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1、OECD Urban StudiesEnhancing Compactness,Connectivity and Accessibility in KoreaOECD Urban StudiesEnhancing Compactness,Connectivity and Accessibility in KoreaThis work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The opinions expressed andarguments employed herein do no

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10、e original work and add the following text:This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD.The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.Third-party material the licence does not

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12、 work.Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration(PCA)Arbitration Rules 2012.The seat of arbitration shall be Paris(France).The number of arbitrators shall be one.3 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY I

13、N KOREA OECD 2025 Foreword Koreas population is expected to decline to 37 million by 2070,from 52 million in 2022,with the median age rising from 45 to 62.In the context of these significant demographic shifts,Korea is considering a“compact-and-connected”strategy anchored in transit-oriented develop

14、ment(TOD)to rebalance development across the country.This strategy seeks to ensure access to high quality services for people of all ages while also fostering sustainable,inclusive urban growth.This report is the outcome of the project“Linking Compact-Urban and Regional Development in the Face of De

15、mographic Change in Korea,”supported by Koreas Ministry of Land,Infrastructure,and Transport(MOLIT),and forms part of the OECDs long-standing collaboration with Korea to advance knowledge on regional development policy,well-being,and environmental sustainability.The report provides recommendations t

16、o assist Korea in developing resilient,well-connected,and sustainable urban and regional strategies that effectively respond to demographic shifts,but it is also relevant to other OECD countries facing similar challenges.The report uses rich and fine-grained population and service data to highlight

17、differences in population concentration trends and access to services in Korea relative to other OECD countries.It also takes a close look at Koreas policies towards balanced regional development and suggests avenues for policy direction based on comparisons with similar policies implemented in othe

18、r OECD countries.Based on this analysis,the report proposes a series of recommendations to support the implementation of a TOD-based compact-and-connected strategy in Korea.The report was produced by the OECD Centre for Entrepreneurship,SMEs,Regions and Cities(CFE),led by Lamia Kamal-Chaoui,Director

19、,as part of the Programme of Work of the Regional Development Policy Committee(RDPC).It was led and coordinated by Ana Isabel Moreno Monroy,Head of the Territorial Analysis and Statistics Unit,under the supervision of Rdiger Ahrend,Head of the Economic Analysis,Data and Statistics Division.The repor

20、t was drafted by Oscar Huerta Melchor(Chapters 1,3 and 4),Policy Analyst at the Cities,Urban Policies and Sustainable Development Division and Bernhard Nbauer(Chapter 2),Economist at the Economic Analysis,Data and Statistics Division in the CFE.It benefitted from support and contributions by Rang Le

21、e,Senior Policy Analyst.Claire Hoffman and Mauricio Salazar Lozada(data scientists)provided statistical support.Nadim Ahmad,Deputy Director,Tadashi Matsumoto,Head of the National Urban Policy and Climate Resilience Unit,and Soo-Jin Kim,Deputy Head of the Cities,Urban Policies and Sustainable Develop

22、ment Division in the CFE,provided comments on the draft.The report benefitted from feedback by Hyeona Lim,Deputy Director of the International Cooperation and Trade Division and Yujeong Kwon,Director of the International Cooperation and Trade Division in MOLIT,as well as Jee Eun Kim,Deputy Director

23、of the External Affairs Division in the Presidential Committee for Decentralisation and Balanced Development of Korea.The draft also benefited from comments by the delegates of the Working Party on Territorial Indicators and the Regional Development Policy Committee.The OECD gratefully acknowledges

24、Mapbox for making their data available through the Development Data Partnership(datapartnership.org),a collaboration between international organisations and private sector companies to facilitate the efficient and responsible use of third-party data in international development.Jack Waters in the CF

25、E managed the publication process.4 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Table of contents Foreword 3 Executive summary 7 1 Koreas compact,connected and transit-oriented development policies 10 Koreas demographic trends and their impacts on urban form 11 Key challe

26、nges for Koreas urban development and transport systems 15 Towards a compact and connected strategy for Korea:policy assessment 22 Areas of opportunity for compact and connected cities in Korea 42 References 45 Notes 49 2 Koreas population distribution and regional hubs 52 Introduction 53 Koreas set

27、tlements and their reachability 53 Key facts about the spatial distribution of population and service provision in Korea 58 Identifying regional hubs to support rebalancing policies 73 Transport connectivity and accessibility in regional hubs 78 Conclusion 90 References 91 Notes 91 Annex 2.A.Data so

28、urces 93 Annex 2.B.Additional tables and figures 96 3 International experience on compact and connected development 101 Drawing lessons from international experience on compact and connected development 102 A review of compact and connected development in OECD countries 103 References 121 Notes 122

29、4 Toward compact and connected urban development in Korea-recommendations 124 Recommendations toward compact and connected development in Korea 125 References 134 FIGURES Figure 1.1.Average distance of commuting to the core of the metropolitan area.13 Figure 1.2.Population trends and forecasts for K

30、orea and the world 14 5 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.3.Rate of commuting to metropolitan areas from neighbouring towns and townships in Korea 16 Figure 1.4.The private car is the major mode of transport used in all metropolitan areas,2021 17 Figure

31、 1.5.The elderly mostly walk to their destination in urban areas 18 Figure 1.6.Car users have greater access to jobs accessible to working age population than public transport users in the SMA 18 Figure 1.7.Koreas innovation cities 27 Figure 1.8.Koreas four special zones for balanced regional develo

32、pment 31 Figure 1.9.Daegu has a lower economic growth rate than the national average 39 Figure 2.1.Seoul:Settlements,FUAs and administrative boundaries 56 Figure 2.2.Settlement typology in Korea regarding reachability 57 Figure 2.3.Population by the degree of urbanisation level 1 59 Figure 2.4.Share

33、 of towns and villages with access to an urban centre(population-weighted)60 Figure 2.5.Share of people living in urban centres or in smaller settlements with access to an urban centre 61 Figure 2.6.Zipfs law,estimated for the sample countries with the largest number of urban centres 62 Figure 2.7.S

34、hare of people living in the largest urban centre 63 Figure 2.8.Share of people living in the largest urban centre among the people living in urban centres 64 Figure 2.9.Population change between 2005 and 2020 by reachability category 65 Figure 2.10.Annual population growth rate in Korea by period a

35、nd settlement type 66 Figure 2.11.Annual population growth rate 2005-2020 by country and settlement size 67 Figure 2.12.Service completeness index:At least one pharmacy,school,bank,hospital,HEI 69 Figure 2.13.Additional number of schools by reachability 72 Figure 2.14.Additional number of pharmacies

36、 by reachability 72 Figure 2.15.Additional number of banks by reachability 73 Figure 2.16.Geographic distribution of service hubs 76 Figure 2.17.Geographic distribution of regional centres 77 Figure 2.18.Geographic distribution of the resulting 37 regional hubs 78 Figure 2.19.Walking time to pharmac

37、ies in Suncheon 80 Figure 2.20.Total and above 65 population distribution within Suncheon 81 Figure 2.21.Train stations serving inter-regional trains in regional hubs 82 Figure 2.22.Share of people that can walk to a train station in less than 15 minutes 83 Figure 2.23.Share of people with 15 minute

38、s walking access to different services 84 Figure 2.24.Accessibility to childcare for children versus the total population in regional hubs 86 Figure 2.25.Accessibility to pharmacies for total versus above 65 population in regional hubs 88 Figure 2.26.Accessibility to doctors for total versus above 6

39、5 population in regional hubs 89 Figure 3.1.Hornsby TOD rezoning,Greater Sydney(NSW)104 Figure 3.2.Grand Paris station neighbourhoods 107 Figure 3.3.Toyamas organisation of a compact city and its public transport system 110 Figure 3.4.Inlet Centre Station TOD area in Greater Vancouver 113 Figure 3.5

40、.Greater Copenhagen the Finger Plan area coverage 116 Annex Figure 2.B.1.Share of people living in towns and villages among those not living in urban centres 96 Annex Figure 2.B.2.Population change between 2005 and 2020 in regional centres 97 Annex Figure 2.B.3.Annual population growth rate by perio

41、d and type:Korea vs.average 98 TABLES Table 1.1.Trips forecast by purpose and mode in Korea 20 Table 1.2.Downtown Cohesion Zones projects to revitalise central areas of cities 32 Table 2.1.Average population counts by settlement type 54 Table 2.2.Degree of urbanisation level 1 and level 2 55 Table 2

42、.3.Level 2:Population thresholds for different types of settlements 55 Table 2.4.Absolute and relative population growth of largest urban centres 68 Table 2.5.Education hubs,healthcare hubs,commercial hubs,leisure hubs,and general hubs 74 Table 3.1.Pillars for building transit-oriented communities i

43、n the Metro Vancouver region 114 Table 4.1.Summary of lessons for Korea from international experience on improving compact and connected development 131 6 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Annex Table 2.A.1.Population data sources by country 93 Annex Table 2.A.2

44、.Service definitions and country coverage 94 Annex Table 2.A.3.Service data sources by country 94 Annex Table 2.B.1.Population count of largest urban centres 96 Annex Table 2.B.2.Median service location counts by service type and settlement size 98 Annex Table 2.B.3.Regional hubs by TL3 region 100 B

45、OXES Box 1.1.Koreas policies to address declining birth rates 15 Box 1.2.Dealing with over-concentration in the Seoul Metropolitan Area through new towns development 23 Box 1.3.Past policies to achieve a balanced regional development in Korea 25 Box 1.4.OECD recommendations on providing affordable h

46、ousing while ensuring compact urban development 33 Box 1.5.OECD recommendations for integrating land-use policy with transport policy through a transit-oriented development in Korea 35 Box 1.6.From car dependence to transit-oriented the case of Songdo City 36 Box 2.1.Population grids and the degree

47、of urbanisation 55 Box 2.2.Different ways to define Seoul 56 Box 2.3.Korean urban centres follow Zipfs law 62 Box 2.4.Predicting the number of service locations in settlements 71 Box 4.1.Urban-rural partnerships in Poland 127 Box 4.2.The experience of the STRING Megaregion on improving connectivity

48、via transport 128 Box 4.3.Enhancing community participation in decision-making through partnership networks-Ireland 133 7 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Executive summary Demographic trends and their impacts on Koreas urban space Following rapid growth in the

49、 second half of the 20th century,the population in Korean urban centres grew at a comparable pace to that of urban centres in other OECD countries between 2005 and 2020.However,Koreas population peaked in 2020 and is expected to decline by around 15 million by 2070,equivalent to nearly one-third of

50、todays population.Towns(between 5 000 and 50 000 inhabitants)and villages(500 to 5 000 inhabitants)face the fastest population decline,especially those furthest away from major cities in the northwest and southeast of the country.Korea experiences a particular challenge given the very high concentra

51、tion of its population in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA),which accounted for half of the countrys population and 53%of its GDP in 2020.While the population of the SMA is expected to remain at around 26 million,the population in non-SMA regions is projected to decrease to 23.9 million by 2040.The a

52、ttractiveness of the SMA marked by a well-educated workforce,convenient access to financial resources,and superior infrastructure has further intensified the concentration of activity in these regions.While such concentration offers clear benefits through agglomeration economies,it also imposes sign

53、ificant societal costs,including increased traffic congestion,housing shortages,and environmental challenges such as air and water pollution.At the same time,rural areas face persistent struggles to create new employment opportunities and to advance critical infrastructure projects,as longstanding e

54、conomic challenges and limited investment hinder development in these less populated regions.On top of the high concentration in the SMA,ongoing demographic changes in Korea are expected to bring about profound and unprecedented effects across all aspects of society.For instance,the share of working

55、-age people is expected to drop to 46%by 2070,compared to around 71%today,which translates into more demand for health and care services and fewer resources to finance service provision from work-related tax collection.Ensuring quality infrastructure and service provision can help plan a future with

56、 more balanced urban development.People of all ages across the country should be connected to places offering a wide range of services without requiring long trips.Difficulties in accessing high-quality services locally translate into increased pressure to out-migrate for more geographically mobile

57、demographic groups,like the youth and families with small children,and lower quality of life for more immobile groups,like the old-age population.These dynamics increase the competition to access services in already congested areas like the SMA,as well as cost pressures in less dense areas.Labour sh

58、ortages,which can occur in both types of places,can exacerbate these problems.In this scenario,regional hubs places that offer education,healthcare,retail,and leisure services can serve as cornerstones for a compact-and-connected strategy in Korea.This report introduces a novel methodology to identi

59、fy and assess the performance of 37 regional hubs across Korea based on the distance to the next settlement larger than them and the availability of diverse services.The list of regional hubs includes Koreas most significant urban centres,as well as towns exerting a centre function for nearby rural

60、populations.8 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 The performance of regional hubs is amplified when connectivity within them and with their surrounding areas is high and when they are well-connected to the rest of the country.Some regional hubs are currently disc

61、onnected from the railway network,which can be a problem for people who are unable to drive.Commuting in Korean cities particularly between suburbs of large regional hubs is largely car-dependent due to long transfer times and indirect routes of bus and railway systems.In the City of Seoul,only abou

62、t 20%of commutes are made by car,whereas in the provinces of Gyeonggi and Incheon both part of the Seoul Metropolitan Area the share is significantly higher at 61%and 54%,respectively.Additionally,depopulation is reducing demand for public transport,which in turn threatens its financial viability,cr

63、eating a cycle that further limits accessibility and service quality.This highlights an urgent need to transform the spatial development patterns of regional hubs into more compact ones.Moreover,access to key services such as childcare facilities,doctors,and pharmacies within a 15-minute walk varies

64、 across and within regional hubs.On average,a higher share of children in the 37 regional hubs lives close to childcare facilities compared to the overall population in these hubs,indicating facility locations match the location of demand for those services.In contrast,doctors and pharmacies are les

65、s accessible to older adults in these hubs than to their general population.Key policy challenges towards balanced regional development To facilitate regionally tailored development and inter-regional connectivity,Korea has pursued balanced regional development for over two decades through two key s

66、trategies:the establishment of a multifunctional administrative city(Sejong City),and the creation of Innovation Cities(ICs)to relocate hundreds of public and private institutions away from the capital region through a combination of mandates and incentives.At the same time,Korea has been promoting

67、compact urban development to tackle urban sprawl through zoning regulations,new town development and urban renewal projects in urban centres.Furthermore,in 2023,Korea introduced the Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan(DBDMP)to further strengthen transport and digital infrastructure

68、,enhance connectivity and accessibility between urban and rural areas,develop growth districts within cities,and improve overall quality of life.Unlike previous policies,the DBDMP promotes region-led initiatives;integrates education and industry as core pillars for achieving balanced regional develo

69、pment;and advances the concept of megacity regions-administratively separated but functionally connected urban areas with populations exceeding 10 million to foster economic synergy and co-ordinated growth.Key challenges of these policies,identified in this report,are the following:Lack of integrati

70、on between Innovation Cities(ICs)and old town districts:ICs were developed in areas with limited services(e.g.,education and healthcare)and infrastructure(e.g.,transport connections),reducing their appeal to new residents.Meanwhile,commercial areas in old towns declined due to their distance from th

71、e newly established IC residential and commercial zones.Limited impact of compact city strategies:Although Korea has implemented various strategies to promote compact cities,such as zoning regulations and new town development,these efforts have not significantly reduced car usage.This is partly due

72、to inadequate public transport infrastructure in many cities and the high costs associated with improving service quality.Additionally,urban planning has focused more on standalone public transport projects rather than integrating transport with land use,leading to environments that incentivise car

73、dependency.Narrow focus of Downtown Cohesion Zones(DCZs):While DCZs are designed as high-density,mixed-use developments leveraging public transport and cultural infrastructure,they often focus only on bringing in new companies and lack a city-wide strategy to plan and manage the broader implications

74、 of such developments,including access to housing,public transport,education,healthcare,etc.9 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Potential inefficiencies in megacity region planning:If not properly managed,megacity regions may fail to foster cooperation and syner

75、gies among cities within them,instead leading to inefficiencies and competition.The absence of a clear development strategy and poor transport connectivity between cities within such megacity regions could hinder their effectiveness.Key recommendations Faced by the ongoing depopulation and ageing,Ko

76、rea has an opportunity to enhance access to essential services in regional hubs by investing in compact(i.e.high-density and mixed-used developments)-and-connected(i.e.provided with efficient public transport systems)development.Below are the key policy directions,with a particular focus on Transit-

77、oriented Developments(TODs),that draw on successful practices and lessons from international experiences:Enhance the effectiveness of compact city strategies:Align transport,land use,and housing policies through integrated plans such as TOD,and introduce fiscal incentives,including revised property

78、taxes,to encourage higher-density housing,more efficient land use and inclusionary zoning.Strengthen inter-regional connectivity:Increase investment in bus or rail transport infrastructure between regional hub cities and neighbouring communities to support economic growth,job creation,and cultural e

79、xchange in the context of depopulation.Bus connections are often more cost-effective and faster to implement than rail,while potentially also being sustainable if electricity-powered.This would improve living conditions in the suburban areas where the share of the old-age population is higher.Use ne

80、w inter-metropolitan development plans to promote co-operation between urban and rural areas for public service provision and shared infrastructure.Improve service provision in Innovation Cities:Leverage transit-oriented development(TOD)to support urban renewal in central areas,encouraging mixed-use

81、 and high-density land development around rail transit stations,while ensuring the provision of affordable housing and reducing car dependency.Adopt a city-wide approach to DCZ development:Ensure that DCZ projects consider their connectivity implications for the entire city by strengthening transpor

82、t links through Bus Rapid Transit(BRT)or Light Rail Transit(LRT).Develop a dedicated transport corridor connecting DCZs with surrounding areas,incorporating smart growth plans tailored to each station area.Optimise megacity region planning for efficiency and competitiveness:Define the specific funct

83、ions of different communities within megacity regions to foster collaboration rather than competition.Strengthen the regional rail and bus networks to reduce travel times between key hubs and improve connectivity between transport hubs and surrounding areas,ensuring a well-integrated transport syste

84、m.10 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 This chapter provides a review of Koreas policies to achieve a balanced regional development and sustainable urbanisation in a context of population declining and ageing.It highlights the benefits of,and reviews current pol

85、icies on,compact and connected urban growth in Korea.1 Koreas compact,connected and transit-oriented development policies 11 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Koreas demographic trends and their impacts on urban form Korea is one of the most urbanised countries

86、in the OECD and the world.Approximately 75%of the population lived in cities in 2023 the highest percentage in the OECD reflecting rapid urbanisation since the 1970s.However,the speed of urbanisation has slowed1 and since 2020,Koreas population has been shrinking and ageing.The population is expecte

87、d to halve over the next six decades with people aged 65 or older then accounting for 58%of the total population(OECD,20241).Koreas urbanisation is highly concentrated in the Seoul Metropolitan Area Korea is one of most dense countries in the OECD,with 515.4 inhabitants per km2 in 2023(KOSIS,20242).

88、However,there is a clear difference between Seoul as the municipality with the highest density in the country with 15 506 inhabitants per km2,Busan with 4 252 residents per km2.2 and Gwangju with 2 830 residents per km2.3 While Koreas population has been steadily concentrating in cities,there is a c

89、lear dominance of Seoul,the countrys political and economic capital.The Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA)is composed of Seoul,Incheon,and Gyeonggi province,comprising 11.8%of the Korean territory and 50.6%of the national population(around 26 million inhabitants).Moreover,while the population of the SMA i

90、s expected to remain stable,its share is expected to increase to 52.4%by 2040,as the population in the rest of the country is projected to decrease to 23.9 million by then.4 This high concentration of the population in the SMA highlights a highly unbalanced territorial structure within the country(O

91、ECD,20223),and demographic challenges are magnified when ageing is also considered as regions with rapid depopulation,and low population density,also have high ratios of elderly residents.In mountainous regions(i.e.Bonghwa,Yeongyang,Cheongsong in Gyeongbuk;and Hwacheon,Pyeongchang in Gangwon)the den

92、sity is less than 30 people per km2 while in places like Bucheon city in the Gyeonggi Province the density is 15 590 people per km2.The rate of population aged 65 and above in mostly rural places with rapid population decline(i.e.Euiseong 40.3%,Goheung 40%,Gunwi,39.2%,Cheongdo 36.5%,Hapcheon 38.5%)i

93、s higher than the national average(21.1%)(KOTI,20244).There is also a rapid population decline in provincial cities.OECD research has already shown that in Korea,the population distribution strongly reinforces the trends towards an unbalanced urbanisation pattern(OECD,20125),with many cities shrinki

94、ng reflecting low birth rates and out-migration to the SMA,and low levels of international migration.In 2015,the countrys 87 cities and counties with less than 100 000 inhabitants accounted for 59%of the territory and just over 8%of the population while 78%of the population lived in metropolitan are

95、as(Kim,20246).Within the SMA,Seoul(21.3%)and Gyeonggi-do(20%)have an overwhelming share of the population(OECD,20217),although other cities in the SMA have also been experiencing population growth.This high concentration in the SMA has increased real estate prices and in response,the government plan

96、s to build over 236 000 housing units by 2029(Yi,20248).Across the country,unlike medium-sized cities that have gained population,small-sized cities have experienced population loss(see Chapter 2)accentuating the unbalanced urbanisation pattern.In particular,small and medium-sized cities located in

97、non-capital regions have experienced difficulties in maintaining competitiveness and quality of life for residents(Park et al.,20179).These cities typically have weak industrial platforms(e.g.no major industries,limited infrastructure for industry,reduce workforce with technical skills,and lack R&D

98、and innovation centres)as well as financial capacity.In the southeastern region,large and medium sized cities like Busan,Ulsan,Gyeongnam,Daegu Gyeongbuk,and in those in the Honam region are continuing to see population flow out to the SMA(see Chapter 2).5 Economic activity is also highly concentrate

99、d in a few cities in Korea.Predominantly urban regions attract the largest share of economic activities with approximately 45%of the national GDP being produced in just two cities Seoul and Gyeonggi-do(both in the Seoul Metropolitan Area)(OECD,20217).The SMA concentrated 52.7%of the total Gross Regi

100、onal Domestic Product(GRDP)in 2020.6 Therefore,the level 12 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 of economic activity and diversity in jobs and other urban opportunities would attract people,normally highly educated,from other parts of the country.However,other cit

101、ies,despite not having the same level of population like the SMA,show comparable levels of productivity due to their specialised industrial clusters(e.g.Busans heavy industry,Gumis electronics and semiconductors,and Pohangs steel industry)with strong supply chains and skilled labour.The presence of

102、research institutes and universities(e.g.Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology based in Daejeon,and the Artificial Intelligence and optical tech centres in Gwangju),and governments efforts to decentralised economic activity with the creation of Innovation Cities may also play a role in

103、high productivity levels in those cities.Koreas urbanisation is also characterised by unplanned urban extension,or urban sprawl Koreas urbanisation process has been accompanied by urban expansion.As people moved from rural to urban areas,cities needed to find places to accommodate new arrivals which

104、 led to the new town developments.The countrys urban expansion has been characterised by horizontal expansion and significant vertical growth,influenced by its compact geography and targeted economic policies(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).More than half of the population of Korea lives in high rise

105、blocks of more than 15 storeys and less than 10%lives in 1 or 2 storeys buildings(Ustun,Ozturk and Cizreli,201811).Urban sprawl may be defined as“uncontrolled expansion of urban development characterised by low density,segregated land use and insufficient infrastructure provision.Urban sprawl can ta

106、ke the form of“leapfrog development”,whereby development“leaps”over undeveloped land”(OECD,2012,p.1612).In the Korean context,urban sprawl can be understood as“unplanned spread of scattered development and the free-riding of public facilities surrounding new towns.This means that people who move int

107、o the new developments use the existing infrastructure because public facilities and infrastructure,such as roads,have not yet been provided for these new residential development areas.”(Cho,2005,p.20413).Research has shown that small-and medium-sized cities on the fringes of larger metropolitan are

108、as tend to experience greater urban sprawl(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).High levels of sprawl are found in urban fringes or newly developed towns,which have been the focus of policy interventions,rather than in old city centres.For example,cities adjacent to Seoul,such as Hwaseong-si,Pyeongtaek-si,

109、and Gimpo-si in Gyeonggi-do,exhibit some of the highest levels of sprawl within a 15 km radius.Similarly,in regions adjacent to Busan,Gangseo-gu,Busan,and Gimhae-si,Gyeongsangnam-do,have been exhibiting high levels of sprawl as of 2020(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).As Seoul and Busan continue to exp

110、and,they must accommodate new suburban towns housing between 150 000 and 400 000 people(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).As shown in Figure 1.1,one consequence of urban sprawl is that people must travel longer distances from peripheral towns or townships to core urban centres.However,in the Daegu and D

111、aejeon Metropolitan Areas,the average commuting distances decreased between 2016 and 2021.13 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.1.Average distance of commuting to the core of the metropolitan area.Kilometres travelled to the metropolitan area.Source:KOTI

112、(201814)Passenger Travel Status Index Book.How do Korean people travel?;KTDB(2022)National Transport Survey,Nationwide Passenger O/D Data Collection The result of urban sprawl in Korean cities,as in many other parts of the world,has been an increase in commuting distances and a decline in the vitali

113、ty of the urban cores.Residents in suburban areas tend to be more satisfied with the natural and living environments but not with public transport(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).In suburban areas there is a more limited offer of public transport in terms of frequency and modality,contrary to what hap

114、pens in central urban areas(OECD,202415).This has a negative impact on their quality of life.Dealing with urban sprawl thus needs a multi-faceted approach to urban planning that addresses the economic,social,and environmental dimensions of regional disparities.Enhancing public transport systems,fost

115、ering compact and walkable communities,and promoting mixed land use are crucial factors for mitigating the negative consequences of urban sprawl.The rapid urban growth and urban expansion in Koreas metropolitan areas,particularly in the SMA,has resulted in problems such as higher infrastructure cost

116、s(i.e.water,drainage,electricity,roads,train lines,housing),and damages to the natural environment.In fact,the new towns developed in the SMA in the 2000s are larger and of lower density than those built in previous decades with the aim to provide more green areas in new towns.However,more built-up

117、areas have replaced green areas than in the past(OECD,201416).According to OECD research,despite a falling population,the consumption of land will keep on increasing(OECD,201416).This makes the conservation of land resources a priority.Koreas population is shrinking and ageing Korea is currently exp

118、eriencing notable demographic shifts characterised by a shrinking and ageing population.Its population peaked in 2020 and transitioned to decline,eight years earlier than expected.According to Statistics Korea(KOSTAT),Koreas total population was 51.7 million in 2022.The average yearly population gro

119、wth rate was 3%in 1960,gradually decreasing to 0.7%by 2000,before experiencing negative growth in 2021 and 2022.In the future,Koreas population is forecast to decrease from 52 million in 2020 to 37 million in 2070,when the worlds population is expected to reach 10.3 billion(Figure 1.2).0246810121416

120、To Seoul Metropolitan AreaTo Busan-UlsanMetropolitan AreaTo Daegu MetropolitanAreaTo Gwangju MetropolitanAreaTo Daejon MetropolitanArea20102016202114 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.2.Population trends and forecasts for Korea and the world Source:Stat

121、istics Korea(KOSTAT),accessed at:https:/kostat.go.kr/menu.es?mid=a20208010000 Koreas population is also ageing.The median age of Koreas population will rise from 45 years in 2022 to 62 years in 2070,while the world average age will increase from 30 to 38.8 years(KOTI,202417).In the same period,the s

122、hare of the working age population(between 15 to 64 years old)is forecast to decrease from 71%to 46.1%.According to OECD data,Korea will have the largest cohort of people aged over 65 in 2060.One factor that may partially explain this demographic trend is the difficulties to access to affordable hou

123、sing(homeownership or rental)experienced by Korean households of all levels of income(OECD,201818),and its impact on birth rates,despite efforts to support newlyweds with programmes such as Happy Housing.Moreover,one-person households have accelerated pressures on housing.In 2022,one-person househol

124、ds represented 34.%of all households,and almost 20%of those were less than 30 years old,and 18.6%were over 70 years of age(Statistics Korea,202319).Addressing declining birth rates has been a top policy priority for Korean authorities for the last two decades.Policies have ranged from childcare supp

125、ort and easing work life balance to reduce housing and education costs(Box 1.1).024681012010203040506019702000202220402070World population in billionsKorean population in millions Korea population(million)World population(Billion)15 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD

126、2025 Box 1.1.Koreas policies to address declining birth rates Since the mid-2000s,Korea has implemented a variety of comprehensive policy initiatives to address the decline in birth rates.The Presidential Committee on Low Fertility and Aging Society has adopted four consecutive plans to revert decli

127、ning birth rates.The Basic Plan on Low Fertility and Aging Society 2006-2010 aimed to harmonise work and family life.It included measures such as financial support for childcare for low-income families;the reinforcement of employees rights concerning maternity and parental leave;and financial assist

128、ance for infertility treatment and medical support for pregnant women.The Basic Plan on Low Fertility and Aging Society 2011-2015 introduced free childcare services accessible to all families,irrespective of their income levels.The Basic Plan on Low Fertility and Aging Society 2016-2020 included mea

129、sures to reduce housing and education costs;a child allowance for most children up to 5 years of age;labour market integration support;and the establishment of an after-school programme.The Basic Plan on Low Fertility and Aging Society 2021-2025 enhances quality of life and fosters a more inclusive

130、society that advocates for gender equality in childcare,work-life balance,labour market reform,educational system renewal,and gender equality within the workforce.Source:OECD(201920),Rejuvenating Korea:Policies for a Changing Society,OECD Publishing,Paris,DOI:10.1787/c5eed747-en Key challenges for K

131、oreas urban development and transport systems Private motor vehicles remain the main transport mode for commuting Traditionally,urban development efforts in Korea have primarily focused on facilitating mobility through private car use.For example,Bucheon city,located between Seoul and Incheon,is a c

132、ultural and industrial hub,and the second most densely populated satellite city in the SMA,home to approximately 900 000 people.Since the 1970s,Bucheon has experimented with a car-oriented development approach,expanding existing roads and creating new arterial roads and overpasses(Chng,201821).Even

133、the stream that once meandered through the old town was covered with concrete to make space for cars.Narrow sidewalks made walking difficult,especially for children,the elderly and people with reduced mobility.The rising number of registered cars in Korea highlights the countrys growing dependence o

134、n private vehicles for mobility.Although the growth rate has slightly decreased since 2015,the number of registered cars has grown steadily over the past decade from 17.9 million in 2010 to 25.5 million in 2022.7 In 2024,68.5%of Koreans owned a car.8 Public investment in road infrastructure has also

135、 incentivised the use of cars to access central areas.In most areas within the SMA,it takes less time to reach more opportunities by car compared to other transport modes.This is partly due to the extensive road network around the capital area.In the SMA,public transport,cycling and walking only all

136、ow a comparable level of access to urban opportunities as car where destinations are more concentrated such as the urban centre and some sub-centres(ITF,202322).This could partly explain the level of dependency on mobility by private car,particularly in the suburbs of large cities or regional hub ci

137、ties.16 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 As Korean cities continue to sprawl,the travel patterns become more complex,making it more difficult for transport systems to serve.Generally speaking,the connection among suburban new towns is not as efficient as the co

138、nnection between new towns and their urban core.As Figure 1.3 suggests,metropolitan areas continue being the place of work or studies for many residents who must commute to these areas from neighbouring towns and townships.It is worth pointing out that in the SMA and Daegu Metropolitan Areas,the com

139、muting rate has declined over the past decade,possibly due to increased access to jobs and services within residents local areas.However,in Gwangju and Daejeon Metropolitan Areas,the commuting rate has continued raising.Figure 1.3.Rate of commuting to metropolitan areas from neighbouring towns and t

140、ownships in Korea Source:KOTI(201814)Passenger Travel Status Index Book.How do Korean people travel?;KTDB(2022)National Transport Survey,Nationwide Passenger O/D Data Collection Across the different metropolitan areas in Korea,the private car is the most used mode of transport to access urban opport

141、unities followed by walking and buses(Figure 1.4).There are different explanations to this,first could be the number of urban opportunities that could be reached by private car than by other transport modes in less time.Land use measures supporting job-worker balance in suburban areas as well as the

142、 state of regional public transport connections between towns and new towns and emerging employment centres need to be improved to reduce commuting times and distances or to provide new modes of commuting that make car use less advantageous.In the SMA,these land-use and transport factors have influe

143、nced access to work,where absolute accessibility by car significantly outperforms all other modes.For example,according to the ITF,during the morning peak(8 AM),the average driver in the SMA can reach at least twice as many jobs using a car as can the average user of public transport(ITF,202322).0%5

144、%10%15%20%25%30%To Seoul MetropolitanAreaTo Busan-UlsanMetropolitan AreaTo Daegu MetropolitanAreaTo Gwangju MetropolitanAreaTo Daejon MetropolitanArea2006201020162021 17 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.4.The private car is the major mode of transport

145、used in all metropolitan areas,2021 Distribution of the different modes of transport used in the metropolitan areas.Source:KTDB(2022)National Transport Survey,Nationwide Passenger O/D Data Collection.Passenger cars and walking are the most used modes of travel used by old-age people(Figure 1.5).For

146、the elderly in suburban areas that are not very well connected to public transport,they may not be able to commute easily,including to places where they can get access to essential services.The level of income is also a factor in the number of urban opportunities that can be reached by car.High-inco

147、me households in the SMA are,in general,more likely to drive than walk,even in residential neighbourhoods with high densities(Seong,Lee and Choi,202123).The high level of car usage leads to traffic congestion and in consequence public authorities prioritise the investment in public transport.However

148、,according to Figure 1.6,despite congestion and public transport priority measures,in the SMA car users can reach six times more jobs than public transport users in 60 minutes(ITF,202322).0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Seoul Metropolitan AreaBusan-Ulsan Metropolitan AreaDaegu Metropolitan AreaGwan

149、gju Metropolitan AreaDaejon Metropolitan AreaPassenger carTaxiBusTrain/subwayWalkingOthers18 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.5.The elderly mostly walk to their destination in urban areas Distribution of the most used travel mode by people over 65 year

150、s of age,2021 Source:Data provided by KTDB to the OECD.Figure 1.6.Car users have greater access to jobs accessible to working age population than public transport users in the SMA Average number of jobs accessible to working population within 60 minutes.Source:ITF(202322)Accessibility in the Seoul M

151、etropolitan Area:Does Transport Serve All Equally?,International Transport Forum Policy Papers No.117.0%10%20%30%40%50%60%OthersTaxiRailway/subwayBusPassanger carWalkingSeoul Metropolitan AreaMetropolitan AreasOther(city/province)0501001502002503003504004505004.5MThousands of jobsIncome group(KRW pe

152、r month)CarPublic transport 19 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 The lack of affordable housing in central areas leads to long commutes to access jobs and services As a result of the historic evolution of land use and housing,demand for and costs of housing in S

153、eoul are high(OECD,201818).House prices in Seoul have resulted in people moving to neighbouring areas where prices are more affordable.On average,house prices in Seoul are double those in Gyeonggi and more than double those in Incheon(Jung,202224).In 2021,over 400 000 people left Seoul:nearly 90%mov

154、ed to Gyeonggi,and the remainder to Incheon(ITF,202322).As demand for housing in these neighbouring cities increases,housing prices,housing rents and rent deposit rates in these cities are also likely to increase.9 As a result,low-income households who cannot afford living in central areas face a tr

155、ade-off between high housing costs and high transport expenses.With rising rental demand driving up costs even in the outskirts,some renters bear the double burden of both expensive housing and transport(ITF,202322).Korea has made significant progress in improving access to quality housing due,in pa

156、rt,to the introduction of minimum standards(e.g.number of rooms and floor space differentiated by size and composition of households)and the direct government support for housing construction.Moreover,the Korea Land and Housing Corporation(LH),for example,has been implementing programmes on housing

157、supply revitalisation in old-low rise residential areas,as part of urban regeneration projects.However,the country still faces a critical affordable housing problem mostly in urban areas.There is a strong demand for housing that no longer originates only from low-income groups,a rigid supply of land

158、 due to the large number of government regulations,and low interest rates are issues behind the increased speculation(OECD,201818).In 2021,the housing price to income ratio(PIR)in Seoul-an indicator to measure housing affordability in Korea-rose to 14.1 in 2021 from 12.5 in 2020.10 In 2021,the rent

159、to income ratio(RIR)stood at 15.7%,down 0.9%from 2020.11 In 2025,Korea is expected to become a super ageing society as the population aged over 65 will pass 10 million inhabitants(Woo-hyun,202425).According to research,in Korea,ageing lowers housing demand and effects on house prices are twice as la

160、rge as income effects as a 1.0%increase in the dependency ratio causes a 0.7%decrease in house prices,while a 1.0%increase in income causes a 0.3%increase in house prices on the average(Park et al.,201726).The development of new towns in suburban areas of large cities have been seen as an option to

161、stabilise house prices and provide affordable housing options to low-income households and certain groups of the population such as students newlyweds and the elderly.The problem has been that these developments contribute to urban expansion making it more expensive to provide public services includ

162、ing transport.The location of housing in the city outskirts of large cities and away from jobs and services leads people to long commutes.In 2023 Korean workers spent on average 72.6 minutes a day to commute,taking 34.7 minutes to get to work and 37.9 minutes going back home,travelling an average of

163、 18.4 kilometres total per day.12 Longer commutes highlight the need to shift from car to transit-oriented development In general,connections between New Towns and employment areas are made by car as public transport often requires transfers and longer trips.Given the limited transport options,resid

164、ents that live outside of core areas must travel by car to access urban opportunities(ITF,202322).Moreover,as new employment opportunities are available in sub-centres,they tend to attract workers from different areas,which do not always have public transport connections as they do not only employ l

165、ocal people.Without local access to work,education and other urban opportunities,commuting distances increase,making walking and cycling less viable.In the SMA,for example,the shortest average commuting distance is in Seoul(8 km),followed by Gyeonggi(23 km)and Incheon(31 km).It is also reflected in

166、the regional commuting mode shares:in the City of Seoul,cars account for just over 20%of commuting trips,whereas in Gyeonggi and Incheon,they account for 61%and 54%of trips,respectively(ITF,202322).In 20 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 comparison,across the OE

167、CDs largest cities,on average,83%of the population can access a bus stop and 31%can access a metro or tram stop within a 10-minute walk(OECD,202227).Recent national and subnational government efforts focus on promoting sustainable urban development by expanding public transport.Three key initiatives

168、 stand out:expanding metropolitan transport networks in the SMA and major urban regions,including the development of transfer centres to improve accessibility;strengthening bus-centred transport through bus rapid transit(BRT)systems and promoting active mobility(walking and cycling)to enhance multi-

169、modal connectivity;and leveraging digital technologies to improve accessibility,particularly through Mobility as a Service(MaaS).which integrates various transport modes and provides real-time traffic information to commuters.Depopulation is leading to a decrease in transport demand and quality of s

170、ervice Depopulation is having a negative impact in public transport demand.The number of trips is forecasted to decrease after 2025.Commuting by public transport to work(-15.4%)or go to school(-15.2%)and made by bus(-14.7%)or train(-14.8%)are forecasted to decrease by 2050(Table 1.1).This creates a

171、lack of economic feasibility for transport infrastructure investment projects.For areas outside the SMA,preliminary feasibility studies for investment projects include regional balanced development as part of the evaluation criteria.However,several large-scale transport investment projects had to be

172、 exempted from the feasibility studies to be implemented due to the lack of economic feasibility.Table 1.1.Trips forecast by purpose and mode in Korea Year By trip purpose(in millions)By trip mode(in millions)School Work Shopping Leisure Auto Bus Rail 2019 3 232 6 960 3 483 5 347 60 417 17 815 10 64

173、8 2025 3 291 7 446 3 626 5 687 61 923 18 795 12 724 2030 3 221 7 434 3 586 5 707 61 245 18 495 13 014 2035 3 115 7 259 3 498 5 633 60 010 17 994 12 659 2040 3 017 7 002 3 391 5 512 58 272 17 417 12 145 2045 2 917 6 674 3 258 5 343 55 932 16 793 11 554 2050 2 789 6 326 3 114 5 136 53 451 16 030 10 83

174、9 Source:KOTI(202417)Transportation infrastructure,service and policy in response to demographic changes.Another consequence of depopulation in the transport sector is the disparity in the level of transport services between the SMA and provincial cities.Public transport is less convenient in rural

175、areas and in small and medium-sized cities.The distance to bus stops in counties(Gun)is 3.48 times greater than in metropolitan areas,and the daily operational frequency of buses is about one-fifth in provincial cities compared to SMA.A decrease in demand of public transport,difficulty in recruiting

176、 transport workers,and increase in operational costs have worsen the operating conditions for buses and diminished services(KOTI,202417).These conditions have created a crisis in the Korean bus industry.The prolonged impact of COVID-19 has led to less demand and increased costs due to inflation,and

177、the recovery has been slower in small and medium-sized cities even after the cessation of COVID-19 prevention measures.The increase in fuel prices due to the impact of the Russian aggression against Ukraine,the stronger dollar,and higher labour costs have made it necessary to increase fares(KOTI,202

178、417).This crisis has forced the closing of bus businesses and for an increase demand in financial support for the industry in provincial cities as the closing of bus routes is limiting the mobility of residents.Cities and bus operators need to improve unprofitable-inefficient bus routes that have no

179、t adapted to changes in the regional population 21 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 structure,demand and transport patterns.Possible options include keeping bus routes planning under regular review using not only demand and supply data from bus operators,but in

180、clude overall transport plans and projections,land use plans,and traffic demand and economic forecasts.It would be necessary to redesign the bus routes considering routes frequency and walking distances to the bus stops;and in small towns the use of the hub-and-spoke system13 may be more appropriate

181、.Other options include streamlining schedules,simplifying bus routes by breaking longer routes down and reducing bus stops,and increasing bus speed.Transport planning for an ageing society needs to be recalibrated As already highlighted,Korea is experiencing a rapid ageing of its population.While in

182、creased life expectancy is a significant achievement,it also presents policy challenges.Housing,public transport,infrastructure,and services must be adapted to this new demographic context to ensure a high quality of life in older age.However,policy makers awareness of the diverse transport needs of

183、 older people appears limited.The mobility needs of the elderly vary and are influenced by several factors,including lifestyle(e.g.whether individuals are working or retired,and their housing arrangements)and socio-demographic characteristics(such as age,gender,income,possession of a driving licence

184、,and household size and structure)(Lin and Cui,202128).Patterns of land use and housing arrangements play a significant role in shaping the daily lives of older adults.Those living in suburban communities are particularly vulnerable to transport deficiencies.Koreas ageing population challenge is clo

185、sely linked to relocation trends around retirement age.Notably,over 80%of people aged 65 to 77,and 79%of baby boomers aged 55 to 59 in Seoul in 2010,were originally from regions outside the city(Kim and Han,201429).Where older people choose to live,and how they move about,has implications for resour

186、ce allocation,balanced regional development,and local economic growth.Contrary to expectations of migration towards less dense areas,research shows that retirement migration in Korea more commonly leads to higher-density areas(Kim and Han,201429).Although there is indeed a migration to rural areas f

187、or retirement,the number of elderly people who chose not to move and moved to areas of higher density increased even more rapidly during the 2000s(Kim and Han,201429).Although some older individuals do move to rural areas for retirement,a growing number either remain in place or relocate to denser u

188、rban areas.Those ageing in place in cities like Seoul require transport systems that are available,accessible,affordable,and safe.Improving transport availability is crucial to maintaining mobility in older age.As shown in Figure 1.4,walking is the primary mode of transport for older Koreans,followe

189、d by private car use.Inadequate walking infrastructure,such as the absence of pavements,safe pedestrian crossings,and proper lighting,can severely limit mobility,especially if urban planning continues to prioritise car travel.Regarding driving,while the Korean government has recommended that older i

190、ndividuals stop driving to enhance road safety,there is no mandatory retirement age for drivers.In suburban areas with poor public transport connections,driving often remains the most convenient option.However,ceasing to drive can lead to a significant reduction in mobility.Research indicates that o

191、lder adults living in areas served by metro systems are more likely to give up driving(Moon and Park,202030).Therefore,residential areas with highly accessible and affordable public transport,combined with safe walking infrastructure,can greatly enhance older peoples independence and quality of life

192、.Transport planning in an ageing society such as Korea must also recognise that public transport is not always convenient for older users.Barriers include poor access to bus stops,long walking distances,a lack of basic facilities(e.g.shelters and seating),overcrowding on buses and trains,and challen

193、ges related to interchanging between services(e.g.obtaining information,carrying luggage,and navigating complex networks).These issues can deter older people from using public transport and must be addressed through inclusive,age-friendly urban and transport design.22 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIV

194、ITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Towards a compact and connected strategy for Korea:policy assessment Developing new towns to alleviate over-concentration in the Seoul Metropolitan Area To deal with over-concentration of population and economic activity in the Seoul Metropolitan Area,the gov

195、ernment has pursued a new town development policy for over five decades(Box 1.2).These new towns have played a critical role in offering housing alternatives for a growing population,stabilising housing prices,and preventing the emergence of slums around the capital.However,they have also led to uni

196、ntended consequences,including long commutes to jobs and essential services(e.g.education,healthcare,leisure),unnecessary infrastructure costs,and environmental problems such as air pollution.One major contributing factor is the strict green belt regulations,which required many new towns to be locat

197、ed further from existing urban areas.As a result,these towns,situated on the outskirts of Seoul,often lack nearby industrial facilities,suburban employment centres,and efficient transport connections to Seoul and its satellite cities(Vongpraseuth et al.,202031).Since 2018,the Ministry of Land,Infras

198、tructure and Transport(MOLIT)has announced the development of six new towns around Seoul.A key feature of these projects is their planned integration with public transport networks(Box 1.2).It is important to note that the housing supply strategy of the current administration places more emphasis on

199、 housing reconstruction than on the creation of new units,unlike previous governments.Between 2022 and 2027,the government plans to deliver 2.7 million dwellings,with 1.3 million expected to come from the private sector.In Seoul,around 500 000 housing units will be built or fully reconstructed by 20

200、27.14 Despite government efforts to create quality jobs in these new townssuch as through smart city initiativesmany residents continue to commute to central areas of larger cities rather than work locally.Furthermore,the underdevelopment of commercial areas has led to these new towns functioning pr

201、imarily as residential satellite communities,forcing residents to travel long distances to access services(Lee and Ahn,200532).The proliferation of new towns has also exacerbated regional disparities due to the uneven distribution of essential public infrastructure and limited access to affordable h

202、ousing.This,in turn,contributes to environmental degradation(Mun,Seung Lee and Kim,202410).Access to employment opportunities,essential services,and social support is often more restricted in new towns compared to central urban areas,leading to heightened inequality.While some new towns prioritise e

203、nvironmental preservation and dedicate substantial land to green areas,any environmental benefits are often undermined by increased emissions caused by reliance on private vehicles.23 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Box 1.2.Dealing with over-concentration in t

204、he Seoul Metropolitan Area through new towns development Since the 1960s,the Korean government has implemented New Town Development policies to address urban challenges in major cities,particularly the over-concentration in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA),and to promote balanced national territoria

205、l development.As part of the Korea Industrialisation Master Plan and the First Economic Development Plan,the government prioritised the southeastern region by establishing two industrial new towns:Ulsan(1962)and Pohang(1968).During this period,several key legislative frameworks were introduced to su

206、pport these developments,including the Urban Planning Act(1962),Land Acquisition Act(1966),Land Readjustment Act(1970),and Local Industry Development Act(1970).In the 1970s,the government constructed additional industrial towns such as Gumi(1973),Changwon(1977),and Yeocheon(1977)to foster higher val

207、ue-added industries in response to changes in security and economic conditions.Concurrently,Seoul faced a rapid population increase.To address the rising urban density,the government developed Yeoido(1967)and Gangnam(1968)as new sub-centres of the city.In 1968,it launched a large-scale residential p

208、roject in Gyeonggi ProvinceSungnamto resettle one million residents from unregistered shantytowns in Seoul.Additional towns like Banwol(1977)and Gwacheon(1979)were developed to disperse manufacturing facilities and administrative functions,respectively.In the 1980s,soaring housing prices caused by h

209、igh population concentration in the SMA led the government to establish five first-generation new townsPyoungchon,Bundang,Ilsan,Sanbon,and Jungdongbetween 1989 and 1996.Designed to relieve pressure on the housing market,these towns provided approximately 292 000 residential units for 1.17 million pe

210、ople.Though intended to be self-contained with significant commercial and business zones,these areas faced underdevelopment due to simultaneous construction.In the early 2000s,ten additional new towns were developed around the capital region,including Seongnam Pangyo,Hwasung Dongtan,and Gwanggyo.Two

211、 more were established in regional areasAsan and Doan.Pangyo,Dongtan,and Wirye were planned to help accommodate housing demand from Seouls Gangnam district,while towns like Gimpo,Paju,and Geomdan aimed to serve as housing and economic hubs for the Gangseo and Gangbuk areas.These new towns were desig

212、ned with integrated transport networks to ensure connectivity with Seoul and neighbouring regions,and to promote high-quality,self-sufficient living environments.From 2005,the focus of New Town Development shifted towards“Special Purpose”New Towns,moving beyond residential objectives.These included

213、the administrative capital Sejong City,enterprise cities,and innovation cities.Sejong City was established to decentralise government functions from Seoul and support balanced national development by relocating 36 government ministries and agencies to a new administrative centre in the heart of the

214、country.Since 2018,the Ministry of Land,Infrastructure and Transport(MOLIT)has announced plans for six new towns around the SMA.These towns aim to help curb rising housing prices while ensuring access to public transport,allowing residents to reach central Seoul within 20 minutes.15 Source:Keon et a

215、l (201533)Koreas Pursuit for Sustainable Cities through New Town Development:Implications for LAC,IDB Discussion Paper 390.Lee and Ahn(200532)Five new towns in the Seoul metropolitan area and their attractions in non-working trips:implications on self-containments of new towns,Habitat International,

216、Vol 29 Issue 4.24 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Facilitating region-specific development,inter-regional connectivity and co-operation through the Regional Balanced Development Policy(RBDP)Between 1962 and 2000,Korea underwent rapid urbanisation and economic

217、growth,which was accompanied by excessive spatial centralisation and disproportionate regional development.One of the contributing factors was the priority given to the reconstruction of Seoul following the Korean War.However,this process led to a significant concentration of population and economic

218、 activity in a single metropolitan area,resulting in unbalanced regional development.These imbalances are now undermining the countrys national competitiveness,sustainable growth,and social cohesion.In an effort to recover from the effects of the Asian Financial Crisis in the 1990s,the central gover

219、nment implemented policies aimed at enhancing regional competitiveness,promoting venture businesses,and advancing informatization.However,these policies further intensified the concentration of population and economic activities in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA).Today,these challenges are compound

220、ed by low birth rates,population decline,and an ageing society.Demographic pressures are particularly pronounced in rural areas near small and medium-sized cities,where elderly dependency ratios(33%)are higher than in rural areas with access to metropolitan regions(24%)(OECD,20223).Depopulation may

221、undermine the delivery of public services,as observed in other OECD countries such as Spain,where declining populations have negatively affected the range and quality of services like healthcare and education(Snchez Garca and Rodon,202434).Since 2003,the central government has prioritised balanced r

222、egional development through the enactment of the Special Act on Balanced National Development and the Regional Balanced Development Policy(RBDP)(Box 1.3).The Special Act aims to support region-specific development,improve inter-regional connectivity and cooperation,and facilitate improved living con

223、ditions,including through the relocation of institutions.The RBDP pursues three key values:i)decentralisation,led by regions looking to develop the self-sufficiency region-specific problem-solving skills;ii)innovation,to nurture innovative capabilities and the development of regional economies and i

224、ndustries;and iii)inclusiveness to achieve social unity through balanced development across and within the regions.Key initiatives under the RBDP include the creation of regional development hubs,promotion of inter-regional cooperation,and expansion of transport and logistics networks.These initiati

225、ves led to the establishment of the multifunctional administrative city(Sejong),Innovation Cities,Enterprise Cities,Free Economic Zones,and the enhancement of regional infrastructure such as roads and railways to strengthen regional connectivity.The government has also designated certain growth prom

226、otion areasregions identified based on income levels,population size,and fiscal capacitythat require targeted support from national and local governments.This support includes investment in infrastructure such as roads and water supply systems to stimulate economic and social development and improve

227、 residents living conditions.To implement the Special Act,the government established the Presidential Committee for Decentralisation and Balanced Development,which advises on policies to promote balanced development and coordinates efforts between central and local governments.In addition,Provincial

228、 Regional Innovation Councils have been set up to lead balanced development efforts in each region.These councils are responsible for overseeing interregional collaboration projects and addressing issues related to population decline and financial strain at the local level.25 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,C

229、ONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Box 1.3.Past policies to achieve a balanced regional development in Korea Period 2003 2005 Roh Moo-Hyun Administration Vision:“A new beginning as a nation through dynamic,balanced national development driven by regional innovation and autonomous regio

230、nalisation”The central government implemented a national development policy as a top priority through:A 5-year balanced national development plan,5-year regional innovative development plans established and implemented by cities and provinces.The enactment of the Special Act on Balanced National Dev

231、elopment;the Special Accounts for Balanced National Development.The establishments of the Balanced National Development Committee and City/Do regional innovation councils.Period 2008 2013 Lee Myung-Bak Administration Vision:“Strengthen global competitiveness of regional economies,create regional eco

232、nomies that guarantee quality of life”The central government reformed the regional development policy system.To create competitiveness across all regions,the government:Established the Committee for Balanced National Development;reformed the Committee for Regional Development;and established the Fir

233、st 5-Year Regional Development Plan.Designated seven Mega-regional Development Zones;and established the Comprehensive Development Plan.Designated and supported under-developed Areas including Growth Promotion Areas and Special Support-Needed Areas.Period 2013 2017 Park Geun-Hye Administration Visio

234、n:“HOPE Project:Pleasant living spaces,workplaces where there are dreams,fun places to rest”The government focused on the expansion of community infrastructure and promoted regional economies to increase quality of life.Some of the key initiatives were:The establishment of the second 5-Year Regional

235、 Development Plan.The establishment of city and provincial life zone development committees.The strengthening of the Regional Happy Living Zones;and the adoption of initiatives for development and investment promotion for leading industries in regions.Period 2017-2022 Moon Jae-In Administration Visi

236、on:“A nation with strong regions.A well-balanced Republic of Korea:Developing the foundations for autonomous growth of regions”Establishment of the Fourth 5-Year Balanced National Development Plan;and development of Comprehensive Balanced Development Index and graded support.Establishment of regiona

237、l innovation systems.Source:Nabis Global,History of Balanced National Development Initiatives,at:https:/nabis.go.kr/contentsGlobalDetailView.do?menucd=346 26 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Relocating public institutions for regional balanced development The h

238、igh concentration of population and economic activity in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA)has led to unbalanced regional development,with many cities experiencing population decline and the loss of socio-economic functions.In response,the national government has,for over two decades,implemented a ser

239、ies of measures aimed at reducing this concentration and promoting balanced development.Two key initiatives have been central to this agenda:the establishment of a multifunctional administrative city,and the creation of Innovation Cities to relocate hundreds of public institutions(e.g.ministries and

240、 agencies)and to incentivise the relocation of private sector companies.These initiatives are part of the broader national decentralisation strategy.The establishment of a multifunctional administrative city,Sejong To decentralise government functions historically concentrated in the capital region,

241、one of the governments flagship initiatives has been the creation of a Multifunctional Administrative City,Sejong City,which serves as the new administrative capital.Located within the Sejong Special Self-Governing City,it straddles the Chungcheongnam-do and Chungcheongbuk-do provinces,approximately

242、 130 km southeast of Seoul.Originally envisioned as a new capital encompassing all legislative,administrative,and judicial institutions,the plan was scaled back following a 2004 constitutional ruling.Consequently,from 2012,only 32 central administrative agencies,excluding those related to diplomacy,

243、defence,and national security,were relocated to Sejong City.The goal was to develop Sejong City into a self-sustaining city of 500 000 inhabitants by 2030.As of 2020,the city had a population of approximately 360 000,hosting 44 state government facilities,16 state-run research institutes,and over 18

244、 000 companies.16 According to estimates,by 2047 the citys working-age population is projected to grow by 86.1%(an increase of 160 000 people),while the youth population is expected to rise by 50.8%compared to 2017(OECD,20223).Sejong City has thus become a cornerstone of Koreas balanced national dev

245、elopment policy,serving not only as the new hub for central government administration but also as a major urban project drawing hundreds of thousands of people away from the Seoul Metropolitan Area into central Korea.However,one major challenge is that Sejong City is the only special self-governing

246、city in Korea without a high-speed rail connection.This significantly undermines its competitiveness,as a central station in Sejong could considerably reduce commuting time for government officials travelling to and from Seoul.Currently,the bus ride to Osong,the nearest high-speed train station,almo

247、st doubles the overall journey time between the administrative and political capitals.Introducing a high-speed rail station in Sejong may risk reducing Osongs ridership and the economic benefits associated with transit traffic in Chungcheongbuk-do.Nevertheless,high-speed rail connectivity is vital f

248、or the development of high-value service sectors and for enhancing the provinces ability to attract and retain young talent.As such,improving Sejongs transport connections is essential to supporting its long-term development(OECD,202135).The creation of Innovation Cities to revitalise lagging region

249、s In the early 2000s,the Ministry of Land,Infrastructure and Transport(MOLIT)introduced the Innovation Cities(ICs)policy to address the concentration of population and administrative functions in the SMA.As of 2023,over half of Koreas total population resided in the SMA.Innovation Cities are designa

250、ted regional urban areas developed for the relocation of public institutions from the SMA(Figure 1.7).These cities aim to revitalise underperforming regions and promote the decentralisation of government functions to local areas.In addition to relocating central agencies,the initiative also seeks to

251、 spur local economic development,foster innovation,and create sustainable communities outside the capital region.27 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Figure 1.7.Koreas innovation cities Source:Ahn,Seo and Kwon(202136),Impact of Innovation City Projects on Nation

252、al Balanced Development in South Korea:Identifying Regional Network and Centrality,International Journal of Geo-Information,Vol 10 Issue 3.https:/doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10030169 The process of relocating public institutions began in 2006,following consultations with local governments and the signing of

253、 basic agreements between metropolitan areas and provinces.The plan entailed relocating 112 of the 153 government agency headquarters to designated Innovation Cities.The remaining 41 units were relocated individually to Sejong City and other cities,such as Osong and Cheongju,which were officially de

254、signated as Innovation Cities in March 2020.From the central governments perspective,the relocation was intended to strengthen national competitiveness and curb the excessive centralisation of population and resources in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA).For the recipient regions,hosting public insti

255、tutions brought more residents,job opportunities,and increased local tax revenues.As many young professionals were expected to move,the relocation was also seen as an opportunity to expand the skilled labour pool.However,a key drawback of the Innovation City policy is that its implementation priorit

256、ised government directives over regional demand and characteristics(Ahn,Seo and Kwon,202136).Because relocating institutions takes less time than broader urban development,many Innovation Cities developed without sufficient integration with existing urban centres or pre-existing town districts.This

257、was exacerbated by the lack of a comprehensive strategy to promote compact and connected urban growth before relocation occurred.Furthermore,many Innovation City districts were established in peripheral areas lacking essential infrastructure,such as educational institutions,healthcare services,and c

258、ultural facilities.This has limited their interaction with surrounding areas and existing cities(Ahn,Seo and Kwon,202136).Even existing commercial areas in old towns began a process of decline due to the distance to the residential areas and the new IC commercial centres(Kim and Kim,n.d.37).Relocati

259、on efforts also extended to private enterprises and universities,incentivised through government policy rather than driven by direct interest.When organisations moved from the SMA to provincial areas,they received financial and 28 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 20

260、25 administrative support,such as tax breaks,land grants,and subsidies.The government also funded regional universities and research institutions to foster innovation and attract faculty and students.Research suggests that Innovation Cities in regions that have developed into larger urban centressuc

261、h as those near Busan,Daegu,and Ulsancould further strengthen their roles in education,healthcare,and culture,enhancing their self-sufficiency(Ahn,Seo and Kwon,202136).Revitalising these cities requires future-oriented planning,intensified land use,and improved urban mobility to increase access to s

262、ervices and strengthen resident interaction(Kim et al.,201738).Small and medium-sized cities in Korea are also experiencing expansion in their daily commuting zones.However,existing urban policies often fail to align with demographic trends(Park et al.,20179).For example,Ireland has included in its

263、Project Ireland 2040 the elements of an ageing population and smaller family sizes to guide public investments and plan for new demands of housing,transport,healthcare and education services(Government of Ireland,n.d.39).In contrast,many Korean cities continue pursuing suburban development and reloc

264、ating public services to new areas despite shrinking populations and an ageing demographic profile.Previous efforts to reinvigorate small and medium-sized cities,such as the Happy Living Zone initiative promoting inter-city cooperation,have yielded limited results due to their small-scale and volunt

265、ary nature(Park et al.,20179).The relocation of public institutions and private companies could yield better policy complementarities if supported by appropriate transport infrastructure.Cities could specialise by industry,for example electronics in Daegu,logistics and tourism in Busan,and IT servic

266、es in Gyeonggi and Jeju,while improved intercity transport would facilitate economic integration.Connections between cities and their surrounding areas would also help strengthen industrial supply chains and labour mobility.One of the main shortcomings of the Regional Balanced Development Policy(RBD

267、P)has been the insufficient attention paid to spatial development.Innovation Cities were often established without consideration of how they would evolve post-relocation,resulting in urban sprawl,limited mobility,and weak linkages between old and new urban centres.Many of these cities were the produ

268、ct of political decisions rather than organic socio-economic growth.As a result,some lacked the functional interconnections with neighbouring towns and villages necessary to drive regionalisation and human capital redistribution.A fundamental question is how to harness urban growth to support develo

269、pment in regions with historically weak economic,cultural and mobility ties to urban hubs like Seoul,Busan,and Sejong.Overemphasis on industrial zones with standardised development projects has often ignored regional characteristics and stifled local economic growth(Kim and Lim,201640).In addition,h

270、igh land prices and unaffordable housing in city centres have pushed populations into suburban areas,contributing to urban sprawl even amid declining population levels.As seen in past new town developments,indiscriminate real estate expansion does not guarantee population growth.Emerging patterns of

271、 urbanisation and population distribution suggest a need for better understanding of migration and commuting flows.While some young civil servants have settled in Sejong with their families,others continue to commute to Seoul on weekends,indicating persistent personal and professional ties to the ca

272、pital.This highlights the importance of considering temporary and multiple forms of mobility in policy,such as second-home use,business and leisure tourism,seasonal labour,and multi-local living,which are often excluded from regional planning discussions.A more nuanced view of regional cities as bot

273、h sources and destinations of diverse mobilities could enhance socio-economic and cultural integration across broader territorial areas.Promoting regional-led balanced territorial development Despite the national governments long-standing commitment to balanced development,Korea continues to experie

274、nce extreme spatial concentration,particularly in the SMA.To address this,the Presidential Committee for Decentralisation and Balanced Development introduced the Decentralisation and Balanced 29 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 Development Master Plan(DBDMP)17

275、in 2023,developed in collaboration with central administrative agencies and informed by feedback from local governments(Korean Government,202341).The DBDMP represents a comprehensive strategy that combines decentralisation and balanced regional development to tackle demographic decline,ageing,and sp

276、atial imbalance.It emphasises a place-based approach,increased autonomy,and greater resource allocation for local governments.Its ultimate goal is to enable region-led development and foster responsible local autonomy.The DBDMP may be seminal to foster compact and connected development due to five f

277、eatures that differentiate it from previous policies:A unified vision:The plan aspires to make all regions in Korea desirable places to live.It outlines five key strategies:innovative growth,specialised regional development,education reform,customised living welfare,and decentralisation.Integrated p

278、lanning:It merges two previously separate frameworksthe Five-Year Comprehensive Action Plan for Decentralisation and the Five-Year Plan for National Balanced Development.The Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan also includes:regional decentralisation and balanced development plans,t

279、he sectoral plans of central administrative agencies.Compact and connected development:The strategy involves developing urban growth hubs through public and private investment,enhancing settlement conditions(e.g.education,healthcare,childcare,housing,culture),and expanding digital and transport infr

280、astructure to improve accessibility to urban and regional centres.Inter-regional cooperation:For the first time,the plan includes an inter-regional development strategy to coordinate infrastructure and economic initiatives across regions.This includes leveraging local industries,boosting employment,

281、promoting tourism and culture,and strengthening accessibility through coordinated transport development.The plan is based on the characteristics and potential of each area.The central government supports inter-regional development cooperation projects through financing,administrative organisation,la

282、ws and institutions.Metropolitan Economic Clusters and transport expansion:The DBDMP introduces the concept of 4+3 Metropolitan Economic Clusters aimed at fostering globally competitive industrial bases outside the SMA.It promotes a national network of 1-hour living zones within each cluster and 2-h

283、our zones across the country,supported by transport infrastructure such as new roads,railways,and airports.Tackling spatial centralisation and unbalanced regional development through megacity initiatives Some local governments in Korea are promoting megacity region initiatives by leveraging regional

284、 rail networks to enhance spatial concentration on a more localized level.These efforts are part of a broader strategy to develop metropolitan economic zones,functionally connected to a core metropolis.A megacity region18 is defined as a city-connected area with a population of over 10 million,compr

285、ising administratively separate but functionally integrated areas.These regions share social infrastructure,such as public transport and logistics,and maintain strong economic and industrial linkages.19 In a megacity region,the integration of the core city and its suburban hinterlands allows for the

286、 low-cost redistribution of labour and capital,supporting a daily life structure centred on robust social and transport infrastructure.These initiatives aim to promote cooperation among cities and generate synergy rather than competition.This approach responds to demographic decline outside the Seou

287、l Metropolitan Area(SMA)and seeks to boost competitiveness by connecting regional hubs and their surrounding areas through expanded transport infrastructure.30 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 As part of these efforts,the Comprehensive National Territorial Plan

288、 outlines spatial development centred on transport networks.For example,in 2022,MOLIT proposed the“One-Hour Living Zone Completion Strategy”for the BusanUlsanGyeongnam(Bu-Ul-Kyung)region.This strategy includes expanding inland and metropolitan railways and constructing expressways to support its evo

289、lution into a global megacity.Since 2018,Busan,Ulsan,and Gyeongsangnam-do have signed cooperation agreements covering areas such as transport,water,economy,and safety.These collaborations led to the Bu-Ul-Kyung Megacity proposala special local government formed by these three cities,encompassing ove

290、r 10 million people.The goals of this megacity include:becoming a competitive economic,industrial,and cultural hub;attracting businesses and promoting startups to drive job creation;and expanding public transport in both urban and rural areas to create a network of spheres of influence.This initiati

291、ve seeks to overcome the dominance of the SMA by connecting large,mid-sized,and small cities,as well as rural and fishing communities,into a flexible metropolitan system.The Bu-Ul-Kyung megacity strategy focuses on three key areas:Metropolitan Transport System:Building a regional transport network t

292、o establish a one-hour living zone;Knowledge Competitiveness:Fostering local talent and new industries across the southeast;and Industrial Innovation Ecosystem:Linking Gyeongnams manufacturing sector with Busan and Ulsans R&D capacities and promoting hydrogen-based industries.While previous attempts

293、 to create the Bu-Ul-Kyung megacity focused on consultative cooperation among local governments,current efforts aim to establish a special local government with a legal basis through amendments to the Local Autonomy Act.Public opinion has also been actively soughtunlike in earlier initiatives.Howeve

294、r,political instability and a lack of local consensus have so far prevented its full realization.20 A second megacity initiative involves merging Daegu with North Gyeongsang Province to address the demographic and fiscal challenges faced by both areas.The aim is to increase population and economic s

295、cale;reduce project duplication;and improve efficiency in public spending through strategic prioritization.Unlike the Bu-Ul-Kyung initiative,this merger enjoys strong political support from both regions.The central government has committed to supporting the integration with direct and indirect fundi

296、ng,as well as special administrative and financial measures(Da-hyun,202442).The newly proposed Daegu-Gyeongbuk Special City is expected to function similarly to the Seoul Metropolitan Government,with authority over economic development,balanced territorial development,and metropolitan administration

297、.Finalization of this consolidation is planned for 2026.Megacity regions can maximize infrastructure investments and build regional synergies in the face of depopulation and constrained budgets.However,these initiatives must be grounded in clear functional zoning,for example,regional/metropolitan hu

298、bs to lead economic development;small and mid-sized cities to offer services to rural areas;and rural areas to provide residential functions and basic infrastructure.To encourage compact development,socio-economic functions should be concentrated around transport hubs,and the regional rail and bus n

299、etworks expanded to reduce travel time and connect hubs with surrounding communities.Creating high-density and mixed-use developments leveraging transport downtown cohesion zones Four special zones to support regional-led balanced development The Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan

300、(DBDMP)contemplates the creation of four special zones to incentivise regional-led balanced development and decentralisation(Figure 1.8).21 These special zones are planned and operated as decentralised local-led zones.The aim is to create an 31 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN

301、 KOREA OECD 2025 ecosystem where locally nurture talent is employed,settles in the region and contributes to the local economy.The Opportunity Development Zones are designed to attract large-scale corporate investments through regulatory exemptions,tax incentives(e.g.,deferred capital gains,income/c

302、orporate tax exemptions),and financial support.The Education Development Zones aim to improve public education and foster local talent by coordinating efforts between local governments,educational authorities,universities,and industry.The Downtown Cohesion Zones focus on developing high-density,mixe

303、d-use areas in city centres by leveraging public transport and cultural infrastructure to encourage compact urban growth.The Cultural Driven Cities seek to utilise local cultural assets to enhance regional creativity and cultural vitality(Korean Government,202341).Figure 1.8.Koreas four special zone

304、s for balanced regional development Source:Based on Korean Government(202341)Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan.One of the key lessons learnt from relocation initiatives is that providing jobs and housing alone is insufficient to encourage young people and businesses to move to pr

305、ovincial cities.Leisure,cultural,and commercial opportunities must also be available to improve quality of life and make these areas more attractive.As such,the development of commercial and cultural facilities should complement other measures aimed at enhancing living conditions.In this context,Dow

306、ntown Cohesion Zones(DCZs)are expected to play a pivotal role by promoting mixed land use and upgrading transport infrastructure.These zones aim to revitalise local city centres by concentrating government-wide resources and capacities in these areas.DCZs require a reorganisation of urban space by i

307、ntegrating industrial,residential,and cultural developments tailored to regional characteristics.In addition,they offer support to attract private investment and businesses.Unlike previous urban development strategies,which often led to low-density sprawl on city outskirts without adequate infrastru

308、cture for human settlement,DCZs promote high-density development in central urban areas to provide the necessary conditions for both business operations and liveability.The national government has selected leading projects from five metropolitan cities to serve as pilot DCZs(Table 1.2).32 ENHANCING

309、COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 There are,however,two issues that need to be highlighted regarding DCZs.The first one is the city-wide planning approach.Although DCZs are geographically focused on specific parts of a city,their development should adopt a whole-of-city p

310、erspective.This ensures that the wider implications,such as increased demand for housing,public transport,education,and healthcare,are carefully planned and managed.Without such a holistic approach,the benefits of the DCZ could be undermined by pressures on existing urban systems and infrastructure.

311、The second one is on connectivity and integration.DCZs typically involve the redevelopment of brownfield sites or the revitalisation of central urban areas,which aligns well with compact development strategies.However,it is essential to fully consider and strengthen connectivity within and beyond th

312、ese zones.This includes integrating Bus Rapid Transit(BRT),Light Rail Transit(LRT),and other sustainable transport options to ensure accessibility and support cohesive urban mobility networks.Table 1.2.Downtown Cohesion Zones projects to revitalise central areas of cities Metropolitan cities Locatio

313、n Example of promotion strategy Daegu Old Gyeongbuk-do Office-Samsung Campus-Kyungpook National University Area Support programmes for robot companies and young talent development.Gwangju Near Gwangju City Hall,Sangmu District Cultivating AI and automotive specialized industries,expanding cultural f

314、acilities.Daejeon Old Chungnam-=do Office,KTX Daejeon Station Area Platform for spreading scientific and technological exchanges,building landmark buildings.Busan Centum2 Urban Advanced Industrial Complex Area Fostering specialized industries in future mobility,robots,and AI.Ulsan Ulsan KTX station-

315、techno park area.Eco-friendly energy industry cluster,future mobility.Source:Woo(202343)Balanced Development Policies in Korea.Enhancing territorial transport connectivity may help attract and retain population and reduce inequality Improving transport connectivity across territories can play a cruc

316、ial role in attracting and retaining population while addressing regional disparities.Koreas efforts to mitigate the effects of overconcentration in the Seoul Metropolitan Area(SMA)have included the development of new towns around regional hub cities.While these initiatives have redistributed popula

317、tion to some extent,they have also introduced urban transport challenges such as car dependency,traffic congestion,pollution,and safety concerns,particularly for older residents,along with low transport efficiency.A key barrier to building more cohesive and liveable regions is the lack of robust pub

318、lic transport connections between regional hubs and their surrounding areas.As a result,developing eco-friendly and cost-efficient transport systems that support intra-regional connectivity has become a priority in Koreas transport policy agenda.Historically,Korean cities have relied on buses and su

319、bways for public transport.However,alternative modes are being explored to better serve both urban and regional areas.Cities such as Sejong have introduced Bus Rapid Transit(BRT)systems,while Busan-Gimhae operates a Light Rail Transit(LRT)service.In addition,research has highlighted the potential be

320、nefits of implementing Bimodal Tram(BT)systemsparticularly in small and medium-sized citiesgiven their environmental advantages and positive impact on urban image(Lee,201844;Eom et al.,200945).Transport policy should reflect the characteristics of individual towns.A significant issue in the developm

321、ent of new towns,common to many OECD countries,has been the provision of housing without ensuring adequate public transport access,especially for low-income residents(Lee and Park,200946).Although public transport has been incorporated into new town plans since 2018,inequities in accessibility persi

322、st.Studies have shown that low-income households are often 33 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 pushed to areas with poor accessibility where land prices are low,while higher-income groups are more likely to reside in well-connected neighbourhoods(Jang and Lee,2

323、02047).In the SMA,accessibility gaps by income level are relatively minor in Seoul,which benefits from an extensive public transport network.However,in Incheon and Gyeonggi Province,high-income areas tend to have far superior connectivity compared to those inhabited by low-income groups(Jang and Yi,

324、202148).To support affordable and equitable urban development,policies should promote compact urban forms alongside investment in affordable housing in well-connected areas.This can be achieved through fiscal incentives,enhancements to the rental housing market,and strengthening institutional capaci

325、ty and policy coordination(Box 1.4).Box 1.4.OECD recommendations on providing affordable housing while ensuring compact urban development Designing fiscal incentives to foster compact and inclusive cities by:Redesigning property taxes to incentivise more efficient land use through higher-density hou

326、sing development.Discouraging low-density housing construction at the periphery by adopting a development tax or impact fees that internalise the real cost of sprawl for property developers.Unlocking the potential of the rental market by:Establishing clear and balanced tenantlandlord regulations to

327、enhance transparency and ensure that both parties have equal access to information and legal recourse.Developing measures to support social rental housing and ensure adequate tenure protection without hampering residential mobility.Strengthening institutional capacity and build coherent policy frame

328、works by:Crafting national urban policies that align different ministries and levels of government behind a shared vision for cities,and design policy frameworks that enable subnational governments to promote denser,mixed-use development.Introducing mechanisms for better inter-municipal collaboratio

329、n for both demand-side and supply side housing policies.Increasing local capacity to collect property taxes by reviewing tax exemptions and strengthening national systems to identify taxable properties and assess property values.Source:Moreno Monroy,et al(202049)Housing policies for sustainable and

330、inclusive cities:How national governments can deliver affordable housing and compact urban development To tackle housing inequality and stabilise living conditions for ordinary citizens and low-income groups,the Korean government introduced the Happy Housing programmea low-cost public rental housing

331、 scheme targeted at university students,newlyweds,and recent graduates(OECD,201818).A key feature of this housing type is that it is built without parking facilities,thereby making public transport the primary commuting option for its residents.This makes proximity to public transport infrastructure

332、 essential for the success of such schemes.However,location decisions for Happy Housing are often driven by economic considerations,such as land availability and land value,rather than accessibility(Kim and Jang,201750).Korea should consider shifting housing policies towards ensuring that affordable

333、 housing is located near employment centres and well-served by public transport,thereby improving commuting conditions for low-income groups.At present,these households frequently face a trade-off between affordability and accessibility(Jang and Yi,202148).34 ENHANCING COMPACTNESS,CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN KOREA OECD 2025 While building affordable housing close to metro stations is challen