting under the mitigation hierarchy.Restoration and offsetting are intended to address the residual impacts on biodiversity associated with a project.While there are some instances where there may be overlap between measures used for bio

257、diversity enhancement and those used in relation to restoration and offsetting(Table1),the central aim for biodiversity enhancement should be to deliver Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments19an improvement on baseline,or pre-construction,conditions,and not t

258、o mitigate for residual impacts.4.6 Ensure biodiversity enhancement actions are measurable with clearly defined goals and outcomesCombined with a robust evidence based(Section 4.3),explicit,precise,and measurable targets are key to understanding the efficacy of biodiversity enhancement(Daz et al.,20

259、20).In the absence of a measurable target,it is not possible to say whether the goals of biodiversity enhancement associated with a project have been successfully delivered(e.g.Butchart et al.,2016).Some conservation actions can be more difficult to quantify.These difficulties can be overcome by set

260、ting a combination of precise,short-term goals(e.g.to attract an additional breeding pair to the site),and longer-term,less precise goals(e.g.to ensure that the species persists on the site over the lifetime of the project(Tear et al.,2005).These goals should be defined in relation to baseline biodi

261、versity conditions(Section 4.4).For example,measures can be targeted to address one or more of the following(Rajvanshi etal.,2011):X Better ecosystem management(e.g.better management of existing protected areas,restoration of degraded areas,eradication of invasive alien species);X Improved protectio

262、n(e.g.creation of new protected areas,upgraded legal protection of existing protected areas);X Enhanced areas for biodiversity conservation(e.g.establishment of dispersal corridors,addition of new habitats);X Improved ecosystem services(e.g.increased biological productivity through better management

263、,reduction in pressure on provisioning services,increasing ecosystem resilience).4.7 Identify and scope biodiversity enhancement measures through a collaborative and participatory process of stakeholder engagementBiodiversity enhancement should be planned and implemented in consultation and engageme

264、nt with biodiversity specialists,local communities,and affected people.Engaging with stakeholders and partnering with local experts will often be the best method of identifying targets for biodiversity enhancement and ensuring the success of proposed measures.This includes making use of traditional

265、knowledge from local communities and Indigenous Peoples,where available.Key organisations for developers to engage are likely to include government agencies,environmental NGOs,native plant nurseries,local communities,Indigenous Peoples,academics,and other researchers.By developing a collaborative,st

266、akeholder-inclusive approach through engagement with these organisations,developers will benefit by ensuring that proposed biodiversity enhancement measures are in line with local conservation objectives and comply with local and national regulations.This should include ensuring that the flow of eco

267、system services from sources to beneficiaries is not disrupted and recognising the use of natural resources by local communities,Indigenous Peoples and other groups whose livelihoods depend on biodiversity.Effective stakeholder engagement has led to the establishment of several successful partnershi

268、ps for delivering biodiversity enhancement in relation to renewable energy projects,such as:Solarcentury and Bumblebee Conservation Trust partnering to promote the development of bee-friendly environments by creating biodiverse spaces at solar farms;Lightrock partnership with Royal Society for the P

269、rotection of Birds(RSPB)to seek their expert advice on going beyond biodiversity net gain requirements;VELUX Group and BayWa r.e.partnering with Universidad de Crdoba and Universidad Autnoma de Madrid to develop biodiversity enhancement measures;rsted partnerships with The Nature Conservancy(TNC)to

270、donate Smiley-Woodfin Native Prairie for protection,with The Conservation Fund,and TNC to support voluntary land conservation and 20Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsrestoration activities on up to 3,000 acres of tallgrass prairie habitat within the Kansas

271、 Flint Hills;and Playa Lakes Joint Venture to restore and conserve 500 acres of playas wetland habitat for migratory birds in West Texas.Building on the success of these partnerships,programmes are being developed to provide direct support and advice to developers.For example,the Bee&Butterfly Habit

272、at Fund Solar Synergy programme,which provides tools and expertise to utility-scale solar developers seeking to cultivate high-quality pollinator habitats and understand carbon sequestration potential at their projects.4.8 Plan to implement biodiversity enhancement measures within a timeframe releva

273、nt to the project concernedIn general,measures to offset,or compensate for,residual impacts under the mitigation hierarchy should be in place before the construction of a renewable energy project begins.This should also be the case for biodiversity enhancement measures that are deployed outside a re

274、newable energy project footprint.For those measures which are applied within the footprint of a project,this may not always be practical.For example,deploying artificial structures in order to provide biodiversity enhancement of scour protection in offshore wind farms,is unlikely to be feasible befo

275、re the turbines and cabling are in place.Similarly,attempts to restore native vegetation in a renewable energy project located within a degraded site may be negatively impacted by construction activity,and thus,best carried out once construction is complete.However,in order to increase the likelihoo

276、d of enhancement delivering a lasting legacy for biodiversity measures should be put in place at as early a stage as possible.4.9 Ensure appropriate management,monitoring,and reporting requirements are implemented for biodiversity enhancement measuresIt is important to monitor and report progress to

277、wards the targets identified(Section 4.7)in relation to implemented biodiversity enhancement measures.As well as providing transparency,this will help to identify lessons learned for future projects,maximising their chances of success and minimising the risk of repeating unsuccessful,or inappropriat

278、e,biodiversity enhancement measures.Recognising that enhancement measures may take some time before becoming properly established(Section 4.2),this monitoring and reporting should take place at regular intervals,and not left until the end of a project lifecycle.Monitoring should aim to track progres

279、s towards the stated targets and identify where there is a risk that these targets may not be met.This will support the adaptive management of biodiversity enhancement measures,helping to maximise the chances of delivering the stated goals of a project.4.10 Plan for biodiversity enhancement outcomes

280、 to be sustained in the long term,and ideally in perpetuity,to deliver a lasting legacy from a projectThe world faces twin,inter-connected crises in relation to climate and biodiversity loss.Biodiversity enhancement of renewable energy projects offers the potential to deliver gains for biodiversity

281、in conjunction with addressing the climate crisis.However,the lifetime of renewable energy project may be relatively short(e.g.typical operational lifespan of an offshore wind farm is 25years).To deliver a lasting legacy for biodiversity,it is important that plans are put in place from the outset to

282、 ensure that gains are sustained in the long term,and ideally in perpetuity.This includes ensuring that sufficient funds and capacity are in place(Rajvanshi etal.,2011),and requires effective stakeholder engagement to agree how enhancements can be maintained beyond the operational lifespan of a proj

283、ect.Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments21Considering biodiversity enhancement approaches early in the project cycle(i.e.during the project design phase)will lead to better conservation outcomes and require less effort and funds than retrofitting onsite meas

284、ures to existing projects.Projects incorporating nature-inclusive design will necessarily need to consider biodiversity from the outset and may find it easier to demonstrate biodiversity enhancement.As the renewable energy transition progresses in the context of global goals for biodiversity and the

285、 emerging nature positive agenda,there are valuable opportunities for the industry to meaningfully contribute to both climate and nature recovery.Figure 5 indicates how considerations for biodiversity enhancement might be integrated into a simplified project planning cycle.The La Mtairie 55 MW solar

286、 site is TotalEnergies largest photovoltaic site in France with 126,000 panels spanning over 75 hectares(TotalEnergies,2022).5 Integrating biodiversity enhancement into a projectFigure 5 Integrating biodiversity enhancement into the project planning cycle*Source:Authors*Following,and not substitutin

287、g,the implementation of the Mitigation Hierarchy.Enhancement stage*ConsiderationsSupported byPlanning and developement stageEarly planning(design and identification of areas)Project consent and permitting processProject construction and opetationDecommissioningConceptualisationof possible nature-inc

288、lusive designs and innovations Remit with in bounds of policy and legislation(including consideration of decommissioning).Availability of solutions and providers.Availability of collaborators and partners.Additionality of options(e.g.would they happen anyway?).Practical limitations(equipement,techno

289、logy or vessel restrictions,landscape or depth limitations).Environmental constraints(ecosystem type,habitats and species present,substrate).Social limitations(other stakeholder activities).Insurance or engineering constraints.Technical and environmental inputLegacy and longevity planningMonitoring

290、and adaptive managementImplementation Implementation of enhancement measures Regula reporting progress Management informed by monitoring of efficacity of measures Opportunities for retroactive installation of additional enhancement measures Transparently sharing lessons learnt and disseminating info

291、rmation and data Relative cost-benefit implicationsConservation NGOs and scientific institutionsWider stakeholder base22Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments6 Case studiesFigure 6 La Mtairie solar farm located in an area of natural ponds,forest,and agricultur

292、al land implementing mitigation hierarchy actions to their fullest extent to mitigate and remediate impacts Photo:TotalEnergies,2022Figure 7 Biodiversity enhancement measures created additional habitats in the form of wetlands,pollinator habitat,hedgerows to complement and enhance existing biodivers

293、ity features in the landscape Photo:TotalEnergies,2022The design and management plan of the site was developed in alignment with the mitigation hierarchy.La Mtairie began energy production in 2022(Figure 6)and will provide for the requirements of 38,000 people while saving 19,000 tonnes of CO2 per y

294、ear.Biodiversity enhancement measures were selected in addition to:(i)minimisation of forest clearance and mandatory financial contributions via a national forest compensation programme;(ii)compensation of impacts to bats through provision of additional roosting habitat;(iii)minimisation of barrier

295、effects using wildlife permeable fencing for small species;and(iv)targeted offsite offsets.Biodiversity enhancement measures created several additional wetland habitats for amphibians and invertebrates,and microhabitats to increase the numbers of reptiles and small mammals(Figure 7).Wildflower speci

296、es were seeded using an appropriate mix of native species to increase habitats for pollinator species.Additionally,approximately 300m of hedgerows were planted to increase connectivity and corridors for wildlife at the site.Enhancement measures will remain in place for at least as long as the lifesp

297、an of the project(2530 years).These measures were selected with the input of external experts during the design phase of the project and will be monitored by these experts to demonstrate biodiversity gains.Lessons learned by TotalEnergies during this project include:Positive actions for biodiversity

298、 offer an opportunity to respond to the increasing concern of our stakeholders for nature conservation and improved local acceptability of operations.Biodiversity enhancement at La Mtairie solar project(Gien,France)Case study 1Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy develop

299、ments23 Positive actions for biodiversity should be medium/long term and be designed and implemented jointly with the local stakeholders and implementing partners to be meaningful.While the scrutiny of stakeholders tends to crystallise on a few large green field projects,there is actually a great op

300、portunity for improving the biodiversity performance of the numerous existing production sites,and for implementing positive actions for biodiversity on a voluntary basis.Such positive actions for conservation are easier to design than biodiversity offsets,as they do not claim to quantitively outwei

301、gh negative residual impacts and are not subject to the same scientific rigor.Contributed by TotalEnergies SE Biodiversity enhancement of peatland by onshore wind energy developers(Scotland)17 Peatland habitat covers more than a fifth of Scotland and,in addition to its significant carbon sequestrati

302、on value,is home to a wide range of rare,threatened,or declining habitats,plants,and animals,including:sphagnum mosses,sundews,the large heath butterfly(Coenonympha tullia)and the bog sun jumper spider(Heliophanus dampfi).Four distinct types of peatlands exist in Scotland,including:blanket bogs,rais

303、ed bogs,fens,and bog woodlands.The biodiversity and ecosystem service benefits of intact peatland and restoring degraded peatland at scale are well known(Benayas et al.,2009;Ramchunder et al.,2012).In Scotland,onshore wind projects are expected to submit a Habitat Management Plan setting out the sca

304、le of mitigation,compensation and enhancement of Peatland it will deliver(Scotlands Nature Agency/Buidheann Ndair na h-Alba(2024).ScottishPower Renewables currently manages approximately 8,500 hectares of peatland habitat with around half of the total area comprised of unplanted blanket bog,which ha

305、s typically been historically damaged by a combination of drainage,overgrazing and burning.ScottishPower Renewables has spent 2.5 million on peatland restoration and research over the past 10 years and developed a new technique called wave damming to increase the speed at which peat dams can be cons

306、tructed and reduce peat disturbance.The new method also reduces the cost of building peat dams from around 2,600 per kilometre to around 350 per kilometre when dams are installed at five-metre intervals.SSE Renewables actively manage 1,688 hectares of peatland habitat across 10 operational wind farm

307、s as part of a total of almost 20,000 hectares of land under Habitat Management Plans across Scotland.To enhance this habitat SSE Renewables have undertaken 253 hectares of targeted peatland restoration such as ditch blocking,390 hectares of livestock reduction on sensitive peatland habitats and 355

308、 hectares of forest removal to reduce the drying-out effect caused by trees.SSE Renewables has also implemented no muirburn policies on 690 hectares of peatland habitat at its wind farm sites.As of 2020,SSE Renewables had committed to restore a further 330 hectares of peatland habitat across existin

309、g operational sites and sites which are currently under construction over the following five years.Prepared by The Biodiversity Consultancy17 This case study draws from the report,Wind power and peatland enhancing unique habitats(2020),produced by Scottish Renewables,Scotlands renewable energy indus

310、try associationCase study 224Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsBonete solar plant(Figure 8),Eni Plenitude Renewables Spain photovoltaic site,is comprised of two adjacent solar plants(Bonete II and Bonete III)located in Albacete,Castilla La Mancha(Spain),wi

311、th a total surface area of 177 ha,that started operations in May 2020.The plant is part of a larger complex also currently including Bonete IV and Campanario&Campanario 1.The plant is located within the Ptrola-Almansa-Yecla Key Biodiversity Area identified for great bustard(Otis tarda)and white-head

312、ed duck(Oxyura leucocephala),within 1 km of a Natura 2000 Special Protection Area(SPA)called rea Esteparia del Este de Albacete,which protects 10 priority steppe species and 10 habitats under the Nature Directives.In compliance with environmental permits,a set of environmental measures following the

313、 mitigation hierarchy were implemented within the project;most of them continue to be managed during the operational phase,with special focus on biodiversity conservation.Developing photovoltaic plants offers substantial benefits for biodiversity through various strategic practices.Within the Bonete

314、 solar plants,the vegetation is composed mainly of shrubs and annual herbs providing habitat for small birds and mammals.A key initiative in this regard is the vegetation management plan,which deliberately avoids the use of herbicides and agrochemicals.Initially,barley was planned for cultivation wi

315、thin the plant,a crop known for its heavy reliance on agrochemicals and intensive land management.However,this was replaced with meadows especially benefiting pollinators and also promoting a healthier and more diverse arthropod community.By enhancing populations of arthropods,this boosts food avail

316、ability for birds.For example,during recent years,a male little bustard(Tetrax tetrax)(Figure 9)selected a plot inside the Bonete plant as a lek area.Little bustards lek areas are related to high quality habitat that provides adequate resources for females and chicks.Bonete solar plant(Albacete,Cast

317、illa La Mancha,Spain)Case study 3Figure 8 Bonete Solar Plant locationOpportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments25Figure 9 Little bustard(Tetrax tetrax)within Bonete Solar Plant Photo:PlenitudeSpain,2024Figure 11 Wildflower habitat under panels Photo:PlenitudeSpain

318、,2024Figure 10 Bird nest at Bonete Solar Plant Photo:PlenitudeSpain,2024Figure 12 European wildcat(Felis silvestris)Photo:PlenitudeSpain,2024In addition to the interior vegetation,extensive replanting with native species has been carried out in the surrounding area,along with a green screen that sur

319、rounds the entire plant;the survival of the replanting is regularly checked with monitoring of individuals during the Autumn.Besides vegetation management,another measure has been the installation of nesting boxes for birds and bats.These nesting boxes provide essential nesting sites,which are often

320、 limited due to agricultural intensification and the subsequent loss of nesting sites.By increasing the availability of safe and suitable nesting places(Figure 10),this has encouraged the increase of bird and bat populations in the vicinity of the photovoltaic plants.This not only benefits these spe

321、cies directly but also contributes to maintaining a balanced ecological community.Birds and bats play significant roles in controlling insect populations,thus aiding in natural pest management for surrounding agriculture.Inside the plant,water feeders are placed to provide water for the wildlife.The

322、 plant is located in a very arid area,and these feeders are important to boost survival,especially for young individuals.Furthermore,to allow the passage of wildlife,the bottom part of the fence is raised above the ground(Figure 11).Additionally,the width of the fence openings is greater in the firs

323、t 60 cm from the base.Terrestrial fauna,including the European wildcat(Felis silvestris),has been recorded passing through the plant(Figure 12).Furthermore,metal markers are installed on the fence to increase visibility and prevent birds from colliding with the wires.In terms of partnerships,a colla

324、borative agreement has been established with the owner of a nearby farm to implement agri-environmental measures.These measures are specifically designed to support the great bustard(Otis otis)and other steppe birds,which are threatened due to habitat loss from agricultural practices.The agri-enviro

325、nmental measures include habitat restoration actions such as creating suitable breeding and foraging grounds for these birds.By restoring and maintaining these habitats,we provide the necessary resources for these species to thrive,contributing to their conservation.Contributed by Eni Plenitude S.p.

326、A.26Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developmentsBlauwwind Wind Farm is a 77-turbine project in the Dutch North Sea with a capacity of 731.5MW.Covering a total area of 146 km2,it was fully commissioned in 2020.The number of shellfish reefs in the North Sea has rapidl

327、y declined over the last century due to disease and overfishing.Windfarms are protected areas and trawler fishing is not permitted within a certain distance so the seabed is largely undisturbed and can provide shelter for marine life.To take advantage of these conditions and attempt to address the d

328、ecline in North Sea shellfish reefs,the Blauwwind Consortium(which currently consists of Shell,INPEX,Eneco,Nuveen Infrastructure,Luxcara,and Swiss Life Asset Managers),in partnership with the Rich North Sea,developed a plan to kick-start a population of the native European flat oyster within the Bla

329、uwwind Wind Farm(Figure 13).To this end,in 2020,2,400 flat oysters were placed on oyster tables around the base of wind turbines(Figure 14),it is hoped that eventually,the presence of oysters will attract other organisms to the area.The pilot is monitored over a number of years but so far,the undist

330、urbed waters below the wind turbines are having a positive impact on the oysters.After three years,survival rates of adult oysters were high,at around 70%,and 88%of these oysters were found to be ready for reproduction.In summer 2023,a monitoring campaign confirmed the presence of both young oysters

331、 that had established themselves amongst the original adults,and oyster larvae within the water column.In addition,the research used cameras on remotely operated vehicles(ROVs)and eDNA analysis to record marine life in the area.The research also looked at biodiversity within the wind farm using phot

332、o and video analyses,scrape samples and DNA analysis of water samples.They found no fewer than 128 species in total.Research is continuing on the site with a view to understanding how different materials influence larval settlement,and whether the population can avoid infection by the parasite Bonam

333、ia ostrea which threatens existing populations.Contributed by Shell International B.V.Oyster tables at Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind FarmCase study 4Figure 13 Oyster tables prior to deployment in Blauwwind Offshore Wind Farm Photo:Shell International B.V.Figure 14 Oyster table in situ within the Blawwind Offshore Wind Farm Photo:Shell International B.V.Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity