1、 FOR RELEASE MAY 31,2024 The State of the American Middle Class Who is in it and key trends from 1970 to 2023 BY Rakesh Kochhar FOR MEDIA OR OTHER INQUIRIES:Rakesh Kochhar,Senior Researcher Mark Lopez,Director,Race and Ethnicity Research Tanya Arditi,Senior Communications Manager 202.419.4372 www.pe

2、wresearch.org RECOMMENDED CITATION Pew Research Center,May 2024,“The State of the American Middle Class”1 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan,nonadvocacy fact tank that informs the public about the issues,attitudes and trends shaping

3、 the world.It does not take policy positions.The Center conducts public opinion polling,demographic research,computational social science research and other data-driven research.It studies politics and policy;news habits and media;the internet and technology;religion;race and ethnicity;international

4、 affairs;social,demographic and economic trends;science;research methodology and data science;and immigration and migration.Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts,its primary funder.Pew Research Center 2024 2 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org How we did this This repo

5、rt examines key changes in the economic status of the American middle class from 1970 to 2023 and its demographic attributes in 2022.The historical analysis is based on U.S.Census Bureau data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements(ASEC)of the Current Population Survey(CPS).The demographic a

6、nalysis is based on data from the American Community Survey(ACS).The data is sourced from IPUMS CPS and IPUMS USA,respectively.The CPS,a survey of about 60,000 households,is the U.S.governments official source for monthly estimates of unemployment.The CPS ASEC,conducted in March each year,is the off

7、icial source of U.S.government estimates of income and poverty.Our analysis of CPS data starts with the 1971 CPS ASEC,which records the incomes of households in 1970.It is also the first year for which data on race and ethnicity is available.The latest available CPS ASEC file is for 2023,which repor

8、ts on household incomes in 2022.The public-use version of the ACS is a 1%sample of the U.S.population,or more than 3 million people.This allows for a detailed study of the demographic characteristics of the middle class,including its status in U.S.metropolitan areas.But ACS data is available only fr

9、om 2005 onward and is less suitable for long-term historical analyses.The latest available ACS data is for 2022.3 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org Terminology Middle-income households are defined as those with an income that is two-thirds to double that of the U.S.median household income,afte

10、r incomes have been adjusted for household size.Lower-income households have incomes less than two-thirds of the median,and upper-income households have incomes that are more than double the median.When using American Community Survey(ACS)data,incomes are also adjusted for cost of living in the area

11、s in which households are located.Estimates of household income are scaled to reflect a household size of three and expressed in 2023 dollars.In the Current Population Survey(CPS),household income refers to the calendar year prior to the survey year.Thus,the income data in the report refers to the 1

12、970-2022 period,and the share of Americans in each income tier from the CPS refers to the 1971-2023 period.The demographic attributes of Americans living in lower-,middle-or upper-income tiers are derived from ACS data.Except as noted,estimates pertain to the U.S.household population,excluding peopl

13、e living in group quarters.The terms middle class and middle income are used interchangeably in this report.White,Black,Asian,American Indian or Alaska Native,and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander include people who identified with a single major racial group and who are not Hispanic.Multiracial i

14、ncludes people who identified with more than one major racial group and are not Hispanic.Hispanics are of any race.U.S.born refers to individuals who are U.S.citizens at birth,including people born in the 50 U.S.states,the District of Columbia,Puerto Rico or other U.S.territories,as well as those bo

15、rn elsewhere to at least one parent who is a U.S.citizen.The terms foreign born and immigrant are used interchangeably in this report.They refer to people who are not U.S.citizens at birth.Occupations describe the broad kinds of work people do on their job.For example,health care occupations include

16、 doctors,nurses,pharmacists and others who are directly engaged in the provision of health care.Industries describe the broad type of products companies produce.Each industry encompasses a variety of occupations.For example,the health care and social assistance industry provides services that are pr

17、oduced by a combination of doctors,managers,technology and administrative staff,food preparation workers,and workers in other occupations.4 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org The State of the American Middle Class Who is in it and key trends from 1970 to 2023 The share of Americans who are in t

18、he middle class is smaller than it used to be.In 1971,61%of Americans lived in middle-class households.By 2023,the share had fallen to 51%,according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of government data.As a result,Americans are more apart than before financially.From 1971 to 2023,the share of Am

19、ericans who live in lower-income households increased from 27%to 30%,and the share in upper-income households increased from 11%to 19%.Notably,the increase in the share who are upper income was greater than the increase in the share who are lower income.In that sense,these changes are also a sign of

20、 economic progress overall.But the middle class has fallen behind on two key counts.The growth in income for the middle class since 1970 has not kept pace with the growth in income for the upper-income tier.And the share of total U.S.household income held by the middle class has plunged.Moreover,man

21、y groups still lag in their presence in the middle-and upper-income tiers.For instance,American Indians or Alaska Natives,Black and Hispanic Americans,and people who are not married are more likely than average to be in the lower-income tier.Several metro areas in the U.S.Southwest also have high sh

22、ares of residents who are in the lower-income tier,after adjusting for differences in cost of living across areas.Our report focuses on the current state of the American middle class.First,we examine changes in the financial well-being of the middle class and other income tiers since 1970.This is ba

23、sed on data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements(ASEC)of the Current Population Survey(CPS),conducted from 1971 to 2023.Share of Americans in the middle class has fallen since 1971%of U.S.population in each income tier Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household inco

24、mes in the calendar year prior to the survey year,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the Current Population Survey,Annual Social and Economic Supplement(IPUMS),1971 and 202

25、3.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 30%275161191120231971Lower incomeMiddle incomeUpper income5 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org Then,we report on the attributes of people who were more or less likely to be middle class in 2022.Our focus is on their race and ethnicity,age,gender,marital and veteran status,

26、place of birth,ancestry,education,occupation,industry,and metropolitan area of residence.These estimates are derived from American Community Survey(ACS)data and differ slightly from the CPS-based estimates.In part,that is because incomes can be adjusted for the local area cost of living only with th

27、e ACS data.(Refer to the methodology for details on these two data sources.)This analysis and an accompanying report on the Asian American middle class are part of a series on the status of Americas racial and ethnic groups in the U.S.middle class and other income tiers.Forthcoming analyses will foc

28、us on White,Black,Hispanic,American Indian or Alaska Native,Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and multiracial Americans,including subgroups within these populations.These reports are,in part,updates of previous work by the Center.But they offer much greater detail on the demographic attributes of

29、the American middle class.Following are some key facts about the state of the American middle class:Who is middle income or middle class?In our analysis,“middle-income”Americans are those living in households with an annual income that is two-thirds to double the national median household income.The

30、 income it takes to be middle income varies by household size,with smaller households requiring less to support the same lifestyle as larger households.It also varies by the local cost of living,with households in a more expensive area,such as Honolulu,needing a higher income than those in a less ex

31、pensive area,such as Wichita,Kansas.We dont always know the area in which a household is located.In our two data sources the Current Population Survey,Annual Social and Economic Supplement(CPS ASEC)and the American Community Survey(ACS)only the latter provides that information,specifically the metro

32、politan area of a household.Thus,we arent able to adjust for the local cost of living when using the CPS to track changes in the status of the middle class over time.But we do adjust for the metropolitan area cost of living when using the ACS to determine the demographic attributes of the middle cla

33、ss in 2022.In the 2023 2023 CPS CPS ASEC ASEC datadata,which reports income for 2022,middle-income households with three people have incomes ranging from about$61,000 to$183,000 annually.“Lower-income”households have incomes less than$61,000,and“upper-income”households have incomes greater than$183,

34、000.In the 2022022 2 ACS dataACS data,middle-income households with three people have incomes ranging from about$62,000 to$187,000 annually,with incomes also adjusted for the local area cost of living.(Incomes are expressed in 2023 dollars.)The boundaries of the income tiers also vary across years a

35、s the national median income changes.The terms“middle income”and“middle class”are used interchangeably in this report for the sake of exposition.But being middle class can refer to more than just income,be it education level,type of profession,economic security,home ownership or social and political

36、 values.Class also could simply be a matter of self-identification.6 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 1 Households in all income tiers had much higher incomes in 2022 than in 1970,after adjusting for inflation.But the gains for middle-and lower-income households were less than the gains for u

37、pper-income households.The median income of middle-class households increased from about$66,400 in 1970 to$106,100 in 2022,or 60%.Over this period,the median income of upper-income households increased 78%,from about$144,100 to$256,900.(Incomes are scaled to a three-person household and expressed in

38、 2023 dollars.)The median income of lower-income households grew more slowly than that of other households,increasing from about$22,800 in 1970 to$35,300 in 2022,or 55%.Consequently,there is now a larger gap between the incomes of upper-income households and other households.In 2022,the median incom

39、e of upper-income households was 7.3 times that of lower-income households,up from 6.3 in 1970.It was 2.4 times the median income of middle-income households in 2022,up from 2.2 in 1970.Incomes of upper-income U.S.households increased the most of any income tier from 1970 to 2022 Median household in

40、come,by income tier,in 2023 dollars and scaled to reflect a three-person household Note:Households are assigned to income tiers based on their incomes in the calendar year prior to the survey year,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household.Source:Pew Research

41、Center analysis of the Current Population Survey,Annual Social and Economic Supplement(IPUMS),1971 and 2023.PEW RESEARCH CENTER$256,920106,09235,318144,06866,41722,831202219702022202219701970Upper incomeMiddle incomeLower income%change 78%60 55 7 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 2 The share o

42、f total U.S.household income held by the middle class has fallen almost without fail in each decade since 1970.In that year,middle-income households accounted for 62%of the aggregate income of all U.S.households,about the same as the share of people who lived in middle-class households.By 2022,the m

43、iddle-class share in overall household income had fallen to 43%,less than the share of the population in middle-class households(51%).Not only do a smaller share of people live in the middle class today,the incomes of middle-class households have also not risen as quickly as the incomes of upper-inc

44、ome households.Over the same period,the share of total U.S.household income held by upper-income households increased from 29%in 1970 to 48%in 2022.In part,this is because of the increase in the share of people who are in the upper-income tier.The share of overall income held by lower-income househo

45、lds edged down from 10%in 1970 to 8%in 2022.This happened even though the share of people living in lower-income households increased over this period.Share of total U.S.household income held by the middle class has plunged since 1970%of total U.S.household income held by lower-,middle-and upper-inc

46、ome households Note:Households are assigned to income tiers based on their incomes in the calendar year prior to the survey year,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household.Their unadjusted incomes are then summed to compute the share of total U.S.household inc

47、ome held by each income tier.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the Current Population Survey,Annual Social and Economic Supplements(IPUMS),1971,1980,1990,2000,2010 and 2023.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 10862%432948020406080Upper incomeMiddle income202219701979198

48、919992009Lower income%8 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 3 The share of people in the U.S.middle class varied from 46%to 55%across racial and ethnic groups in 2022.Black and Hispanic Americans,Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders,and American Indians or Alaska Natives were more likely than o

49、thers to be in lower-income households.In 2022,39%to 47%of Americans in these four groups lived in lower-income households.In contrast,only 24%of White and Asian Americans and 31%of multiracial Americans were in the lower-income tier.At the other end of the economic spectrum,27%of Asian and 21%of Wh

50、ite Americans lived in upper-income households in 2022,compared with about 10%or less of Black and Hispanic Americans,Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders,and American Indians or Alaska Natives.Not surprisingly,lower-income status is correlated with the likelihood of living in poverty.According to

51、the Census Bureau,the poverty rate among Black(17.1%)and Hispanic(16.9%)Americans and American Indians or Alaska Natives(25%)was greater than the rate among White and Asian Americans(8.6%for each).(The Census Bureau did not report the poverty rate for Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders.)Black,His

52、panic,Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander and American Indian/Alaska Native people are more likely than others to live in lower-income U.S.households%of U.S.population in each income tier,by race and ethnicity,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes

53、have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.White,Black,Asian,American Indian or Alaska Native,and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander are people who identified with a single major racial group and wh

54、o are not Hispanic.Multiracial includes people who identified with more than one major racial group and are not Hispanic.Hispanics are of any race.Groups are sorted by the share in the upper-income tier.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CEN

55、TER 30%242431394543475248555252464946172721179988All AmericansAsianWhiteMultiracialBlackHispanicLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeNative Hawaiian or Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian or Alaska Native9 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 4 Children and adults 65 and older were more likely to liv

56、e in lower-income households in 2022.Adults in the peak of their working years ages 30 to 64 were more likely to be upper income.In 2022,38%of children(including teens)and 35%of adults 65 and older were lower income,compared with 26%of adults ages 30 to 44 and 23%of adults 45 to 64.The share of peop

57、le living in upper-income households ranged from 13%among children and young adults(up to age 29)to 24%among those 45 to 64.In each age group,about half or a little more were middle class in 2022.Nearly 4 in 10 U.S.children lived in lower-income households in 2022,about half in the middle class%of U

58、.S.population in each income tier,by age,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Source:Pew Research Ce

59、nter analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 38%31262335495655525013131824151818-2930-4445-6465+Lower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeAge10 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 5 Men were slightly more likely than women to live in middle-income households in 2022,

60、53%vs.51%.Their share in upper-income households(18%)was also somewhat greater than the share of women(16%)in upper-income households.Marriage appears to boost the economic status of Americans.Among those who were married in 2022,eight-in-ten lived either in middle-income households(56%)or upper-inc

61、ome households(24%).In contrast,only about six-in-ten of those who were separated,divorced,widowed or never married were either middle class or upper income,while 37%lived in lower-income households.Veterans were more likely than nonveterans to be middle income in 2022,57%vs.53%.Conversely,a higher

62、share of nonveterans(29%)than veterans(24%)lived in lower-income households.Men,veterans and married Americans were more likely than their counterparts to live in middle-or upper-income households in 2022%of U.S.population in each income tier,by gender,marital status and veteran status,2022 Note:Peo

63、ple are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Marital status is estimated for people ages 15 and older,and veteran status

64、is for people 17 and older.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 28%3253511816MenWomenLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeGender20%3756502413Married,spouse present or absentSeparated,divorced,widowedor never marriedMarital status24%2957

65、531918VeteranNot a veteranVeteran status11 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 6 Immigrants about 14%of the U.S.population in 2022 were less likely than the U.S.born to be in the middle class and more likely to live in lower-income households.In 2022,more than a third of immigrants(36%)lived in

66、lower-income households,compared with 29%of the U.S.born.Immigrants also trailed the U.S.born in the shares who were in the middle class,48%vs.53%.There are large gaps in the economic status of American residents by their region of birth.Among people born in Asia,Europe or Oceania,25%lived in upper-

67、income households in 2022.People from these regions represented 7%of the U.S.population.By comparison,only 14%of people born in Africa or South America and 6%of those born in Central America and the Caribbean were in the upper-income tier in 2022.Together they accounted for 8%of the U.S.population.I

68、mmigrants were more likely than the U.S.born to be lower income in 2022;people born in Asia,Europe or Oceania were most likely to be upper income%of U.S.population in each income tier,by nativity and region of birth,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after

69、 incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 29%3627262929373646534848494653495048181625252

70、51814146U.S.bornForeign bornAsiaEuropeOceaniaNorth America,U.S.territoriesAfricaSouth AmericaLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeNativityRegion of birth,including for U.S.bornCentral America&Caribbean12 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 7 The likelihood of being in the middle class or the upp

71、er-income tier varies considerably with the ancestry of Americans.In 2022,Americans reporting South Asian ancestry were about as likely to be upper income(38%)as they were to be middle income(42%).Only 20%of Americans of South Asian origin lived in lower-income households.South Asians accounted for

72、about 2%of the U.S.population of known origin groups in 2022.At least with respect to the share who were lower income,this was about matched by those with Soviet,Eastern European,other Asian or Western European origins.These groups represented the majority(54%)of the population of Americans whose an

73、cestry was known in 2022.On the other hand,only 7%of Americans with Central and South American or other Hispanic ancestry were in the upper-income tier,and 44%were lower income.The economic statuses of Americans with Caribbean,sub-Saharan African or North American ancestry were not very different fr

74、om this.Americans of South Asian origin are the most likely to be upper income;Hispanic origins are the least likely%of U.S.population in each income tier,by ancestry,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of peo

75、ple living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Ancestry or origin shown is that which is reported first by respondents in the source data.Estimates include both the U.S.born and the foreign born.About 25%of respondents in the source data were

76、of unknown ancestry.Caribbean includes non-Hispanic Central and South America.Soviet and Eastern European includes all Europeans not elsewhere classified.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 20%202521353438413944425351564353504749483827

77、242321131212117South AsianOther AsianWestern EuropeanPacific IslanderNorth AmericanSub-Saharan AfricanCaribbeanLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeSoviet,Eastern EuropeanMiddle Eastern&North AfricanCentral&South American,other Hispanic ancestry13 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 8 Education

78、matters for moving into the middle class and beyond,and so do jobs.Among Americans ages 25 and older in 2022,52%of those with a bachelors degree or higher level of education lived in middle-class households and another 35%lived in upper-income households.In sharp contrast,42%of Americans who did not

79、 graduate from high school were in the middle class,and only 5%were in the upper-income tier.Further,only 12%of college graduates were lower income,compared with 54%of those who did not complete high school.Not surprisingly,having a job is strongly linked to movement from the lower-income tier to th

80、e middle-and upper-income tiers.Among employed American workers ages 16 and older,58%were in the middle-income tier in 2022 and 23%were in the upper-income tier.Only 19%of employed workers were lower income,compared with 49%of unemployed Americans.The share of Americans in the middle-or upper-income

81、 tier rises sharply with education and employment%of Americans in each income tier,by education and labor force status,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area

82、cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Education level is estimated for people ages 25 and older,and labor force status is for people 16 and older.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 54%37281242545852591435HS graduateH

83、S graduate onlySome collegeBachelors degree+Lower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeEducation level19%494358424523812EmployedUnemployedNot in labor forceLabor force status14 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 9 In some occupations,about nine-in-ten U.S.workers are either in the middle class or in

84、the upper-income tier,but in some other occupations almost four-in-ten workers are lower income.More than a third(36%to 39%)of workers in computer,science and engineering,management,and business and finance occupations lived in upper-income households in 2022.About half or more were in the middle cl

85、ass.But many workers about one-third or more in construction,transportation,food preparation and serving,and personal care and other services were in the lower-income tier in 2022.About six-in-ten workers or more in education;protective and building maintenance services;office and administrative sup

86、port;the armed forces;and maintenance,repair and production were in the middle class.More than a third of U.S.workers in technology,management,and business and finance occupations were in the upper-income tier in 2022%of U.S.workers in each income tier,by occupation,2022 Note:People are assigned to

87、income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Estimates are for people ages 16 and older who had worked in the previous five years.Source:Pew

88、Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 8%1110162118261925222532323939535054555561536262656458595252393936282421202014141010999Lower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeManagementBusiness andfinance operationsComputer,scienceand engineeringLegal,social se

89、rvices,arts,media and relatedEducationHealth careProtective and building maintenance servicesFood preparationand servingPersonal careand other servicesSales and relatedOffice andadministrative supportConstruction,extraction and farmingMaintenance,repair and productionTransportation and material movi

90、ngArmed forces15 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 10 Depending on the industrial sector,anywhere from half to two-thirds of U.S.workers were in the middle class,and the share who are upper income or lower income varied greatly.About a third of workers in the finance,insurance and real estate,

91、information,and professional services sectors were in the upper-income tier in 2022.Nearly nine-in-ten workers(87%)in public administration largely filling legislative functions and providing federal,state or local government services were either in the middle class or the upper-income tier.But near

92、ly four-in-ten workers(38%)in accommodation and food services were lower income in 2022,along with three-in-ten workers in the retail trade and other services sectors.About a third of U.S.workers in the information,financial and professional services sectors were in the upper-income tier in 2022%of

93、U.S.workers in each income tier,by industry,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.Estimates are for p

94、eople ages 16 and older who had worked in the previous five years.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 14%1519132017192225282526303021385352506158615956565559595657655233333127222221211917161514141311Lower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incom

95、eInformationProfessional servicesFinance,insuranceand real estatePublic administrationEducationWholesale tradeHealth careand social assistanceOther servicesMilitaryManufacturing Arts,entertainmentand recreationConstructionTransportation,warehousing and utilitiesRetail tradeAgriculture,forestry,fishi

96、ng and miningAccommodation and food services16 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org 11 The share of Americans who are in the middle class or in the upper-or lower-income tier differs across U.S.metropolitan areas.But a pattern emerges when it comes to which metro areas have the highest shares of

97、people living in lower-,middle-or upper-income households.(We first adjust household incomes for differences in the cost of living across areas.)The 10 metropolitan areas with the greatest shares of middle-income residents are small to midsize in population and are located mostly in the northern hal

98、f of the U.S.About six-in-ten residents in these metro areas were in the middle class.Several of these areas are in the so-called Rust Belt,namely,Wausau and Oshkosh-Neenah,both in Wisconsin;Grand Rapids-Wyoming,Michigan;and Lancaster,Pennsylvania.Two others Dover and Olympia-Tumwater include state

99、capitals(Delaware and Washington,respectively).In four of these areas Bismarck,North Dakota,Ogden-Clearfield,Utah,Lancaster and Wausau the share of residents in the upper-income tier ranged from 18%to 20%,about on par with the share nationally.The 10 U.S.metropolitan areas with the largest shares of

100、 residents in the middle class in 2022%of residents in a metropolitan area in each income tier,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares ma

101、y not total 100%due to rounding.The ranking of metropolitan areas is based on 222 areas for which a sample of at least 500 households was available.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 26%252319202028202725656463636262616161601011141918

102、1811201315Dover,DEOlympia-Tumwater,WAGlens Falls,NYBismarck,NDOgden-Clearfield,UTLancaster,PAProvo-Orem,UTWausau,WIOshkosh-Neenah,WIGrand Rapids-Wyoming,MILower incomeMiddle incomeUpper income17 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org The 10 U.S.metropolitan areas with the highest shares of resident

103、s in the upper-income tier are mostly large,coastal communities.Topping the list is San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara,California,a technology-driven economy,in which 40%of the population lived in upper-income households in 2022.Other tech-focused areas on this list include San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward

104、;Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue;and Raleigh,North Carolina.Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk,Connecticut,is a financial hub.Several areas,including Washington,D.C.-Arlington-Alexandria and Boston-Cambridge-Newton,are home to major universities,leading research facilities and the government sector.Notably,many of

105、 these metro areas also have sizable lower-income populations.For instance,about a quarter of the populations in Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk;Trenton,New Jersey;Boston-Cambridge-Newton;and Santa Cruz-Watsonville,California,were in the lower-income tier in 2022.The 10 U.S.metropolitan areas with the l

106、argest shares of residents in the upper-income tier in 2022%of residents in a metropolitan area in each income tier,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cos

107、t of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.The ranking of metropolitan areas is based on 222 areas for which a sample of at least 500 households was available.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 19%222420252222222426424343494

108、6515151494840343331292727272626Trenton,NJAustin-Round Rock,TXRaleigh,NCLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeWashington-Arlington-Alexandria,DC-VA-MD-WVSanta Cruz-Watsonville,CABoston-Cambridge-Newton,MA-NHSeattle-Tacoma-Bellevue,WABridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk,CTSan Francisco-Oakland-Hayward,CASan Jos

109、e-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara,CA18 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org Most of the 10 U.S.metropolitan areas with the highest shares of residents in the lower-income tier are in the Southwest,either on the southern border of Texas or in Californias Central Valley.The shares of people living in lower-i

110、ncome residents were largely similar across these areas,ranging from about 45%to 50%.About 40%to 50%of residents in these metro areas were in the middle class,and only about one-in-ten or fewer lived in upper-income households.Compared with the nation overall,the lower-income metro areas in Texas an

111、d California have disproportionately large Hispanic populations.The two metro areas in Louisiana Monroe and Shreveport-Bossier City have disproportionately large Black populations.The 10 U.S.metropolitan areas with the largest shares of residents in the lower-income tier in 2022%of residents in a me

112、tropolitan area in each income tier,2022 Note:People are assigned to income tiers based on their household incomes,after incomes have been adjusted for the number of people living in each household and the local area cost of living.Shares may not total 100%due to rounding.The ranking of metropolitan

113、 areas is based on 222 areas for which a sample of at least 500 households was available.Source:Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Survey(IPUMS),2022.PEW RESEARCH CENTER 51%494847464645444444424144464645444751467108789119510Monroe,LALaredo,TXBrownsville-Harlingen,TXVisalia-Porter

114、ville,CAEl Paso,TXBakersfield,CAModesto,CALas Cruces,NMLower incomeMiddle incomeUpper incomeMcAllen-Edinburg-Mission,TXShreveport-Bossier City,LA19 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org Acknowledgments This report was written by Rakesh Kochhar,senior researcher.Editorial guidance for the report wa

115、s provided by Mark Hugo Lopez,director,race and ethnicity research.Guidance on the communications strategy and outreach was provided by Tanya Arditi,senior communications manager.The report was number-checked by Gracie Martinez and Mohamad Moslimani,research assistants.Sara Atske,digital producer,pr

116、oduced the report.David Kent,senior copy editor,copy edited the report.Find related reports on our topic page about the middle class.20 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org Methodology The data for the historical analysis in this report is derived from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements(A

117、SEC)of the Current Population Survey(CPS),which are conducted in March of every year.The specific files used in this report are from March 1971 to March 2023 and contain data on the annual income of households from 1970 to 2022.Conducted jointly by the U.S.Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Stati

118、stics,the CPS is a monthly survey of about 60,000 households and is the source of the nations official statistics on unemployment.The ASEC survey in March typically features a larger sample size(about 75,000 in recent years)and is the source of the annual income and poverty estimates reported by the

119、 Census Bureau.The historical analysis for Asian Americans is limited to CPS data for 2010 and 2023.That is because Asian Americans alone were not identified in the CPS until 2003.Prior to that year,and starting only in 1988,the CPS reported data for Asians and Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders

120、(NHPI)combined.But the sample size for the NHPI population is only about 300 households in 2010 and 2023.For that reason,we do not report historical trends for the NHPI population.We also do not report historical trends for American Indian and Alaska Native(AIAN)or multiracial populations.These two

121、populations are not uniquely identified in the CPS.Methodological and other revisions to the CPS may have an impact on estimated trends.For example,the 2015 ASEC introduced a redesigned set of income questions,and definitions of key socioeconomic categories,such as race and educational attainment,ha

122、ve changed over time.The demographic analysis is principally based on the data from the 2022 American Community Survey(ACS).The public-use version of the ACS is a 1%sample of the U.S.population,or more than 3 million people.It is designed to collect the detailed information previously collected in t

123、he long form of the decennial census.But the ACS data are available only from 2005 onwards and are less suitable for long-run historical analyses.The ACS is conducted in every month of the year,with data collected from about one-twelfth of the total sample in each month.The monthly responses are com

124、bined to form an annual portrait of the nation and of smaller geographic units.Because of its large sample size,the ACS is a better source than the CPS for analyses of subnational or subgroup demographic and income data.Nonetheless,we do not report the distribution of NHPI workers across income tier

125、s by occupation and industry because of small sample sizes.In some instances,the demographic analysis uses data from the 5-year ACS for the period 2018-2022.This file contains data from the five ACS surveys conducted over this period and represents 21 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org a 5%samp

126、le of the U.S.population,or more than 15 million people.We exclude the data for 2020 because the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on data collection in that year.The resulting file with four years of data about 12 million people was used to study smaller demographic groups,such as Korean A

127、mericans or Pakistani Americans.But we are still limited in the extent to which we can analyze the distribution of the AIAN and NHPI populations across income tiers in U.S.metropolitan areas.The CPS and ACS microdata used are the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series(IPUMS)provided by the Universit

128、y of Minnesota.The IPUMS assigns uniform codes,to the extent possible,to data collected in the CPS and ACS over the years.More information about the IPUMS,including variable definition and sampling error,is available at IPUMS CPS and IPUMS USA.Income Household income is the sum of incomes earned by

129、all members of the household ages 15 and older.Income is defined as money income received(exclusive of certain money receipts,such as capital gains)before payments for such things as personal income taxes,Social Security,union dues and Medicare deductions.Noncash transfers such as SNAP benefits(food

130、 stamps),health benefits,subsidized housing and energy assistance are not included.More detail on the measurement and collection of income in government data can be found in the documentation of the CPS or in the documentation of the ACS.The CPS collects data on income received by the household in t

131、he calendar year preceding the date of the survey.The ACS is a rolling monthly survey,and the household income data refer to income received during the 12 months preceding the survey month.In other words,a household surveyed in January 2022 is expected to report income received from January 2021 to

132、December 2021,a household surveyed in February 2022 is expected to report income received from February 2021 to January 2022,and so on.Households surveyed in December 2022 report income received from December 2021 to November 2022.Thus,in the 2022 ACS,the income data refer to the period from January

133、 2021 to November 2022,a span of 23 months.Because the income data collected in the ACS does not refer to a calendar year,the Census Bureau provides an adjustment factor that converts reported incomes to the levels they would have been had they been earned during a calendar year.Although this adjust

134、ment factor has its limits,we apply it to the income data in the 2022 ACS to convert reported incomes to their projected levels in the 2022 calendar year.In the 5-year ACS files,the reported incomes have already been standardized by the Census Bureau to dollars as valued in the final year of data in

135、cluded in the file.22 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org The data on income are adjusted for inflation and reported in 2023 dollars in this report.We use the price index series published in the Census Bureaus 2022 income report.From 2000 to 2022,this series is the same as the Chained Consumer P

136、rice Index for all Urban Consumers(C-CPI-U)published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS).From 1978 to 1999,this series is the BLSs Consumer Price Index for all Urban Consumers Retroactive Series(R-CPI-U-RS).For years prior to 1978,the Census Bureau uses an experimental price index series from the

137、 BLS known as the CPI-U-X1.We apply the C-CPI-U from the BLS to extend the Census Bureaus price index series from 2022 to 2023.The choice of a price index does not affect the allocation of households into lower-,middle-or upper-income categories at a point in time.That is because the same price inde

138、x applies to the incomes of all households and does not affect their income-based rank.However,the choice of a price index does affect measures of absolute progress over time.For example,from 2000 to 2023,the price level rose either 78%(R-CPI-U-RS)or 67%(C-CPI-U).This means that someone who earned$1

139、0,000 per year in 2000 would need to earn either$17,800(using the R-CPI-U-RS)or$16,700(using the C-CPI-U)in 2023 to be just as well off as in 2000.Households in census data The Census Bureau defines a household as the entire group of persons who live in a single dwelling unit.A household may consist

140、 of several persons living together or one person living alone.It includes the household head and all of their relatives living in the dwelling unit and also any lodgers,live-in housekeepers,nannies and other residents not related to the head of the household.Adjusting income for household size Hous

141、ehold income data reported in this study are adjusted for the number of people in a household.That is done because a four-person household with an income of,say,$50,000 faces a tighter budget constraint than a two-person household with the same income.In addition to comparisons across households at

142、a given point in time,this adjustment is useful for measuring changes in the income of households over time.That is because average household size in the U.S.decreased from 3.1 persons in 1970 to 2.5 persons in 2023,a drop of about 20%.Ignoring this demographic change would mean ignoring a commensur

143、ate loosening of the household budget constraint.At its simplest,adjusting for household size could mean converting household income into per capita income.Thus,a two-person household with an income of$50,000 would have a per capita 23 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org income of$25,000,double

144、the per capita income of a four-person household with the same total income.A more sophisticated framework for household size adjustment recognizes that there are economies of scale in consumer expenditures.For example,a two-bedroom apartment may not cost twice as much to rent as a one-bedroom apart

145、ment.Two household members could carpool to work for the same cost as a single household member,and so on.For that reason,many researchers make adjustments for household size using the method of“equivalence scales.”A common equivalence-scale adjustment is defined as follows:Adjusted household income

146、=Household income/(Household size)N By this method,household income is divided by household size exponentiated by“N,”where N is a number between 0 and 1.Note that if N=0,the denominator equals 1.In that case,no adjustment is made for household size.If N=1,the denominator equals household size,and th

147、at is the same as converting household income into per capita income.The usual approach is to let N be some number between 0 and 1.Following other researchers,this study uses N=0.5.In practical terms,this means that household income is divided by the square root of household size 1.41 for a two-pers

148、on household,1.73 for a three-person household,2.00 for a four-person household and so on.One issue with adjusting for household size is that while demographic data on household composition pertain to the survey date,income data typically pertain to the preceding calendar year or the preceding 12-mo

149、nth period.Because household composition can change over time,for example,through marriage,divorce or death,the household size that is measured at the survey date may not be the same as that at the time the income was earned and spent.Once household incomes have been converted to a“uniform”household

150、 size,they can be scaled to reflect any household size.The income data reported in this study are computed for three-person households,the closest whole number to the average size of a U.S.household since 1970.That is done as follows:Three-person household income=Adjusted household income*(3)0.5 Adj

151、usting for household size does have an effect on trends in income since 1970.However,it is important to note that once the adjustment has been made,it is immaterial whether one scales 24 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org incomes to one-,two-,three-or four-person households.Regardless of the ch

152、oice of household size,the same results would emerge with respect to the trends in the well-being of lower-,middle-and upper-income groups.Adjusting income for the cost of living in metropolitan and other areas In our analysis of the ACS data,“middle-income”Americans live in households with incomes

153、that are two-thirds to double the national median,after incomes have been adjusted for household size and the cost of living in their area.Their area of residence may be in a known metropolitan area,an unidentified metro area or outside of a metro area.A metropolitan area consists of at least one ur

154、banized area with a population of 50,000 or more people,plus neighboring areas that are socially and economically integrated with the core.Metropolitan areas may cross state boundaries,such as the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria,DC-VA-MD-WV area.Our analysis of the state of the middle class for all

155、Americans encompasses 222 of 381 metropolitan areas in the United States,as defined by the Office of Management and Budget in its 2013 classification of metro areas.The 222 metropolitan areas included are the maximum number of areas that could be identified in the ACS(IPUMS)data that also had a samp

156、le of at least 500 households.Together,these areas accounted for 72%of the nations population in 2022.Overall,the 2022 ACS identifies 248 metro areas.The cost-of-living adjustment for all areas is based on price indexes published by the U.S.Bureau of Economic Analysis.These indexes,known as Regional

157、 Price Parities(RPP),compare the prices of goods and services in an area with the national average prices for the same goods and services.The latest available estimates are for 2022.RPPs are available for three types of areas.The RPPs for metropolitan areas were used to adjust the incomes of househo

158、lds in metro areas identified in the ACS data.RPPs for the metropolitan portions of a state were used to adjust the incomes of households known to live in a metro area in that state but for whom the identity of the metro area was not known.Finally,RPPs for all nonmetro areas in a state were used to

159、adjust the incomes of households located in nonmetro areas in that state.Race,ethnicity,nativity,educational attainment and marital status In our analyses,White,Black and Asian Americans,American Indians or Alaska Natives,and Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders are people who identified with a sin

160、gle major racial group 25 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org and who are not Hispanic.Asian includes people who identified with more than one Asian race or origin,e.g.,Japanese and Filipino.Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders include people identifying with more than one Micronesian race.Mult

161、iracial includes people who identified with more than one major racial group,e.g.,White and Black,Black and Korean,or Chinese and Hawaiian,and are not Hispanic.Hispanics are of any race.U.S.born refers to individuals who are U.S.citizens at birth,including people born in the 50 U.S.states,the Distri

162、ct of Columbia,Puerto Rico or other U.S.territories,as well as those born elsewhere to at least one parent who is a U.S.citizen.The terms foreign born and immigrant are used interchangeably in this report.They refer to people who are not U.S.citizens at birth.High school graduate refers to those who

163、 have a high school diploma or its equivalent,such as a General Education Development(GED)certificate,and those who had completed 12th grade,but their diploma status was unclear(those who had finished 12th grade but not received a diploma are excluded).Adults with some college include those with an

164、associate degree and those who attended college but did not obtain a degree.In the estimates for 1971,adults with a bachelors degree or higher level of education are those who completed at least four years of college.Unmarried includes never married,divorced,separated and widowed.Married includes th

165、ose whose spouse may be absent.Region of birth and ancestry Region of birth is defined using traditional geographic boundaries as identified in the IPUMS USA variable BPL.North America and U.S.territories includes the U.S.,American Samoa,Guam,Puerto Rico and the U.S.Virgin Islands,Canada,and Atlanti

166、c Islands.Central America and the Caribbean includes Mexico,the rest of Central America and Caribbean islands.South America is all countries in South America,and Europe is all countries in Europe,including Russia.Asia is geographic Asia,including the Middle East,and Africa refers to all countries on

167、 that continent.Oceania encompasses Australia,New Zealand and various Pacific Islands.Ancestry refers to a persons self-reported ancestry or ethnic origin and is based on the IPUMS USA variable ANCESTR1.Respondents may provide more than one ancestry.We use the first-reported ancestry in our analysis

168、.North American refers to U.S.or Canadian origins and American Indian and Alaska Native tribes.Central and South American and other Hispanic ancestry refers not only to places of origin,such as Mexico,Puerto Rico and Peru,but also to ethnic origins,such as Mexican American,Spaniard and Hispanic.Cari

169、bbean includes the West Indies and non-Hispanic Central and South America.26 PEW RESEARCH CENTER www.pewresearch.org South Asian includes origin groups from Afghanistan,India and neighboring countries,except Burma.Other Asian encompasses groups from Burma to the countries on the Pacific rim of Asia.

170、Middle Eastern&North African origin groups are from countries ranging from Morocco to Iran.Sub-Saharan African groups are from Africa,excluding countries in North Africa.Pacific Islanders trace their origin to Australia,New Zealand and Pacific Islands,including Hawaii.Western European and Soviet or

171、Eastern European ancestries are defined along familiar geographic classifications of these regions,except that the latter category also includes Europeans not elsewhere classified in the source data.Statistical significance Comparisons between most estimates are tested for statistical significance u

172、sing the replicate weights in the source data.These tests for statistical significance are conducted using 95%confidence intervals.However,replicate weights are not available in the CPS for years prior to 2005.Thus,when comparisons are made between CPS estimates from 1971 and 2023,or in other instances where replicate weights are not available,the standard errors are determined using the“pweight”option in Stata,and tests of significance are conducted using 99%confidence intervals.Pew Research Center 2024