1、GENDER,SOCIAL INCLUSION,AND ENERGY ACCESS IN THE HORN OFAFRICA BORDERLANDS:A VANTAGE POINTBy the Africa Gender and Energy TeamPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedGENDER,SOCIAL INCLUSION,AND ENERGY ACCESS IN THE HORN OF AFRIC

2、A BORDERLANDSA VANTAGE POINTBy the Africa Gender and Energy TeamWork based onThe Horn of Africa Regional Integration for Sustainable Energy Supply Project(P174175)Gender Equality and Social Inclusion(GESI)AssessmentAbout ESMAPThe Energy Sector Management Assistance Program(ESMAP)is a partnership bet

3、ween the World Bank and over 20 partners to help low-and middle-income countries reduce poverty and boost growth through sustainable energy solutions.ESMAPs analytical and advisory services are fully integrated within the World Banks country financing and policy dialogue in the energy sector.Through

4、 the World Bank Group(WBG),ESMAP works to accelerate the energy transition required to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 7(SDG7)to ensure access to affordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all.It helps to shape WBG strategies and programs to achieve the WBG Climate Change Action Plan

5、 targets.Learn more at:https:/esmap.org 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street NWWashington DC 20433Telephone:202-473-1000Internet:www.worldbank.orgThis work is a product of the staff of the World Bank,with external contributions.The findings,interpret

6、ations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank,its Board of Executive Directors,or the governments they represent.The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denominations,and other infor

7、mation shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.Rights and PermissionsThe material in this work is subject to copyright.Because the World Bank encourages diss

8、emination of its knowledge,this work may be reproduced,in whole or in part,for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given.Any queries on rights and licenses,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to World Bank Publications,The World Bank Group,1818 H Street NW,

9、Washington,DC 20433,USA;fax:202-522-2625;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.vCONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY viiACKNOWLEDGMENTS xACRONYMS xi1.INTRODUCTION11.1 Assessment Objectives 21.2 Methodology 2121 Data and Information Collection 2122 Limitations 31.3 Structure of the Report 42.REGIONAL OVERVIEW 52.1 Over

10、view of the HoA Region 62.2 The Gender and Social Inclusion Situation in the HoA7221 Overall Gender and Social Inclusion 7222 Overall Gender and Social Inclusion in the Borderlands 82.3 Overview of Energy in the HoA 92.4 Overview of Gender and Social Inclusion in the Energy Sector in the HoA 103.GEN

11、DER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION ASSESSMENT IN HoA COUNTRIES:MAIN FINDINGS 133.1 Country Analysis 14311 Djibouti 14312 Eritrea 15313 Ethiopia 17314 Kenya 19315 Somalia 21316 Sudan 243.2 The Potential for Productive Uses of Energy in the Borderlands of the HoA 263.3 Gender,Social Inclusion,and Cross

12、-Border Trade in the Borderlands of HoA 273.4 Summary of GESI Gaps in the Energy Sector within the Borderlands in the HoA 284.RECOMMENDATIONS AND LESSONS LEARNED314.1 Recommendations32411 Overall:Recommendations on Program Design and Implementation 32412 Supply Side:Recommendations on Improving Acce

13、ss to Clean Energy 33413 Demand Side:Recommendations on Improving Access to Clean Energy 344.2 Lessons Learned 355.CONCLUSION 376.BIBLIOGRAPHY 39APPENDICES 45Appendix A.Checklist for Key Informant Interviews 46Appendix B.Mapping of the Legal and Policy Framework for Gender and Social Inclusion in Ho

14、A Countries 49Appendix C.Evidence-Based Solutions 50viiEXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe Horn of Africa is growing rapidly,but it is saddled with high levels of poverty,vulnerability,and insecurityLocated in the easternmost part of Africa,the Horn of Africa(HoA)region includes countries such as Djibouti,Eritrea,

15、Ethiopia,Kenya,Somalia,South Sudan,Sudan,and Uganda.Although the region is home to some of the fastest-growing economies in Africa,it is saddled with high levels of poverty,vulnerability,and insecurity,especially in the borderland areas.The region is suffering from wide gender inequality,social incl

16、usion challenges,and inequitable access to energy,especially in borderland areasThe assessment reveals significant gender inequality and social inclusion challenges within the HoA region.Particularly,women,children,youth,the elderly,and persons with disability tend to be the most vulnerable,highly m

17、arginalized,and socially excluded groups in society.With regard to the energy sector,access to clean and affordable modern energy services is also generally very limited in the borderlands of the HoA region.Given that women are predominantly tasked with traditional household responsibilities,includi

18、ng fetching water for household use,cooking,and searching for cooking fuels,they tend to be disproportionately affected by the lack of easy access to clean or modern energy services.Addressing gender and social inclusion gaps in the energy sector is important for developmentWidespread inequality and

19、 limited access to modern energy services for women and other socially excluded groups in the HoA borderlands present serious challenges for development.Given that these groups altogether constitute a large share of the population in the region,improving access to modern energy services will enable

20、them to take the chance on the socioeconomic opportunities available to engage in entrepreneurial activities,build sustainable livelihoods,improve human capital accumulation and ultimately contribution significantly to growth and development of the region.There is critical scarcity of relevant and r

21、eliable sex-disaggregated data on energy and gender equality for HoA borderland areasGenerally,sex-disaggregated data on energy access in many countries(particularly with respect to the borderlands)and use patterns among the different categories of vulnerable groups being considered,including youth,

22、internally displaced people(IDPs),persons with disabilities(PWDs),and the lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,queer(LGBTQ)community,are largely absent.In some instances,the limited data available on energy access focused predominantly on the national level and mostly centered around comparing access le

23、vels between rural and urban settlements.Social norms in the region make it challenging to research gender and social inclusionDue to the existence of certain social and cultural norms,research on gender and social inclusion is generally challenging in most communities/countries in the HoA since suc

24、h issues are regarded as potentially sensitive among various social groups in the region.Therefore,there is a need to collaborate with the World Bank Group(WBG)in-country focal points,THE WORLD BANK GROUPviiilocal counterparts,and the project implementing partners in engaging local structures.Fragil

25、ity,conflict,and violence in the HoA region make primary data collection very challengingThe fragile political context of the HoA region presented tremendous challenges in collecting the required primary data from borderland communities.During the field mission,the research team could not visit vari

26、ous preselected borderland communities in Ethiopia,Kenya,and Somalia,mainly due to existing security challenges and travel restrictions imposed as a result of the global COVID-19 pandemic.Secondary data sources were the mainstay of the researchAs part of the research and report writing process,the t

27、eam relied heavily on secondary data that were gathered from a desk review.Due to a lack of primary sources,information and data that were collected by various development actors and relevant stakeholders were utilized,ensuring that the report is comprehensive and informed by a variety of perspectiv

28、es.Nevertheless,the report also benefitted from insights derived through key informant interviews(KIIs),for example,relevant line ministries in the HoA countries,nongovernmental organizations(NGOs),civil society organizations,and international organizations working at both the country and regional l

29、evels and focus group discussions(FGDs)with local or community-level stakeholders,particularly in Djibouti,Kenya,and Somalia.Factors contributing to levels of marginalization and social exclusion in the borderlands in the energy sector include the following:High levels of unemployment among women,mi

30、norities,and other vulnerable groups,when compared to the rest of the population,limit their purchasing power,including the ability to pay for electricity and access to other clean energy services.The prevalence of illiteracy and lower education levels among women,as opposed to men,leads to women pr

31、imarily engaging in unpaid work or informal/vulnerable employment.This ultimately hinders their capacity to afford energy services or connectivity.High poverty rates among vulnerable and marginalized groups,especially women-headed households,people engaged in low-wage professions,and ethnic minoriti

32、es,among others.In addition,high poverty is linked to forcing vulnerable people to engage in risky survival behaviors,exposing them to gender-based violence(GBV),human trafficking,human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome(HIV/AIDS),child labor,and exploitation.Conflict and frag

33、ility in some countries further exacerbates these risks.Weak enforcement of laws/legal instruments designed to protect poor and vulnerable groups,and rigid cultural beliefs and norms that reinforce discrimination.Limited human resource capacity,inadequate financial and budget support to the gender a

34、nd social development sector,and limited availability of sex-disaggregated data.High tariff costs,where the electricity provision is mainly by the private sector,with limited or no financial support for the poor and vulnerable,thus limiting access to such populations.Discrimination in the credit mar

35、ket(financial exclusion)and customary laws/religious practices that prohibit women and minorities,and other socially vulnerable populations from accessing critical resources needed for improved livelihoods,such as land.This limits their access to entrepreneurship,reinforces poverty in households,and

36、 limits their ability to access energy services.Poor value chain development in sectors that need electricity,for example,milk and livestock value chains,although women and vulnerable groups derive livelihoods from these.Land degradation due to overdependence on biomass fuels further increases the t

37、ime spent by women and girls who areoften responsible for collecting the fuels for cooking.Executive SummaryixConsidering the findings above,the following measures are recommended to help address the GESI gaps identified and enhance equitable access to modern energy services for women and minorities

38、 and other socially excluded groups in the borderlands of the HoA countries:1.Recommendations to address Overall Program Design and Implementation Provide technical assistance for policy strengthening,particularly the development of a national-level gender and energy policy and legal framework,to pr

39、ovide institutional backing for mainstreaming gender issues into the energy sector.Engage men as contributors and society change agentsto increase awareness of the importance of gender equality especially in the distribution of services both at the community and national level.Strengthen the capacit

40、y of national statistical offices to collect,monitor,and evaluate data related to gender equality and social inclusion in the borderlands.Strengthen GBV prevention and response programming in sectoral interventions.2.Recommendations to address Supply-Side Constraints Provide basic infrastructure in

41、the borderlands(e.g.,grid extension or other power infrastructure building and stand-alone solar systems.)Implement results-based financing and catalytic grants to incentivize service provision to women and other vulnerable groups in hard-to-reach communities in the borderlands.Facilitate market ent

42、ry and provide business development support to product developers and service providers with the aim to reduce the rigidities and uncertainties associated with providing services in complex institutional context such as the borderlands.3.Recommendations to address Demand-Side Constraints Provide tar

43、geted financial support to women and other vulnerable groups(e.g.,subsidies,access grants,vouchers,cash transfers and flexible payment models)to support purchase of energy products and services.Provide support for income-generating activities to women and other vulnerable groups to enable them build

44、 sustainable livelihoods.Facilitate sustainable market building and value chain development(e.g.,livestock,agro-processing)for women and other vulnerable groups in the borderlands.Support consumer awareness and education programs for both men and women focusing on the benefits of energy access as we

45、ll as energy services and products available.xACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe Gender Equality and Social Inclusion(GESI)assessment was prepared for the Horn of Africa Regional Integration for Sustainable Energy Supply(HoA RISES,P174175)project to understand the gender and social constraints that exist with respe

46、ct to electricity access in the borderlands of the Horn of Africa region.The report was prepared under the supervision of Fowzia Hassan,Senior Operations Officer(Infra Africa Energy 3)and Team Task Leader of the Africa Gender and Energy Team(AGET).The core assessment team included Nathyeli Acuna Cas

47、tillo,Gender Specialist,ESMAP,and consultants Thokozani Kadzamira,Callistus Agbaam,Ting Yang,Joel Owani,Meskerem Mulatu Legesse,Veronika Gyuricza,Osman Bin Masood,and Diego Wachs.The team also received valuable guidance and contributions from the HoA RISES task team leadership,including Xiaoping Wan

48、g,Chiara Rogate,Raluca Gombeanu,Abdulakim Abdisubhan,Deea Ariana,Andrea Arricale,and the HoA RISES team.The team also acknowledges constructive feedback from peer reviewers,including Pranav Vaidya,Energy Specialist(SSAS1);Mariko Yamamoto,Social Development Specialist(SAES2);Yukari Shibuya,Consultant

49、(ISAE1);Verena Phipps,Senior Social Development Specialist(SAES2).The team also acknowledges the guidance and valuable inputs received from the Intergovernmental Authority on Development(IGAD),Eastern Africa Power Pool(EAPP),Djibouti Ministry of Energy,Electricite de Djibouti(EDD),Agence Djiboutienn

50、e de Developpment Socialle(ADDS),Somalia Ministry of Energy and Water Resources,Kenya Ministry of Energy,Kenya Power and Lighting Company,and Kenya Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Corporation(REREC).Funding for this publication was provided by the World Banks Energy Sector Management Assi

51、stance Program(ESMAP).xiACRONYMSADDS Social Development Agency of Djibouti(Agence Djiboutienne de Developpment Socialle)AfDB African Development BankAGET Africa Gender and Energy TeamAU African UnionCEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ESP electricity serv

52、ice providerEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization(of UN)FCDO Foreign,Commonwealth and Development OfficeFCHV female community health volunteerFCS fragile and conflict statesFCV fragility,conflict,and violenceFGD focus group discussionFGM female genital mutilation GBV gender-based vi

53、olenceGESI gender equality and social inclusionGII Gender Inequality IndexGIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbHGNI gross national incomeGPOBA Global Partnership on Output-Based AidHDI Human Development IndexHIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syn

54、dromeHoA Horn of AfricaHOAI Horn of Africa InitiativeHoA RISES Horn of African Regional Integration for Sustainable Energy Supply ICBT informal cross-border tradeIDP internally displaced personIDRC International Development Research CentreIEA International Energy AgencyIGAD Intergovernmental Authori

55、ty on DevelopmentIIDA IIDA Womens Development OrganizationIRENA International Renewable Energy AgencyKII key informant interviewKOSAP Kenya Off Grid Solar Access ProjectKPLC Kenya Power and Lighting CompanyKUSSCO Kenyan Union of Savings and Credit CooperativesKWFT Kenyan Women Microfinance TrustLGBT

56、Q+lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,queer,and othersLPG liquified petroleum gas MECS Modern Energy Cooking ServicesMRG Minority Rights Group MSMEs micro,small,and medium enterprisesNEP National Energy PolicyNGO nongovernmental organizationNHBPS National Household Budget and Poverty SurveyOECD Organis

57、ation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPAYGO pay-as-you-goPWDs persons with disabilities RBF results-based financing ROSCA rotating savings and credit associationsSDGs Sustainable Development GoalsSMEs small and medium enterprisesSSAHUTLC Sub-Saharan African Historically Underserved Traditio

58、nal Local CommunitiesSSWC Save Somali Women and ChildrenToR terms of referenceUN United NationsUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeTHE WORLD BANK GROUPxiiUNECA United Nations Economic Commission for AfricaUNEP United Nations Environment P

59、rogrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNFPA United Nations Population FundUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUNICEF United Nations Childrens FundUNSD United Nations Statistics DivisionUNSOM United National Assistance Mission in SomaliaUSAID Uni

60、ted States Agency for International DevelopmentWBG World Bank GroupWBL Women,Business,and the LawWHO World Health Organization1INTRODUCTIONTHE WORLD BANK GROUP21.1 ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVESThe objective of this assessment is to identify gender and social inclusion gaps with respect to equitable access t

61、o clean and modern energy in the Horn of Africa(HoA)borderlands,specifically in Djibouti,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Kenya,Somalia,and Sudan.It examines the differences in the constraints that women,girls,men,and boys face pertaining to equitable access to energy in the HoA borderlands,as well as the potential

62、 benefits and impacts of equitable access to energy.Further,it also delves into the gender disparities that minorities1 and other vulnerable groups2 in the borderlands of the HoA face in accessing clean energy.In all cases,the context of forced displacement is considered.The energy services examined

63、 include on-grid,mini-grid,and off-grid electricity and clean cooking solutions.These energy services are evaluated in the context of household access to electricity,productive uses of energy,and access to clean cooking technologies.The report also examines gender-specific policy and legal context,g

64、ender equality engagement of international organizations,gender and energy access situations in the borderlands,and gender gaps and challenges in relation to energy access and cross-border trade.The outcome of the assessment ultimately informs the integration of gender dimensions and pragmatic consi

65、derations for other vulnerable groups in the design of the HoA Regional Integration for Sustainable Energy Supply(HoA RISES,P174175)project with respect to energy access,as well as further HoA initiatives within the energy sector.Considering the unique challenges of gender and social inclusion in th

66、e HoA borderlands,addressing the access gaps in the energy sector remains very important for development.Particularly,by providing improved access to electricity and clean cooking solutions,women and other socially excluded groups,can take 1 The term“minority”as used in the United Nations(UN)human r

67、ights system,refers to national or ethnic,religious,and linguistic minorities as laid out in the United Nations Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic,religious,and linguistic minorities(General Assembly resolution 47/135 of December 18,1992)and in Article 27 of the Int

68、ernational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.http:/archive.ipu.org/dem-e/minorities/faq.pdf.2 The groups include youth(people under the age of adulthood);national,linguistic,and ethnic groups(including Indigenous Peoples/Sub-Saharan African Historically Underserved Traditional Local Communities

69、 SSAHUTLC,where applicable);persons with disabilities(PWDs);the elderly;and LGBTQ+.advantage of opportunities available to engage in economic empowerment activities,build sustainable livelihoods,improve human capital accumulation,and ultimately contribute to the development of the HoA region.Beyond

70、the HoA,this report also targets a global audience by providing insights into the intricacies of conducting gender and social inclusion assessments,especially in borderland regions,and also highlighting best practices or evidenced-based solutions for closing gender and social inequality gaps with re

71、spect to energy access in situations of conflict and fragility.1.2 METHODOLOGY1.2.1 DATA AND INFORMATION COLLECTIONThis assessment adopted a mixed methods approach in collecting and analyzing the relevant data and information needed for accomplishing the various tasks to identify gender and social i

72、nclusion gaps with respect to equitable access to clean and modern energy in the HoA borderlands.The specific methods utilized included desk research,key informant interviews(KIIs),and focus group discussions(FGDs).The desk review largely covered information from secondary sources such as policy doc

73、uments,project and program reports,strategy papers,country case studies,scientific publications,and gray literature on issues related to gender and social inclusion in the HoA,and energy access interventions(i.e.,on-grid,mini-grid,and off-grid electricity and clean cooking),as well as the resultant

74、socioeconomic opportunities that such interventions present for women and minorities and other vulnerable groups(e.g.,youth;the elderly;ethnic minorities;persons with disabilities PWDs;and lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,queer,and others LGBTQ+),especially in situations Introduction3of conflict,fra

75、gility,and forced displacement.Also,during the desk review process,lessons from both past and present successful energy interventions in the borderlands or in other fragile and conflict states(FCS)were drawn upon for the purpose of benchmarking.The review process provided relevant baseline informati

76、on on the overall situation in the region and how existing interventions are aligned to the priorities of the World Bank Group(WBG)and the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)agenda.Furthermore,based on the preliminary outcome of the desk review,a selected number of KIIs were also conducted with expe

77、rts on gender,social inclusion,and energy in the HoA region.These interviews predominantly targeted individuals from relevant ministries(e.g.,the Ministry of Gender and Social Development,Ministry of Energy,and Ministry of Finance and Business Development,among others);nongovernmental organizations(

78、NGOs)/civil society organizations;and international organizations such as the United Nations High Commission for Refugees(UNHCR),UN Women,the World Bank,and its project implementing partners in the HoA,such as the Intergovernmental Authority on Development(IGAD).A comprehensive interview guide was d

79、eveloped to capture all relevant issues clearly outlined in the terms of reference(ToR)(refer to Appendix A for details).The KIIs further provided a much deeper and better understanding of existing interventions,as well as contextually relevant solutions(actionsand strategies)necessary to enhance eq

80、uitable access to modern energy services for various groups of individuals in the borderlands of the HoA.Given the global COVID-19 situation in 2021,most of these interviews were conducted virtually using communication channels such as WebEx,Microsoft Teams,and Zoom.Additionally,focus group discussi

81、ons(FGD)were also conducted with key stakeholders at the community level(e.g.,local leaders,women groups,men groups,refugees and internally displaced persons IDPs,women-headed small and medium enterprises SMEs,men-headed SMES and community-based organizations)to 3 Although the data availability and

82、quality vary across countries,there is a general lack of data specifically on the borderlands,let alone reliable data on gender indicators,energy-gender links,and gender policy/program effectiveness,particularly in the borderlands(IDRC 2020;UN Women and UNFPA 2020).gather complementary information r

83、egarding gender inequality and social inclusion challenges confronting women and minorities and other vulnerable groups,especially with respect to access to modern energy services in the borderlands.Given the security challenges in the HoA region,the team could only visit selected borderland communi

84、ties in Djibouti and Somalia.Finally,following the preparation of a draft gender and social inclusion assessment report,a validation workshop was organized to share the preliminary findings with key project stakeholders.The comments and feedback received during the validation workshop have been inco

85、rporated into this report.1.2.2 LIMITATIONSThere are a few limitations to data and information collection in this study.First and most importantly,the global COVID-19 pandemic and the fragile political context of the HoA region presented tremendous challenges in collecting the required primary data

86、from borderland communities.For example,during the field mission,the research team could not visit some of the preselected borderland communities in Ethiopia,Kenya,and Somalia due to security challenges.Therefore,to a large extent,this report relies mainly on secondary data collected from the desk r

87、eview,although this is duly complemented with information gathered from interviews with key experts and the comments/feedback received from project-level stakeholders during the validation workshop and beyond.Second,another major limitation or challenge for this assessment was the absence of sex-dis

88、aggregated data on energy access in many countries(particularly with respect to the borderlands).3 Also,reliable data on energy access and use patterns among the different categories of vulnerable groups being considered(e.g.,youth,IDPs,refugees,PWDs,and LGBTQ+)were largely absent.In some instances,

89、the THE WORLD BANK GROUP4limited data available on energy access focused predominantly on the national level and mostly centered around comparing access levels between rural and urban settlements.Given that borderland communities are more likely to be in rural areas,their particularities were taken

90、into account by extrapolating from the rural context.Lastly,given the existence of certain social and cultural norms,research on gender and social inclusion is generally challenging in some communities/countries in the HoA region.Such issues are regarded as potentially sensitive among various social

91、 groups in the region.With this in mind,there was a need to collaborate with the WBG in-country focal points,project implementation units(PIUs),local counterparts,and project implementing partners in engaging local structures.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORTStructurally,this report is organized into five

92、 sections.Section 1 briefly highlights the objectives of the assessment,as well as the methodological approach adopted.Section 2 presents a comprehensive overview of the HoA region,including the energy,gender inequality,and social inclusion situations in the region.Section 3 presents the main findin

93、gs of the assessment.Specifically,it provides details of the gender gaps and social inclusion challenges identified in each HoA country with respect to access to both electricity and clean cooking solutions.Section 4 provides tailored recommendations to tackle the challenges identified and also pres

94、ents examples of some successful energy access interventions in the HoA and from other FCS.Section 5 then provides an overall conclusion to the report.2REGIONAL OVERVIEWTHE WORLD BANK GROUP62.1 OVERVIEW OF THE HoA REGIONThe Horn of Africa(HoA)region,located in the eastern part of Africa,is home to c

95、ountries including Djibouti,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Kenya,Somalia,South Sudan,Sudan,and Uganda(Map 2.1).The region faces high levels of poverty driven by,among other factors,fragility,food insecurity,and environmental degradation;yet the region is also a hub to some of the fastest growing economies in Afri

96、ca.According to the World Development Indicators,the population of the HoA is young;at least 60%of the population is under 30 years of age,and most of the young people are unemployed.The population in the HoA region is expected to double in the next 23 years,which has the potential to constrain exis

97、ting resources but also present opportunities for economic transformation(World Bank 2020a).Women and girls make up approximately 50%of the HoA population and contribute significantly to the region;however,women and girls are yet to realize their fullest potential as they face many constraints from

98、the classroom to the boardroom.The HoA region has also experienced rapid urbanization,which has led to the governments of the HoA countries allocating more resources to ease some of the constraints caused by urbanization when compared to resources allocated to remote 4 World Development Indicators,W

99、orld Bank.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=DJ.and rural areas.Seasonal migration due to climate change,seasonal agriculture production,pastoralist life patterns,and the quest to seek betterjobs has contributed to rapid urbanization in the HoA.For instance,in 2020,22%of Dj

100、iboutis population lived in rural areas while 78%lived in urban areas.4The situation in the borderlands of the HoA region is rather fragile due to isolation,resulting in short-term and long-term challenges in the region(World Bank 2020a).The vast majority of borderland populations live on pastoralis

101、m with reliance on livestock production and trade(Mahmoud 2010).Pastoralist communities migrate seasonallyin search of pasture and to sell livestock.While tradingand nomadism aredominated by men,women and children remain in the villages.The borderlands are often affected by elevated levels of insecu

102、rity,violent extremism,human trafficking,ethnic/clan conflicts,gender-based violence(GBV),and governance issues,which have resulted not only in interstate conflicts but also communal conflicts largely due to issues pertaining to control of land and other natural resources such as oil.Formal institut

103、ions generally lack the capacitytomanage these conflicts;informal institutions can manage the conflict,but the informal governance institutions have eroded over time(World Bank 2020a).Displacement due to conflict-and climate-induced disasters,including Sources:https:/commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.ph

104、p?curid=8990864 and Hassan et al.(2019a).MAP 2.1 Map of the HoARegional Overview7droughts and floods,has resulted in mass forced migration.The HoA currently has around 5 million refugees and over 10 million IDPs residing in the region(UNHCR 2023c).While the proportion of peopleliving in poverty has

105、declined slightly,the absolute number of poor people is increasing and has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and recent conflict.It is also important to note that poverty remains highly gendered.The provision of services to communities in the HoA borderlands is also hindered by inadequate ro

106、ad infrastructure and unreliable mobile networks,which presents significant constraints to the delivery of services.For instance,service providers are challenged by the payment networks which depend on mobile networks;as a result,services have not yielded much revenue to providers due to unreliable

107、mobile systems and lack of infrastructure.Further,service providers are not able to penetrate the borderlands due to the lack of incentives to provide services in the remote areas,insecurity,lack of payment opportunities,lack of road networks,and lack of income among marginalized people.2.2 THE GEND

108、ER AND SOCIAL INCLUSION SITUATION IN THE HoA2.2.1 OVERALL GENDER AND SOCIAL INCLUSIONThe extent of gender inequality and social exclusion in the HoA varies by many factors,including 5 Patriarchal implies pertaining to entities or social systems where men hold positions of dominance and privilege.6 W

109、BL.2022.About 100 represents the highest possible score.The final score presents the share of good-practice provisions in each economy.Thus,the index serves as an easily replicable way to gauge the enabling environment for women as entrepreneurs and employees.gender and social norms and the policy a

110、nd legal frameworks that each country has implemented to close gender disparities.Studies show that social and gender norms tend to be patriarchal and rigid,with mens and womens roles clearly defined to disadvantage women.5 Further,some of the HoA countries have been subject to fragility and conflic

111、t,which exacerbate gender inequalities as manifested in regressive social and cultural norms such as GBV and female genital mutilation(FGM).Legal and policy frameworks in the gender space are critical to creating an enabling environment for closing gender inequalities.According to the Women,Business

112、,and the Law(WBL)2023 Index(Table 2.1),almost all the HoA countries have regulations to increase womens economic empowerment;however,despite the presence of these regulations,enforcement often remains a challenge in many countries.Kenya and Ethiopia lead the HoA countries in implementing regulations

113、 that could increase womens economic opportunities in the workplace,pay,assets,and entrepreneurship;however,Sudan and Somalia are yet to add regulations,particularly in the areas of pay and the workplace.6Furthermore,other intercountry indicators related to gender show that although women and girls

114、in the HoA countries make up approximately 50%of the population,they lag in most socioeconomic indicators(Table 2.2).For example,the HoA has some of the highest maternal mortality rates in the world,ranging from 248 to 692 per 100,000 live births.Adolescent fertility rates among girls ages between 1

115、5 and 19 years are also extremely high in the region,TABLE 2.1 WBL Index for HoA Countries(=1006)CountryWBL Index scorePayWorkplaceEntrepreneurshipAssetsDjibouti71.35010010040Eritrea69.47510075100Ethiopia76.92510075100Kenya80.61001005080Somalia46.950507540Sudan29.4007540Source:WBG(Women,Business,and

116、 the Law,2023).THE WORLD BANK GROUP8which has negative implications for demographic transition,poverty and future educational or economic opportunities for girls.The labor force participation gap in many HoA countries tends to favor men with women mostly working in informal jobs and vulnerable occup

117、ations.7 Generally,it is estimated that over 90%of women are engaged in the informal economy compared to 86.4%of men.8 Most adult women do not know how to read and write,which limits their economic participation to the home as they cannot engage in activities outside the home.It is important to note

118、 that the share of women in decision-making roles,particularly in legislation,tends to be exceptionally low in the HoA countries.Further,most countries that have experienced conflict also have a higher proportion of women-headed households,such as Eritrea and Somalia,particularly among displaced com

119、munities.2.2.2 OVERALL GENDER AND SOCIAL INCLUSION IN THE BORDERLANDSGenerally,the borderlands in the HoA tend to be isolated and remote.Evidence shows that women who reside in the borderlands experience 7 IGAD“Gender Strategy and Implementation Plan 20162022.”8 See Kiaga and Leung.2020.“The Transit

120、ion from the Informal to the Formal Economy in Africa.”a higher incidence of poverty because they do not have access to income or assets,as income is controlled by the male heads of households(World Bank 2020a).While HoA communities are mostly pastoralist,men manage large livestock herds such as cam

121、els,cattle,and the income generated from livestock production.Further,the men are mobile in search of pasture and traders of livestock,while the women are confined to the household and are responsible for managing smaller livestock,maintaining homestead gardens,and managing households.Women from pas

122、toral communities become de facto heads of households and have to manage children and the elderly members of the households without direct access to household income.In addition,drought and other climatic changes have resulted in food insecurity for such households.Mobility in the borderlands is als

123、o gendered.Women are confined to household roles,and their mobility is linked to searching for cooking fuels and water,while mens mobility is associated with income generation activities.Women could also be mobile to trade agricultural produce or dairy products;however,their mobility is limited.TABL

124、E 2.2 Overview of Gender Indicators in the HoA CountriesIndicatorDjiboutiEritreaEthiopiaKenyaSomaliaSudanPopulation of women and girls(%)50.450.749.850.449.950.0Female-headed households(%)19.0047.522.1031.004766*n.a.Adolescent fertility rate(births per 1,000 women ages1519)22.764.469.264.2118.079.9M

125、aternal mortality ratio(deaths per 100,000 live births)248480412362692295Labor force participation rate age15+,females(%)(modeled ILO estimate)18.270.975.072.721.229.4Labor force participation rate 15+,males(%)(modeled ILO estimate)45.084.786.276.146.9068.6Literacy rates,adult female(%)n.a68.90n.a80

126、.328.056.01Literacy rates,adult male(%)n.a84.40n.a85.654.0.65.40Proportion of seats held by women in national Parliament 2022(%)26.222.0041.523.419.731.00Source:World Development Indicators 20172023,Demographic and Health Survey 2018,Women,Business,and the Law 2022.*20172018 Somalia High Frequency S

127、urveyNote:n.a.=not available.Regional Overview9Recent studies have noted growing livelihood diversification in the borderlands,especially in pastoral communities,and its positive impact on the economic status of women.Women from pastoral households have shifted from small livestock management to oth

128、er income-generating activities such as petty trade and selling of firewood and handicrafts,which has led to a shift in social and cultural norms on how women could contribute to income of the household.However,attempts to diversify through agricultural production have yielded mixed results for past

129、oral women as they are not able to fully control the income gains(World Bank 2020a).In summary,the status of women in borderlands has to be given considerable attention in national gender policies and economic planning.The lack of sex-disaggregated data,especially in the borderlands,also contributes

130、 to the aggrieved status of women and other socially excluded groups by making it difficult to strategize tactical solutions toward gender and social inclusion.2.3 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY IN THEHoASustainable Development Goal(SDG)7 calls for all countries to ensure access to affordable,reliable,sustainab

131、le,and modern energy for all.The HoA,like the continent of Africa,lags in equitable access to clean and modern energy as most of the energy infrastructure development is concentrated in the urban areas.According to World Bank estimates,about 50%of the total population in the HoA has no access to ele

132、ctricity and approximately 81%live without access to clean cooking solutions.9 Kenya,Ethiopia,and Sudan have made major strides in electricity power generation and have prioritized energy access;however,the distribution of electricity tends to benefit urban areas.Many households in urban areas usual

133、ly have access to grid electricity,but electricity is strictly used for lighting due to the prohibitive cost of tariffs.Because electricity is expensive or unaffordable to many households,9 World Bank estimates based on SDG7 tracker,ESMAP,2019.Excluding Djibouti and Sudan,for which data are not avai

134、lable.10 United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP),https:/wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/20476.11 According to the EU Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility(2014),mini-grids may be economically attractive for electrification in rural areas,especially in situations where communities are mid-d

135、ense and far-off the grid infrastructure(where available),electricity cost from the grid is very high,and stand-alone solar home systems are inadequate to meet the energy needs of users.a majority of urban households use alternative energy sources for cooking,including clean cooking stoves powered b

136、y liquified petroleum gas(LPG)or charcoal cooking stoves.However,rural households predominantly rely on unclean fuels and technologies for cooking.The high reliance on biomass fuels(e.g.,wood and charcoal)for cooking generates significant time costs to all households,particularly for women and girls

137、 that are typically tasked with the collection of fuel.In Ethiopia,household members(aggregated)would spend on average 2.3 hours per day collecting wood.The same figure is around 1.0 hours per day in Kenya and 1.7 hours per day in Sudan.10Furthermore,the access deficit is particularly dire in the Ho

138、A borderlands where about 81%of total households(approximately 807,000 households out of 993,000 households)lack access to electricity service compared to the overall HoA average of 50%.More so,it is estimated that out of these,about 75,000 households(nearly 10%)tend to be IDPs and refugees.The abse

139、nce of state presence in these areas has also resulted in poor connectivity of public facilities,with over 1,345 health facilities estimated to lack grid or off-grid connectivity.In national electrification programs underpinned predominantly by a least-cost approach,borderlands tend to fall into the

140、 last phase of the national electrification rollouts due to their remoteness and associated high costs(World Bank 2022).Furthermore,the existing national distribution networks have a limited footprint,and a limited number of off-grid service providers operate in the borderlands.For example,Ethiopia

141、is the only HoA country whose national distribution networks have reached the border.Also,one border town in Kenya has been connected to Ethiopian networks on the other side of the border with a power purchase agreement between Ethiopia Electric Utility(EEU)and Kenya Power and Lighting Company(KPLC)

142、.Some of the borderland areas are served by mini-grids or isolated networks and mostly diesel-powered generation.11 To date,there are estimated to be about 43 mini-grids of varying size in operation,THE WORLD BANK GROUP10mostly with public ownership and some with private sector operators.Also,the of

143、f-grid solar market is still nascent,with only 13 indigenous companies operating in the borderlands as reported over the years.The remoteness of borderlands,security risks,lack of basic transport infrastructure and/or established supply chains lead to high transaction cost for service providers and

144、further prevent private service providers from expanding their services in these areas(World Bank 2022).2.4 OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND SOCIAL INCLUSION IN THE ENERGY SECTOR IN THE HoA12Achieving equity in access to modern and clean energy is contingent on the degree of gender equality and social inclusi

145、on(GESI).Gender and social inclusion challenges in the borderlands of the HoA are particularly dire with respect to access to modern and clean energy(World Bank 2020a).If examined through a gender lens,the gender disparities with respect to access to clean energy in remote areas are evident because

146、it is the women who bear the disproportionate burden of energy through the search and collection of biomass fuels for the household.Moreover,women engaged in income-generating activities in the borderlands miss out on the potential for substantial income gains due to limited access to energy,particu

147、larly those involved in agribusinesses and the service industry.Further,limited access to energy services in the public sector,particularly in health and education facilities,disproportionately affects the availability of social services,which negatively affects the livelihoods of women,children,and

148、 other vulnerable groups(HoA RISES Field Mission Report 2021).According to SDG 5,which asserts that countries need to achieve gender equality and empower women and girls,the HoA region is yet to achieve equitable access with respect to modern and clean energy.The HoA,just like other parts of the Afr

149、ican continent,lacks equitable access to clean energy as most of the energy infrastructure development is concentrated 12 Generally,sex-disaggregated data on energy,especially at the HoA regional level are not readily available.Where available,these are mostly at the country level and have been duly

150、 captured Section 3 of this report.in the urban areas.Rural and remote areas,such as the borderlands,usually have limited access to clean energy,which negatively affects the quality of livelihoods.Low access to energy stifles well-being at an individual level,as well as socioeconomic development at

151、the national level.Where schools and hospitals cannot depend on reliable electricity,the provision of key social services becomes a greater challenge for women and socially excluded groups.Where water for irrigation agriculture cannot be pumped,crops are not grown,and food insecurity prevails.Moreov

152、er,where manufacturing and trade are interrupted through power cuts,efficiency decreases,and the economy cannot expand and diversify.As shown in Figure 2.1,women,children,youth,and the elderly tend to be the most vulnerable,marginalized,and socially excluded groups in the HoA region.More so,the risk

153、 of marginalization and social exclusion are further heightened by factors such as demography(age,sex,ethnicity,clan membership,language,etc.),location(urban,rural,and borderlands),and socioeconomic status(occupation,income,educational status,and so on).For example,whereas women in general tend to b

154、e considered as vulnerable,women who belong to ethnic minorities or groups such as refugees and IDPs are poorly educated,live in rural or borderland communities,and tend to face multiple layers of marginalization and social exclusion in all aspects of their daily lives including access to energy.Con

155、sidering the magnitude of the malady,FIGURE 2.1 Who Is Vulnerable in the HoA?Location:urban/rural,borderlandsSocioeconomic status:occupation,income,education,health,etc.Demographics sex,age,ethnicity(minority,clan,refugee,IDPs,language)Socially excluded/vulnerable Women Youth Children ElderlySource:

156、The AuthorsRegional Overview11it remains very important to target these groups in development programming,specifically in energy access interventions to enable them to access the potential benefits that come with improved energy access.Generally,improving access to modern energy services(i.e.,electr

157、icity and clean cooking solutions)for households and communities in the borderlands of the HoA is expected to yield various layers of benefits and provide numerous socioeconomic opportunities including,for example,entrepreneurship,information and communication services,and access to education and mo

158、dern health care services;especially for women and all other socially excluded groups.3GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION ASSESSMENT IN HoA COUNTRIES:MAIN FINDINGSTHE WORLD BANK GROUP14This section details the main findings of the assessment.It highlights the GESI situation in each country,access

159、to modern energy services,opportunities for the productive uses of energy,and issues of gender and cross-border trade in the borderlands of the HoA region.3.1 COUNTRY ANALYSIS3.1.1 DJIBOUTII.Overview of the GESI SituationDjibouti,geographically the smallest country in the HoA,is strategically locate

160、d in the Gulf of Aden which links to the Red Sea.The countrys total population is estimated at approximately 1million individuals,out of which about 47.5%are female(World Bank 2022).Evidence shows that about 75%of the population lives in Djibouti City,which shows the extent of urbanization.While Dji

161、bouti has ascended on the Human Development Index(HDI),an intercountry comparison on life expectancy,schooling,and gross national income(GNI)per capita,from 0.360 in 2000 to 0.524 in 2020,women and girls still suffer disproportionately from discrimination and inequality.Women in Djibouti lack financ

162、ial and educational resources compared to men.Asset ownership also tends to favor men in Djibouti.Areport by the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO)of the UN(FAO 2018)showed that landownership is estimated at 54%among men and 46%among women.Climate change and scarcity have contributed to and have

163、 exacerbated gender gaps in favor men with respect to the control ofassets.In Djibouti,women head approximately 19%of the households.The overall poverty rate within women-headed households is estimated at 34.6%,which is slightly lower than for men-headed households(36.0%).There are no significant di

164、fferences in the poverty rates between women-and men-headed households in rural areas.However,the slight 13 Djibouti-Country Gender Profile-2020|African Development Bank-Building today,a better Africa tomorrow(afdb.org).14 Patrilineality refers to a system of kinship in which descent or family relat

165、ionships are traced through a male line.Patrilocality and virilocality depict a social rule or custom where married couples live with or near the family of the husband.15 Djibouti-Country Gender Profile-2020|African Development Bank-Building today,a better Africa tomorrow(afdb.org).16 Djibouti Econo

166、mic Growth 19852022|MacroTrends.gender difference is significant in areas,where the poverty rate of women-headed households is 26.1%compared to 28.6%for men-headed households.13Djibouti is a patrilineal,patrilocal,and virilocal society14 which implies that men have a dominant role in the traditional

167、 Djiboutian society.15 Polygamous marriages are legal,enabling a man to marry more than one wife at the same time.However,women under such marital arrangements are more likely to suffer impoverishment given the limited resources usually available to them during such marriages.Also,in traditional Dji

168、bouti societies,women may only move with permission from men,which directly influences division of labor between women and men.Most rural areas are dominated by pastoralists.Men and boys of pastoralist households are mobile and manage large livestock such as cattle and camels;further,they make decis

169、ions for the household and are visible in community leadership.On the other hand,women are confined to the household for domestic and care roles while caring for small livestock such as sheep and goats.Evidence also shows that women in rural areas tend to be poorly educated and have“low”economic sta

170、tus(AfDB 2020).Despite a record rapid economic growth between 2012 and 201916 in Djibouti,about 20.8%of the population is classified as extremely poor and living below the international poverty line of US$1.90 per day.The countrys growth has not been equitable:young people,women,and children are par

171、ticularly vulnerable to hunger and other socioeconomic indicators and are generally being left behind.According to the World Food Programme 20202024 country strategy,the Djiboutian labor market is characterized by gender inequality.Unemployment is increasing at a rapid rate and is currently estimate

172、d at 62.8%among young people,68.6%among women,and 54.6%among men.The gap between men and women reflects the lack of work opportunities forwomen and structural discrimination.For instance,womens per capita income is less than one-half of mens,and their participation in the labor Gender Equality and S

173、ocial Inclusion Assessment in HoA Countries15force is estimated at 36%,compared with 68%for men.A significant proportion of women also works in vulnerable jobs and dominate the informal sector compared to their male counterparts.Microfinance schemes have been set up to encourage womens participation

174、 in the economy,but women often lack the collateral needed to obtain credit.Also,although women have the right to equal treatment under national law,in reality,they tend to have fewer employment opportunities than men and are paid less for similar work.Furthermore,Djibouti is host to about 35,000 re

175、fugees and asylum seekers from Eritrea,Ethiopia,Somalia,and,most recently,Yemen,who are unable to meet their basic needs without humanitarian assistance.Out of this number,approximately 68%are women and children(UNHCR 2022a).Other noticeable vulnerable groups in the country are street children,nomad

176、s,fishermen,children,the elderly,the disabled,recently graduated youth not easily able to access jobs,and rural farmers,among others.Djibouti is party to several international and regional policy and legal instruments such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against W

177、omen(CEDAW 1998),the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa(the Maputo Protocol),the African Charter on the Rights of the Child,and so on.It has also enacted several domestic laws and policy frameworks to support gender,human rights,and social justice(e.g.,1992

178、constitution,penal code of 1995,family code of 2002,and so onrefer to Appendix B for details).All of these,gender inequality remains a key issue in the country.II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sectora Access to ElectricityWhile Djibouti continues to experience good economic momentum,there remains

179、 a huge gap when it comes to access to power.There is a large disparity in access between urban and rural areas,with far more city dwellers connected to the grid than those in rural areas.Approximately 110,000 households in Djibouti are currently living without electricity.According to the World Ban

180、ks World Development Indicators,in 2020,only about 61.8%of the national population had access to electricity.The access rate is,however,much higher in urban centers(72.2%)than in rural and remote communities(24.8%).In Djibouti,about 60%of households use electricity as their main source of lighting,w

181、ith wide disparities between urban(70%)and rural(6%)households(AfDB 2020).Fewer women-headed households have access to electricity(58%compared to 61%for men).About 5%of urban households have no access to lighting compared to 27%of rural households.Onthe other hand,25%of urban households and 49%of ru

182、ral households use alternative sources of lighting,including the use of solar panels(4%in urban areas and 10%in rural areas).The remaining households have no other option than to use unclean sources of energy(wood,petroleum lamps,and candles),which,among others,generates negative environmental impac

183、ts.Thus,access to modern energy services tends to be very limited,especially in Djibouti,and more so in the borderlands.b Access to Clean CookingThe high cost of electricity in Djibouti is a major constraint to women-headed households in rural areas.Further,approximately 86%of households in rural ar

184、eas use wood and charcoal for cooking.The search for solid fuels for cooking disproportionately affects women and girls through time drudgery,which in turn affects their livelihoods.On average,awoman in Djibouti spends about three hours a day cooking food,serving meals,and washing cooking utensils c

185、overed in smoky soot.By spending many hours beside a wood fire or charcoal stove,women are exposed to illnesses,such as severe respiratory health issues.For example,the number of deaths attributable to the use of solid fuels is about 100per year,60 of which are caused by acute infections of the lowe

186、r respiratory tracts in under-5 children and by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adult women.3.1.2 ERITREAI.Overview of the GESI SituationEritrea,which is also strategically located along the Red Sea,lags many of the HoA countries with respect to gender equality.The country has a population

187、of about 3.63 million and 49.9%of the population is women and girls.According to the HDI,while women THE WORLD BANK GROUP16have a higher life expectancy(68.6 years)when compared to men(64.2 years),the gender gaps,with respect to education such as enrollment and average number of years spent schoolin

188、g,tend to favor boys.Further,the GNI per capita for women is estimated at US$2,275 compared to US$3,309 for men.Other intercountry indicators such as the 2022 WBL Index rank Eritrea at 69.4 out of 100,which shows that the country still lacks the legal framework for advancing womens economic empowerm

189、ent.In Eritrea,about 47%of the households are women-headed,with the proportion higher in urban areas(53%)than in rural areas(44%).This figure is high when compared to other countries in the HoA extended region.Thecause has been partially attributed to Eritreas border conflict with Ethiopia,which has

190、 displaced and split many households.UN Women,through its Women Count database,shows that women in Eritrea continue to make strides toward equality;however,there is still significant work to be done.For instance,the adolescent birth rates of girls ages 1519 years declined from 85 per 1,000 in 2007 t

191、o 76 per 1,000 in 2020.On the other hand,the maternal mortality rates are about 480 per 100,000 live births even though the number has been declining.Approximately 40.7%of women ages 2024 were married before they turned 18,and 83%of thewomen between the ages of 15 and 49 have experienced female geni

192、tal mutilation(FGM).Similar to most other countries in the HoA region,poverty and vulnerability remain widespread in Eritrea.Various groups of individuals deemed to be vulnerable include children,women,PWDs,the elderly,and persons in indefinite national service.Other vulnerable groups at risk of soc

193、ial and economic exclusion include larger sized families and rural families who are vulnerable to climatic hazards.Generally,the incidence of extreme poverty is higher among rural women than men,limiting them from accessing energy services.There isample evidence that women-headed households are more

194、vulnerable than their male counterparts because theformers income-generating capacity islower due to societal norms that confine womens roles to the household.Further,due to traditions 17 Generally,sex-disaggregated data on energy access in Eritrea are not readily available.18 World Bank(2022)World

195、Development Indicators.and culture,Eritrean women lack assets,such as livestock,which provide a buffer during shocks,therefore increasing their risk of vulnerability.Poor women in rural areas are often found in low-paying manual labor in agriculture or construction.Because of the lack of male labor(

196、particularly for plowing)many women-headed households are forced to enter into share-cropping arrangements or renting their fields against a portion of the harvest.This is not always beneficial to women,as they sometimes end up being exploited.II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sector17a Access to

197、ElectricityIn Eritrea,electricity access rates for the entire population were estimated at 52.2%as of 2020.18 Similar to other countries in the HoA region,the electricity access rate is much higher in urban areas(76.3%)than in rural areas(39.0%).Despite the annual rate increase in the number of conn

198、ections at a rate of 7.5%in the last decade,electricity consumption per capita remains extremely low at 60 kWh/year,compared to the African average of about 500 kWh/year.Electricity is available only inthe larger cities and towns,leaving the majority of Eritreans in rural areas and vulnerable popula

199、tions,such as women-headed households and pastoral communities,without electricity.Some smaller villages have community diesel generators that can provide some households with a small amount of electricity(30100 W)for selected hours in the early evening.However,for those with access to electricity,p

200、er capita electricity consumption is approximately 0.5 kWh/day/person.In both urban and rural communities where access to electricity is limited,women tend to bear a disproportionate burden of the lack of access to modern energy services,both at the household level and within the local economy.Given

201、 their traditional role as stay-at-home managers,the lack of access to electricity implies that many women and girls in Eritrea are affected by time poverty,resulting in the loss of opportunities to participate in political,economic,and social activities,including education.Also,in Eritrea,consideri

202、ng the fact that women are predominantly Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment in HoA Countries17engaged in owning and running small and medium size enterprises,limited access to energy negatively impacts their ability to undertake entrepreneurial and income-generating activities,which fur

203、ther hinders economic empowerment opportunities for women and girls in the country.b Access to Clean CookingGenerally,only about 9.0%of the entire Eritrean population has access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking.In addition,the proportion is much higher in urban areas(19.5%)than in rural a

204、nd remote communities(9.3%).Most households in Eritrea traditionally use biomass and solar energy for their energy needs.The burden of finding biomass fuels is placed on women and girls who are responsible for finding wood,dung,and crop residues for cooking and heating.The use of biomass fuels for c

205、ooking exposes household members,especially women and girls,to indoor house pollution and respiratory diseases.The use of fuelwood causes soil degradation and deforestation.It also increases the workload of women and children.as well as the risk of GBV since women must trek for long distances in sea

206、rch of firewood.The national average distance covered to collect fuelwood is 9 km per week.However,the distance varies widely,from 0.5 km in urban areas to about 45.0 km in rural areas,such as in the Gash Barka region.Evidence shows that 60%of fuelwood collection is undertaken on foot,26%with donkey

207、s,10%with camels,and 3%on carts.3.1.3 ETHIOPIAI.Overview of the GESI SituationEthiopia is one of the land-locked countries in the HoA with an estimated population of 120 million.About 50%of Ethiopias population are women and girls.Nationwide,about 18.9%of households are headed by women.Although over

208、 the past decade Ethiopia is commonly cited as one of the fastest growing economies in the world,issues of gender equality remain a huge challenge in the country.Overall,Ethiopia is ranked 123 out of 162 countries in the UN Gender Inequality Index(GII),indicating that wide disparities between men an

209、d women exist with respect to reproductive health,economic empowerment,and labor market participation(UNDP 2020a).Despite recent improvements,the country continues to battle with a high maternal mortality ratio of 401 per 100,00 live births(WHO etal.2019).More so,although the adult literacy rate is

210、generally higher for women(51.8%)compared to men(44.4%)(UN Women 2022),women tend to have a much higher attrition rate at higher levels of education compared to men(USAID 2022).In Ethiopia,participation in the labor force also tends to be highly gendered,with women being less likely to be employed i

211、n the labor market compared to men(World Bank 2019a).Also,women are generally more likely than men to be engaged in unpaid work and earn less when in wage employment(World Bank 2019a).Furthermore,patriarchal gender norms in Ethiopia also tend to limit womens participation in decision-making processe

212、s and their ownership of assets(CEPPS 2021).The unequal power dynamics between men and women in Ethiopia also result in multiple layers of marginalization,especially for women from minority groups in society.According to World Bank(2018a),in terms of spending,more female-headed households than male-

213、headed households tend to be in the bottom quintiles,thereby indicating that more women are financially worse off than men in Ethiopia.Gender-based violence(GBV)against women is also quite common in Ethiopia and many young girls also tend to have experienced harmful cultural practices such as FGM an

214、d early marriage(World Bank 2018a).However,the national government is committed to fostering an enabling policy and legal environment in promoting gender equality in various sectors and domains.Over time,several relevant policy and legal frameworks have been developed to support gender equality in E

215、thiopia(refer to Appendix B for details).In addition to these major gender policies,there are gender considerations in sector-specific policies and strategies,such as in health and education policies,food security strategies,micro and small enterprise development strategies,water sector development

216、strategies,and so on.More recently,in response to the COVID-19 pandemic,the government of Ethiopia issued a stakeholder engagement plan which put women and women heads of households in the vulnerable category(FDRE 2020).There are also corresponding gender-responsive budgeting and institutional struc

217、tures in place(e.g.,at all levels of government,region,woreda,and kebele)for THE WORLD BANK GROUP18implementing these gender mainstreaming policies and plans,although considerable obstacles exist(IDRC 2020).More so,Ethiopia also benefits from the support of various international development actors(e

218、.g.,World Bank,UN agencies,and other regional development partners)in the delivery of various projects and programs with gender considerations or directly aimed at promoting the welfare and well-being of women and girls in the country.For example,Ethiopia is one of the sixteen countries implementing

219、 the Global Financing for Gender Equality programsa joint initiative between the European Union(EU)and UN Womenwhich aims to increase the volume and effective use of aid and domestic resources to implement national commitments to gender equality and womens empowerment(EU and UN Women 2014).The Ethio

220、pia National Social Protection policy recognizes the following segments of the population as vulnerable to different social and economic problems and risk of exclusion from development actions:children,women,PWDs,the elderly,unemployed who are living under difficult circumstances,people affected by

221、HIV and AIDS and other chronic diseases that constrain their ability to work,citizens exposed to abuse and violence,victims of human trafficking,and repatriated emigrants who need special/affirmative actions.The policy also recognizes rural areas as the most vulnerable to shocks such as drought,fami

222、ne,environmental degradation,and floods.In Ethiopia,issues of forced displacement also remain a key development challenge.According to official 2023 data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR 2023c),the country is home to 4.3 million refugees and asylum seekers.Currently,it is

223、 estimated that over 900,000 refugees and asylum seekers who are from HoA but reside in Ethiopia,come mainly from South Sudan,Somalia,Sudan,and Eritrea(UNHCR 2022b).Out of this number,about 28%are women and 7%are children.In addition,Ethiopia has approximately 4.4 million IDPs nationwide,many of who

224、m are victims of ongoing local conflict,intercommunal 19 IOM(UN Migration),2023.Ethiopia Displacement Tracking Matrix.violence,and natural disasters,including climate shocks(IOM 2023)19.II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sectora Access to ElectricityAccording to the World Bank Energy Access Diagnos

225、tic Report(2018),about 57%of households in Ethiopia have access to at least one source of electricity:33.1%of households have access through the grid,and 23.9%have access through off-grid options.The remaining households have no access to any electricity.Electricity is also affordable for the majori

226、ty of households:99.5%of households spend less than 5%of their total household expenditure for basic grid electricity service.The majority(96.1%)of households are willing to pay for a grid connection.The latest data from the World Development Indicators differentiate the electricity access rate amon

227、g the total population(51.1%in 2020)and urban(93.0%in 2020)and rural areas(40.1%in 2020).Nationwide,women-headed households have higher access to the grid than men-headed households.According to data from the World Bank,it is estimated that about 58.8%of women-headed households are connected to the

228、grid compared with 27.1%of men-headed households.These results are strongly driven by the concentration of women-headed households in urban areas where the rate of electrification is high.However,with regard to off-grid electricity,the rate of access tends to be much higher for men-headed households

229、(26.7%)compared to women-headed households(12.0%)(World Bank 2018a).The gaps in access decrease substantially when disaggregating access by location(urban and rural);however,women-headed households in rural areas are still more likely to have access to a grid connection.In rural areas,access to the

230、grid is higher among women-headed households(23.8%)than among men-headed households(15%),but penetration of off-grid solutions is slightly higher among men-headed households(42.2%)than among women-headed households(32.5%).In urban areas,access to the grid is similar among women-and men-headed househ

231、olds(96.7%for both)(World Bank 2018a).Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment in HoA Countries19Furthermore,among vulnerable groups such as IDPs,refugees,and asylum seekers,access to electricity tends to be extremely limited.According to the Ethiopian Ministry for Water,Irrigation and Energy

232、,although sex-disaggregated electricity access data for IDPs are not readily available,site-level data show that approximately 91%of all IDPs in the country live in sites where there is no reliable access to electricity.For the refugee population,whereas the rate of electricity access across the var

233、ious camps in the country is not uniform,where available,electricity usage tends to be limited to household illumination and street lighting(Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,Ministry of Water,Irrigation,and Energy 2019).Also,access to electricity in the country has regional variations.Whereas

234、 some regions have relatively more developed electricity infrastructure,other regions such as Benishangul-Gumuz,Gambella,and the Somali regions,which are located in borderland regions,have poorly developed electricity and energy network infrastructure.Currently,as part of Ethiopias National Electrif

235、ication Program,gender-focused programs have been developed under three World Bank-financed projects which are under implementation in the Ethiopian energy sector.Their objectives are closing the gender gap in employment and increasing women entrepreneurs and their participation in off-grid energy s

236、ector,as well as increasing access to off-grid energy for women,including access to productive uses of energy and solar home systems.b Access to Clean CookingIn terms of cooking solutions,63.3%of households use a three-stone stove as their primary cooking option,and only 4.1%of households use a clea

237、n stove with electricity as a fuel;64.3%of households that use a biomass stove have poor ventilation;53.3%of householdsincluding 59.1%of rural households and 32.0%of urban householdsspend more than seven hours a week acquiring(through collection or purchase)fuel;and 28.4%of households use more than

238、5%of their monthly spending for fuel(World Bank 2018a).According to IGAD(2015),in rural areas of Ethiopia,the main energy source for households is biomass(up to 96.0%);the majority of rural households use firewood(91.0%)for cooking and about 63.3%of the households use firewood in urban areas.Nationw

239、ide,women-headed households are more likely than men-headed households to use cleaner cooking technologies(a clean fuel stove or a manufactured biomass stove).About 8.3%of women-headed households and 3.2%of men-headed households use clean fuel stoves while 33.9%of women-headed households and 14.6%of

240、 men-headed households use a manufactured biomass stove.Differences in access rates between women-and men-headed households are much smaller when looking at access by location.The percentage of households led by women using a manufactured biomass stove is slightly higher compared to men-headed house

241、holds utilizing the same technology(World Bank 2018a).Rural households depend exclusively on biomass for baking and cooking.A considerable proportion of rural households,particularly in the lowlands,also depend on biomass for lighting.Nearly 75%of the rural population used kerosene for lighting whil

242、e about 20%used wood for lighting.3.1.4 KENYAI.Overview of the GESI SituationKenya has a population of approximately 56 million,of which 50.3%are women and girls.The country is largely dependent on the agricultural sector for employment,as close to 70%of Kenyan households are involved in farming act

243、ivities.In Kenya,about 16%and 12%of rural and urban households,respectively,are headed by women.In addition,poverty incidence is higher for households headed by women compared to those headed by men.Moreover,women who are separated,divorced,or widowed are more likely to be poor(compared to men),face

244、 higher prevalence rates of physical violence(compared to other women),and are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS than their male counterparts.Kenya is also a host country to approximately 592,072 refugees and asylum seekers,of which 49%are women;84%of the forced displaced populations live in K

245、akuma/Kalobeyei and Dadaab camps located in the northwest and northeast borderlands,respectively(UNHCR 2023a).Kenyas borderland areas are characterized by high insecurity.Pastoral activities,especially cattle rearing and cross-border movement,are prevalent in the area.Furthermore,THE WORLD BANK GROU

246、P20roads and mobile network connections tend to be poor,thereby constraining the services that could reach the borderland communities.Intercountry comparisons show that Kenya is making strides in closing gender gaps.According to the UN HDI,Kenya had the highest ranking,when compared to other HoA cou

247、ntries,as life expectancy of females in 2019 was 69.0 years compared to 64.3 years for males.Further,the expected years of schooling was 11.0 years for girls and 11.7 years for boys in 2019.However,major gender gaps still exist in Kenya.For instance,the GNI per capita was US$3,666 for women compared

248、 to US$4,820 for men.The labor force participation rate of those 15 years and older was 72.1%for women and 77.3%for men.Young women and adolescent girls in Kenya continue to remain vulnerable;for instance,the adolescent birth rate among 1519-year-old girls is 39 per 1,000 births.The maternal mortali

249、ty rate in Kenya is estimated at 342 among 100,000 live births.According to UN Women,women in Kenya handle 80%of agricultural production but do not fully benefit from agricultural extension services.Social and cultural norms as well as institutional structures are rigid,such that women still face su

250、bordination in society contributing to persistent inequalities.Further,Kenya has been committed to closing gender gaps and has included in its constitution a progressive agenda to promote gender inequality to close existing gender gaps in the country.In 2011,the government of Kenya instituted a Nati

251、onal Gender and Development Policy,which prompted the National Gender Equality Commission to address persistent gender gaps and promote gender equality in Kenya.Kenya has also adopted some of the international legal frameworks including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discriminatio

252、n Against Women(CEDAW)as part of the countrys commitments to close national gender gaps(refer to Appendix B for details).II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sectora Access to ElectricityAccording to data from World Bank(2020a),71.4%of the population in Kenya has access to electricity.The electricity

253、 access rate is relatively higher in urban areas(94.0%)compared to rural areas(62.7%).Data from the World Banks Energy Access Diagnostic report on Kenya also reveal that,in general,women-headed households,are less likely to have access to any source of electricity compared to men-headed households e

254、ven when looking at rural and urban locations separately.According to the report,in rural areas,about 16.3%of women-headed households lack access to any source of electricity compared to only 9.2%of men-headed households.Also,in urban areas,approximately 50.4%of women-headed households have no acces

255、s to electricity compared to 45.3%of men-headed households.With respect to electricity from the national grid,women-headed households are less likely to be connected to the grid network in urban locations77.6%of women-headed versus 83.2%of men-headed households.However,in rural locations,women-heade

256、d households are more likely to be connected to the grid(22.7%)compared to men-headed households(16.8%)where available.The difference in access to grid connection rates in rural areas can also be attributed to the high concentration of women-headed households in many rural communities across Kenya.H

257、owever,it is very significant to mention that,in rural Kenya,the difference in grid access is more than compensated for by men-headed households through relatively high access to off-grid solar solutions(34.3%for men-headed households compared to 23.6%for women-headed households).Furthermore,a major

258、ity of the marginalized and minority groups in Kenya reside in the northeastern part of the country,parts of the coastal region,and the Northern Rift Valley.The minority groups include Turkanas,Somali(NE),Ogieks,IDPs,refugees,and groups with HIV.Most of these groups do not have access to electricity

259、.Also,unique to the borderlands are nomads who move from one place to another based on availability of water sources.Due to the mobile nature of nomads,energy access service providers are not able to access nomads homes.Providing energy access services in the borderlands is a challenge due to the la

260、ck of data and infrastructure.Grid electricity has limited reach,as most transformers connect public services and households within a 600-meter radius of a transformer,which means those outside the radius of 600 meters miss the connections.Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment in HoA Count

261、ries21Also,among the HoA countries,Kenya has taken a comprehensive approach to identifying gender gaps in the energy sector and has formulated a national gender policy to achieve equality and equity in the energy sector,including in the borderlands.One project addressing electricity access constrain

262、ts in the borderland include the World Bankfunded Kenya Off Grid Solar Access Project(KOSAP).b Access to Clean CookingAccording to the World Bank(2020a),approximately 66.35%of all Kenyan households depend on traditional biomass stoves for their primary cooking needs.Out of this number,the majority(5

263、9.8%)use a three-stone stove,whereas the remaining households rely on traditional charcoal stoves.Generally,no significant distinction is observed in the clean cooking technologies distribution between men-and women-headed households in urban and rural areas.In urban areas,most households use either

264、 electric or liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)stoves as their primary cookstove,43.0%and 43.1%of men-and women-headed households,respectively.In rural areas,more than one-half of both men-and women-headed households use a three-stone or traditional stove.More so,women and girls are more likely to be resp

265、onsible for gathering fuel and cooking in households.For example,women spend on average 78.5 minutes per day in the kitchen,almost 17 minutes more than men.Children under 15 years of age spend on average 64 minutes per day in the cooking area,with girls spending on average 27 more minutes than boys.

266、Women and girls stand to reap time-saving benefits by using modern and clean fuel stoves for cooking,which significantly decreases the average time households spend in the cooking area(World Bank 2020a).In Kenya,service providers have experienced low intake,particularly of clean cooking stoves in th

267、e borderlands due to insecurity,lack of payment opportunities,lack of road networks,and lack of income among marginalized people.Currently,there are no subsidies or pay-as-you-go(PAYGO)options for vulnerable populations.Also,service providers lack incentives to provide services in these remote areas

268、 given the challenges highlighted above.3.1.5 SOMALIA I.Overview of the GESI SituationSomalia has the longest coastline in Africas mainland.The total population of Somalia is approximately 16 million people,of which about 50%are women and girls.According to the Somali High Frequency Survey,the propo

269、rtion of women-headed households ranges from 47%to 66%.While Somalia has a high percentage of women-headed households,such households are less likely to be poor(poverty incidence of female household head is 49%and for male household head is 54%).The main reason is 26%of households headed by women re

270、ceive financial remittances compared to 17%of households headed by men.The financial remittances could be from working-age men who emigrated to find employment and send remittances,a trend that increases with income.In Somalia,the overall gender situation is rather challenging due to fragility,the w

271、eak legal and policy frameworks,and mechanisms,as well as rigid social and cultural norms.Somalia also has one of the largest populations of IDPs in the world(UN Women and UNFPA 2020).Somalias GII in 2012 was 0.776,ranking the fourth lowest globally(UN Women and UNFPA 2020).The latest data on the ra

272、nking of Somalia in GII(UNDP 2020b)and Global Gender Gap Index(World Economic Forum 2021)are not available,let alone the information on more specific gender-related indicators in these indexes.Available evidence shows that the challenging gender situation in Somalia persists in many aspects:highest

273、level of maternal and infant mortality rates in the world;prevalent early marriages;female genital mutilation(an estimated 99%of women ages 1549 having suffered from FGM);pervasive gender-based violence(GBV);disproportionately low access to health and education services resulting in a low literacy l

274、evel;lack of employment opportunities;limited participation;and low voice of women in the public and political domain due to its strong clan-based patriarchal political structures and culture,and so on(Federal Government of Somalia 2019;IGAD 2014;UN Women and UNFPA 2020;UNSOM 2017).Given its prolong

275、ed history of conflict and fragility,the overall legislative system,rule of law,and policy frameworks are weak,with a lack of legitimate institutional mechanism and structure(OECD 2011;THE WORLD BANK GROUP22UNSOM 2017).In Somalia,traditional or customary laws and Islamic laws(sharia law)prevail and

276、take precedence over the formal laws,as they are deemed to be more accessible and responsive.Altogether,the legal systems undermine womens broader rights and protections and entrench their role as second class citizens which serve to disempower and disenfranchise them generally.Also,women tend to ha

277、ve limited voice and agency as manifested in their low representation in public office and lack of access to decision making structures in the public sphere at the community level.(UNDP 2014;UNSOM 2017;USAID 2016).Somali women,children,youth,the elderly,minority clans,and IDPs are considered the mos

278、t vulnerable groups.Gender discrimination and social exclusion are among the causal factors leading to persistent poverty,existing inequality,and violence.Such behaviors,attitudes,and systems inhibit societies from experiencing increased living standards,expanded opportunity,or bolstered resilience(

279、USAID 2019).While the country has experienced some economic growth in recent years from relative peace and stability,there are still limited economic opportunities,especially among the youth.According to the Intergovernmental Authority on Development(IGAD),unemployment for youth ages 1429 stands at

280、approximately 67%one of the highest rates in the world.Females experienced higher unemployment at 74%compared to males at 61%(IGAD 2019).The social exclusion challenges and a poor business environment hinder economic opportunities for the youth.Due to the lack of an effective system to enforce faire

281、r employment practices,small companies do not advertise jobs but rely on relatives,close friends,and the clan system(elders)to identify candidates.This implies youth not connected and hailing from minority clans face the double burden of getting employment.Lack of education and financial resources a

282、re two other factors that limit economic opportunities for the youth.Somali women are also marginalized and underrepresented in the labor force.About 20 It is significant to highlight that in the case of Somalia,the drivers of fragility and vulnerability continue to exist.The persistence of these co

283、nditions therefore makes it nearly impossible for many IDPs to return or regain access to their traditional livelihoods.58%of the rural population are women but are primarily concentrated in nonpaid domestic work or the informal sector(IGAD 2019).Further,Somali women face higher barriers to employme

284、nt as well as adverse health outcomes and exclusion from economic participation and access to capital.Land rights,inheritance rights,and legislative restrictions are some of the exclusive barriers.The high fertility rate among women is also an issue of concern and increases vulnerability.According t

285、o data from the Somalia Health and Demographic Survey 2020,the countrys fertility rate is estimated at 6.9 children per woman,whereas its maternal mortality rate stands at 692 deaths per 100,000 live births(Federal Government of Somalia and UNFPA 2020).Also,based on the same data,an estimated 99%of

286、women in Somalia still undergo FGM(UNICEF 2021).A large proportion of girls are married at an early age,which is linked to Somali culture,with women generally confined to traditional gender roles as daughters,wives,and mothers and with limited access to public services or political structures.Polyga

287、mous marriages are also common in Somalia with approximately one out of five Somalis living in a polygamous situation(Evason 2019).The IDPs are also economically marginalized due to being delinked from clan protection,losing economic assets,and facing precarious conditions within(increasingly)urban

288、camps.Lacking access to livelihoods or remittances,they are ranked among the poorest in Somalia.Evidence shows that once they move to IDP camps,displaced households are likely to be trapped in perpetual poverty.The humanitarian support that IDP households receive,often in the form of protracted cash

289、 transfers and food assistance,crowds out any incentive for households to return to their original livelihood even if the conditions that caused the displacement no longer exist.20 However,it is important to note that protracted violence also has the potential to discourage IDP households from retur

290、ning to their communities of origin,which are predominantly in rural areas.The Bantu people and other minority groups are among the most marginalized,socially excluded,Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment in HoA Countries23and discriminated groups in the country,besides the youth,women,gi

291、rls,minorities,and IDPs.The magnitude of exclusion is even worse for Bantu women and women from other minority groups.Areport from the Minority Rights Group(MRG)and IIDA Womens Development Organization(IIDA)(the largest womens association in the country)confirms that women belonging to minorities,es

292、pecially the Bantu communities,face“double discrimination”in Somalia,and this fact affects“almost every aspect of their lives”;for example,they face economic and educational marginalization and are deprived of humanitarian assistance and livelihood opportunities to health care and education(MRG and

293、IIDA 2015).Minority women suffer multiple violations of their basic and fundamental human rights,in particular,based on various historical,social,economic,and political factors,including the traditional,religious,and clan structurescompounded by years of violence,poverty,and famine,which has made So

294、malia one of the most unfavorable places in the world for minority women(MRG and IIDA 2015).II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sectora Access to ElectricityGenerally,access to modern energy services is limited in Somalia.The country lacks a national electricity infrastructure and therefore rely on

295、private sector electricity service providers(ESP)for the supply of electric power generated from high-speed diesel-powered mini grids(World Bank 2021a).Available data indicate that only about 35%of individuals in Somalia have access to electricity.The electricity access rate also tends to differ bas

296、ed on the geographical location,with individuals in urban areas having higher access rates(approximately 60%)compared to those in rural areas(15%)and nomadic households(about 1%)(World Bank 2021a).The cost of electricity from the ESPs in Somalia also tends to be very expensive and highly unaffordabl

297、e for most low-income households.Clearly,the fact that electricity access rates are the highest in rural areas implies that many poor and vulnerable households in the borderland have no access to electricity.Evidence on the ground also suggests that even for those households with some level 21 Findi

298、ngs from a field mission to the Horn of Africa region.of electricity access,supply tends to be highly unstable and unreliable,partly due to the poor nature of the infrastructure provided by the ESPs.Furthermore,given the high cost of electricity,households with electricity access restrict its use fo

299、r lighting purposes.Most ESPs also do not provide any education or sensitization on how to use energy efficiently,especially for vulnerable households and small-scale businesses(World Bank 2021a).In Somalia,ESPs supply electricity to public institutions such as hospitals,religious institutions,and p

300、olice stations in addition to households.However,the provision of electricity services to vulnerable households and small and medium enterprises(SMEs)is considered a risk that could affect the profit margin of ESPs.Most ESPs indicate that many women-led SMEs and vulnerable households that have conne

301、ctions to electricity face financial constraints and are unable to pay their tariffs on time;this supplements and furtherexpands the findings from the secondary analysis.Although some ESPs in borderland areas have provided options to women SMEs and vulnerable households to pay tariffs in installment

302、s to reducethe risk of losing customers,the options are unsustainable because many vulnerable households are unable to utilize that window of opportunity due to persistent poverty.Some ESPs have also committed to corporate social responsibility to support a small percentage of vulnerable households

303、with connections to electricity,but most of them currently do not have a direct strategy to reach women-headed households or businesses separately.Given that many households still struggle to pay tariffs due to a lack of sustainable income,the ESPs suggested seeking external funding sources to suppo

304、rt payment of tariffs for vulnerable households.21According to the National Energy Policy(NEP),the majority of the socially excluded groups(IDPs,ethnic minorities,and pastoralists)are rural residents;yet the coverage of electricity in rural areas remains very low compared to urban areas and the nati

305、onal average(around 4%in rural versus 33%in urban centers and 15%by national average)(NEP 2018).Even in households considered to have access to THE WORLD BANK GROUP24electricity,they are rationed to household lighting.The generation of electricity,of which 96%is coming from dirty fuel sources like i

306、nefficient diesel generators,is not sufficient.According to USAID,about 2.4 million households in the country have no access to electricity/power(USAID 2020).In rural areas,charcoal and firewood make up about 8590%of energy used.These biofuels provide unhealthy and low-quality lighting,without any a

307、dditional energy services,leading to deforestation and CO2 emissions(World Bank 2021b).b Access to Clean CookingFurthermore,aside from electricity,access to clean cooking solutions also remains a huge challenge for many households in Somalia.According to World Bank(2021a),only about 3%of the entire

308、Somali population has access to clean cooking solutions.Conversely,a majority of households rely on biomass(e.g.,wood,scrubs,dung cakes,and charcoal)for cooking.Because women tend to be responsible for cooking due to prevailing gender norms,on a daily basis they spend long hours searching for,prepar

309、ing,and cooking with biomass fuels.Thus,compared to men,women tend to be disproportionately affected by time poverty in Somalia.Although in some urban centers clean cooking stoves are available on the market,they tend to be very expensive and not easily affordable for women,especially those from poo

310、r and vulnerable groups(World Bank 2021a).3.1.6 SUDANI.Overview of the GESI SituationSudan is a low-income country with an estimated population of about 43.8 million(World Bank 2022).Out of this,approximately 50.4%are women(World Bank 2022).Similar to many other countries in the HoA region,gender in

311、equality remains a challenging issue in Sudan.Across all facets of life,inequality between men and women is prevalent,with women constantly being disadvantaged.According to the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP)(UNDP 2020c),Sudan is ranked among the bottom 20 countries in terms of human deve

312、lopment(170 out of 189).In 2019,the country recorded a GII score of 0.545/1,pointing to the existence of large disparities between males and females,specifically with regard to reproductive health,economic empowerment,and labor market participation(UNDP 2020c).Similarly,in 2019,the country scored 0.

313、316/1 on the Africa Gender Index by the African Development Bank(AfDB)and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa(UNECA),further highlighting gender disparities in economic,social,and political/institutional representation(AfDB 2020).In Sudan,clear gender disparities exist with respect to scho

314、oling and educational attainment between men and women.Generally,more males are able to enroll and complete school compared to their female counterparts.The mean year of schooling is estimated at 4.2 years for males and only 3.3 years for females(UNDP 2020a).Also,among the working-age population(25

315、years and older),the proportion of individuals with at least some secondary education is 19.5%for males and 15.4%for females(UNDP 2020b).More so,according to statistical data from the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO),the adult literacy is generally higher for m

316、ales(65.44%)than females(56.06%)(World Bank 2022).Multiple gender gaps also exist in the labor market resulting in limited economic opportunities for women compared to men.For example,the labor force participation rate is generally higher for men(68.2%)compared to women(29.1%)(UNDP 2020d).Women are

317、more likely to be unemployed or engaged in unpaid care work,self-employment,and informality relative to their male counterparts.The gender pay gap also remains large in Sudan,with female workers earning wages 45%lower than those of their male counterparts(World Bank 2020c).In addition,women are gene

318、rally underrepresented in public life and decision-making.They have limited agency and are regular survivors of GBV,including rape,intimate partner violence,sexual harassment,psychological violence,and negative cultural practices such as FGM and forced marriages(UNFPA 2020).Generally,it is estimated

319、 that about 38%of young girls in Sudan will marry before the age of 18(UNICEF 2020).Polygamy is legal in Sudan and tends to be the root cause of economic dependency for many Sudanese women who are culturally forced into such marriages.According to official data from the 2014/2015 National Household

320、Budget and Poverty Survey(NHBPS),the national poverty rate in Sudan is estimated at 36.1%.This implies that a little over one-third of theSudanese population live in poverty Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment in HoA Countries25(WorldBank2019b).The data also show that the incidence of po

321、verty is slightly higher in urban areas(37.3%)than in rural areas(35.5%)(World Bank 2019b).In addition,wide disparities in the poverty incidence rate are observable across states,with Central Darfur,West Darfur,and South Kordofan recording very high rates of poverty compared to other states such as

322、the Northern State,River Nile,and Khartoum(World Bank 2019b).Furthermore,specific demographic groups that tend to experience extreme poverty,vulnerability,and social exclusion include women,children,youth,PWDs,and the elderly.Nomadic pastoralists and individuals engaged in casual or low-income emplo

323、yment,migrant workers,and other social groups arising out of a forced displacement context,that is,refugees,asylum seekers,and IDPs,also tendto be very vulnerable.The intersectionality between these groups further compounds an individuals level of vulnerability and social exclusion in the Sudanese s

324、ociety.According to the UNHCR,Sudan is to be home to approximately 950,000 refugees and asylum seekers(UNHCR 2023c).The refugees come mainly from neighboring South Sudan,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Chad,and the Central African Republic,and also from Syria and Yemen in the Middle East and North Africa region(UN

325、HCR 2023b).Further,due to recent conflict in Sudan,the number of IDPs has increased from 334,000 in April 2023 to 4.63 million in October 2023(IOM 2023).Although Sudan has ratified several regional and international conventions and legislative instruments meant to guarantee the human rights and libe

326、rties of both men and women alike,for example,the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,the International Covenant on Economic,Social and Cultural Rights,the Convention on Rights of the Child,the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights,and so on,the domestic normative and legal en

327、vironment tends to be limiting in responding to human rights violations,abuses,and various forms of inhumane treatments predominantly targeted at women,girls,and other categories of vulnerable groups such as IDPs,refugees,and migrant workers(SIHA Network 2021).Besides the weak legal environment,trad

328、itional gender norms,customs,and stereotypes are also common in Sudan and hamper gender inequality.Due to Sudan being a patriarchal society,women have limited or no access to productive resources and assets,such as land and capital,and are often treated as the property of men(UNFPA 2020).These negat

329、ive customs reinforce structural power imbalances,further legitimizing male dominance,affecting the well-being of women,and deepening social and economic inequalities in the Sudanese society.II.Assessment of GESI in the Energy Sectora Access to ElectricityGenerally,access to electricity is fairly li

330、mited in Sudan.According to the 2019 data from the World Bank,approximately 53.8%of the total population in Sudan has access to electricity,whereas around 46.2%have no access.The electricity access rate is significantly higher for individuals living in urban areas(81.39%)compared to those who live i

331、n rural or remote areas(39.02%)(IEA et al.2021).According to data from the NHBPS 2014/2015,access to electricity is generally higher for men-headed households(47%)relative to women-headed households(43%)(World Bank 2019c).The average household energy consumption in Sudan is 308 kWh per month,which i

332、s about five times the average in Sub-Saharan Africa(50 kWh per month)and ranked among the highest in the world.The largest sector using electricity in Sudan is the residential sector,constituting about 60%of the total electricity consumption.The country also has one of the lowest electricity tariff

333、s in the world,that is,US$0.0100.015/kWh,and a generous lifeline tariff structure that provides electricity at a highly subsidized rate to the benefit of about one-half of all residential users connected to the grid(World Bank 2022).Among household and commercial users,electricity is predominantly used for lighting and cooling of spaces and food(World Bank 2019a).In Sudan,there is marked disparity