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1、 Bioplastic Materials to Reduce Marine Plastic Litter in the Asia-Pacific Region APEC OCEAN AND FISHERIES WORKING GROUP MARCH 2025 Bioplastic Materials to Reduce Marine Plastic Litter in the Asia-Pacific Region APEC Ocean and Fisheries Working Group March 2025 APEC Project:OFWG 02 2022A Produced by

2、Prof.Agus Heri Purnomo,Ph.D.,Dr.Ir.Budi Wardono,MP.Bakti Berlyanto Sedayu,PhD.National Research and Innovation Agency,Indonesia Reviewed by Dina Fransiska National Research and Innovation Agency Email:dina020brin.go.id Edited by Armi Yuniani Policy Analyst at Ministry of Trade Email:armi.yunianikeme

3、ndag.go.id For Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat 35 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Singapore 119616 Tel:(65)68919 600 Fax:(65)68919 690 Email:infoapec.org Website:www.apec.org 2025 APEC Secretariat APEC#225-OF-01.2 3 CONTENTS CONTENTS.3 LISTS OF TABLE.4 LISTS OF FIGURE.5 CHAPTER I.BACKGROUND.7 CH

4、APTER II.LITERATURE STUDY.12 CHAPTER III.METHODOLOGY.21 CHAPTER IV.RESULT AND DISCUSSION.32 CHAPTER V.CONCLUSION.60 4 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.Keywords searches.23 Table 2.The variables of bioplastic user respondent groups.26 Table 3.The publication with details each year.33 Table 4.Development of Bio

5、plastics Export Value in 2013-2022.37 Table 5.The clustering results for k=2,3,4,5,6,7,8.50 Table 6.The Dunn index.51 Table 7.The Characteristics of each cluster for k=4.52 5 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.Global production capacities of bioplastics.18 Figure 2.Global production capacities of Bioplastics

6、2022 by Material Type).19 Figure 3.Europe bioplastics market size 2019-2030(USD Billion).20 Figure 4.Market size for bioplastics a)biobased vs biodegradable materials b)split by material.20 Figure 5.Global bioplastics market 2020-2026,segmentation by type and application.20 Figure 6.The research sch

7、ematic step.22 Figure 7.Number of publications by year,Growth trend in the number of publications in the period 1894-2023(per year).32 Figure 8.Number of publications of bioplastic publications in APEC Economy.34 Figure 9.Number of publications by source.34 Figure 10.Mapping based on network keyword

8、s that often appear(a),Overlay visualization(b),and density visualization(c).35 Figure 11.Export and Import Value of World Bioplastics in 2013-2022,in USD 1000)(Source:Trademap.org,processed).36 Figure 12.Worlds Top Bioplastics Exporters(in USD thousand).38 Figure 13.Global market segmentation of bi

9、oplastic-based products in 2022(Source:European Bioplastics,2023).39 Figure 15.Bioplastic sheet production machine made from bioplastic pellets.48 Figure 15.Bioplastic pellet.49 Figure 16.a.Whether respondent is aware of the existence of bioplastic products;b.Whether respondents company has used bio

10、plastics;c.Whether respondents company objects to existing bioplastics regulations;d.Respondents opinion of whether the use of bioplastics affect his or her companys competitiveness;e.whether consumers should bear the cost of using bioplastics;f.Whether respondents company provides input to governme

11、nt re.the use of bioplastics;g.Whether the use of bioplastics has an effect on the companys cost structure.50 Figure 17.The Dunn Index.51 Figure 18.a.the number of responses from participants concerning their knowledge of bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses f

12、rom participants concerning their awareness of the negative impacts associated with the use of conventional plastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000).54 Figure 19.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their active involvement in addressing environmental damage caused by the use

13、 of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants regarding their awareness of government regulations concerning bioplastics usage(p-value chi-square test:0.000).54 Figure 20.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their stance on regu

14、lations that restrict the use of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants regarding bioplastic usage in their daily lives(p-value chi-square test:0.0392).55 6 Figure 21.The number of responses from participants regarding services provided by st

15、ores or groceries concerning to the use of bioplastic containers and bags(p-value chi-square test:0.000),b.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on how law enforcement authorities approach imposing sanctions on stores or consumers who do not use bioplastics(p-value chi-s

16、quare test:0.0386).55 Figure 22.The number of responses from participants regarding their attitudes towards government regulations concerning the reduction or prohibition of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on t

17、he current prices of bioplastic products/packaging(p-value chi-square test:0.000).55 Figure 23.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on the practicality of using bioplastics(p-value chi-square test:0.3872);b.the number of responses from participants regarding their opi

18、nions on the quality(strength)of existing bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000).56 Figure 24.The number of responses from participants regarding their willingness to pay a higher price for bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000).56 Figure 25.Word cloud of:a.bioplastic product

19、s known by respondents;b.regarding aspects that respondents consider important in bioplastic development.56 7 CHAPTER I.BACKGROUND Marine plastic pollution has gained significant global attention due to its growing environmental impact.The sight of litter on beaches and waterways has become increasi

20、ngly common worldwide,and this marine debris is causing substantial harm to the environment,public health,and the economy.Currently,over eighteen trillion pounds of plastic have been manufactured whereas eighteen billion pounds of their waste find their way into the oceans annually(Gibbens,2018).Mor

21、eover,it is projected that by 2040,1.3 billion tons of plastic waste will have polluted both the worlds land and oceans(Gill,2020).This is alarming news,considering that plastic waste is difficult to degrade and can contaminate both terrestrial and marine environments,impacting life and ecosystems.A

22、pproximately eighty percent of marine debris comes from terrestrial origins,including poorly managed landfills,industrial sites,wastewater discharge,stormwater runoff,and coastal tourism activities.In the East Asia and the Pacific economies alone,it accounts for 23%of the worlds solid waste producti

23、on,averaging 0.56 kilograms per person per day.This sets a global record for the highest levels of waste generation.Specifically,in 2016,six ASEAN member states,namely Indonesia;Thailand;Viet Nam;the Philippines;Malaysia;and Singapore,collectively generated 243 million tons of waste(ASEAN,2021).Whil

24、e the economy rapidly consumes and disposes of plastic products,the overall waste collection coverage remains low at an average of 71%,leaving significant opportunities for plastic litter to enter waterways(Kaza et al.,2018).The main issue with conventional plastic is its resistance to biodegradatio

25、n,making it difficult to eliminate plastic waste from the environment.Plastic waste is also less efficient to recycle due to its low melting point,which makes it difficult to remove contaminants.As a result,the quality of recycled plastic tends to be lower than its original quality(Moore&Curley,2009

26、).Furthermore,incinerating plastic for energy production tends to be inefficient,requiring emissions control and producing hazardous combustion residues(UNEP,2014).According to a survey conducted by the United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP,2014),approximately 22-43%of global plastic waste is

27、disposed of through landfilling.However,this method could damage environmental aesthetics,release harmful chemicals into the environment,as well as result in wasted plastic without recycling efforts(Wijayanti et al.,2016).8 However,despite being persistent in nature and contributing to environmental

28、 pollution,plastic remains one of the vital materials in modern life for people.For instance,it facilitates the development of technological products such as smartphones,computers,medical devices,and various other items.Furthermore,plastic is made from inexpensive and readily available raw materials

29、,making plastic-based products accessible to a wide range of people.Therefore,there is a need for environmentally friendly plastic alternatives.One such alternative is bioplastic.Bioplastics are being recognized to promote the sustainable expansion of the plastics industry that offers a robust subst

30、itution for synthetic plastics in the near future.They have the potential to shift a considerable portion of large-scale plastics toward alternative waste management methods,particularly single-use plastics that pose recycling challenges.This reorientation is quite promising to support the plastic i

31、ndustrys sustainable development.Bioplastic is generally defined as a material derived from renewable sources that can naturally degrade and can be used as a solution to address single-use plastic waste issues.Biodegradation is the process in which organic materials are broken down by the enzymes of

32、 living organisms,such as bacteria and fungi,making biodegradable materials more environmentally friendly as they are easily decomposable(Vert et al.,2012).Examples of biodegradable materials commonly used to create eco-friendly plastics include vegetable oil,potatoes,cornstarch,corn husks,pea starc

33、h,or microbiota.Additionally.according to the European Bioplastics Organization(EBO),the term bioplastics encompasses two fundamental aspects:the plastics origin,which can be bio-based,and its potential for biodegradation(refer to Figure 1).Bio-based plastics,as defined by the European Standard EN 1

34、6575 from 2014,are those derived from plant-based materials,often referred to as biomass.However,its crucial to note that not all bio-based plastics exhibit biodegradable properties,and biodegradability is not exclusive to bio-based plastics(Cruz et al.,2022).At present,bioplastics might be more app

35、ropriately applied to single-use consumer goods,such as food packaging,eating utensils,straws,or medical waste bags.It was currently reported that bioplastics constitute only 1%of the total global plastic production,which stands at 370 million metric tonnes in 2019.Substituting conventional plastics

36、 with bioplastics can be very challenging due to the superior durability,versatility,and lower cost of the synthetic plastics.Nevertheless,ongoing massive research and development efforts are underway to enhance the appropriateness of bioplastics across various industries.Researchers are exploring t

37、hese environmentally friendly plastics for durable goods,such as phone cases,carpet fibers,car interiors,plastic pipe applications,and electricity(Suszkiw,2005).Additionally,they are 9 also frequently used as materials for making bags,trays,containers for fruits,veggies,eggs,and meat,as well as bott

38、les for soft drinks,dairy products,and protective wrappings for fruits and veggies.It is projected that by 2025,annual growth rates will soar to approximately 30%(Moshood et al.,2022).The Asia-Pacific economies takes the lead in producing more than 45%of bioplastics and biopolymers,valued at USD 2,5

39、48.3 million in 2021.China has been the largest market for bioplastics in this economy.Various companies in Europe,the US,and Asia are bioplastics producers,including prominent players like Corbion N.V.(Netherlands),Novamont(Italy),BASF(Germany),NatureWorks LLC(the US),Tianjin Guoyun(China),and CJCh

40、eilJedang(Korea).()An increasing number of governments,both on the international and economy levels,have taken strategies to combat single-use plastics.These commodities,often used in short period and then disposed,contribute to a significant source of waste particularly in terms of marine litter.Fu

41、rthermore,within various industries,the packaging sector emerges as the predominant consumer of plastics,accounting for roughly 40%of their utilization.Notably,in the European Union(EU),plastic packaging constitutes nearly 60%of post-consumer plastic waste.Most of this packaging serves a single-use

42、purpose,and the lack of recycling and reuse,coupled with system failures,results in the generation of substantial quantities of solid waste.This,in turn,contributes significantly to adverse impacts on both terrestrial and marine ecosystems.On average,per capita generation of plastic packaging waste

43、witnessed an increase from 27 kg to 35 kg between 2009 and 2019(Cruz et al.,2022).There are several factors that drive the adoption of bioplastics,encompassing the bioplastic performance,consumer perception,regulations,technological advancements,and resource availability.While the adoption and long-

44、term viability of bioplastics rely on two technological areas:materials production and waste management(Moshood et al.,2022).From those factors,the increasing trend of restrictions on conventional plastics is considered as the major catalyst for the growth of bioplastic market.Due to environmental c

45、oncerns in many Asian economies like China;India;Indonesia;Viet Nam;Thailand,and others,businesses are increasingly adopting bioplastics to capture a larger share of the consumer market.Consequently,the Asia-Pacific bioplastics market is on the rise.The enforcement of plastic bans in various economi

46、es,coupled with technological advancements,supportive regulations,and the business environment,are among the factors boosting the market forward.10 Some economies,like the United Kingdom,have achieved success through the implementation of fees on single-use plastic bags,while others have chosen to e

47、nact an outright ban.For instance,Korea has instituted a ban on plastic bags in major supermarkets and bakeries,accompanied by a substantial fine of three million won(equivalent to roughly USD 2,600).These policies are typically adopted and enforced at the state,provincial,or municipal level within

48、the US and Mexico.Chinese Taipei stands out with one of the most comprehensive strategies aimed at addressing the issue of single-use plastics.The initiative began with a prohibition on certain dining establishments,including chain restaurants and schools,distributing straws to customers in 2019.Thi

49、s restriction was later expanded to include all dining establishments starting in 2020.Concurrently,the government introduced fees for retailers providing complimentary plastic bags,disposable food and beverage containers,and utensils.The long-term goal is to implement a complete ban on single-use b

50、ags,utensils,straws,and containers by the year 2030.Various policies and policy instruments are expected to shape the expansion of the bioplastics sector.These encompass policies on bioresources management,policies promoting research and development,trade and manufacturing policies,as well as mechan

51、isms like subsidies,tax incentives,diversity quotas,standardization initiatives,and regulatory measures.Common characteristics and trends can be observed across economies:Few economies have established dedicated policies specifically aimed at bioplastics.Instead,many economies have primarily focused

52、 on policies promoting biofuels and bioenergy,which can put bioplastics at a disadvantage when it comes to competing for biomass resources.In fact,the adoption of comprehensive bioplastic strategies is mainly limited to the use and recycling of plastic bags.Several economies have implemented researc

53、h and development initiatives and innovative policies to bolster the bioplastics sector.Many economies are actively striving to improve their capacity for manufacturing bioplastics,albeit constrained by the cost of expanding major facilities.The significant role of public procurement in stimulating

54、industry growth has been acknowledged,particularly in large economies such as the US and the European Union.Moreover,there is a growing interest in formulating comprehensive bio-economic policies,with the potential for specific bio-plastics programs in numerous economies worldwide(Moshood et al.,202

55、1).To develop effective strategies for mitigating environmental pollution caused by plastic waste,various economies,including the Asia-Pacific that notably contributes to ocean plastic pollution,are engaging in collaborative efforts through organizing a discussion forum,namely 11 Workshop on Promoti

56、ng Bioplastic Materials to Reduce Marine Plastic Litter in the Asia Pacific Economies.These forums will be attended by relevant representatives from each member of economies.The objective is to gain a comprehensive understanding of effective approaches to managing plastic waste and identifying pract

57、ical steps to replace conventional plastics as the source of pollution,with bioplastics.Prior to the workshop,preliminary research was conducted to gather a comprehensive understanding of the current state of bioplastic adoption in APEC member of economies.We aimed to identify the initiatives taken

58、by the governments within the economies that aim to mitigate the marine ecosystems damage caused by plastic waste pollution.To achieve this,we sought to uncover a range of key information,including:(1)Existing regulations across the APEC economies related to initiatives for reducing plastic waste an

59、d their implementation;(2)Public perceptions in some representative APEC member economies regarding policies and their implementation in the context of plastic waste reduction;(3)Innovative practices and solutions already in place within APEC economies;(4)Collaborative efforts among various stakehol

60、ders within each economy to address the issue,and;(5)Initiatives undertaken by each economy to endorse the use of eco-friendly plastics and promote public awareness surrounding their adoption.Information was collected by engaging key stakeholders,including experts,academics,policymakers,representati

61、ves from bioplastic companies,the general consumers,retail companies,and other relevant parties.Data gathering methods included conducting focus group discussions,distributing questionnaires,and conducting direct interviews.The findings from this pre-workshop research will serve as a groundwork to f

62、ormulate steps or policy recommendations.These recommendations will subsequently be presented and discussed during the workshop.Through these discussions among workshop participants,the aim is to generate practical strategy recommendations that align with the workshops objective of mitigating marine

63、 environmental harm by promoting the use of eco-friendly plastics.12 CHAPTER II.LITERATURE STUDY 2.1.Definition of Bioplastic Bioplastics are a category of plastics derived from natural and renewable biomass sources such as sugarcane,corn starch,wood,waste paper,vegetable oils,fats,bacteria,algae,an

64、d more.In contrast,most commercially available plastics are produced from non-renewable petroleum-based sources,which can be detrimental to natural ecosystems.Bioplastics,however,pose no harm to the environment as they can naturally decompose into carbon dioxide.Consequently,there is a rapid increas

65、e in demand for bioplastics in various applications.Products crafted from bioplastics should be promoted for commercialization due to their renewability,biodegradability,compostability,and eco-friendliness(Sidek et al.,2019).Another definition of bioplastics are a type of plastic that are either bio

66、based,biodegradable,or both.Due to their biodegradability and renewability,bioplastics are established as earth-friendly materials that can replace non-renewable plastics.However,early bioplastic development has been hindered by higher production costs and inferior mechanical and barrier properties

67、compared to conventional plastics(Abang et al.,2023).Polymers can be sourced directly from biomass,such as starch and cellulose,or produced through fermentative processes involving microorganisms,like polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA),with an appropriate carbon source.Additionally,plant biomass can be chem

68、ically or biocatalytically transformed into precursor materials for various polymers,including polylactide(PLA)and polyolefins.Its worth noting that biobased products need not rely entirely on renewable sources;they can also incorporate raw materials derived from fossil fuels.Carbohydrate-rich food

69、crops like corn or sugar cane are commonly employed in the production of biobased polymers,while non-food crops,like lignocellulosic materials,can be converted into chemical building blocks suitable for crafting a wide array of bioplastics.Although currently not economically feasible,this approach h

70、olds promise as a viable solution in the future.Furthermore,bioplastics can be derived from animal biomass(e.g.,whey and chitosan)as well as protein-or oil-rich plant biomass(e.g.,soy protein isolate and castor oil)(Geueke,2020).As per the European Bioplastics Associations definition(2021),a polymer

71、 qualifies as a bioplastic if it possesses either bio-based characteristics,biodegradability,or a combination of both(refer to Figure 1).13 Figure 1.Illustrates distinct categories of bioplastics categorized according to the source of their raw materials and their environmental impact(Lavagnolo et a

72、l.,2023)Bioplastics are often categorized based on their underlying chemical structure.Another useful way to classify bioplastics is to distinguish between two main categories:biodegradable and non-biodegradable varieties.Bioplastics are composed of materials derived from natural sources,including p

73、lants,animals,and microorganisms.These materials are typically,if not entirely,renewable resources.Adding to the confusion is the common misconception that biodegradable and compostable are synonymous.Compostable actually refers to the ability of an organic material to biodegrade and transform into

74、compost.The ISO 17,088:2021 standard defines compost as an organic soil conditioner obtained by the biodegradation of a mixture primarily composed of plant residues,occasionally with other organic material,and having limited mineral content.Unlike the definition of biodegradable,the definition of co

75、mpostable outlines specific requirements that must be met for a plastic to be classified as compostable.These requirements are established by European standards EN 13,432 and EN ISO 14,995 and include biodegradability(within six months,90%of the material must be consumed by microorganisms and conver

76、ted into CO2),disintegrability(within three months,90%of the material must consist of fragments smaller than two millimeters),absence of negative effects on the composting process,and low levels of heavy metals and no toxicity in the final compost(Lavagnolo et al.,2023)14 2.2.Source material of Biop

77、lastic There are several source materials of bioplastic,which consists of plant-based bioplastics(cellulose,starch,protein based bioplastic),bacteria based bioplastics(Polyhydroxyalkanoates,and polylactic acid),micro algae,macroalgae,Polycaprolactone,and Oxo-biodegradable plastics(Jayakumar et al.,2

78、023)Bioplastics,derived from plant-based sources such as corn starch,vegetable oils,fats,wood chips,and other bio-waste materials,have gained commercial importance.Among these,starch-based bioplastics are extensively utilized in the production of biodegradable food packaging,bags,injection molding,a

79、nd foam products.These starch-based plastics are manufactured using processes like blowing,injection molding,extrusion,and vacuum forming(Sirohi et al.,2021).In-depth,starch-based polymers are typically biodegradable polysaccharide compounds serving as an alternative to polystyrene(PS)materials.They

80、 find application in various sectors,including food processing,disposable tableware and cutlery,coffee machine capsules,and bottles.Starch,known for its affordability,renewability,and wide availability,serves as the foundation for these biopolymers.However,due to intermolecular tensions and hydrogen

81、 bonding,starch alone cannot be classified as a thermoplastic material.Consequently,the addition of a plasticizer(such as urea,glycerol,sorbitol,or glycerin)along with water is necessary to create thermoplastic starch(TPS),a flexible thermoplastic polymer(Khan et al.,2017).Cellulose-based polymers r

82、epresent another category of biodegradable polysaccharides.Nonetheless,they come with certain drawbacks,including limited water vapor barrier properties,subpar mechanical characteristics,challenging processing,and inherent weakness,particularly in the case of pure cellulose polymers.Cellulose,compos

83、ed of glucose monomers linked by beta(one to four)linkages,is found predominantly in wood and shares similarities with starch.Cellulose is known for its exceptional mechanical strength,flexibility,biodegradability,and biocompatibility.Its hydroxyl groups allow it to form hydrogen bonds with neighbor

84、ing molecules,facilitating crystallization(Holtzapple,2003).Some research on bioplastics from cellulose is cellulose-xylan hemicellulose hydrolyzed lignin(Tedesschi et al.,2020).15 Protein-based biomaterials are also emerging as promising sources for bioplastic production.Proteins sourced from both

85、plants(such as soy,corn,pea,and whey gluten)and animals(collagen,gelatine,milk,and albumin)have been extensively studied for their potential in bioplastic production.Soy protein-based bioplastics,in particular,are gaining prominence due to their affordability,biodegradability,and functional thermopl

86、astic properties(Perez et al.,2016).Bioplastics produced from microbial sources hold great promise as sustainable alternatives to non-biodegradable petroleum-based plastics.These include polyesters,polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs),and polylactic acid(PLA)(Naser et al.,2021).Polylactide(PLA)is also known

87、as one of the thermoplastic forms of biodegradable polyester.It consists of alternatives to polyethylene(LDPE and HDPE),polystyrene(PS)and polythylated poly(PET)of low and high density and is extensively used in the manufacturing of translucent,rigid containers,bags,jars and films(Wagner,2014).PHAs,

88、in particular,exhibit resistance to hydrolysis and offer excellent UV barrier properties,although they are soluble in chloroform and similar solvents but insoluble in water.PLA,derived mainly from corn starch,is a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester with high biocompatibility.Its monomer,lactic ac

89、id,is typically obtained through bacterial fermentation of corn,potatoes,and sugarcane(Balla et al.,2021).The high molecular weight,water solubility,excellent processing characteristics,and biodegradability of PLA render it a highly suitable material for use in food packaging(Webb et al.,2013)Microa

90、lgae represent an intriguing alternative to traditional plastics,boasting higher levels of protein and carbohydrate polymers(Onen Cinar et al.,2020).These unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic organisms have the potential to produce various valuable metabolites applicable in food,bioplastics,b

91、ioenergy,and pigments(Liu et al.,2016;Ummalyma et al.,2020).Spirulina and chlorella,in particular,are microalgae known for their elevated protein content relative to their dry weight(Bhalamurugan et al.,2018).The development of bioplastics from microalgae using next-generation methods holds signific

92、ant promise.Bioplastics derived from seaweeds can be obtained through mechanical,biological,or chemical extraction methods.Unlike conventional plastics,seaweed-based bioplastics do not degrade into microplastics,making them environmentally superior.However,these bioplastics are often limited by thei

93、r weaker mechanical and water barrier properties.16 PCL is a biodegradable polyester made by ring-opening-caprolactone polymerization.This is a non-renewable resource.Because of its low melting temperature and biodegradability,for the most part,pure PCL is employed in medical applications.The low me

94、lting point(62 C)makes it ideal for blending with other biopolymers(e.g.,starch).PCL blends are also used as food contact materials(FCMs)(Tyler and Gregg,2019)Oxo-biodegradable plastics,which are petroleum-based polymers containing additives to enhance degradation,are notable.These additives typical

95、ly consist of metal salts of carboxylic acids and dithiocarbamates,with transition metals like iron(Fe),nickel(Ni),cobalt(Co),and manganese(Mn)employed to aid degradation(Thomas et al.,2012).Oxo-biodegradable plastics can undergo degradation through both abiotic and biotic processes.Initially,oxidat

96、ive degradation occurs with the action of prooxidants,followed by the conversion of oxidation products into carbon dioxide and biomass by microorganisms in a process known as oxo-degradation(Melchor-Martnez et al.,2022).2.3.Standar and Certification The three internationally acceptable standardizati

97、on bodies are i)the international Organization for Standardization(ISO),the American Society for Testing and Material(ASTM)and the European Committee for Standardization(CEN).Standard-based labels will easily and clearly communicate and claim superiority in the usability of that particular product.A

98、ll accepted standards are further certified,and a label or logo will be given for easy identification.There are standards for bioplastic,biodegradable plastics,industrial composting,and standards for biodegradable in soil and marine environments.The European committee for standardization has forward

99、ed some criteria for the bio-based conduct determination:the European norm EN 16640:analysis of carbon content by the radiocarbon method and based on biocarbon content,certificates can be obtained,EN 16785-1(analysis of carbon content by radiocarbon method and elemental analysis),and EN 167855-2:a r

100、enewable content analysis by material balance method.(Jayakumar et al.,2023)Standard for biodegradable plastics consist of:EN 13432(biodegradable packaging)and EN14995(This standard also defines the identical criteria set forth in TN 13432.)The industrial composting standard comprises the following

101、elements:Australian Norm AS 5810,which allows for the home composting of biodegradable plastics;TUV AUSTRIA Belgium,17 stipulating that materials should achieve a biodegradability rate of 90%within 12 months at ambient temperature;and NF T 51-800,the French standard.TV Austria Belgium has establishe

102、d a scheme focused on the degradation of bioproducts in both soil and marine environments,aligning with the EN 13432/EN 14995 standards.This scheme mandates that materials must undergo a 90%degradation within two years at ambient temperature.The EN standard 17,033 additionally outlines the criteria

103、for biodegradable films,as previously mentioned.Its worth noting that certain standards,such as ASTM D7081,which pertained to the biodegradability of plastics in marine settings,have been discontinued.-ASTM D6691 standard:determine the aerobic biodegradation of plastics in marine environments.-ASTM

104、D6692:method to determine the biodegradability of radiolabelled polymeric plastics materials in sea water-ASTM D7473:method to determine the weight abrasion of materials in marine environment-ISO 18830:standard method that determines aerobic biodegradation of non-floating plastic materials in sea wa

105、ter.2.4.Drivers and barriers for consumers purchasing bioplastics Most of the research in the field of bioplastic packaging applications has primarily centered on quantitative consumer surveys,particularly in areas such as food and beverage packaging.Findrik&Meixner stated that the research has high

106、lighted several barriers to consumer adoption of bioplastics.These obstacles include consumers limited knowledge about the environmental impact of bioplastics,uncertainties surrounding factors like material sourcing and end-of-life characteristics compared to conventional plastics,and the challenge

107、of distinguishing bioplastics from traditional plastic materials.On the flip side,the research has also identified various drivers that encourage consumers to purchase bioplastics.These include a positive consumer attitude toward environmentally friendly products,the availability of clear product in

108、formation,and consumers alignment with green values.Furthermore,bioplastic products that align with consumer preferences,such as affordability,a biogenic resource base,and local sourcing,have been found to act as strong motivators for purchase.There is a call for more in-depth analysis of labelling

109、systems associated with 18 bioplastic products,which can play a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions and choices(Findrik&Meixner,2023).2.5.Bioplastics Productions Global bioplastics production capacity is poised for a significant surge,projected to escalate from approximately 2.4 million ton

110、nes in 2021 to 7.5 million tonnes by 2026.This remarkable growth is primarily driven by the substantial increase in the production of biodegradable materials like PBAT(polybutylene adipate terephthalate),which is expected to nearly quadruple.Additionally,PBS(polybutylene succinate)and bio-based PAs(

111、polyamides)are contributing significantly to this expansion.The production of polylactic acid(PLA)will also continue to rise due to ongoing investments in PLA production facilities across Asia,the US,and Europe.Furthermore,production capacities for bio-based polyolefins,such as PE(polyethylene)and P

112、P(polypropylene),have seen an increase as well.Currently,biodegradable plastics,including PBAT,PLA,and polybutylene succinate(PBS),constitute slightly over 64 percent(1.5 million tonnes)of the global bioplastics production capacity(Figure 2).Figure 1.Global production capacities of bioplastics Packa

113、ging remains the largest field of application for bioplastics with almost 48 percent(1.2 million tonnes)of the total bioplastics market in 2021.The data also confirms that 19 bioplastics materials are already being used in many other sectors,and the portfolio of application continues to diversify.Ba

114、sed on its raw materials,global bioplastics production in 2022 originated from PLA(20.7%);PE(14.8%);starch blends(17.9%);PTT(13.3%),and others(Figure 3).Figure 2.Global production capacities of Bioplastics 2022 by Material Type).Source:https:/www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/materials/Asia f

115、urther strengthened its position as major production hub with almost 50 percent of bioplastics currently being produced in the economy.Presently,almost a fourth of the production capacity is still located in Europe.However,Europes share and the share of other world economies will significantly decre

116、ase within the next five years.In contrast,Asia is predicted to have passed the 70 percent by 2026.2.6.Bioplastic markets The global bioplastics market size was valued at USD 7.56 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow from USD 8.72 billion in 2023 to USD 31.66 billion by 2030,exhibiting a CAGR of

117、 20.2%during the forecast period(Figure 4).20 Figure 3.Europe bioplastics market size 2019-2030(USD Billion)(Source:www.Bioplastics Market Share,Growth&In-depth Analysis 2030)The global bioplastics market is projected to grow from$7,616.0 million in 2021 to$15,552.3 million in 2028 at a CAGR of 10.7

118、%in forecast period 2021-2028.Source:(https:/)Figure 4.Market size for bioplastics a)biobased vs biodegradable materials b)split by material Figure 5.Global bioplastics market 2020-2026,segmentation by type and application 21 CHAPTER III.METHODOLOGY 3.1.Method 3.1.1.General approach This study was g

119、rounded in a comprehensive dataset obtained through the application of three distinct data collection methodologies:(i)scopus database search,(ii)surveys,(iii)field observations,and(iv)in-depth interviews.The data was then carefully analyzed using bibliometric analysis(Donthu et al.,2021)and descrip

120、tive statistical approaches(Montgomery D.C.et al.,2003).In brief,this study was conducted following schematic steps as illustrated in Figure 7.Search was done using the Scopus database with a time range created entirely(without time limits).The search is carried out through the following process:Dat

121、a Collection Method Data collection was conducted on September 26,2023,using the Scopus database.VOSviewer is software developed for analysing and creating bibliometric maps.22 Figure 6.The research schematic step 3.1.2.Data collection a.Scopus database search Search using the Scopus database with a

122、 time range created entirely(without time limits).The search is carried out through the following process.Data Collection Method Data collection was conducted on September 26,2023,using the Scopus database.Keyword searches were performed in the title,abstract,or keyword field(TITLE-ABS-KEY)with the

123、following steps:Online surveys In-depth interview Field observation Economy representative Bioplastic pellet producer End users Retailer Descriptive statistical analyses:chi square,word cloud,etc.Cluster analyses Bioplastic end-product producer Categoric data Categoric data Categoric data Categoric

124、data Categoric data Processed data:graphs,trends,significance,word cloud,etc.Discussion Conclusion and implication/recommendation Literature database search Searchable publications Keyword mapping Bibliometric maps Literature review Summary of published materials 23 Table 1.Keywords searches Initial

125、 search TITLE-ABS-KEY(bioplastic)AND (LIMIT-TO(Australia)OR LIMIT-TO(Canada)OR LIMIT-TO(Chile)OR LIMIT-TO(China)OR LIMIT-TO(Hong Kong)OR LIMIT-TO(Indonesia)OR LIMIT-TO(Japan)OR LIMIT-TO(Malaysia)OR LIMIT-TO(Mexico)OR LIMIT-TO(New Zealand)OR LIMIT-TO(the Philippines)OR LIMIT-TO(Peru)OR LIMIT-TO(The R

126、ussian Federation)OR LIMIT-TO(Singapore)OR LIMIT-TO(Korea)OR LIMIT-TO(Chinese Taipei)OR LIMIT-TO(Thailand)OR LIMIT-TO(the US)OR LIMIT-TO(Viet Nam)OR LIMIT-TO(“Papua New Guinea”)OR LIMIT-TO(“Brunei Darussalam”)Number of documents 1573 b.Literature review Literature review was meant to uncover informa

127、tion regarding definitions of bioplastic,source material of bioplastic,standard and certification,drivers and barriers for consumers purchasing bioplastics,bioplastic market,bioplastic production,and export import data.The literature sources that we review to get this information are:journal,website

128、,and database trademap(trademap.org).c.Survey We adopted an online survey approach(Evans and Zarb,2005)to explore information about a number of relevant matters related to the development and use of bioplastics in community groups with various different characteristics.The variety of characteristics

129、 includes residence,age,sex,income,education and work.Samples from these community groups were drawn following the random sampling technique(Noor et al,2022).This random sampling is intended so that the representation of the selected sample is free from bias in representing the total population.For

130、this reason,we try to approach or represent the population so that it can be used as a bias-free representation.If there is a sample with dubious responses,then we discard the answers from the problematic sample.Sampling is declared to be error if the sample 24 taken is suspected of not being repres

131、entative of an existing population.In this survey,we obtained responses from samples from all parts of Indonesia.Considering the differences in human population inhabiting the economy,the samples from Java Island and Sumatra Island are more than samples from other parts of Indonesia.d.In-depth inter

132、view In this section,a qualitative descriptive methodological approach(Nassaji,2015;Hennink et al,2010)adopted to examine problems based on factual evidence obtained through interview techniques reinforced by observation and review of relevant documents.Snowball sampling technique(Naderifar et al.,2

133、017),is used to identify and recruit individuals who are willing to be interviewed and have relevant knowledge.In our research,they were officials from bioplastic pellet manufacturers and pellet practitioner users who used it to make end products including various forms of plastic bags and cutlery.T

134、he interviews focused on gathering insights and explanations related to various aspects of bioplastics development.This includes aspects that we consider relevant such as production/fabrication,marketing,policies/regulations that must be observed.In operation,the interview was situational and contex

135、tual,with full involvement from the researchers.e.Field observation As mentioned above,field observation is needed to complete the explanation of the resource person in in-depth interviews.In this stage,referring to Kumar(2022),we made various direct observations.The objects we saw were bioplastic p

136、ellet plants and bioplastic end product plants.Relevant photographs were taken during our observations.In addition,we also seek additional information from the officers who guard these objects.3.1.3.Analyses a.Keyword Mapping Keyword mapping was done using the VOSviewer program.VOSviewer is software

137、 developed for analyzing and creating bibliometric maps.The results of this mapping can be used to identify research gaps or novel research areas.This activity produces three data maps,namely network visualization,overlay visualization,and density visualization.25 -The minimum occurrence counts for

138、a keyword analyzed is set at 5.However,for the topic of bioplastics in the Asia-Pacific economies,the number of keywords is substantial,so an occurrence counts of 10 is chosen.-With a minimum occurrence count of 10(full counting),a total of 508 keywords meeting the criteria are obtained out of a tot

139、al of 11,142 keywords.-For ease of map readability,only the 508 keywords with the strongest co-occurrence relationships are displayed in the visualization.b.K-Modes Cluster analysis Cluster analysis was used in this research to categorize objects based on their similarity measures.In this analysis,w

140、e adopted the K-Modes Method,a widely recognized technique for grouping large sets of categorical data into specific clusters,each characterized by its mode or the most frequently occurring values(Khan and Ahmad,2013).Through this clustering,it is expected that the proposed policy recommendations wi

141、ll be more focused,designed specifically according to these clusters.This is aimed at minimizing policy biases by implementing policies that are not overly general.The K-Modes method is capable of generating clusters through a more detailed process,requiring less computation time for cluster formati

142、on,and is highly effective in clustering high-dimensional data(Kartikasari et al.,2021).The procedures involved in performing cluster analysis using the K-Modes method are as follows:1.Decide on the number of clusters(k)to be created from a dataset comprising r data points.The number of data points

143、should exceed the number of clusters.2.Select the initial k modes from the data,which will serve as the cluster centers(centroids).The number of centroids chosen should correspond to the intended number of clusters.3.Compute the distance between each object and every centroid.The distance is determi

144、ned using the simple matching dissimilarity measure.For example,suppose B1 and B2 are respectively the first and second objects,each with n categorical variables.The level of dissimilarity between B1 and B2 can be defined as the total mismatch among corresponding categorical variables in both datase

145、ts.The greater the similarity between the two datasets,the smaller the mismatch value.The equation for this simple dissimilarity measure is presented as follows:26 (1,2)=(1,2)=1 (1,2)=0,1=21,1 2 Whereas 1:the value of the jth variable for the first object.2:the value of the jth variable for the seco

146、nd object.4.Objects are arranged based on their proximity to the centroid using the nearest neighbour formula.The specific cluster that is closest to an object can be identified by evaluating the value of the simple matching dissimilarity measure.5.Once all the data has been placed into their closes

147、t clusters,the adjustment of centroids for each cluster based on the mode of each variable among the cluster members that have been formed.6.Recalculating the distance of each data point to the new centroids is performed using the simple matching dissimilarity,similar to step(3).If,during the recalc

148、ulated distance assessment,a data point is found to be closer to a different cluster than the current one,it is then repositioned into the closer cluster.7.The steps(5)and(6)are repeated until no further data points change clusters.For respondents from the user community group,we collected data from

149、 331 individuals residing across various provinces in Indonesia.These individuals represented a wide spectrum of educational backgrounds,income levels,occupations,and other relevant differentiating variables.Within this respondent pool,we examined the differences in responses to the questions listed

150、 in the survey questionnaire.We treated the questionnaire questions as variables,and for this study,we have 18 variables as outlined in Table 2:Table 2.The variables of bioplastic user respondent groups Label Variables Description X1 Sex 0:Female 1:Male X2 Residence 1:Sumatera 2:Jawa 27 3:Lainnya X3

151、 Occupation 1:Civil Servant/Civil Servant under Contract/Government Contract Worker/Armed Forces/Police 2:Fisherman/Fish Farmer 3:Other Self-Employed(Merchant/Shop Owner/Tailor,etc.)4:Laborer/Employee 5:Student 6:Retiree 7:Housewife 8:Others X4 Age 1:Teenagers(60 years old)X5 Average monthly income

152、1:Very low(IDR 45 million)X6 Respondents knowledge of bioplastics.1:1:Completely unaware 2:Yes,a little knowledge 3:Yes,know a lot but not in detail 4:Yes,know a lot and know the details X7 Respondents knowledge regarding the adverse effects of conventional plastic usage.1:Completely unaware 2:Yes,a

153、 little knowledge 3:Yes,know a lot but not in detail 4:Yes,know a lot and know the details X8 Respondents active role in addressing environmental issues caused by conventional plastic.1:Completely unaware 2:Aware,but not actively engaged and still using conventional plastic as usual 3:Aware and acti

154、vely engaged in efforts to reduce the use of conventional plastic 4:Aware and actively engaged,providing input on single-use plastic restriction regulations X9 Respondents knowledge of government regulations regarding the use of bioplastics 1:Completely unaware 2:Aware,through friends or social medi

155、a 3:Aware,through mainstream media(radio,TV,newspapers,etc.)4:Aware,through active face-to-face interactions conducted by government agencies X10 Respondents stance on regulations limiting the use of conventional plastic.1:Disagree 2:Agree,but not currently 3:Agree if the situation becomes extremely

156、 critical 4:Agree under any circumstances X11 Frequency of bioplastic usage by respondents 1:Never 2:Rarely 3:Often 28 4:Always X12 Services provided by the stores or groceries where respondents shop concerning the utilization of bioplastic containers/bags.1:Sellers directly provide conventional pla

157、stic bags/containers.2:Sellers offer buyers the choice of using conventional plastic or bioplastic.3:Sellers encourage buyers to use bags/containers made from bioplastic.4:Sellers require buyers to use bioplastic bags/containers X13 Respondents opinions on how law enforcement authorities approach im

158、posing sanctions on stores or consumers regarding the use of bioplastics.1:Never at all 2:Yes,for a while but not anymore 3:Yes,but not frequently 4:Yes,very strictly X14 Respondents attitudes towards government regulations concerning the reduction or prohibition of conventional plastics.1:Disagree

159、2:Agree,but not currently 3:Agree if the situation becomes extremely critical 4:Agree under any circumstances X15 Respondents opinions on the current prices of bioplastic products/packaging 1:Very expensive 2:Somewhat expensive 3:Not expensive 4:Very cheap X16 Respondents opinions on the practicalit

160、y of using bioplastics.1:Far less user-friendly compared to using conventional plastic 2:Slightly less user-friendly compared to using conventional plastic 3:Nearly as user-friendly as using conventional plastic 4:More user-friendly than conventional plastic X17 Respondents opinions on the quality(s

161、trength)of bioplastic products.1:Their strength is significantly below what I expected.2:Their strength is approaching my expectations.3:Their strength is already sufficient 4:Their strength exceeds what I need.X18 Respondents willingness to pay a higher price for bioplastic products.1:Not willing 2

162、:Willing,but not at the moment 3:Willing if necessary 4:Willing under any circumstances Referring to the general guidelines mentioned above,we subsequently carried out the clustering steps as follows:1.Determining values for k=2,3,4,5,6,7,8.2.Randomly selecting centroids(cluster centers)for each clu

163、ster.29 3.Calculating the distance between each object and the centroid using a simple dissimilarity measure.4.Assigning objects to the nearest centroid based on their distance.5.Finding the mode of each variable as the cluster centroids.6.Re-calculating the distance of each object to the new centro

164、ids using a simple dissimilarity measure.7.Reassigning objects to the nearest centroid based on distance.8.If any objects change clusters,repeat steps five through seven until no objects change clusters.9.Determining the best cluster using the Dunn Index.The Dunn Index is formulated as follows:=1 at

165、 the significance level with degrees of freedom(1)(1),or when the p-value 2 atau if the 0.05.31 d.Wordcloud Wordcloud is a text mining technique used to visually represent specific verbal responses obtained from our survey.In this visualization,words are displayed with varying font sizes,reflecting

166、how often they appear.As explained by Inayah and Purba(2020),Wordcloud analysis helps readers identify frequently mentioned words related to a specific topic.The size of each word in the Wordcloud corresponds to its frequency of occurrence.The steps involved in Wordcloud analysis are as follows:i.Ga

167、thering data in the form of text-based information.ii.Data sortation includes steps like word normalization,removal of irrelevant terms,and case folding to standardize the data structure.iii.Sum the frequencies of word types that occur.iv.Creating Wordcloud e.Descriptive analysis Descriptive analysi

168、s,also referred to as descriptive statistics(Bush,2020),was used in this study to provide informative and comprehensible descriptions or summaries of the dataset for readers.This approach helps to elucidate insights from uninterpreted data.Descriptive analysis is widely utilized and is expected to r

169、emain a valuable tool for researchers due to its efficiency(Kemp et al.,2017).It is flexible and can be customized to address specific information needs.In general,the stages of this analytical process include the following:1.Data Collection:This step involves gathering data,which can be accomplishe

170、d through various methods,such as conducting surveys.2.Data Sortation:In this phase,data is refined by tasks such as reformatting,categorization,or removal of outliers.3.Application of Descriptive Statistics:To obtain the desired information,specific descriptive statistical techniques,such as creati

171、ng charts or tables,are employed.32 CHAPTER IV.RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1.Bibliometric of Bioplastic Research in APEC Economies We conducted this bibliometric analysis to get an idea of the bioplastic-related matters being discussed by global scientists.The benefits that can be obtained by using bibl

172、iometric analysis methods,namely analyzing trends in individual research or fields of study,providing evidence for the impact of individual research or fields of study,and discovering new and emerging research fields.The search results by year show that research on Bioplastic Development in the Asia

173、 Pacific Economy has been started since 1894.In 1895 to 1965 there was no publication,then from 1967 to 1977,1979,from 1981 to 1989,and in 1992 there was no publication.The most publications are in 2022 with 285 documents as shown in Figure 8.The APEC economies that do not have publications on biopl

174、astics are Brunei Darussalam and Papua New Guinea.Figure 7.Number of publications by year,Growth trend in the number of publications in the period 1894-2023(per year).The publication with details each year can be seen in Table 3.33 Table 3.The publication with details each year The distribution of a

175、uthors studying bioplastic from 1894 to 2023 was analyzed in terms of economy.The graph is displayed in Figure 9 The US emerged as the most active collaborator.This highlights the USs significant involvement in bioplastic and its recognition of bioplastic application within the economy.Year Total Pu

176、blications Year Total Publications 1894 1 2005 7 1895-1965 0 2006 9 1966 1 2007 16 1967-1977 0 2008 15 1978 1 2009 18 1979 0 2010 17 1980 1 2011 33 1981-1989 0 2012 40 1990 1 2013 49 1991 1 2014 52 1992 0 2015 45 1993 1 2016 64 1994-1997 0 2017 69 1998 2 2018 110 1999 4 2019 116 2000 4 2020 138 2001

177、 4 2021 219 2002 3 2022 285 2003 2 2023 233 2004 12 Number of document 1573 34 Figure 8.Number of publications of bioplastic publications in APEC Economy Collectively,the US had the highest number of publications(367),and Indonesia produces 240 publications and followed by China with 226 publication

178、s in the Scopus database.Figure 9.Number of publications by source 367240226206153125114102623732272522211913108050100150200250300350400The USIndonesiaChinaMalaysiaThailandJapanKoreaCanadaAustraliaMexicoChinese TaipeiNew ZealandRussian FederationViet NamHong Kong,ChinaSingaporethe PhilippinesPeruChi

179、leDocuments by economy35 The results of network visualization show that the mapping of research words Bioplastic development in the Asia Pacific economies is divided into four clusters with a total of 508 keywords.The relationship between clusters as visualized with a display based on network betwee

180、n keywords as shown in Figure 11.The larger the circle or node that reads keywords or keywords taken from the title,abstract and keywords,means that the field has been done a lot.The closer the distance between nodes or keywords,it means that the relationship between these keywords is often used tog

181、ether in one journal article.(a)(b)Figure 10.Mapping based on network keywords that often appear(a),Overlay visualization(b),and density visualization(c)This visualization maps the historical footprint of the research.The dark color of the circle indicates research that has been done in a more dista

182、nt time than the predetermined period of time.The results of this visualization show that the latest research topic(yellow circle).The 10 most recent keywords are economic aspect,life cycle,bioplastics production,microalgae,food,sustainable production,wastewater,sustainable development,and recyclabl

183、es.36 Based on density visualization,it shows that density is indicated by blue,green,and yellow nodes.The yellow nodes indicate the number of keywords that appear the most and are the most researched topics:bioplastic,reinforced plastic,tensile strength,metabolism,and non-human.4.2.Review on Curren

184、t Issues of Bioplastic Development in the World and APEC Economies 4.2.1.Export-Import The global trade in bioplastics products has been growing rapidly.The worlds export value has increased nearly sixfold,from USD 100,379,000 in 2013 to USD 592,119,000 in 2022(Trademap.org,2023).The US is the leadi

185、ng exporter of bioplastic products,accounting for nearly 50%of the market share.Thailand is one of the fast-growing exporters in this industry.In 2015,their exports were worth only USD 13,000,but they increased to USD 87,069 in 2022.The export values from APEC economies during the period from 2013 t

186、o 2022 have mostly fluctuated and did not experience significant growth.Chinese Taipei and Thailand are the two major producers of tapioca starch,mainly exporting to several economies in Asia and Europe/USA.During the period 2013-2022 there was an increase in exports and imports of world bioplastic

187、products.The number of exports and imports has increased sharply since 2015,there has been an increase in the value of exports and imports almost 6 times(Figure 12).Figure 11.Export and Import Value of World Bioplastics in 2013-2022,in USD thousand)(Source:Trademap.org,processed)37 Some of the major

188、 exporting economies include the US;Thailand;China;Japan;Korea;and Chinese Taipei.The export values of other economies fluctuate.Indonesia has not played a significant role in bioplastic export trade,with its value remaining very small and fluctuating.Considering the abundant availability of raw mat

189、erial resources for bioplastics,there is a need for policies to encourage the growth of the bioplastic industry in Indonesia.In addition to the availability of raw materials,there is an increasing demand for bioplastic products.The worlds top exporters are the US,and Thailand,while the main importer

190、s are Chinese Taipei;China;Korea;and the US.(Table 4).Table 4.Development of Bioplastics Export Value in 2013-2022 Exporters 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 World 100,379 109,634 184,159 180,937 231,699 298,710 388,986 541,038 605,068 592,119 Australia-3 3 1-48 214 43 37 36 Brunei

191、Darussalam-Canada 97 116 88 272 283 94 342 314 280 354 Chile-10 12 1-75 44-7 China 2,283 2,675 2,447 9,003 9,196 11,664 9,202 10,319 23,483 29,144 Hong Kong,China 1,340 937 1,378 2,570 1,150 1,062 695 818 559 198 Indonesia 13 27-1-3 12-25-Japan 1,472 1,440 1,632 1,631 2,022 1,929 1,847 1,654 1,968 1

192、,462 Republic of Korea 155 74 65 80 245 44 354 3,052 1,136 1,044 Malaysia 141 56 140 1,363 1,812 1,189 186 163 243 237 Mexico 12-56 285-159-New Zealand 547 146 22 58 3 14 8 8 36 63 Papua New Guinea-Peru-1-the Philippines-2-The Russian Federation-908 252-3 162 35 82 36 1 Singapore 1,141 319 47 21 45

193、196 134 27 62 93 Chinese Taipei 369 725 753 2,521 937 3,528 1,424 2,327 1,920 1,023 Thailand 69 7 13 288 1,035 4,175 46,563 74,477 111,056 87,069 the US 77,720 64,308 104,184 116,465 145,314 173,877 203,807 242,966 243,763 257,502 Viet Nam-6 2-43 2,221 609 61 Sumber:Trademap.org Several economies ar

194、e the worlds bioplastic exporters,the US is a major bioplastic exporter.Thailand is an APEC economy whose export value is growing rapidly from 2015-38 2022(Figure 13).While some APEC economies develop relatively slowly(Indonesia;Viet Nam;the Philippines;Singapore;and Malaysia).Figure 12.Worlds Top B

195、ioplastics Exporters(in USD thousand).(Source:trademap.org processed)4.2.2.Bioplastic Product and Production Based on statistical data reported by European Bioplastics in 2022,the highest utilization of bioplastic materials is in the production of packaging products,constituting a production capacit

196、y of 48%.This includes flexible packaging items such as shopping bags,multi-purpose plastic films,and others,as well as rigid packaging types like tray containers.Other significant product categories encompass textiles and consumer goods,constituting respectively 15%and 14%of the total usage.Additio

197、nally,products in various other sectors,including automotive,agriculture,electronics,construction,and others,individually account for less than 7%each of the overall production capacity.39 Figure 13.Global market segmentation of bioplastic-based products in 2022(Source:European Bioplastics,2023)Vari

198、ous kinds of bioplastic products such as straws,glasses,carry bags,shopping bags,garbage bags,spoons,forks,knives,cups,food trays etc.Examples of bioplastic products used in various application areas are presented in this section.1.Packaging/bags Products:Carry Bags,Shopping Bags,Garbage Bags,Clear

199、Film and Sheet,etc.Samples:Cassava shopping Bags PLA food Strays PLA/PBAT/starch bag 40 Biodegradable trash bags Compostable laundry Bags Biodegradable plastic film 2.Foodservice Products:Tableware(spoons,forks,knives,cups,food trays,etc.)Samples:PLA food containers Corn starch cutleries Bagasse foo

200、d containers PLA Straws 3.Agriculture Products:Mulch,fruit protection cover,seedling pots,etc.Samples:Starch polyester mulch PLA mulch film Biodegradable seedling pots 4.Consumer electronics Products:Power plug,electronic enclosure,etc.Samples:41 Bio-PE power plug PHA lithium battery cover PLA elect

201、ronic enclosure 5.Cosmetics Products:Cosmetic jars,cosmetic packaging,etc.Samples:Bio-PE cosmetic containers PHA cosmetics packaging 6.Medical Products:Hospital trash bags,masks,etc.Samples:Medical trash bags Medical-grade masks 7.Automotive&transport Products:Car interior,car accessories,spare part

202、s,etc.Samples:42 Bio-based polyamide car engine cover Bioplastic car interior Bio-based polyester car fuel line 8.Fabrics Products:Bioplastic leather,fabrics,woven,etc.Samples:Cocoa bioplastic leather Coffee-seaweed bioplastic leather 9.Others Products:Phone case,adhesive,3-D printing filament.Sampl

203、es:PLA 3D printing filament PLA barrier tape Biodegradable phone case 4.3.Survey of bioplastic development 4.3.1.APEC Economies No Economy Canada Malaysia Viet Nam 1 Regulation in place Specifically designed for bioplastics usage:Single-Use Plastics Prohibition Recycled content and labeling rules fo

204、r plastics Non-binding policy:Roadmap Towards Zero Single-use Plastics 2018-2030 Not specifically designed for bioplastics usage:Economic instruments in environmental protection targeting(i)industry equipment and products,(ii)Ecolabel 43 2 Objectives of regulations Prohibit the manufacture,import,an

205、d sale of single-use plastic containing synthetic plastics.bioplastics are in the scope of recycled content requirements and recyclability labelling rules.To stop using synthetic plastic bags Establish a specific list of environmental industry technologies,equipment,and products.Provide incentives a

206、nd assistance to those who comply with or support the regulations.Implement HS codes for environmental goods.Offer incentives to Ecolabel-certified services.3 First time introduced and enforced Reg I:2023-2024.Reg II:2023-2024.2018-2030 Roadmap 2020-2022 4 Implementation and development.Many stakeho

207、lders with passive participation Many stakeholders with active participation Limited stakeholder involvement 5 Regulation awareness campaign.Systematically disseminated to a wide community.The Government of Canada provides updates through email subscriptions and on social media platforms such as Lin

208、kedIn and the government website.Systematically disseminated to limited segments Systematically disseminated to a wide community.published and promoted through media channels,so it has been widely spread.6 Manufacturers acceptance:a.Only a few targets can accept the bioplastics.b.They are accepted b

209、y almost 50%of the target.Explanation:The SUP Prohibition Regulation is not well accepted by bioplastic manufacturers considering that bioplastic alternatives are treated in the same manner as conventional plastics except for an exemption of compostable plastic alternatives for one of the six item c

210、ategories in the scope of the prohibition.Only a few targets can accept bioplastics.Only a few targets can accept the bioplastics.Explanation:The bioplastics industry is in its early stages in Viet Nam.While there are bioplastics producers in the economy,they have limited alignment with government t

211、argets,primarily because no specific targets have been set,or at least none that the respondent could find.7 distributors(retailers.stores,etc)acceptance Explanation:Comprehensive information on distributor compliance with the regulations is not available.Only a few targets can accept bioplastics.On

212、ly a few targets can accept bioplastics.Explanation:same as above 8 end users acceptance Only a few targets can accept bioplastics.Explanation:At present,there is a lack of comprehensive understanding and recognition regarding the recycling or end-of-life management of bioplastics.Additionally,when

213、it comes to compostable products,only a limited number of organic waste facilities accept and process them.Financial support may be required to address these challenges.Only a few targets can accept bioplastics.Only a few targets can accept them.Explanation:same as above 9 Monitoring effectiveness E

214、xplanation:The regulations are relatively new and evaluation of the effective implementation of these regulations has yet to be assessed at this time.Ineffective Ineffective;some might even say that they are non-existent.10 Enforcement effectiveness The regulations are relatively new,and a comprehen

215、sive assessment of their enforcement is yet to be conducted.Ineffective Ineffective;some might even say that they are non-existent.44 11 Evaluation on regulation No evaluation has been conducted at this time.No No 12 Result of evaluation No evaluation has been conducted at this time.No No 13 Importa

216、nce of economic factors Very important.For the Industry:Economic factors play an integral role,including infrastructure costs and waste facility operations.For Consumers:Canadian consumers are strongly motivated to reduce single-use plastic food packaging,but they may be less willing to pay for alte

217、rnative options.Very Important Very Important Explanation:No Data.It is only based on the respondents assessment and experience.14 practical/practicality importance Very important Suggestion:Alternative materials intended to replace conventional synthetic plastics are expected to meet similar standa

218、rds.For instance,when phasing out single-use plastic straws and switching to paper straws,concerns arose because the practicality and functionality of the alternatives did not align with those of conventional plastic straws.important Rather important Explanation:During the COVID-19 pandemic,there wa

219、s an increased demand for a specific brand of bio-bags designed to preserve the freshness of produce due to their unique chemical composition.However,after the pandemic was over,the companys sales declined.15 Physical strength characteristic Very important Suggestion:Functional and mechanical perfor

220、mance are crucial factors when considering bioplastics as an alternative to synthetic plastics.Achieving performance comparable with conventional plastics ensures that the quality of products does not suffer due to the transition to bioplastics.Important Important Explanation:Based on individual res

221、pondent assessments,the Vietnamese do judge the quality of products.Therefore,it is believed that consumers will assess the physical feel and strength of the bioplastic as indicators of its quality.16 How willing are the people in your economy to pay more to change their use of conventional plastics

222、 to bioplastics?Willing to do so but not at the moment.For consumers,studies have shown that Canadian consumers are highly motivated to reduce single-use plastic food packaging but are less willing to pay for alternatives.Not willing Willing to do so but not at the moment.The bio-bag company mention

223、ed above offers a more expensive product.However,during the Covid pandemic and lockdown situations,their sales increased as consumers recognized the value of storing food and keeping it fresh for longer.17 Other aspects of improvement Although there has been a shift in consumer behavior,bioplastic a

224、lternatives are still being treated similarly to conventional plastics,and compostable alternatives are not considered a top innovative priority.Education and Awareness Viet Nams primary focus is reducing the use of single-use plastics and moving towards a full ban.The law also highlights Extended P

225、roducer Responsibility and plastic recycling.Interestingly,the term bioplastic is not mentioned anywhere in Viet Nams extensive Environment Law,which comprises 500+pages.45 4.4.Indonesian case 4.4.1.In-depth interviews with bioplastic pellet and end product producers We had in-depth discussions with

226、 senior officials at the three bioplastics plants we chose to represent their Indonesian counterpart.One factory in Banten Province produces pellets and one each in Central Java and West Java Provinces produces the final product(bioplastic sheet).The following is summing up our discussion on these t

227、hree plants.In Indonesia,there is pellet bioplastic company that has been producing plastic masterbatch and polymer compounds since 1990.In 2011,the company also started producing biodegradable pellets.These two major business units were established to address the growing challenges in the plastic c

228、onversion industry,which require full attention to sustain a sustainable business future.The ISO 9001 certification was achieved in 2000,the 5S concept was implemented in 2007,OHSAS 18001 was also achieved in 2010,and finally,ISO 14001 was awarded in 2014,solidifying the company as a reliable indust

229、ry partner.The pellet product has been certified as biobased 50-85%(Testing basis:ASTM D6866).The pellet bioplastic product is a bio-based polymer compound made from renewable natural materials such as cassava or corn starch,as well as vegetable oil derivatives.The raw materials of starch are not si

230、gnificantly different in price,whether its corn starch or tapioca starch.End product producers of bioplastic was established in 2001 and operates in the field of conventional plastic product manufacturing,including shopping bags,medical supplies,and plastics for agricultural purposes.However,bioplas

231、tic production only commenced in 2018.In expanding its bioplastic production,the company has a primary focus on manufacturing finished bioplastic products to meet market demand.The raw bioplastic materials are sourced through a partnership with PT.Intera Lestari Polimer,more commonly known as Envipl

232、ast.The company manufactures a range of bioplastic products,including shopping bags primarily designed for the garment industry,laundry bags used in the hospitality sector,trash bags,plastic bags for hospital purposes,and plastics for general consumer use.These bioplastic raw materials are sourced f

233、rom both domestic and international suppliers.These include cassava starch obtained from Lampung,specifically the Sungai Budi area,as well as imported bioplastic materials such as Polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate(PBAT)and Polyvinyl alcohol(PVOH).The company also engages in material formulation(

234、compounding)activities for the production of finished bioplastic products through its R&D team.46 According to information provided by the company,a prominent bioplastic manufacturer in Asia,China and Viet Nam currently lead in bioplastic production in the economies.Thailand is also in the developme

235、ntal phase.However,when it comes to sourcing raw materials,especially local ones like cassava starch,the company has faced particular challenges.These challenges involve competing with industries such as animal feed and textiles,as well as other companies offering higher prices or profit margins com

236、pared to bioplastics.Consequently,bioplastic manufacturers often find themselves obtaining lower-quality raw materials,such as cassava with lower starch content,because higher-quality cassava has already been purchased by other companies at a higher price.The company presently uses the same machiner

237、y for bioplastic production as they do for their main products,conventional plastics.Their bioplastic production volume is currently limited and depends on irregular customer orders,which amounts to approximately two up upthree tons per month.Likewise,the amount of raw materials required for product

238、ion aligns with this demand.Additionally,the demand for bioplastics is presently restricted to domestic customer orders.The current production capacity is significantly lower than it was before the Covid-19 pandemic.Previously,the company primarily served international markets,including Australia,wh

239、ere they regularly sold 50 tons of bioplastic products each month.However,the global economic downturn resulting from the pandemic has led to a complete absence of foreign demand for bioplastics up to this point.Currently,the company has a sizable workforce,consisting of 160 employees in the product

240、ion department and 10 in management.The production activities and market demand for the companys bioplastic products are actually influenced by government regulations,such as the ban on conventional plastics for shopping bags and the requirement for certain businesses like retail and hospitality to

241、use environmentally friendly plastics.When these regulations were initially enforced by the government,there was a surge in demand for bioplastics.However,as these regulations were short-lived,lasting only two up to three months,and lacked proper oversight from authorities.As a result,companies have

242、 stopped purchasing bioplastics from the company.Therefore,it can be assumed that current government regulations do not significantly impact production strategies,market penetration,or competition with other companies.In the context of developing bioplastic production in Indonesia,the company has ma

243、de a significant contribution.This is evident through the leadership of the company,who has 47 actively participated in designing regulations related to standardization and the utilization of bioplastics by domestic companies,along with relevant government agencies such as the Ministry of Environmen

244、t and Forestry,the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries,bioplastic associations,and other stakeholders.Additionally,the company has taken an active role in a consortium alongside several bioplastic enterprises.The company contributions and inputs to government regulation development include:1.Th

245、e company is active participation in the development of the unified standards(SNI)for eco-labelling bioplastic products.2.The company suggestion for a tax policy on bioplastics aimed at fostering the growth of the bioplastic industry.This involves implementing lower taxes compared to conventional pl

246、astic products.3.The company has also provided insights into government incentives,such as customs and tax exemptions for bioplastic production activities.This approach aligns with the strategy employed in Indonesias textile industry,where the government supports or grants tax exemptions for the imp

247、ortation of textile machinery to enhance domestic textile production technology.According to bioplastic producers,the current development of bioplastics in Indonesia is in an unfavorable phase where companies operating in this field are facing difficult decisions,whether to continue bioplastic produ

248、ction or cease it.This is due to several factors,including:1.Higher production costs and product prices compared to conventional plastics.2.Highly specific bioplastic production technologies,including specific raw materials and production processes.For instance,producing certain types of products re

249、quires specialized production machinery.3.Global standardization of bioplastic products varies by economy,making it challenging for bioplastic production for export commodities,as it must align with the importing economys requirements.4.Promoting bioplastic use domestically faces many challenges,wit

250、h some associations and companies negatively impacted by the growing use of bioplastics pressing the government to develop regulations promoting bioplastic production and usage.5.Disagreement about the term bioplastic among government agencies,companies,and consumers within the economy.Some perceive

251、 bioplastic products as reusable plastics,while others interpret them as compostable plastics.48 4.4.2.Field observation The pellet bioplastic products in the company are of 2 types:pellet bioplastic WS(water soluble)and WR(water resistance).Pellet bioplastic WS compound is designed to produce an ec

252、o-friendly film that can be converted into finished products like shopping bags,garbage bags,laundry bags,pet waste bags,polybags and wrapping materials,finished products are sensitive to humidity and should be kept in their original packaging to maintain constant material properties,bags can be rec

253、ycled together with paper waste and needs no industrial composting facility,since it can be degraded with the help of macro and micro-organisms in compost condition.Characteristics of bioplastics produced by the producer does not contain PE/PP/PET/PS,reusable,recyclable with paper,biodegradable in n

254、ature within 180 days,Safe for the environment(non-toxic)passes Acute Oral Toxicity test by WIL Research NL,does not contain thermo-plastic at all,has good anti-static features(suitable for wrapping electronic objects),has a good oxygen barrier feature of 0.365 ml/m2/day;RH 0%,230C;ASTM D3985,oil re

255、sistant,and soluble in hot water(80 Celsius).Bioplastic sheet production machine made from bioplastic pellets described in Figure 15.Figure 14.Bioplastic sheet production machine made from bioplastic pellets 49 Pellet bioplastic WR is a biopolymer compound which designed to produce an eco-friendly f

256、ilm that can easily be converted into finished products like carrier bags,offers a solution for todays most pressing environmental demand:sustainability.It is offered in the form of compound and does not contain any conventional plastics such as PE,PP,PET,PS,strong and flexible,and resistant to tear

257、ing and water.Figure 15.Bioplastic pellet They remain stable in all types of weather and humidity conditions.Microorganisms will assist in the biodegradation process as the main ingredients of bioplastic pellet WR are starch,derivative vegetable oil and biodegradable polyester.It biodegrades in natu

258、re without leaving any hazardous residues,can be composted using home composting methods which is more energy efficient instead of industrial composting,and designed to provide an answer to market needs for broad eco-friendly film applications.4.4.3.First user perception survey 50 Figure 16.a.Whethe

259、r respondent is aware of the existence of bioplastic products;b.Whether respondents company has used bioplastics;c.Whether respondents company objects to existing bioplastics regulations;d.Respondents opinion of whether the use of bioplastics affect his or her companys competitiveness;e.whether cons

260、umers should bear the cost of using bioplastics;f.Whether respondents company provides input to government re.the use of bioplastics;g.Whether the use of bioplastics has an effect on the companys cost structure 4.4.4.End user perception survey 4.4.4.1.Cluster Analysis Here are the results of the ana

261、lysis cluster,which is intended to group respondents based on their similar responses.The analysis resulted in four clusters as presented below.Table 5.The clustering results for k=2,3,4,5,6,7,8 k Cluster Numbers of cluster centroid 2 1 2 164 167 0,2,1,3,2,3,4,3,3,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,2,4 1,2,1,3,1,2,3,2,1

262、,3,2,1,1,3,3,3,3,3 3 1 2 3 129 123 79 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,2,1,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 0,2,1,3,2,3,4,3,3,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,3,4 1,3,5,2,1,3,3,3,2,3,2,2,1,3,3,3,2,3 4 1 2 3 4 118 100 56 57 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,2,1,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 0,2,5,3,2,3,4,3,3,4,2,2,1,4,2,3,2,4 1,1,5,2,1,2,3,3,1,3,2,1,1,3,3,3,3,3 1,3,1,3,2,3,3,2,2,4,2,

263、1,1,4,2,3,2,3 5 1 2 3 4 5 66 102 57 32 74 0,2,1,3,2,2,3,2,2,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 0,2,1,3,2,3,4,3,1,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,2,4 1,1,5,2,1,2,3,2,1,3,2,1,1,3,3,3,3,3 1,2,1,3,1,2,3,2,1,2,2,1,1,2,2,3,2,2 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,3,3,3,2,2,1,3,2,3,3,3 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 67 82 43 24 67 48 0,2,1,3,2,2,3,2,1,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 0,2,1,3,2,

264、3,4,3,3,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,3,4 1,3,5,2,1,2,3,3,1,3,2,1,1,3,3,3,3,3 1,1,1,3,1,1,3,2,1,2,2,1,1,2,2,3,3,2 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,3,3,3,2,2,1,3,2,3,3,3 1,2,5,1,1,3,4,2,2,4,2,1,1,4,3,4,2,4 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 55 74 38 27 42 39 56 1,2,1,3,2,2,3,2,1,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,1,3 0,2,5,3,2,3,4,3,1,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,3,4 1,1,5,2,1,2,3,3,1,3,2

265、,2,1,3,3,3,3,3 1,1,1,3,1,1,3,2,1,2,2,1,1,2,2,3,3,2 0,2,1,3,2,3,4,3,3,3,3,2,1,3,2,3,2,3 1,2,5,2,1,3,4,2,2,4,2,1,1,4,3,4,2,2 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,3,3,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 51 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 48 36 41 29 25 19 55 78 0,2,1,3,3,2,3,2,1,3,2,2,1,3,2,3,2,3 1,2,5,2,1,3,4,2,1,4,1,1,1,4,2,3,2,2 1,3,5,2,1,2,3,3,1,3,2,1,

266、1,3,3,3,3,3 1,1,1,3,2,1,3,2,1,2,2,1,1,2,2,3,3,2 1,2,1,3,2,3,3,3,3,3,3,2,1,3,3,3,2,3 1,1,5,1,1,2,4,2,2,4,2,1,1,3,3,4,3,1 0,2,1,3,2,3,3,3,3,3,2,1,1,3,2,3,3,3 0,2,1,3,2,3,4,3,3,4,2,1,1,4,2,3,3,4 After the clusters for k=2,3,4,5,6,7,and 8 were formed,we determined the optimal number of clusters using th

267、e Dunn Index.The Dunn Index is a cluster validation method that assigns the highest score for clustering algorithms that create clusters with high internal similarity and low similarity between clusters.Its purpose is to identify well-separated clusters.A higher Dunn Index value indicates a more opt

268、imal number of clusters.Table 2 displays the Dunn Index values obtained for k=2,3,4,5,6,7,and 8.Table 6.The Dunn index k Dunn index 2 0.1706 3 0.1393 4 0.1767 5 0.1393 6 0.1436 7 0.1393 8 0.1706 Figure 17.The Dunn Index 52 Based on the Dunn Index values obtained,it was found that k=4 had the highest

269、 Dunn Index score.Therefore,k=4 was selected as the optimal value for clustering respondents using the K-Modes cluster analysis.Table 7.The Characteristics of each cluster for k=4.Variables Clusters 1 2 3 4 Sex Female Female Male Male Residence Jawa Jawa Sumatera Others Occupation Civil Servant/Civi

270、l Servant under Contract/Government Contract Worker/Armed Forces/Police Students Students Civil Servant/Civil Servant under Contract/Government Contract Worker/Armed Forces/Police Usia Productive(31-60 years old)Productive(31-60 years old)Pre-productive(21-30 years old)Productive(31-60 years old)Ave

271、rage monthly income Low(IDR 4-10 million)Low(IDR 4-10 million)Very low(IDR 4 million)Low(IDR 4-10 million)Respondents knowledge of bioplastics.Yes,know a lot but not in detail Yes,know a lot but not in detail Yes,a little knowledge Yes,know a lot but not in detail Respondents knowledge regarding the

272、 adverse effects of conventional plastic usage.Yes,know a lot but not in detail Yes,know a lot and know the details Yes,know a lot but not in detail Yes,know a lot but not in detail Respondents active role in addressing environmental issues caused by conventional plastic.Aware,but not actively engag

273、ed and still using conventional plastic as usual Aware and actively engaged in efforts to reduce the use of conventional plastic Aware and actively engaged in efforts to reduce the use of conventional plastic Aware,but not actively engaged and still using conventional plastic as usual Respondents kn

274、owledge of government regulations regarding the use of bioplastics Completely unaware Aware,through mainstream media(radio,TV,newspapers,etc.)Completely unaware Aware,through friends or social media Respondents stance on regulations limiting the use of conventional plastic.Agree if the situation bec

275、omes extremely critical Agree under any circumstances Agree if the situation becomes extremely critical Agree under any circumstances Frequency of bioplastic usage by respondents Rarely Rarely Rarely Rarely Services provided by the stores or groceries where respondents shop concerning the utilizatio

276、n of bioplastic containers/bags.Sellers directly provide conventional plastic bags/containers.Sellers offer buyers the choice of using conventional plastic or bioplastic.Sellers directly provide conventional plastic bags/containers.Sellers directly provide conventional plastic bags/containers.Respon

277、dents opinions on how law enforcement authorities approach Never at all Never at all Never at all Never at all 53 imposing sanctions on stores or consumers regarding the use of bioplastics.Respondents attitudes towards government regulations concerning the reduction or prohibition of conventional pl

278、astics.Agree if the situation becomes extremely critical Agree under any circumstances Agree if the situation becomes extremely critical Agree under any circumstances Respondents opinions on the current prices of bioplastic products/packaging Somewhat expensive Somewhat expensive Not expensive Somew

279、hat expensive Respondents opinions on the practicality of using bioplastics.Nearly as user-friendly as using conventional plastic Nearly as user-friendly as using conventional plastic Nearly as user-friendly as using conventional plastic Nearly as user-friendly as using conventional plastic Responde

280、nts opinions on the quality(strength)of bioplastic products.Their strength is already sufficient Their strength is approaching respondents expectations.Their strength is already sufficient Their strength is approaching respondents expectations.Respondents willingness to pay a higher price for biopla

281、stic products.Willing if necessary Willing under any circumstances Willing if necessary Willing if necessary Furthermore,the findings presented in Table 8 can be simplified and expressed through the following cluster groupings.It is only intended to give focus to those policies to be developed.Other

282、 individuals can in fact belong to one of these clusters.Cluster 1:Female government workers residing in Java Cluster 2:Female students residing in Java Cluster 3:Male students residing in Sumatera Cluster 4:Male students residing outside Java and Sumatera This clustering enables the government to b

283、etter target these four distinct groups of citizens,providing more focused and precise intervention strategies.Figure 18-23 displays the frequency of responses from participants,organized into four distinct clusters.These clusters correspond to questions related to variables relevant to regulatory d

284、esign in accordance to bioplastic development.54 Figure 18.a.the number of responses from participants concerning their knowledge of bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants concerning their awareness of the negative impacts associated with the u

285、se of conventional plastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000).Figure 19.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their active involvement in addressing environmental damage caused by the use of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from part

286、icipants regarding their awareness of government regulations concerning bioplastics usage(p-value chi-square test:0.000).49.1558.0054.3960.710%20%40%60%80%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageKnow about BioplasticsYes,Ive heard a lot but dont know the detailsYes,Ive heard a little83.0061.02

287、50.0056.140%50%100%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageKnow the adverse effects of plastic useYes,Ive heard a lot and know the detailsYes,Ive heard a lot but dont know the details76.0053.5761.0273.680%20%40%60%80%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageViews on environmental problems

288、 caused by plasticKnow and actively participateKnowing,but still not actively participating50.0047.3749.1544.6440%50%60%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageHave you ever heard of regulations on the use of plastic that can be reused and composted?Yes,through socialization in mainstream medi

289、aYes,through word of mouth from friends or socialmediaNever80.0077.1978.8171.4365%70%75%80%85%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageSupporting regulations on limiting the use of plasticAgree whatever my conditionAgree if indeed the situation is very compelling61.0263.0066.0761.4058%60%62%64%

290、66%68%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageThe use of bioplasticsrare55 Figure 20.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their stance on regulations that restrict the use of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants regar

291、ding bioplastic usage in their daily lives(p-value chi-square test:0.0392).Figure 21.The number of responses from participants regarding services provided by stores or groceries concerning to the use of bioplastic containers and bags(p-value chi-square test:0.000),b.the number of responses from part

292、icipants regarding their opinions on how law enforcement authorities approach imposing sanctions on stores or consumers who do not use bioplastics(p-value chi-square test:0.0386).Figure 22.The number of responses from participants regarding their attitudes towards government regulations concerning t

293、he reduction or prohibition of conventional plastics(p-value chi-square test:0.000);b.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on the current prices of bioplastic products/packaging(p-value chi-square test:0.000).4656.7853.5768.420%20%40%60%80%cluster 1 cluster 2 cluster 3

294、cluster 4PercentageThe use of bioplastic in the storeThe seller gives the option to choose betweenplastic or biodegradable packagingThe seller provides a regular plastic directly89.8392.0082.1489.4775%80%85%90%95%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageLaw enforcers impose sanctions if biodegr

295、adable packaging are not usedNo78.0061.4078.8173.210%20%40%60%80%100%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageThe use of plastic is reduced/prohibitedAgree with whatever my conditionAgree if the situation is truly very compelling50.8560.0043.8664.290%20%40%60%80%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3clust

296、er 4PercentageBioplastic pricesA bit expensiveNot expensive56 Figure 23.a.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on the practicality of using bioplastics(p-value chi-square test:0.3872);b.the number of responses from participants regarding their opinions on the quality(st

297、rength)of existing bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000)Figure 24.The number of responses from participants regarding their willingness to pay a higher price for bioplastic products(p-value chi-square test:0.000)Figure 25.Word cloud of:a.bioplastic products known by respondents;b.regard

298、ing aspects that respondents consider important in bioplastic development 58.4753.0051.7950.8845%50%55%60%cluster 1 cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 4PercentagePracticality of bioplasticsAlmost the same practicality as plastic51.0054.3956.7860.7145%50%55%60%65%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4Percenta

299、geStrength of bioplastic productsClose to what I expectedIts enough49.0060.1757.1433.330%20%40%60%80%cluster 1cluster 2cluster 3cluster 4PercentageWilling to pay more for bioplasticsReady whatever my conditionAgree if the situation is truly very compelling57 The subject of bioplastics has gained sig

300、nificant attention relatively recently,mainly within the last decade.Bibliometric analysis shows that,despite documented reports on plastic development and usage dating as far back as 1892,with occasional studies in between,there was a notable increase in the number of scientific publications specif

301、ically focused on bioplastics in 2022.Notably,economies in the Asia Pacific economies have made significant contributions by producing numerous articles that cover various aspects of bioplastics development.The four leading economies contributing to the bioplastic literature are the US;Indonesia;Chi

302、na;and Malaysia.The breadth of public response to the issue of bioplastics in these economies are evident not only in the quantity of publications but also in the diversity of topics discussed.These encompass areas such as economics,life cycle analysis,production,food applications,sustainability,was

303、tewater treatment,and recycling.Currently,bioplastics make up about 1%of the worlds total plastic usage,and this percentage is expected to increase to approximately 3-4%by 2027.Several factors contribute to this optimistic projection including(1)Changing consumer behavior,driven by increasing enviro

304、nmental awareness,(2)The availability of raw materials sourced from sustainable crops,such as starch-rich plants like cassava,corn,and sugarcane,and(3)Advances in first-generation carbohydrate extraction technology,which involve utilizing carbohydrates from non-food plants.These sources include cell

305、ulose,agro-industrial waste,straw,palm fruit bunches,agro-waste(second generation),and materials derived from aquatic sources like algae and microalgae(the third generation).The positive trends observed in bibliometrics appear to be closely linked to the increased usage of bioplastics on a global sc

306、ale,which is reflected in the international trade of this commodity.The value of bioplastics exports worldwide has seen a sixfold increase,growing from USD 100 million in 2013 to USD 600 million in 2022(according to Trademap.org in 2023).Projections suggest that the global bioplastics production cap

307、acity will rise from around 2.2 million tons in 2022 to approximately 6.3 million tons by 2027.In line with the bibliometric trends,the US is the leading exporter of bioplastic products,holding around half of the current market share.Interestingly,despite actively contributing to bioplastics literat

308、ure,some economies like Indonesia and Malaysia do not have a significant role in global bioplastics trade.Thailand,however,stands out as the only developing economy with the potential to become a major player in the bioplastics industry.58 Commercially available bioplastics are being used in a wide

309、range of everyday applications,including packaging,automotive,agriculture,electronics,and construction,among others.Notably,shopping bags have become a major sector within the bioplastics market,representing nearly half of total bioplastic production.This trend is largely driven by growing environme

310、ntal concerns related to single-use plastics,particularly in the context of shopping bags and food packaging.Furthermore,governments have responded by implementing regulations to ban environmentally harmful products,with a particular focus on shopping bags and various single-use plastic items.These,

311、in turn,have significantly increased the demand for bioplastics as a more sustainable alternative.The survey of users reported in this paper provides a plausible clue.In the survey that took cases on users in Indonesia as mentioned in the previous section of this paper,practicality is one of the res

312、pondents concerned.A number of respondents even mentioned that even for packaging bags,the physical characteristics of bioplastics are not yet meeting their expectations,certainly more challenging for other types of products(Figure 30b).A corroborating response was also recorded in a survey involvin

313、g resource persons representing APEC economies.Respondents analogized the lack of success in switching the use of plastic straws to paper straws for reasons of practicality and functionality,which apparently is also the case with bioplastic products.The practicality and functionality are clearly not

314、 the only challenges in the development of bioplastic products.The respondents,including Indonesian bioplastic producers,end users,and representatives from other APEC economies,have also identified other important issues.They have proposed solutions like public education,intensive campaigns,research

315、 and development,effective regulatory design,and regulatory enforcement to promote bioplastic use.However,among these challenges,one stands out as a critical obstacle that needs immediate attention to accelerate bioplastic adoption:the need to reduce the price of existing bioplastic products.Althoug

316、h bioplastics can be made from renewable resources like cassava,sugarcane,corn,potatoes,and other crops,the processing technology for these materials still needs advancement.This is essential to upgrade technology that can produce bioplastic products with competitive pricing compared to existing con

317、ventional plastics.Additionally,its necessary to explore and develop alternative sources of raw materials for bioplastics,including marine-derived resources and non-food sources.The observations and in-depth interviews conducted at a bioplastic processing plant revealed that cassava is the companys

318、preferred choice for raw materials,primarily due to economic considerations.For example,the current price per kilogram is IDR 8,000 for tapioca,59 IDR 200,000 for carrageenan,IDR 10,000 for rice flour,etc.(unpublished report).Its essential to note that bioplastic processing plants typically do not f

319、requently mix different types of raw materials,often due to considerations related to the specific functional properties of particular raw materials.Additionally,we conducted another field investigation at a bioplastic processing company located in Central Java,which,similar to the previous facility

320、,primarily utilized cassava starch as its main raw material.Our findings suggest the need for exploring innovative combinations/blendings of various bioplastic raw materials in the future.This exploration is essential for producing bioplastic items that not only align with consumer preferences but a

321、re also cost-effective.Considering the results of the bibliometric analysis,which indicated a predominant focus on reinforced bioplastics,we recommend a shift in research focus.This shift should allocate more research efforts toward exploring the optimal raw material mixtures.To address existing cha

322、llenges effectively,these studies should focus on two key aspects:achieving economic feasibility and ensuring the desired physical characteristics of bioplastic products.The survey results from various APEC economies representatives,including end users,indicate that the high pricing seems to be a mo

323、re flexible factor in wealthier societies.For example,in developed economies like Canada,participants noted that consumers are generally motivated to reduce their use of single-use plastic food packaging,even if they are somewhat hesitant to pay more for alternatives.This high level of motivation is

324、 certainly encouraging.However,the primary challenge is to enhance the financial viability of companies operating in this context.Reducing input costs,particularly those associated with infrastructure and waste facility operations,can significantly improve economic feasibility.Its essential to empha

325、size that this doesnt diminish the importance of ongoing efforts to find cost-effective raw materials and material blends that align better with consumer preferences.During this investigation,we have also highlighted several critical challenges,including low consumer awareness,inadequate market regu

326、lations,and the absence of a proper waste management strategy.These issues need to be addressed effectively to ensure the optimal development and usage of bioplastics without unintentionally causing additional problems.Therefore,we strongly recommend that APEC economies take measures to conduct exte

327、nsive research and innovation and establish a comprehensive policy framework for managing the processing of biodegradable plastics.This framework should encompass all aspects of the process,including material sourcing,labeling,standards,and certification systems.It is also essential to prioritize qu

328、antitative research to better understand the factors influencing peoples willingness to use single-use plastics.We believe that addressing these issues is a prerequisite 60 for the successful implementation of government policies aimed at safeguarding the environment.CHAPTER V.CONCLUSION The use of

329、environmentally friendly bioplastic products is on the rise,driven by changing consumer behavior and greater awareness of the environmental impact of plastic waste.This trend has been reinforced by government regulations in many economies that ban single-use plastics,such as shopping bags,straws,and

330、 disposable tableware.The global bioplastics industry is also expanding,including within the APEC economies.This expansion is evident in the bibliometric analysis performed in this investigation,which shows that several APEC economies are making significant contributions to scientific research on bi

331、oplastics.However,the dominant players in the global bioplastics trade are still primarily the US and other developed economiess,with Thailand being the only developing economy in the APEC economy that has a notable presence.Based on our research findings,several factors seem to hinder the widesprea

332、d adoption of bioplastics in society,especially within the APEC member of economies.These factors can be summarized as follows:(1)Lack of Efficient Bioplastic Production Technology:There is a need for more efficient/advanced technology that can produce bioplastics from natural resources,resulting in

333、 cost-effective production and competitive pricing to conventional plastics,(2)Challenges in Achieving Equivalent Quality/Strength:The current technology and innovation in creating bioplastic products need further development to match the strength of conventional plastics to enhance bioplastics properties.Moreover,we must explore other alternative raw materials,such as marine-based resources and n