1、Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Guidebook for PolicymakersThe Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)is the most inclusive intergovernmental platform in the Asia-Pacific region.The Commission promotes cooperation among its 53 member States and 9 associate members in purs

2、uit of solutions to sustainable development challenges.ESCAP is one of the five regional commissions of the United Nations.The ESCAP secretariat supports inclusive,resilient,and sustainable development in the region by generating action-oriented knowledge,and by providing technical assistance and ca

3、pacity-building services in support of national development objectives,regional agreements and the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.The shaded areas of the map indicate ESCAP members and associate members.*The designations employed and the presentation of material on thi

4、s map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Integrated Public Transport Systems:A

5、 Guidebook for PolicymakersUnited Nations publicationST/ESCAP/3-TR/11Copyright United Nations 2024All rights reservedPhoto CreditsCover:iStock/Dinesh Hukmani,Jenny Yamamoto,Jill TipThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational or non-profit purposes without special permissio

6、n from the copyright holder,provided that the source is acknowledged.The ESCAP Publications Office would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.No use may be made of this publication for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior pe

7、rmission.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of reproduction,should be addressed to the Secretary of the Publications Board,United Nations,New York.DISCLAIMERThe views expressed in this guideline are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view

8、s of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP).The designations employed and the presentation of the material in the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status o

9、f any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.This report has been issued without formal editing.Integrated Public Transport S

10、ystems:A Guidebook for Policymakers vhe preparation of this Guidebook was led by Madan B.Regmi and Changju Lee,Economic Affairs Officers,Transport Division,ESCAP,and benefited from research support by Shivanand Swamy and Vladimir Kruchkov,international consultants.ESCAP gratefully acknowledges the v

11、aluable inputs made by Mukundan Krishnamachary,Rajneesh Porwal,Vivek Ogra and Shalini Sinha,whose insights enriched this work.Additionally,the support provided by Surya Sugathan,Khelan Modi and Parth Sharma is greatly appreciated.The manuscript was edited by Fuyo Jenny Yamamoto.Thanks also go to Boo

12、nyanin Pakvisal who provided research assistance.Several people generously granted permission to use their photos,including Cahn Do,Taufik Hidayah,Takatoshi Moriwaki,Haein Namgung,Setyo Nugroho,Ko Sagawa,Brett Scott and Jill Tip.An earlier draft of this Guidebook was presented as a background docume

13、nt and discussed at the“Expert Group Meeting on Integration of Urban Public Transport Systems and Application of Digital Technologies”held in Suwon,Republic of Korea,on 24 and 25 October 2023 in conjunction with the 8th Asia-Pacific Urban Forum.The comments and feedback received from experts and gov

14、ernment representatives are gratefully acknowledged.AcknowledgementsPhoto:iStock/chameleonseyeTvifficient public transport is no longer a choice but an imperative for modern cities striving to address challenges like traffic congestion,greenhouse gas emissions,air pollution,and other negative extern

15、alities.Integrated services offer seamless travel and smooth operations.When cities are planned as transit-oriented and inclusive,accessibility is greatly enhanced.Digital technologies can also further enhance the operational efficiency of urban public transport systems.However,many Asian cities ope

16、rate a combination of different public transport systems without due consideration to interoperability or connectivity between modes.Due to the multiplicity of agencies with functional overlaps,urban and transport planning processes are pursued in an unintegrated manner,leading to misalignments of t

17、ravel demand and public transport infrastructure and operations.Furthermore,there is wide variation in the utilisation of intelligent transport technology among Asian countries and cities.A lack of awareness among policymakers and limited institutional capacities limit the wider application of digit

18、al technologies in urban transport.PrefaceEPhoto:iStock/Uskarp viiTo address these challenges,ESCAP initiated the project Building Capacity for the Integration and Application of Digital Technologies in urban public transport systems in Asia-Pacific Cities(Project ID:2021-TD-001),which aims to build

19、 the capacity of cities to enhance the overall sustainability of urban public transport systems,evaluate the existing state of urban mobility,and provide innovative solutions in planning and developing integrated public transport systems.A key part of this project was to create a guide on how to int

20、egrate urban and transport planning and develop integrated public transport systems that incorporate digital technologies.Establishing an integrated public transport system is a complex task.To develop this Guidebook,the authors conducted extensive research on state-of-the-art integrated public tran

21、sport systems from around the world and consulted experts from the Asia-Pacific region.They also drew on the sustainable mobility assessments implemented under ESCAPs Sustainable Urban Transport Index(SUTI)project(see United Nations ESCAP,2022).The resulting Guidebook is therefore grounded in tried-

22、and-tested integrated public transport systems.For ease of reference,this Guidebook is structured according to the key elements of an integrated public transport system.It begins with the foundations of public transport systems,the institutional frameworks forintegrated public transport systems(Chap

23、ter 2)and integrating land use and transport planningprocesses(Chapter 3).Chapters 4 to 6 then describe the different options available to policymakers when designing theirsystems,including transit-based public transport modes(Chapter 4),operational strategies(Chapter 5),and interchanges(Chapter 6).

24、The next two chapters explain the important role played by data and digital technologies inoperational planning,management,and monitoring integrated public transport systems(Chapter7),as well as different approaches to fare integration(Chapter 8).Finally,ways to incorporate gender and social inclusi

25、on dimensions in the planning and designof integrated public transport are described(Chapter 9).To further illustrate these themes,a sister volume to this Guidebook,Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific,presents good practices from the region.Re

26、aders are encouraged to read the Compendium in conjunction with this Guidebook.It is hoped that all stakeholders who are involved in urban and transport development and operations in Asia and the Pacific,including government officials and policymakers,service providers,public transport agencies,and

27、operators,will find this Guidebook and the Compendium of Good Practices helpful for planning integrated public transport systems in their cities.viiiList of Figures.xList of Tables.xiList of Boxes.xiAcronyms and Abbreviations.xii1 Introduction1.1 What is an integrated public transport system?.21.2 C

28、hallenges of integrating public transport services.41.3 Structure of this Guidebook.41.4 Summary.62 Institutional Frameworks for Integrated Public Transport Systems2.1 Creating a robust institutional framework.82.2 Urban transport functions.92.3 Examples of different institutional models.112.4 Integ

29、rating public transport in privatised markets.122.5 Summary.133 Planning Integrated Public Transport Systems3.1 Approaches to integrating land use and transport planning.163.2 Key concepts for integrated land use and transport planning.193.3 Summary.244 Urban Public Transport Modes4.1 Classification

30、s of public transport.264.2 Bus-based public transport systems.264.3 Rail-based public transport systems.324.4 Techno-economic characteristics.354.5 Summary.365 Operational Strategies5.1 What is an operational strategy?.385.2 Route structure of public transport services.385.3 Key considerations when

31、 designing public transport services.405.4 Summary.44Table of Contents ix6 Interchanges6.1 What are Interchanges?.466.2 Station design.466.3 Areas around the station.486.4 Hierarchy of interchanges.516.5 Summary.527 Data and Digital Applications7.1 Growing importance of data and digital applications

32、.547.2 Digital applications for traffic management.547.3 Intelligent Transit Management System(ITMS).557.4 Emerging technologies and applications.627.5 Summary.648 Integrating Fare Systems8.1 What is fare integration?.668.2 Fare policy.668.3 Fare collection technologies.698.4 Market approach to fare

33、 integration.738.5 Mobility as a Service.748.6 Summary.749 Gender and Social Inclusion9.1 Public transport through a gender and social inclusion lens.769.2 Elements of gender-responsive transport.789.3 Summary.8010 Way Forward for Integrated Public Transport Systems10.1 Key Messages.8210.2 Concludin

34、g Remarks.84Endnotes .85 References.87xFigure 1.1 Various legs of a multimodal journey.2Figure 2.1 Agencies responsible for transport in Delhi.8Figure 2.2 Functions to be performed for the provision of urban transport.9Figure 3.1 Avoid-Shift-Improve Approach.20Figure 3.2 Urban Growth Patterns.20Figu

35、re 3.3 Complete Networks.22Figure 3.4 Illustration of route structure across an integrated public transport network.22Figure 3.5 Density distribution along Transit Oriented Development.23Figure 4.1 Double-decker bus in Singapore.27Figure 4.2 Station and Bus Dimensions.28Figure 4.3 Types of operating

36、 strategy.28Figure 4.4 Mixed traffic in Mumbai,India.29Figure 4.5 Guided bus in Luton,United Kingdom.29Figure 4.6 CNG bus in Hanoi,Vietnam.30Figure 4.7 Trolleybus in Ulaanbaator,Mongolia.31Figure 4.8 Cumulative rail transit adoption in cities(worldwide)over time.33Figure 4.9 Dhaka Metro.33Figure 5.1

37、 Features of direct-service routes.39Figure 5.2 Features of trunk feeder service routes.40Figure 5.3 ROW classification based on segregation.41Figure 5.4 Illustration of a passenger journey.43Figure 5.5 Timetable of frequency by distance and type of area.45Figure 6.1 Major zones of an interchange st

38、ation.46Figure 6.2 KL Central Interchange,Kuala Lumpur.47Figure 6.3 Signage in the Tokyo Metro.47Figure 6.4 Retail shops in Surabaya Gubeng Stations.47Figure 6.5 Act of Transfer.48Figure 6.6 Strategies to give pedestrians and cyclists priority.49Figure 6.7 Floor Markings in Tokyo Station.49Figure 6.

39、8 Different Levels of Interchanges.51Figure 6.9 Main bus terminal in Suva,Fiji.52Figure 7.1 Components of an Intelligent Transit Management System.56Figure 7.2 Phrom Phong station,Bangkok Mass Transit System.60Figure 7.3 Interfaces of Journey Planner mobile application of Hong Kong MRT.59Figure 7.4

40、Multilingual sign on platform in Tokyo.62Figure 7.5 Command and Control Centre is at the centre of operations management.61Figure 8.1 Goals of transit agencies that influence fare strategy.67Figure 8.2 Constraints faced by transit agencies that influence fare strategy.67Figure 8.3 Types of Fare Stru

41、cture.68Figure 8.4 Travel Card of Ahmedabad BRTS.71Figure 8.5 Ticket reader in a Japanese metro station for IC card,ordinary paper ticket,smartphone ticket,and QR code ticket.71Figure 8.6 Components of the Automated Fare Collection System.73Figure 9.1 Differences in mobility patterns for women and m

42、en.77Figure 9.2 Women walking along elevated walkway,Mumbai.78Figure 9.3 Staff at Aluva Metro Station,Kochi.80List of Figures xiTable 1.1 Benefits of integrated public transport systems.3Table 2.1 Management of public transport operations.13Table 2.2 Generic business models.14 Table 3.1 Comparison o

43、f conventional and integrated planning approaches.17Table 4.1 Classification of Urban Passenger Transport Modes.26Table 4.2 Directional line capacity of buses by type and headway.32Table 4.3 Technical characteristics of metro rail.34Table 4.4 Techno-economic considerations.35Table 5.1 Stop/Station S

44、pacing.42Table 7.1 ITMS Functions and Devices for Bus Systems.56Table 8.1 Characteristics of Ticketing Media.70List of BoxesBox 1.1 Different definitions of integrated public transport.6Box 2.1 Private sector involvement in Surats bus services.14 Box 3.1 Istanbuls Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan.19B

45、ox 4.1 Bus Rapid Transit(BRT)systems continue to spread.30Box 4.2 The electric bus revolution in China.31Box 4.3 Kuala Lumpur(KL)Monorail,Malaysia.34Box 6.1 Comparison of passive and active integration:the case of BRT and bus services.50Box 7.1 City-wide ITMS in Surat City,India.57 Box 7.2 Smart She

46、lter Bus Stops.59 Box 7.3 Guangzhou,a 5G Smart Transportation City.64 Box 8.1 Will fare collection using biometric data ever become the norm?.74Box 9.1 For women,by women pink autorickshaw services in Indian cities.79 List of TablesxiiAFCS Automated Fare Collection System AI Artificial Intelligence

47、ATIS Advanced Traveller Information Systems ATM Automatic Teller Machine ATMS Advanced Traffic Management Systems AV Autonomous Vehicles AVLS Automated Vehicle Location SystemBCM Bus Contracting ModelBEV Battery Electric Vehicles BI Business Intelligence BMTLA Bengaluru Metropolitan Land Transport A

48、uthority BRTS Bus Rapid Transit SystemCAD Computer-Aided DispatchCBD Central Business DistrictCMP Comprehensive Mobility PlanCNG Compressed Natural GasDDU Driver Display UnitDMS Depot Management SystemERF Electronically Registering Fare BoxERP Electronic Road Pricing ETA Estimated Time of Arrival ET

49、D Estimated Time of DepartureETMs Electronic Ticketing Machines GCC Gross Cost ContractGHG Greenhouse Gas GIS Geographical Information System HMC High Mobility CorridorICE Internal Combustion EngineIoT Internet of ThingsIPT Intermediary Public TransportITMS Intelligent Transit Management System ITS

50、Intelligent Transport System LF Load FactorLRT Light Rail TransitLTA Land Transport Authority(Singapore)MaaS Mobility as a Service MRT Mass Rapid TransitMTR Mass Transit Railway NCC Net Cost ContractNCMC National Common Mobility CardO/M Operations/MaintenanceOBU On-Board Unit OHE Overhead EquipmentO

51、NDC Open Network for Digital Commerce PA Public Announcement PHPDT Peak Hour Peak Direction TrafficPIS Passenger Information SystemsPPHPD Passengers Per Hour in Peak DirectionAcronyms and Abbreviations PPP Public Private Partnership PT Public TransportROW Right-of-WaySDGs Sustainable Development Goa

52、ls SMC Surat Municipal Corporation SOP Standard Operating ProcedureSPV Special-Purpose VehicleSTU State Transport Undertaking SUMP Sustainable Urban Mobility PlanSUTI Sustainable Urban Transport Index TCCC Transit Command&Control CentreTfL Transport for LondonTOD Transit Oriented Development TOM Tic

53、ket Office MachineTPU Ticket Processing Unit 1IntroductionHongdae(Hongik University)Subway Entrance,Seoul.Photo:iStock/Jae Young Ju121.1 WHAT IS AN INTEGRATED PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM?Most Asian cities are large and economically vibrant,characterised by high-density,mixed land-use development.In many

54、 cases,the rapid rates of economic and population growth have led to a surge in private vehicle use and put pressure on public transport systems,which in turn has contributed to severe congestion,travel time and costs,accidents,poor air quality,and growing greenhouse gas emissions.While some cities

55、in Asia and the Pacific are leaders in public transport,studies have also found that public transport systems in the region generally perform poorly in terms of operational efficiency and service quality.1 ESCAPs Sustainable Urban Transport Index(SUTI)assessments,for example,found that the overall p

56、erformances of cities in the region were generally below par.2 Poor public transport does not necessarily mean a lack of services.Indeed,most cities have multiple modes of public transport,such as buses,metro,commuter rail,and bus rapid transit systems.Problems arise when these modes are managed and

57、 operated by different operators without adequate connectivity.For example,some cities have recently introduced high-capacity transit systems,but they are often planned as separate systems with little effort to integrate them with existing modes such as bus services,which are the primary providers o

58、f public transport services in many Asian cities.This makes operations inefficient for the operators and cumbersome for users.Integrating public transport systems can make a substantial contribution to resolving these problems.The core principle is to make it easy for individuals to move from one mo

59、de of transport to another by providing seamless connectivity between modes(Figure 1.1).1Source:Adapted from CEPT/ADB(2023).FIGURE 1.1 Various legs of a multimodal journey Complete JourneyQuality Measures:Safety,Reliability,ComfortPT TravelOriginWALKWAITWALKTRANSFERTRANSFEROrigin StopBus StopMetro S

60、tationBus StopDestination StopDestination 3TABLE 1.1 Benefits of integrated public transport systemsFor passengers Improved travel experiences on public transport,comparable to journeys using private vehicles.Increased reliability and safety.Reduced travel times and costs.Greater coverage,accessibil

61、ity,and flexibility while planning journeys/trips.Increased physical and mental well-being.When public transport is accessible to citizens,users walk 8 to 30 minutes more daily compared to non-transit users,increasing their daily physical activity.3 For Transport Operators Lower unhealthy competitio

62、n and brings complementarity to the system.Increased public transport ridership and revenues.Optimal utilisation of vehicles,increased efficiency,and enhanced capacity of each mode and for the system as a whole.For Society Lower greenhouse gas emissions.It is estimated that public transport has the

63、potential to reduce harmful CO2 emissions by 37 million metric tons each year through measures such as curbing the increase in vehicle miles travelled,alleviating congestion and supporting more efficient land use patterns.4 Lower per capita fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions compared to private v

64、ehicles.Greater road safety and quality of living.Optimal use of scarce urban street space:On average,a bus can accommodate the equivalent passenger load of approximately 5.83 cars.5 Greater social inclusion and cohesion:While all residents are affected by poor public transport,it is often the socia

65、lly and physically disadvantaged who bear the biggest brunt.Source:Adapted from CEPT/ADB(2023).While various authors and organisations have proposed their own definitions of an integrated transport system(Box 1.1),we define integrated public transport as:a system which combines various transport mod

66、es and operators,through organisational and planning processes,facilitated through the adoption of infrastructure and technologies,to maximise ease and efficiency for passengers.Greater utilisation of public transport can have economic,social,and environmental benefits for individuals,organisations,

67、and society as a whole.It also benefits transport operators.In particular,integrating public transport helps cities move their people efficiently and seamlessly without relying on a single mode.This can lead to more people shifting from private cars and two-wheelers to public transport.Some of the o

68、ther benefits of integrated public transport systems are described in Table 1.1.Introduction41.2 CHALLENGES OF INTEGRATING PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICES The benefits of integrating public transport in cities are evident.But implementing it on the ground is riddled with obstacles,including those describe

69、d below.A multiplicity of operators:As public transport systems are introduced with different time horizons,integration sometimes requires previously existing services to be discontinued,which is often resisted.Gains in efficiency and potential ridership and revenue increases are often not appreciat

70、ed.Institutional inadequacies:Sometimes no agency has the legal backing to mandate integration,and operators continue with how they have been operating.Financial barriers:Integrating different systems involves investments in infrastructure,both digital and physical.Mobilising investment resources an

71、d cost-sharing between agencies/operators can be challenging.Technological barriers:Integration also needs compatible physical,technical and operating infrastructure.Public transport agencies procure services of different operators under contractual agreements whose terms and conditions may not alwa

72、ys match.Technologies used by operators for information sharing,fare collection,etc.,may not allow interoperability.Political barriers:Lack of political will is a major issue in reforming public transport.The lack of appreciation of the benefits of integration is also a challenge.Public awareness:Th

73、e implementation of new systems usually happens over a protracted period.People need to adopt new ways of travel.During the implementation period,there will be hurdles that cause inconvenience to the public,resulting in resistance.Overcoming these barriers is a challenge.However,it can be achieved b

74、y taking a holistic and collaborative approach to integration,and by involving multiple stakeholders such as government agencies,transport operators,urban planners,and the public.The synergies and complementarities between various measures should be coordinated to create an efficient transport syste

75、m.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THIS GUIDEBOOKFor ease of reference,this Guidebook has been structured according to the key elements which need to be put in place to achieve an integrated public transport system:Chapter 2.Institutional Frameworks for Integrated Public Transport Systems:This chapter describes urb

76、an transport functions and presents different institutional models to facilitate the planning and delivery of transport services in an integrated public transport system.Chapter 3.Planning Integrated Public Transport Systems:This chapter presents different approaches and methodologies for preparing

77、urban and transport plans for integrated public transport systems.Chapter 4.Urban Public Transport Modes:This chapter describes the main transit modes used in urban public transport modes,their application and selection.1 5Chapter 5.Operational Strategies:This chapter focuses on principles,concepts,

78、and techniques for preparing the operating strategy of integrated public transport networks and services.Chapter 6.Interchanges:This chapter describes different types of interchanges and their roles in connecting different modes and services within stations.Chapter 7.Data and Digital Applications:Th

79、is chapter introduces how data and digital technologies are applied in integrated public transport systems,such as for traffic management,user information,and public transport operations planning and management.Chapter 8.Integrating Fare Systems:This chapter presents different approaches to formulat

80、ing integrated fare policies,level and structure,and collection and distribution.Chapter 9.Gender and Social Inclusion:This chapter describes gender and social inclusion issues in public transport and how these can be addressed in the planning and operations of integrated public transport.Chapter 10

81、.Way Forward for Integrated Public Transport Systems:This chapter summarises the Guidebook with key messages for transforming and describes some of key emerging technologies which are expected to support and transform integrated public transport systems in the future.Case studies to illustrate these

82、 chapters are given in the sister volume to this Guidebook,Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific.IntroductionPhoto:iStock/AsianDream61BOX 1.1 Different definitions of integrated public transport1.Public transport network which combines different

83、 transport modes to maximise ease and efficiency for passengers in terms of time,cost,comfort,safety,accessibility,and convenience.2.Integration is an organisational process that includes elements of the public transport system(network and infrastructure,tariffs and tickets,information,and marketing

84、,etc.)and allows operators to communicate more effectively with each other.This results in an overall improvement in travel conditions for quality services.3.Integrated transport system encompasses the totality or greater part of a citys territory,and offers public transport user the possibility to

85、use multiple transport modes means that work in coordination through infrastructure,fare model and common validation systems.4.Public transport integration includes the comprehensive planning of services within an urban market to facilitate seamless,multi-operator journeys.It entails the organisatio

86、n of modes and services into a rational system of operational features in terms of routes,frequencies,timetables,fares,and ticketing,as well as policy aspects,such as planning,marketing,and development.5.Transport integration is an organisational process through which the planning and delivery of el

87、ements of the transport system are brought together across modes,sectors,operators,and institutions to increase the net environmental and societal benefits.Sources:1.Higbee,B.(n.d.).2.NEA,OGM,TSU(2003).3.Mobility Academy.(n.d.).4.Rivasplata,C.(2006).5.Preston,J.(2012).1.4 SUMMARYMany cities are plan

88、ning to expand their public transport systems through network expansions and introducing a new high-demand public transport mode.The transition to green mobility is also taking place at a rapid pace.Given these opportunities,cities should integrate their public transport systems to provide seamless

89、travel for customers as an alternative to private modes.Policymakers,municipal officials,and transport operators must work together to plan and operate these public transport systems.While integrated public transport systems are a critical part of any strategy to improve urban mobility,there is no s

90、ingle model of an integrated public transport system.This Guidebook will discuss the different approaches which policymakers and transport operators can choose from to achieve integrated public transport systems.7Institutional Frameworks for Integrated Public Transport SystemsMeeting on sustainable

91、transport,Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia.Photo:Madan Regmi282.1 CREATING A ROBUST INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Urban and transport governance processes in most cities have evolved incrementally,resulting in a multiplicity of agencies with overlapping functions and jurisdictions.In many cases,agencies take operatio

92、nal decisions independently,which impacts both the customer and the operators adversely.For example,in many cities,the customer is made to change modes/routes multiple times during a single journey and to pay a transfer penalty each time a mode/route change is made.This means additional time and cos

93、t of travel.Inadequacies in existing institutions,such as laws,regulations,rules,and structures governing the operations and interactions of organisations and stakeholders,can also impede progress toward sustainable transport.With overlapping services,there is an imbalance in the overall demand and

94、supply,suggesting that resources are not being used efficiently.A typical case of multiple agencies delivering urban transport functions with overlapping jurisdictions is illustrated by the city of Delhi(Figure 2.1).It should be noted that in addition to the various agencies below,the cities of Fari

95、dabad,Ghaziabad,Gurugram,and Noida,which are part of the National Capital Region,also operate their own public transport buses.2FIGURE 2.1 Agencies responsible for transport in DelhiSource:ESCAPTo deliver balanced supply-side and demand-side measures,actions must be coordinated at the institutional

96、level.According to a World Bank study(2013),the most effective approach is to establish a lead agency responsible for urban transport,particularly in rapidly growing cities that require multimodal transport systems.However,the study also emphasised the importance of involving different stakeholders

97、by establishing a robust institutional framework that clearly defines planning,coordinating,and operating processes.Such a framework would consist of:TRANSPORT DEPARTMENTPlanning and DesignOperations and ManagementLicensingRegulationPROVINCIALDELHI CANTONMENT AUTHORITYManagement of Cantonment Land N

98、ATIONALDELHI DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITYPlanning and DesignNATIONALDELHI INTEGRATED MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT SERVICESPlanning and DesignImplementationOperations and ManagementPROVINCIAL INDIAN RAILWAYSPlanning and DesignImplementationOperations and ManagementNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENTEmission StandardsPR

99、OVINCIAL PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENTImplementationPROVINCIAL DELHI TRANSPORT CORPORATIONImplementationOperations and ManagementPROVINCIAL MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONPlanning Implementation ManagementLOCAL DELHI METRO RAIL CORPORATIONPlanning and DesignImplementationOperations and ManagementPROVINCIAL AND NATI

100、ONAL DELHI POLICERegulationNATIONAL Agencies Responsible for Transport in Delhi 9Institutional Frameworks for Integrated Public Transport Systems A core agency(ies)set up through an act of the legislature or an order of the government A defined set of functions and responsibilities to deliver,and A

101、set of powers,resources and procedures(rules,regulations)allocated to support the assigned roles.FIGURE 2.2 Functions to be performed for the provision of urban transport Source:Adapted from World Bank(2013)2.2.1 STRATEGIC FUNCTIONSStrategic functions involve defining the vision,identifying objectiv

102、es,and establishing broad policies and strategies to achieve them.These include:Urban and transport planning Long-range major infrastructure investment needs assessment and financial planning Safety standards,financing investments and operations Fixation of fares based on desired cost recovery from

103、fare box and other sources Clarifying the role of the private sector Network plan/coverage Setting performance standards,and Governance structures and institutions.Strategic FunctionsStrategic Planning and Policy FormulationRegulationInfrastructure/Facility Construction and Maintenance Safety Regula

104、tionCommercial RegulationInfrastructure PlanningCommon ServicesService PlanningIndependent ServicesPlanningPublic Transport OperationsTactical FunctionsOperational Functions2.2 URBAN TRANSPORT FUNCTIONSThe decision areas for urban transport service delivery are classified hierarchically by their str

105、ategic,tactical,and operational functions.According to the World Bank(2002),there needs to be an appropriate allocation of functions to levels and institutions in the regulation,management and delivery of urban transport services.Drawing on World Bank(2013),this section describes the three levels of

106、 functions for public transport(Figure 2.2),namely:Strategic level what do we want to achieve?Tactical level what product can help to achieve the aims?Operational level how do we produce that service?10In an ideal situation,the above functions would be performed by a lead institution,such as the Lan

107、d Transport Authority(LTA)in Singapore,Transport for London(TfL),Mass Transit Railway(MTR)in Hong Kong,China and Bengaluru Metropolitan Land Transport Authority(BMLTA)(see Section 2.3 below and also Chapter 2 in the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the

108、 Pacific for more information).2.2.2 TACTICAL FUNCTIONS Tactical functions involve decision-making about how to achieve the defined objectives.These functions can be divided into two sub-levels,Regulation and Planning.Regulatory functions are usually required under statute,involving some aspects of

109、public health,safety,and equity.They can be further divided into safety regulations and commercial regulations.Safety regulations typically seek to ensure that the operation of transport services is safe,and include issuing driving licenses,vehicle specification,vehicle fitness test,driving speed re

110、gulation,pollution control,traffic management,etc.Commercial regulations seek to ensure a degree of equity,prevent monopoly pricing,and attempt to match supply and demand(e.g.,route permits for public transport operators,operating conditions such as frequency and hours of operation).Fares are prescr

111、ibed to ensure that public transport is affordable to all sections of society.Planning functions are not usually required by statute but are necessary for systematic and efficient investment and operations.In the context of urban transport,planning functions can be classified as infrastructure plann

112、ing and service planning.Infrastructure planning allocates scarce public money to various public transport infrastructure developments such as roads,public transport facilities,sidewalks and parking spaces.Service planning includes designing the network or individual routes in terms of terminals and

113、 alignment,determining demand along routes and supply arrangements to meet the demand,establishing operating standards,calculating the level of service on each route,developing contracting terms and contracting operations,designing a compensation mechanism,and monitoring and evaluation.2.2.3 OPERATI

114、ONAL FUNCTIONSOperational functions are responsible for executing infrastructure and service plans efficiently,encompassing infrastructure development and public transport operations.Infrastructure Plans involve infrastructure construction,management,and maintenance activities for roads,bridges,foot

115、paths,parking facilities,transitways,bus stops,and terminals.Services involve the operation of public transport services and can be categorised into two parts:Common services are essential for all operators,often involving natural monopolies that benefit from economies of scale.Examples of common se

116、rvices include the provision and upkeep of 2 112.3 EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONAL MODELS Different cities have developed their own institutional models for delivering integrated public transport,according to their city context.Based on a review of global good practices,four types of institution

117、al models were selected as potential examples to other cities.For a more detailed description of these examples,please refer to Chapter 2 of the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific.Single authority responsible for integrated land use and trans

118、port development-Land Transport Authority(LTA),Singapore Single authority as regulator and organiser of urban transport with existing institutions-Bengaluru Metropolitan Land Transport Authority(BMLTA),India Urban local body for planning and managing public transport-Surat Municipal Corporation(SMC)

119、,India Single agency for coordination-Transit Alliances,Germany.2.3.1 SINGLE AUTHORITY RESPONSIBLE FOR INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT In 2021,an average of about 5.3 million passengers a day used public transport in Singapore,which is comprised of public buses,Mass Rapid Transit(MRT)a

120、nd Light Rail Transit(LRT).The popularity of public transport lies partly in the effectiveness of its unique institutional model.Singapore pioneered the consolidation of various transport entities into a single authority,the Land Transport Authority(LTA).The LTA plans the long-term transport needs o

121、f the city and sets out clear objectives in long-term strategic plans.With the LTA overseeing and managing all the public transport modes at strategic and tactical levels,the public transport system in the city works as a single integrated unit.This model requires merging all agencies delivering pub

122、lic transport functions into a single unified agency,which is a long-term process requiring a high level of political commitment and resources,and involving significant administrative restructuring.2.3.2 SINGLE AUTHORITY AS REGULATOR AND ORGANISER OF URBAN TRANSPORT WITH EXISTING INSTITUTIONS The Be

123、ngaluru Metropolitan Land Transport Authority(BMLTA)is a good example of a single agency which coordinates all land transport activities in collaboration with existing institutions in the city.To combat congestion arising from population growth and motorization,it was thought that the Institutional

124、Frameworks for Integrated Public Transport Systemsbus stations and passenger terminals,passenger information systems,revenue sharing among operators,accident recovery,public relations,security services,and dispute resolution.Independent services involve the day-to-day operation of specific facilitie

125、s and services,such as bus systems,metro rail systems,tram systems,BRT,and parking garages.These functions include vehicle scheduling,staff deployment for public transport services on different routes,maintenance schedules for vehicles,fare collection and deposit,procurement of spare parts and stock

126、s,and the maintenance of rolling stock.122.3.3 URBAN LOCAL BODY FOR PLANNING AND MANAGING PUBLIC TRANSPORT The case of Surat City demonstrates how local bodies can also effectively plan and manage urban and public transport.However,this is feasible only if local bodies are adequately empowered throu

127、gh legislation to undertake such a responsibility.The Surat Municipal Corporation(SMC)is legally empowered to deliver public transport services under the Gujarat Municipal Corporation Act.The SMC delivers strategic functions such as the preparation of the Surat Development Plans with Surat Urban Dev

128、elopment Authority(SUDA)as well as the Comprehensive Mobility Plans.The city operates three bus-based public transport systems,including the Bus Rapid Transit System(BRTS),the city bus service and the High Mobility Corridor(HMC).All three systems operate on an integrated network and information syst

129、em,with a single fare structure and single ticket for the entire journey(Box 2.1).2.3.4 SINGLE AGENCY FOR COORDINATIONTransit alliances act as an umbrella organisation,legal entity or administrative unit to oversee and coordinate integrated public transport.The concept of transit alliance appeared f

130、irst in the 1960s and became popular across Germany and other parts of Europe.For example,the Verkehrsverbund,the German public transport alliance system,is regarded as the first and most successful form of integrated transport in the world.6 The Rhine-Main Transit Alliance(RMV)has representatives f

131、rom 19 major cities in the Frankfurt and surrounding regions and works with the public transport regulatory authority and 153 transport operators.The model balances the interests of responsible authorities and operators and involves minimal restructuring of service delivery institutions.By linking d

132、ifferent modes and local authorities,it can eliminate competing transport services and coordinate all services efficiently,resulting in additional fare revenue which increases the profitability of the system7.The transit alliance also undertakes joint initiatives such as advertising and public relat

133、ions campaigns to enhance the image of public transport.City authorities offered subsidies to the operators to cover any operational losses due to the integration efforts.2.4 INTEGRATING PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN PRIVATISED MARKETS In many countries,national and municipal governments still shoulder a subs

134、tantial portion of the cost of public transport.For example,the Government of China is heavily subsidising the cost of public transport in cities.8 However,it is becoming more common to unbundle operational functions and invite the private sector to provide them.A Public Private Partnership(PPP)is t

135、he provision of public service by a private partner under an agreement with a public agency,for a specified period and with the provision that the authority can charge an agreed fee.The argument 2unification of several city transport agencies under one umbrella was necessary.By forming an agency lik

136、e BMLTA and restructuring the roles and responsibilities of existing institutions,it was possible to bring the relevant stakeholders involved in urban development onto a single platform.The BMLTA acts as a regulator,organiser and coordinator of urban transport planning and management.This allows exi

137、sting agencies to continue to operate with modified functions/jurisdictions and operations to deliver integrated services.13TABLE 2.1 Management of public transport operationsSource:ESCAPThe success of private sector involvement in public transport depends on finding the right business model for tha

138、t particular service.As Figure 2.3 shows,there are a range of different business models which can be employed.One of the main differences between the models are in the ownership,management and financing of assets(mainly vehicles).The designs of the institutional framework and business model therefor

139、e go hand in hand.Having a clear understanding of the respective parties roles when involving the private sector can help ensure that the different parties share the same objectives,as has been demonstrated in the case of Surats Sitilink services(Box 2.1).Institutional Frameworks for Integrated Publ

140、ic Transport SystemsPublic SupplyServices and associated facilities are completely owned and operated by public agencies.Service Contracts Facilities are owned by the public agency and some of the services are contracted to private agencies.Management ContractsFacilities are owned by the public agen

141、cy,but the operations are fully contracted to private agencies.Concessions Contracts Facilities are owned by the public agency but need costly improvement and capacity addition.Build-Operate-TransferNew facilities need to be built and operated.Joint OwnershipJointly owned by public and private parti

142、es.Private SupplyFacilities are owned by private agencies and also operated by them.ENTIRELY PUBLICENTIRELY PRIVATEfor this model is that it takes advantage of private sector efficiencies in operations,attracts private investment to manage natural monopolies,and can incorporate universal service obl

143、igations.Table 2.1 depicts different options for the management of public transport operations,ranging from entirely public to private.2.5 SUMMARY The institutional integration of public transport systems is imperative for the effective and efficient functioning of urban mobility.By bringing togethe

144、r various transport agencies,stakeholders,and governing bodies,institutional integration can lead to improved coordination,streamlined decision-making,and enhanced overall service quality.However,there is no one-size-fits-all model.The choice of the model depends on each citys unique circumstances a

145、nd needs.Historical context,existing governance structure,size of the city,number of modes and operators,political values,and administrative cultures can all influence the most appropriate model.It is essential to tailor approaches to specific contexts.14FIGURE 2.2 Generic business modelsSource:Jana

146、ni,V.,Gautam,P.(2021)Source:Center of Excellence in Urban Transport,CEPT University2BOX 2.1 Private sector involvement in Surats bus servicesIn Surat,Sitilinks key business components were unbundled for private participation across groups that comprise customised buses and depots;ITMS,control centre

147、 and fare collection system;bus network and stations/terminals;and support services such as housekeeping and security(see figure).While these components are interdependent,each component has its own planning,design,procurement,supervision and management requirements.To deliver efficient services,Sit

148、ilink developed business models which aim to enhance productivity and quality.Moreover,they aim to achieve cost efficiencies and minimise long-term employee liabilities and legacy costs by outsourcing services to the private sector.City bus services and bus rapid transit services are being operated

149、on a Gross Cost Contract basis(GCC),where private operators are paid based on the performance of operations.BUSINESS MODELDESCRIPTIONEXAMPLEOutright Purchase Model(OPM)State Transport Undertakings(STUs)purchase Bus with battery,chargers and gets charging infra installed at its own cost;and relies on

150、 warranty and training for Operation and Maintenance(O&M)Uttar Pradesh and Calcutta under Faster Adoption&Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles Scheme(FAME)IGross Cost Contract 1(GCC 1)All assets supplied,financed,owned,and operated by private entity against pay per use and assured km contractIndia FAM

151、E IIGross Cost Contract 2(GCC 2)All assets financed and purchased by STU&operated and maintained by consortiums against pay per use and assured km contractBuses financed under Jawaharial Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission(JnNURM),outsources to Private Operators.Net Cost Contract Model(NCC)Assets f

152、inanced by the STU&Private entity.STU retains ownership and O&M is done by Private operator with support of training from Original Equipment Manufacturer(OEM)Indore,IndiaFinancial Lease(FL)Vehicles financed and owned by Financial Institution&given on lease to STU for O&M with support of training fro

153、m OEMSome cities of ChinaUnbundling Model(UM)Vehicles purchased by STU and battery is leased.Charging infra.Could also be leased purchased or oursourced.United States of America,where Proterra sells the buses and batteries are leased.Financial Lease+Unbundling(FL+UM)All assets are supplied by manufa

154、cturer through leasing.ESP leases battery from OEM;resposible for O&M of battery,charging infra.Shenzhen,ChinaUtility Provider Led Model(UPM)Utility provider offers complete solution through different contracts(with STU for service,OEMs for supply of assets and bus operators for operations)Santiago,

155、Chile.Being attempted by National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd.(NTPC)in India 15Planning Integrated Public Transport SystemsAerial picture of railway station in Delhi,India.Photo:Brett Cole3163.1 APPROACHES TO INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNINGUrban form and design can greatly influence tr

156、avel patterns and infrastructure needs.For example,the distribution and density of land use determine the demand for transport,with higher densities often correlating with increased reliance on public transit and non-motorized modes.The term“integrated land use and transport planning”represents a ho

157、listic approach to urban planning that harmonises land use and transport to create sustainable,efficient,and liveable urban environments.Urban and transport planning practices involve a range of strategies,principles,and methodologies used by city planners,urban designers,transport engineers,and pol

158、icymakers.Effective integration requires careful consideration of access management,environmental impact,and economic development.Concepts such as Transit-Oriented Development(TOD exemplify the intentional integration of land use and transport planning,fostering mixed-use communities around transit

159、hubs.Before elaborating on this and other key concepts used for integrated land use and transport planning,it is useful to look at the different characteristics of traditional land use and transport planning and integrated planning approaches.3.1.1 DEVELOPMENT PLANS Master Plans(or Development Plans

160、 are prepared by metropolitan or urban development authorities.Their fundamental purpose is to guide and regulate physical development and land use within the area under their jurisdiction for a medium-to long-term period,typically 10 to 20 years,with periodic revisions(such as every 10 years.These

161、plans are developed based on current and future forecasts of factors such as development patterns,socioeconomic characteristics,economic prospects,environmental considerations,and demographics.Some typical land use indicators include the following:9 Density can be used as an indicator to plan city s

162、ize and structure.Compact city activities resultin shorter trip lengths and times and may also attract people to walk/cycle.Concentration of activities such as polycentric or mono-centric development depends on patternsof growth within the city,redevelopment of areas,and reinforcement of urban sub-c

163、entres aroundpublic transport nodes.Activity mix also has an impact on travel patterns.Mixed-use developments generate shortertrips and non-motorised trips.3.1.2 TRANSPORT PLANS A Transport(or Transportation)Plan is a strategic document that outlines a comprehensive set of policies,goals,and strateg

164、ies related to transport within a city.The primary purpose of a Transport Plan is to guide the development,management,and improvement of transport infrastructure and systems to meet the mobility needs of the population,while addressing environmental,economic,and social objectives.Typical transport p

165、olicy measures include:Building a road network in a newly developed areaCompleting a road network by adding missing links and developing a road hierarchy system3 17Extending public transport networks to new areas or improving accessibility by public transportthrough frequency/capacity improvements.C

166、onventional transport planning primarily focuses on the development and management of transport infrastructure,often without a strong connection to land use planning.3.1.3 INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANS Integrated land use and transport planning is a holistic and sustainable approach that r

167、ecognizes the intrinsic connection between how a city is developed and how people move within it.It seeks to harmonise land use and transport to create more liveable and efficient urban environments.Some of the differences between conventional and integrated planning are described in Table 3.1.As ci

168、ties vary in size,density,settlement patterns,socio-economic systems,and mobility patterns,it is important to consider these factors when planning city development.Large cities might require interventions at the regional level to integrate land use and transport,whereas small cities may require inte

169、rvention at the city level.TABLE 3.1 Comparison of conventional and integrated planning approachesPlanning Integrated Public Transport SystemsCOMPONENTCONVENTIONAL TRANSPORT PLANNINGINTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNINGFocus Emphasis on vehicle movementand high-cost mass transit.The objective i

170、s to increasecapacity and in turn speeds.Focuses on mobility.Emphasis is on moving people and goodsto connect them from where they are to wherethey want or need to go.The objective is to minimize travel and its negativeeffects to achieve sustainable development.Focuses on accessibility.Approach Adop

171、ts a rationalist approachto present a long-term plan whichgenerally has a bias towardsmajor capital investment projects(highways,flyovers&rail transit).Ignores pedestrian,non-motorisedvehicles(NMV),and publictransport requirementsas well as better managementof existing and new capacity.Adopts integr

172、ated approach to match the needsof all types of people.Modes often arranged ina hierarchy,with pedestrians,cyclists and publictransport at the top and car users at the bottom.Road space is allocated accordingly.Assumes land use and transport to beinterdependent.Decisions are based onthe common visio

173、n.Perceives development and transit as a cyclicalprocess.Hence enhance accessibility throughmobility and proximity.Future recommendations Predict and provide forecasting.Assumes the future to bepredictable;adopts a most likelyfuture based on a year-by-yearsequence of events.Forecastingis the key ele

174、ment of the process.Uses demand modelling tovalidate often pre-ordained futureinvestment alternatives.Planning for desirables-Visioning and back-casting Recognizes that the future is uncertain and adoptsa vision-led scenario planning approach.Expectsnew trends;emphasizes strategy based on citiesstre

175、ngths and weaknesses,as well as threats and opportunities.Uses modelling to evaluate alternative waysof achieving vision.Uses travel/network modelsto evaluate alternative land use/transportschemes along with other evaluation techniques.18Source:Swamy and Sinha(2012).In many cities,the preparation of

176、 urban plans is statutory,whereas transport plans are prepared when cities feel they are necessary.Development Plans and Transport Plans may therefore not be prepared concurrently.Moreover,Development Plans are prepared for a specific time horizon,while Transport Plans may be more short-term and lim

177、ited to a few major projects(such as the construction of a mass transit system).To implement an integrated approach,it is therefore helpful to create a comprehensive planning framework to strategically connect urban land use planning with the design of the transport network.It is also helpful if the

178、 plan is backed by an associated institution.For example,under Indias National Urban Transport Policy(NUTP)adopted in 2006,municipalities are required to develop Comprehensive Mobility Plans(CMP).CMPs are strategic frameworks to integrate transport modes,land use planning,and environmental,social,an

179、d economic factors.They typically encompass public transit,private vehicles,walking,cycling,and emerging forms of mobility,as well as technological innovations(India,2014).In 2016,the planning guidelines for CMPs were supplemented with the Toolkit for Preparation of Low Carbon Mobility Plan,thereby

180、cementing the links between mobility and sustainability goals.Though municipalities have had varying degrees of success in implementing their CMPs,the fact that some 500 cities are expected to develop them suggests that they will have a transformative effect on urban transport systems in India.See a

181、lso Box 3.1 on Istanbuls experience in developing a Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan and Chapter 3 of the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific for other examples of integrated planning.3Institutional structure Fragmented institutionalstructure a

182、nd professionalstructures dominated byengineering and economicsdisciplines Promoting multi-sector,cross-jurisdictionalpartnerships;adopts multi-disciplinary integratedapproachDecision-making More technocratic/decision-maker-centric with littlepublic input People-centric Adopts participatory processP

183、lanning process Planning with a long-termhorizon is a discrete,one-offactivity Planning is a continuous process withmonitoring/updating/periodic reviews.Planning through a consultative processand established principles.Perception Road as a vehicle carrier Road as a public space used for personal tra

184、veland to carry goods.Appraisal criteria Appraisal through economicanalysis with a focus on initialinvestment cost,vehicular O/Mcosts,and travel time savings asmain decision criteria.Appraisal addresses broader socio-economic andenvironmental/sustainability as well as transportsystem goals.Outputs P

185、rojects&investments Strategies,institutions and indicative investmentsare subject to further definition in subsequent(alternative)analyses 193.2 KEY CONCEPTS FOR INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING Over the past fifty years,a number of useful concepts have emerged which have proven to be usef

186、ul when integrating land use and transport planning.These concepts are further described below.Planning Integrated Public Transport SystemsBOX 3.1 Istanbuls Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan(SUMP)is a European Union concept emphasizing sustainable urban transport soluti

187、ons.SUMPs integrate walking,cycling,public transit,and private vehicles into an environmentally friendly network,prioritizing emissions reduction and energy-efficient transport.They encourage multimodality,integrate land use planning,focus on safety and accessibility,and leverage innovation for econ

188、omic viability and long-term adaptability.The figure shown below is a graphical representation of the process which Istanbul Municipality followed in developing its SUMP.As can be seen,public participation is a key aspect throughout the development of the SUMP.Over a two-year period,a thorough asses

189、sment was conducted of the needs of various stakeholders,including a visioning exercise to identify priorities.Source:Arup(2022),Istanbul Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan SUMP3.2.1 AVOID-SHIFT-IMPROVE APPROACH In the early years of transport planning,vehicle-oriented approaches mainly led to the expa

190、nsion of road space,which did not help solve the problems of congestion,deterioration of air quality,and increasing GHG emissions.Rethinking mobility and city planning through the Avoid-Shift-Improve(ASI)approach addresses the mobility needs of people instead of vehicles(Figure 3.1).The ASI approach

191、 follows an order where Avoid measures are implemented initially,followed by Shift and finally Improve measures.20Avoid refers to the necessity of reducing demand for transport,thereby enhancing the overallefficiency of the transport system.The requirement for motorised travel and trip length can be

192、 reducedthrough compact urban development.Urban development plans should ensure that residential,workplace and recreational zones are closely connected,and densities managed adequately.Shift seeks a modal shift from the most energy-consuming modes to more environment-friendlymodes,such as public tra

193、nsport and active transport(walking and cycling).Public transportmodes generate lower energy consumption per passenger km due to higher occupancy levelscompared to private vehicles.This would mean curbing specific modes with limited interventionson land use,except policy measures which aim to enhanc

194、e densities along transport corridors.Improve focuses on the larger transport and environmental economies,particularly improving theefficiency of vehicles and optimising the operational efficiency of public transport.Improving energysources,such as using renewable energy to charge vehicles,also fall

195、s under the improve pillar.3FIGURE 3.1 Avoid-Shift-Improve ApproachSource:GIZ(2011).Sustainable Urban Transport:Avoid Shift Improve(ASI).A-S-I APPROACHReduce or avoid the need to travelAvoid/ReduceShift/MaintainImproveShift to or maintain share of more environmentally friendly modesImprove the energ

196、y efficiency of transport modes and vehicle technologySystem EfficiencyTrip EfficiencyVehicle Efficiency3.2.2 URBAN STRUCTURE The spatial allocation of people and activities influences the intensity of urban development.Urban growth typically takes place as sprawl,mono-centric compact development or

197、 poly-centric decentralised concentrated development.These structures evolve based on a combination of various enabling parameters,such as size,density distribution,land use,activity locations,and road networks(Figure 3.2):FIGURE 3.2 Urban Growth PatternsSource:CoE-UT CRDF(2022).City Electric Mobili

198、ty Strategy(CEMS).Sprawl DevelopmentMonocentric DevelopmentPoly-centric Development 21Planning Integrated Public Transport SystemsSprawl:The sprawl scenario is characterized by the citys expansion beyond its administrativeboundaries,leading to horizontal growth.This results in the urbanization of ex

199、tensive areassurrounding the city,characterized by low-density,scattered settlements,and reliance onpersonal vehicles for transport.Mono-centric(compact development):This scenario is defined by a single central areaof compact and densely populated development with closely located facilities.It featu

200、resconcentrated development hubs or nodes along transport corridors.Poly-centric(decentralized concentrated development):In this scenario,the city experiencesconcentrated growth in a limited number of central hubs or nodes,while the remainder of the citywitnesses low-density development.Cities need

201、to consider density as a critical criterion to keep the urban structure small.The current density of a city is a reference for planning future densities.A compact city involves high-density development and trip lengths which are relatively shorter.However,a densely developed city will not have the s

202、cope to increase its density further as the city is already built,so it will be limited to regeneration and vacant land development.As the population of a city increases,there is a tendency to increase trip lengths.To make the transport system efficient,the activity centres and mixed-use development

203、s should be planned accordingly.3.2.3 COMPLETE NETWORKS AND COMPLETE STREETSA common observation across many Asian cities is that major roads are not effectively linked to one another by smaller streets.Additionally,the road layout primarily caters to motorised transport,neglecting the needs of pede

204、strians and cyclists.Consequently,there is a pressing need to address the diverse needs of different road users.This can be done by establishing a street hierarchy,improving conditions for cycling and walking,increasing the number of safe pedestrian crossings,and giving priority to public transit,al

205、l while ensuring the smooth flow of vehicular traffic.A Complete Network refers to a road network that accommodates all modes of transport and the needs of all users,including pedestrians,cyclists,private vehicles,and public transport users(Figure 3.3).The road network shapes the city structure:for

206、larger cities,networks which have a ring or radial pattern at the city level are the most efficient,while grid-iron or radial,star or linear patterns work efficiently for smaller cities.The road network is efficient when it is complete,i.e.,there are no missing links.To do this,a Complete Street may

207、 comprise of separate lanes for different modes or speed limits,dedicated signal systems for vehicles and non-motorised transport,and subway or foot overbridges where required.A complete road network ensures the availability of alternate routes,shorter trip lengths,higher accessibility of public tra

208、nsport,and safety and comfort for non-motorised mode users.22Source:ESCAP3Integrated NetworkIntegrated route structure on networkFIGURE 3.3 Complete NetworksSource:India,MoHUA(2013).Complete Streets also aim to improve safety,promote physical activity,reduce pollution,and foster a sense of community

209、.The streets are designed to provide universal access for all categories of users and interactive spaces,aiming to keep the streets lively throughout the day.For example,spaces for street vendors who are sensitive to the local context are provided,which can help avoid their encroachment over pedestr

210、ian or vehicle space.3.2.4 STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTThe alignment of a public transit system is a multifaceted process that goes beyond simply drawing lines on a map.It involves a holistic approach that considers the current needs and travel patterns of the population,connectivity to

211、major destinations,and the potential to spur economic development.As noted by Rodrigue and Ducruet,“Transportation networks are a framework of routes linking locations.The structure of any region corresponds to networks of economic and social interactions.”10Once a public transport network is establ

212、ished,routes can be planned to connect areas within that network(Figure 3.4).Typically,a network is planned in long-term strategic transport plans(such as the Comprehensive Mobility Plans in Indian cities),based on land use and growth scenarios,Transit Oriented Development(TOD),estimation of demand

213、on the identified corridors/network,identification of hierarchy,and the pattern of the public transport network for strategies of integrated public transport.A detailed feasibility study is therefore required to plan a networks main corridors.Expanding public transport is a challenge in newly develo

214、ped areas.In these areas,delays in public transport service provision sometimes encourage people to buy private vehicles,so it is important to plan strategic transport measures at the same time as spatial development.This ensures transport systems have the capacity to support the various land-use de

215、velopments.As noted below,the alignment of new developments with public transport generates value from the development and can be used to fund further transport investments.FIGURE 3.4 Illustration of route structure across an integrated public transport networkIdentified Urban CentresPlanning road n

216、etwork to link the urban centres,thereby enabling the city structure 23Important points to keep in mind when designing the alignment of the public transit system include:Efficiency and network integration:The alignment should provide a network rather than isolated corridors.A well-connected network

217、ensures that people can seamlessly move from one part of the city to another without the need for multiple transfers or disjointed travel experiences.Connectivity to major activity centres:The alignment should prioritise connecting major activity centres within the city.These centres may include com

218、mercial areas,educational institutions,and cultural or recreational hubs.Consideration of existing patterns:Analysing how people currently move within the city helps make data-driven decisions to improve routes,schedules,and transit services.It ensures that the new system meets the actual needs of t

219、he population.Catalyst for area development:Public transit can act as a catalyst for area development,particularly in neighbourhoods with low-income housing and poor accessibility.Right of Way availability:Considering right-of-way availability is crucial when choosing transit alignments.This involve

220、s identifying dedicated lanes or corridors where public transit can operate efficiently without interference from other traffic,thereby improving the reliability and speed of transit services.3.2.5 MAXIMIZING LAND USE-TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT AND VALUE CAPTURE TOD is the planned development of t

221、ransit areas along public transport routes,such as bus-based transit,metro,suburban rail and High-Speed Rail routes.This provides an incentive for people to live,work and shop within a short walking distance from the station(Figure 3.5).Development of mixed land use across TOD reduces the need for l

222、ong-distance travel,while non-motorised modes of transport,drop-off facilities,park-and-ride facilities and adequate parking facilities should also be prioritised to facilitate easy transfers.FIGURE 3.5 Density distribution along Transit Orient DevelopmentSource:India,MoHUA(2017a)Planning Integrated

223、 Public Transport SystemsTransit stopTransit routeHigh DensityMedium DensityLower Density243.2.6 SMART GROWTH STRATEGIESHandy(2005)highlighted the pivotal relationship between transport and land use and the application of smart growth strategies to counter urban sprawl in the United States.Proponent

224、s of smart growth strategies make four key propositions.Firstly,they assert that building more highways contributes to urban sprawl,a pattern of unplanned city expansion.Secondly,they argue that increasing the number of highways leads to a rise in driving,potentially exacerbating traffic and environ

225、mental issues.Thirdly,they believe that investing in light rail transit systems encourages higher population densities,fostering more compact and walkable communities.Lastly,they argue that adopting design strategies aligned with new urbanism would decrease reliance on automobiles,promoting more sus

226、tainable urban living.As of now,there is not enough evidence to conclusively support any of these four propositions,though research has been conducted on each point.Even in cases where theres been substantial investigation,the ability to predict the impact of smart growth policies remains limited.Th

227、is underscores the complexity of how the interaction between land use and transport development plays out in the context of smart growth strategies.11 3.3 SUMMARYEffective land use-transport integration is a complex,context-dependent endeavour which should take into consideration each citys unique c

228、haracteristics,such as its settlement patterns,socio-economic conditions,and political context.Some cities may wish to build upon existing integration concepts,while others may need to introduce entirely new strategies.The process of integration is not linear but rather dynamic and cyclical,where la

229、nd use and transport continually influence each other.Accessibility,comfort,and efficiency are maximised by organising the physical form and land use pattern so that travel demand,trip lengths and travel times are minimized.The goal is to minimize negative socio-economic and environmental impacts wh

230、ile creating positive sustainable urban development.For examples of land use and transport planning,please refer to Chapter 3 of the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific.3TOD enables high-density mixed land-use development and can reverse the t

231、rend of sprawling development that relies on private vehicles.In particular,TOD provides a mechanism to maximise the potential of land and capture its value to finance development.Land value capture is where land value goes up due to a change in land use,public investment,or other decisions.Commerci

232、al development along the transit network adds value to the land,and part of these earnings can go into future development or infrastructure enhancement.Land value capture can be done in a TOD zone through mechanisms such as Additional Land Value Tax,Betterment Levy,Development Charges or impact fees

233、,or Transfer of Development Rights.Around Asia,TOD has been successfully used to maximise land values.25Urban Public Transport ModesMixed traffic in Ho Chi Minh City,Viet Nam.Photo:Canh Do4264.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTUnderstanding the unique advantages of each transport mode and the syn

234、ergies between them can help cities unlock the potential of integrated public transport systems.As Table 4.1 shows,public transport modes can be classified by ownership,with a further distinction between public transport and intermediary public transport(IPT)systems.Public transport modes may also b

235、e classified by their technical characteristics;Vuchik(2007),for example,classifies urban public transport modes based on their right-of-way(ROW)exclusivity,technology(mechanical features of their vehicles and ways)and type of operations.While recognising the role of taxis and motorcycle taxis,as we

236、ll as the growing importance of shared services,in linking public transport and providing first/last mile connectivity,the focus of this Guidebook is on integrated urban public transport involving passenger vehicles constructed or used for collective mobility and the associated institutions,infrastr

237、ucture,and operating systems.The following classification is adopted:Bus-based public transport systems:buses and bus priority systems Rail-based public transport systems:metro rail,monorail,Light Rail Transit,trams Specialised public transport systems:ferry,ropeway,funicular,elevator,etc.TABLE 4.1

238、Classification of Urban Passenger Transport Modes4 NoCHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEMURBAN PASSENGER TRANSPORT MODESPublic Transport(PT)Intermediary PublicTransport(IPT)Individual Modes1Routes and stopsFixed/regulated in case of private-stage carriersFlexible(licensed/contract/stage carriers)Flexible 2

239、SchedulesFixed and preannouncedFlexibleFlexible3FareFixed,preannouncedFixed(regulated)Not applicable 4AccessAccessible to allAccessible to all until hired.Once hired,not accessible to others Accessible to self and her/his group5Ownership&ControlPublic or private operators may own.The public authorit

240、y may license routes to the private sector.The operator may own or rent them.They operate under specific government regulations.The vehicle may be owned or given by the company only for her/his use.6ExamplesPublic bus/Stage carriers,Bus Rapid Transit(BRT),tram,overground trains,metro,scheduled ferry

241、,minibusFor hire services like Auto-rickshaws,Bike-taxis,and Taxicabs,as well as ride-share services such as Uber.Personal vehicles include passenger cars,motorcycles,scooters,mopeds,and pedal bicycles.4.2 BUS-BASED PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEMSBuses are the primary public transport mode in almost all ur

242、ban centres.Bus-based systems are flexible and offer several advantages:Easy to match demand and supply:In urban services,customers desire short headways,for example,5 minutes or less during the peak period and 8-12 minutes during the off-peak period.Bus types can be decided based on the demand on t

243、he routes/corridors.27Flexible operations city-wide:Due to their size,buses can negotiate sharp turns and operate onnarrow roads in mixed traffic conditions.Lower costs:The capital and operating costs of the buses are lower than rail-based publictransport systems.Convenient and easy in technology re

244、placement:As the life of most buses is 8-12 years,technology can easily be upgraded during replacement.Road safety:Buses provide safer travel,create less congestion on the road and emit fewerpollutants per passenger kilometre travel compared to private vehicles.The potential of causinga fatality on-

245、street per passenger km travelled by bus is 1/25th of a car.12Adoption of improvements incrementally:Service quality improvements are possible withminor modifications in the street network and the application of technology.The overall performance of a bus-based public transport system is mainly depe

246、ndent on three broad aspects:vehicle(bus)design,operating strategy and energy choice.4.2.1 VEHICLE DESIGNFIGURE 4.1 Double-decker bus in Singapore Urban Public Transport ModesBuses usually require minimal infrastructure,such as platforms and bus stations.Platform height,number of doors and width are

247、 critical for universal access and operating efficiency.For example,in India,for example,urban buses are built with 400-,650-and 900-mm platform height(Figure 4.2).The platformof 400 mm floor height provides easy access topassengers but hinders internal movement due to atleast two additional steps;6

248、50 mm height features astep entry and a near-flat interior floor for improvedmovement;and 900 mm floor height offers acompletely flat interior floor.This is ideal for a BRTsystem with a 900 mm station height,enabling levelboarding for faster and safer access.Though bus designs vary from country to c

249、ountry,they can generally be classified as mini,midi,standard,double-decker(Figure 4.1),articulated and bi-articulated,based on their size and passenger carrying capacity.Vehicle design also includes features such as floor height,size of doors,door position,and number of doors.These features influen

250、ce driving efficiency,passenger comfort,convenience,safety,and universal access.4.2.2 OPERATING STRATEGYThere are different ways to operate buses in a city:in mixed traffic,in a partial priority environment,and in a full priority environment(Figure 4.3).For example,as cities grow,buses moving in mix

251、ed traffic may experience slower average speeds,longer travel distances and more severe traffic congestion(Figure 4.4).The speeds of buses range from 10 to 16 km in most medium and large Photo:Madan Regmi28FIGURE 4.2 Station and Bus DimensionsSource:Gautam,I.P.(2017)FIGURE 4.3 Types of operating str

252、ategy Source:ESCAP4cities of Asia.This results in low vehicle utilisation,decreasing schedule adherence,poor ridership,reduced revenue,and finally adverse economics of operations.It is therefore necessary to prioritise buses,either in a partial priority or full priority environment.400 mm floor heig

253、ht with left side door900 mm floor height with right side door650 mm floor height with left side door1150 mm floor height with right side door 29FIGURE 4.4 Mixed traffic in Mumbai,India4.2.3 OPERATIONS IN PRIORITISED STREETS(BUS PRIORITY)Bus priority refers to a package of priority measures which ci

254、ties can implement to suit their local conditions.There are various types of bus priority measures such as bus-only lanes,junction priority,signal priority,median bus stations,and so on,which cities can adopt with very marginal infrastructure cost compared to major public transport infrastructure pr

255、ojects.According to some estimates,buses can gain an estimated 10-15 per cent in travel speeds and also improve schedule adherence with such measures.4.2.4 OPERATIONS IN FULL PRIORITY ENVIRONMENTGiving full exclusivity to public transport increases travel speeds from 10-16 km/hour(in mixed traffic)t

256、o 20 to 26 km/hour,and it can also increase up to 40 km/hour with express/limited stops services.In this category,the most common public transport systems are Bus Rapid Transit Systems(BRT or BRTS)and Guided Buses.A BRTS involves the integration of buses,supporting infrastructure,and operating strat

257、egy(Box 4.1).To some extent,BRT is comparable to LRT,Monorail and Metro in terms of travel speeds and line capacities.In 2024,it is estimated that there are a total of 191 cities operating BRTS with a total network length of 5,842 km.13 Urban Public Transport ModesBus operating strategies differ by

258、the level of priority given to them.The lowest level of priority is when buses have junction/signal priority,while the highest level of priority is when buses have completely segregated bus lanes with median bus stations(full priority environment).Most Bus Rapid Transit Systems(BRTS)fall within this

259、 category.Meanwhile,a guided bus system is where buses are customized to travel on guided pathways to achieve greater operational speeds.There are different types of guidance technologies,namely,kerb-guidance,optical,electromagnetic and central-rail guided.At present,15 guided bus systems are operat

260、ing worldwide,with kerb guidance being the most predominant across the different technologies.The first system was established in Essen(Germany)in 1980,while the latest one commenced in Luton(United Kingdom)in 2013(Figure 4.5).The existing systems are just suburban links with an average corridor len

261、gth of 13 km and do not form an urban network.As they are used as suburban corridors,the station spacings are larger(average of 4-5 km)and average operating speeds reach between 60-70 km/hour.FIGURE 4.5 Guided bus in Luton,United KingdomArriva bus at Stanton Road bus stopPhoto:David KempPhoto:Brett

262、Cole304.2.5 FUEL TYPEFuel type is important from the point of view of air quality and climate change.Most buses are manufactured with internal combustion engines(ICE)and use diesel or compressed natural gas(CNG)as the fuel.In line with the Paris Agreement adopted at the UN Climate Change Conference(

263、COP21)in 2015,several national governments have mandated the use of CNG as a public transport fuel,mainly to tackle the problem of particulate matter and other health-hazardous pollutants(Figure 4.6).FIGURE 4.6 CNG bus in Hanoi,Vietnam4BOX 4.1 Bus Rapid Transit(BRT)systems continue to spread The pop

264、ularity of BRT systems continues to grow across the globe.A BRT system involves assembling a wide range of elements,including buses,bus stations and terminals,BRT network,running ways,fare,ITMS system,operations planning&management,branding,and communications.20 The full BRT system can achieve speed

265、s in the range of 24-28 km/hour,depending on the level of segregation.For example,Istanbul BRT(with complete exclusivity)achieves travel speeds as high as 40 km/hour.BRTS capacities vary considerably,depending on the treatment of different elements.Its capacities can be comparable to that of a metro

266、 system;for example,Bogotas BRTS carries about 50,000 PPHPD on one of its corridors.Launched in 2004,TransJakarta is a complete BRT system which operates on dedicated bus lanes with high-capacity buses.It is the longest BRT system in the world,with a network length of 251 km.The smart card-based far

267、e system offers seamless integration with other modes of transport in Jakarta.The extensive corridor-based system covers multiple neighbourhoods and important destinations,with high-frequency service and extended operating hours.Jakarta continues to expand its BRT infrastructure,promoting sustainabl

268、e mobility and reducing congestion and pollution.The daily ridership of TransJakarta has substantially increased to over 800,000 daily passengers by 2019 with the expansion of the network.Meanwhile,the Hubli-Dharwad BRT in Karnataka is the highest capacity BRT system in India,featuring dedicated bus

269、 lanes,high-quality bus stations,and an intelligent transport system.The BRT system integrates with other modes of transport and employs a fare collection system.The Hubli-Dharwad BRT system commenced in 2018 to link Hubli and Dharwad city,with a total corridor length of 22.5 km and 32 stations on t

270、he corridor with overtaking lane.The total travel time of the whole corridor is about 35 minutes for an express service and 55 minutes for a regular service.Sources:Power,M.(2019);EURACTIV Press Release Site.(n.d.);ITDP(2019);Directorate of Urban Land Transport,U.D.(2020);Hubballi-Dharwad BRTS Compa

271、ny Limited(2021).Photo:Jenny YamamotoPhoto:Taufik Hidayah 31In China,the government has created a variety of business models to propagate electric buses throughout the country(Box 4.2),especially to help with the purchase of new vehicles and battery systems.14 The electrification of buses not only r

272、educes emissions but also makes bus operations economical,compared to ICE.In India,the unified tender for electric buses from six Indian states&Union Territories(UTs)recently received price quotes for electric buses which were 29 per cent lower than that of diesel buses.15 India envisages 50,000 ele

273、ctric buses on the road in the next five years.16Urban Public Transport ModesBOX 4.2 The electric bus revolution in ChinaBy the end of 2021,there were an estimated 419,500 electric buses out of a total of 709,400 urban buses and trolleybuses in China.By vehicle fuel type,this comes to nearly 60 per

274、cent of the total,with the rest made up of diesel vehicles(11.1 per cent),natural gas vehicles(15.7 per cent),hybrid vehicles(12.2 per cent),and hydrogen energy vehicles(0.4 per cent).This transition has been driven by significant government support,as well as the active cooperation of various stake

275、holders.In addition to providing financial support for acquiring New Energy Vehicles(NEVs),batteries and infrastructures such as charging stations,local governments and businesses have used a variety of different policies and business models to promote the electric vehicle transition.For example,und

276、er the Shenzhen NEV Promotion and Application Work Plan,key actions include improving the management of NEVs manufacturers and products;improving the safety monitoring system of operating NEVs;establishing NEV and battery recycling systems;and formulating accident response strategies.But perhaps the

277、 most critical element is the creation of a big data platform for Three Networks Integration(telecommunications,media,and information technology).This platform will collect,store,and analyse data from various sources,including NEVs,charging stations,public transport operators,grid networks,and user

278、behaviour,to provide information for decision-making and policy formulation.It is another example of how data,digital technologies and NEVs are reshaping urban transport,with implications for future integrated public transport systems.Sources:China,Ministry of Transport(2022);United Nations ESCAP(20

279、23).Trolley buses are electric vehicles that draw power from dual overhead wires using spring-loaded trolley poles(Figure 4.7).They were one of the first mass transit systems and have been in operation for a considerable period.They use overhead equipment(OHE)to derive electricity.As they have no ve

280、hicular emissions,they are environmentally friendly.In the past,they were constructed as single-unit,double,and triple-unit buses,but recently battery electric vehicles(BEV)are becoming popular.FIGURE 4.7 Trolleybus in Ulaanbaator,MongoliaPhoto:Madan RegmiPhoto:Xiao Li324.2.6 LINE CAPACITIES BY BUS

281、TYPE The capacities that the bus systems can achieve under mixed traffic and in BRT systems by frequency are given in Table 4.2.It illustrates the directional line capacity of buses based on their type as well as headway.The capacities for buses suitable for BRTS operations can vary significantly:In

282、 mixed lane operations:PHPDT of 80 to 1,320 is feasible without confronting bunching and other issues.With bus priority,this can be stretched to 1,400/2,200 by increasing frequency or deploying double-deck buses.Exclusive ROW:Where there is an exclusive ROW,a PHPDT of 15,000 is achievable.Though thi

283、s can be stretched to 24,000 with the deployment of a 3-articulated-bus convoy and/or with overtaking lanes on a fully dedicated corridor,the operational benefits may be higher with the adoption of rail-based systems for PHPDT higher than 150,000.TABLE 4.2 Directional line capacity of buses by type

284、and headwayNote:i.Shaded boxes indicate services suitable for exclusive lane(BRT)operations.All other services suitable for mixed traffic operations.ii.Line capacity is carrying capacity(seated and standees),at 100 per cent load factor,assuming that passenger trip length is the same as that of the l

285、ine.However,if passenger trip length was only half of the line trip length,carrying capacity of the line would be double that indicated in the above table.iii.In the literature,articulated and bi-articulated bus capacities range from 110-120 and 180-230,respectively.iv.Double-decker buses are built

286、on 9.5 and 12 metre long buses.44.3 RAIL-BASED PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEMSThree main types of rail-based systems operate in urban areas as trunk systems and often cater to high-demand corridors:metro rail,trams/Light Rail Transit(LRT),and monorail.Before the 1960s,Light Rail/Tram had been the most popu

287、lar rail transit mode across the globe compared to metro and monorail systems.However,in the 1960s and after,around 200 cities established metro rail,while only 110 LRT/Tram systems were started.Metro rail has been the most preferred rail mode of the last five decades(Figure 4.8).NoBUS TYPEDIRECTION

288、AL CAPACITY BY HEADWAY IN MINUTES(NO.OF BUSES/HOURS)No.of buses per hour4567.512204545(90)45(135)Headway in min.1512108531.31.31.3Length(m)Capacity(no.of passengers)Single VehicleConvoy of 2 vehiclesConvoy of 3 vehicles1Mini7-7.52080100120150240400900180027002Midi9-9.54016020024030048080018003600540

289、03Double Deck-Midi9.57028035042052584014003150-4Standard127028035042052584014003150630094505Double Deck-Standard12110440550660825132022004950-6Articulated181104405506608251320220049509900148507Bi-articulated24180720900108013502160360081001620024300 33Urban Public Transport Modes4.3.1 METRO RAIL SYST

290、EMSMetro rail is a high-capacity,high-cost system with fully segregated right of way,which is mostly elevated or underground(sometimes at grade).The first metro line was built in the year 1863 in London and extended to cover 402 km(2023)of tracks and 272 stations,serving 1.35 billion passengers a ye

291、ar.17 Today,235 cities across the globe have operational metro rail systems with a combined network length of 20,488 km.18 For example,Delhi inaugurated its first Metro line in 2002 with a length of 65 km,but has now expanded to 391 km with a daily ridership of 6 6.5 million passengers.19 Meanwhile,

292、the Dhaka Metro commenced operations in 2022(Figure 4.9).FIGURE 4.8 Cumulative rail transit adoption in cities(worldwide)over timeSource:Swamy,H.M.S.,Lokre,A.,Sinha,S.and Daftardar,C.(2016).Various sources after 2016.As shown in Table 4.3,the main notable feature of metro rail systems is their capac

293、ity to carry a substantial number of people in a short period.Its highest known carrying capacity is 90,000 passengers per hour per direction(PPHPD),as observed in Tokyo and Beijing.Travel speeds range between 30 to 40 km/hour.The station spacing is generally 1 to 1.2 km apart,which also aids in ach

294、ieving higher speeds while limiting local access.Metro rail systems are energy efficient and a safe rapid transit option.However,their high capital and operating costs,requirement of longer trip lengths,minimum threshold level of ridership,and other characteristics limit their application to large c

295、ities with established transit markets.FIGURE 4.9 Dhaka MetroPhoto:Takatoshi MoriwakiCumulative rail adoption in cities34TABLE 4.3 Technical characteristics of metro rail Source:India,MoHUA(2017b)4.3.2 MONORAIL SYSTEMSMonorail vehicles ride on a single rail or are suspended on a beam.21 The first mo

296、norail was opened in Wuppertal,Germany,in 1901.Since then,there have been a total of 54 applications,of which 27 may be termed as urban applications while the other 27 are specialised applications over short stretches,such as theme parks,plazas,and indoor parking connectors.Box 4.3 describes the KL

297、Monorail in Malaysias capital city.Monorails normally run with 3-6 cars with a carrying capacity(PHPDT)ranging from 5,000 to about 20,000 per hour.Their capital costs are stated to be about$28 million per kilometre.Experts suggest that their operating costs are comparable to or even higher than that

298、 of metro systems,which provide much higher capacity.Such high costs and vendor-specific technology constrain potential applications of the monorail.As there are no emergency exit options between stations along the network,safety has also become a major issue.However,the monorails small volume and c

299、ompact structure make it appropriate in complex terrain conditions and narrow streets.4TYPE OF METROLIGHT CAPACITY METROMEDIUM CAPACITY METROHIGH CAPACITY METROCars per Train2-34-66-8Pax per train500-7501000-15001500-2000Min Curve Radius 60 m100 m120 mCoach width2.6 m2.9 m3.2 mCapacity(PHPDT)10-20,0

300、0020-45,00045-80,000BOX 4.3 Kuala Lumpur(KL)Monorail,MalaysiaKL Monorail is a straddle-beam supported system that extends to a length of 8.6 km,connecting the Kaula Lumpur Sentral in Brickfields to Titiwangsa terminal in Jalan Tun Razak and passing through the Golden Triangle CBD.The line consists o

301、f 11 stations separated from each other by about 0.5 km to 1 km.With a capacity of one train at 244(48 seating,196 standing),the system currently has an average hourly capacity of 3,416 PHPDT(per hour per directional demand).In 2019,the daily ridership was about 46,000 passengers,with an average PHP

302、DT of around 2,628(77 per cent of hourly capacity).Sources:Cmsadmin.2021.Kuala Lumpur Monorail.Railway Technology;KL Sentral Monorail Route Schedule(Jadual),Fare(Tambang),(n.d.),T,UrbanRail.Net.(n.d.).Photo:iStock/Boarding1Now 35Urban Public Transport Modes4.3.3 TRAMS/STREETCARS/LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT(L

303、RT)In the late 19th and early 20th century period,trams or streetcars were the most visible and popular transit modes in European cities.22 In Asia,trams were operating in 35 cities,but most cities abandoned them as private vehicle ownership grew after World War II.However,interest in bringing them

304、back as an LRT system has increased over the last few decades,and currently operates across 386 cities,but only about 19 in Asia.With a segregated ROW similar to BRT,LRT is a relatively fast and safe mode.High-density development,the density of traffic,the mix of vehicles and road user behaviour are

305、 factors which tend to limit the scope of LRT in Asian cities.4.4 TECHNO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSTechnical and economic suitability are always the key criteria for the adoption of any mode.The summary comparison for mass rapid transit systems in terms of technical and cost parameters is presented in

306、 Table 4.4 below.TABLE 4.4 Techno-economic considerationsINDICATORSMETRO RAILLRTBRTMONORAILType of SegregationElevated or undergroundAt-grade with horizontal segregationAt-grade with horizontal segregation (soft or hard)ElevatedCapacity(PHPDT)15,000-90,0005,000-12,0003,000-40,0005,000-20,000Travel S

307、peeds km/hour30-4018-2420-2830Cost per km36-73 million$12-16 million$2.5-3.6 million$18.2-24.4 million$Average Station Spacing1,000-1,200 metres600-800 metres500-600 metres1,000-1,200 metresPeriod of implementation 3-6 years5-10 years2-4 years6-10 yearsLand acquisitionNot required except for depotsR

308、e-allocating road space does not require major land acquisitionRe-allocating road space does not require major land acquisitionNot required except for depotsSource:India,MoHUA(2017b).3644.5 SUMMARYAs the world urbanises,more and more cities will require mass rapid transit systems to meet their growi

309、ng urban mobility demand.A wide range of bus and rail-based MRT options are available.The costs of developing and operating these vary significantly,as do their performance.While choosing a system,one tends to look at the maximum capacity a system offers.But in most cities,such a high level of deman

310、d does not exist.Therefore,both the maximum capacity and minimum thresholds must be considered.Furthermore,the development of any new public transport system should follow integrated planning approaches,taking into consideration the urban landscape,physical space,existing public transport services,a

311、nd institutional systems.For a selection of examples of public transport modes,please refer to Chapter 4 of the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the PacificIntegrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific.37O

312、perational StrategiesDhaka Metro.Photo:Takatoshi Moriwaki5385.1 WHAT IS AN OPERATIONAL STRATEGY?The mobility needs of people vary over space and time.As discussed in Chapter 3,these variable patterns are affected by population growth,spatial expansion,transformations in land use structure,changing s

313、ocio-demographic and economic characteristics,as well as evolving transport technologies.One recent trend in large and medium-sized cities is to introduce mass rapid transit modes without adapting existing bus services.This often results in a supply-demand imbalance on city buses as well as on the M

314、RT.Such changes in the supply or demand of public transport should be addressed through the municipal governments public transport operational strategy(also known as an operating strategy).According to Zimmerman and Kang(2015),the twin objectives of an operational strategy are:To optimize the alloca

315、tion of resources and coordinate services to achieve efficient/cost-effective operations,i.e.matching supply to the observed or anticipated demandTo guarantee a seamless ride for users,including easy transfers between differentlines/routes and modes within the system.The operational strategy involve

316、s a series of interrelated decisions regarding the allocation of various public transport resources.These resources include the network,routes and services,range of service,frequency,stops,fares,and so on.As discussed in Chapter 3,planners may first consider the most appropriate type of public trans

317、port services,i.e.,what type of transit lines and networks are desirable,given land-use characteristics and other factors.To decide on the type of services,they will also need to consider some key operational characteristics,as described below.Further examples of operational strategies can be found

318、in Chapter 5 of the Integrated Public Transport Systems:A Compendium of Good Practices from Asia and the Pacific.5.2 ROUTE STRUCTURE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICESRoute structure is the organization and layout of a public transport systems routes within a service area.These routes may be comprised of

319、transit lines(rapid transit corridors and routes designed to connect a terminal to another terminal)and subsidiary routes.A transit network is formed when these services and modes are connected through interchanges.The two main types of services are direct-route services and trunk and feeder service

320、s.5.2.1 DIRECT-ROUTE SERVICESConventionally the routes in urban areas are organized to provide direct services(Figure 5.1).This type is also known as the many to many or many to one route structure.In this type of route structure,customers are provided with options to travel directly from origin to

321、destination without resorting to transfer.5 39While this appears to be convenient from the customers point of view,in reality,the services delivered are unreliable,involving long waiting times and forced transfers.Most routes either pass through or have the city centre as the terminus,which then mak

322、es it necessary to have a large terminal and depot facilities.Problems get compounded as cities incrementally extend existing routes and add new routes over time.Some additional features of direct services are:FIGURE 5.1 Features of direct-service routesOperational StrategiesNumerous overlapping lin

323、es/routesFleet thinly spread over too many routes leading to lowfrequency,meaning excessive waiting timesAvailability of large pieces of land for infrastructureis difficult to mobiliseTravelling through congested city centres meansexcessive delays and uneven headwaysBuses also congest city centresUn

324、even occupancy on buses at different timesand placesCompetition within and between subsystems resultingin poor economics for the operatorSource:Adapted from Nielsen,Lange,Mulley,and Nelson(2006)5.2.2 TRUNK,COMPLEMENTARY AND FEEDER SERVICESIntegration is the process of aligning lines or routes to pro

325、vide services as a connected network.Integrated routes are classified as trunk,complementary and feeder routes.Combining various services facilitates efficient division of roles,including BRT,LRT,monorail,metro and ordinary buses.Trunk Routes:Trunk routes are high-demand routes,mainly running on urb

326、an arterials and connecting various parts of the city(Figure 5.2).They generally run from one end of the city to city centres or run on ring roads.The route lengths tend to be long,but frequencies are medium to high.Examples include large buses running on arterials in mixed mode or high-capacity sys

327、tems such as BRT,LRT,and MRT.Travel speeds tend to be higher due to relatively wider stop-spacing (say 500 to 600 m in the case of BRT and 1000 to 1200 m in the case of LRT/MRT)and because they run on a prioritised network.Complementary Routes:Complementary routes are also the main component of the

328、public transport network but play a supplementary role to the trunk routes.They are designed to be straight and usually run on second-order arterial/sub-arterial routes,catering to medium to long trips.They may run in mixed traffic lanes with medium to large-capacity buses.40Feeder Routes:As the nam

329、e suggests,these routes feed passengers from local areas(which are not covered by the trunk routes)to the trunk services.They tend to use smaller vehicles to serve low-density demand at higher frequency.They mainly run on collector distributors and local streets.Unlike trunk routes,feeder routes are

330、 not necessarily aligned straight.Often,they tend to take small detours to collect passengers from the inner areas.They may also be structured as circulators.Stop spacing varies but can be as close as 250 to 300 metres.Additional features are:Local travel opportunities in the low-density areas/subur

331、bs High-quality service in radial corridors Less congestion in the city centre Several smaller and more efficient interchange points Few large city terminals Better coverage of the inner citySource:Adapted from Nielsen,Lange,Mulley,and Nelson(2006)5.2.3 OTHER TYPES OF SERVICESOther types of services

332、 are the Rapid and Express services.These tend to be a form of trunk routes and provide faster service.Rapid Service:Rapid services are faster than regular services as they have different infrastructure and operating elements.Rapid transit services may be operated as all-stop,limited-stop,or non-sto

333、p services(Express/limited-stop or non-stop service).BRT,LRT and Metro services are often considered to be rapid services as they tend to be faster than regular services.In-street public transport in mixed lane operations achieves a speed ranging between 14-18 km/h.With bus priority on-street,the speeds may increase to about 20 km/h.With modifications in the infrastructure such as running ways,lan