經濟合作與發展組織：2023年G7性別平等執行報告（英文版）（70頁）.pdf

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1、|1 OECD 2023 G7 Gender Equality Implementation Report 2023 Promoting Gender Equality Through G7 Policy THIS IS THE FIRST G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT,PREPARED UNDER THE 2023 JAPANESE G7 PRESIDENCY AT THE REQUEST OF G7 LEADERS AND IN CONSULTATION WITH G7 MEMBERS,AS PART OF THE G7 MONITORI

2、NG AND ACCOUNTABILITY MECHANISM(MAM)(ELMAU 2022)2|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 The report presents good practices and progress made by the G7 in meeting commitments related to gender equality made during G7 Presidencies since 2017.The report aims to inform future G7 decisi

3、on-making on gender equality.The report provides an overview of efforts to promote family-friendly policies;reduce gender pay gaps and improve womens leadership in public and private sectors;promote womens entrepreneurship;and foster womens participation in Science,Technology,Engineering and Mathema

4、tics(STEM).The report also discusses efforts to address gender-based violence,as well as policies targeted at global challenges,including supporting gender equality in conflict and fragile settings.This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The opinions expr

5、essed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD Member countries or of the G7.This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers an

6、d boundaries and to the name of any territory,city,or area.|3 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Table of contents Executive summary 4 1 Setting the scene:Gender gaps persist 6 2 Promoting gender equality in the labour market 10 2.1.Supporting women and economic growth 10 2.2.Po

7、licies to reduce gender pay gaps and improve womens leadership in public and private sectors 19 2.3.Promoting gender equality in entrepreneurship 25 2.4.Policies to support more women in work using digital,scientific,and technological skills 30 3 Addressing gender inequalities globally 35 3.1.Policy

8、 frameworks for foreign policy and development co-operation 36 3.2.Addressing the interlinkages of climate change,environment,and gender inequality through development co-operation 39 3.3.Supporting gender equality in conflict and fragile settings 41 4 Policies that address gender-based violence 43

9、4.1.Support lives free from gender-based violence through integrated service delivery 43 4.2.Addressing GBV globally:Policies and institutional frameworks that support SEAH prevention and response 49 References 54 FIGURES Figure 1.Gender gaps in labour force participation are substantial 11 Figure 2

10、.Gender gaps in usual weekly working hours 11 Figure 3.Gains in economic growth from closing gender participation and working hours gaps 12 Figure 4.The United States is the only G7 country without national paid parental leave entitlements 14 Figure 5.Progress in closing the gender gap in early-stag

11、e entrepreneurship 26 Figure 6.The gender gap in self-employment has narrowed in all G7 countries since 2018 27 Figure 7.Girls do not expect to work in STEM careers as much as boys do 31 Figure 8.Fewer girls expect to work in ICT occupations than in STEM more generally 32 Figure 9.ODA to climate wit

12、h gender equality objectives(shares and volumes)41 Figure 10.Shares and volumes of bilateral ODA with gender equality objectives in fragile contexts 42 TABLES Table 1.Collection of census data on migrant status and racial and ethnic identity 9 4|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 202

13、3 Executive summary Fostering gender equality is one of the key priorities of the G7 and has featured prominently in annual Leaders Communiqus across various presidencies.Gender disparities persist across various areas in all G7 countries and beyond.Young women reach higher educational attainment th

14、an young men but remain underrepresented in fields of studies that offer the best economic prospects.Furthermore,women generally have less favourable outcomes in the labour market,spend a significant amount of time on unpaid care and housework,encounter obstacles when pursuing entrepreneurship and a

15、re underrepresented among leadership positions in the public and private sector.At the same time,women and girls in all their diversity are also disproportionately affected by sexual and gender-based violence,1 which are persistent abhorrent manifestations of gender inequality.This report considers

16、commitments related to gender equality made during G7 Presidencies and monitors how G7 countries policies and legal frameworks have evolved to meet these commitments across various areas since the 2017 Taormina Summit.This includes an analysis of the promotion of gender equality in labour markets an

17、d entrepreneurship;the development of policies to reduce barriers and support more women in work using digital,scientific,and technological skills;the promotion of gender equality on a global scale including through development co-operation and in conflict-affected and fragile contexts;as well as po

18、licies that aim to eradicate gender-based violence including sexual exploitation,abuse and harassment in development co-operation and humanitarian assistance.There is certainly scope for further,substantial progress in gender equality.Yet,all G7 countries have made significant efforts.For example,pr

19、ogress has been made to improve employment outcomes of women particularly mothers by involving more fathers in taking parental leave and expanding public childcare capacity and supports,while improving flexible work regulations.The growing use of pay transparency tools among G7 countries is promotin

20、g progress in pay equality,while setting goals for equity deserving groups can help secure a better representation of women in leadership positions.With better access to finance and capital,barriers to womens entrepreneurship are slowly reduced,while increasing collaboration between universities,bus

21、iness,and policy makers aims to bring more girls and young women into the most lucrative educational fields.Women and girls in all their diversity continue to bear the overwhelming consequences of gender-based violence(GBV),commonly at the hands of their current or former male intimate partners.G7 c

22、ountries are promoting integrated policies as a means of co-ordinating multisectoral solutions and better preventing,addressing,and responding to sexual and gender-based violence.This requires a whole-of-government 1 GBV is standard international terminology for any harmful act that is perpetrated a

23、gainst a persons will and that is based on socially ascribed(i.e.gender)differences between males and females.The term gender-based violence is primarily used to underscore the fact that structural,gender-based power differentials between males and females around the world place females at risk for

24、multiple forms of violence including sexual,mental harm or suffering,threats of such acts,coercion,and other deprivations of liberty.The term is also used by some actors to describe some forms of sexual violence against males and/or targeted violence against LGBTIQA+populations(IASC,2015199).|5 G7 G

25、ENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 approach and entails integration at all levels of government,including the service delivery level.Strategic frameworks for GBV can help improve decision-making processes by focusing attention on the most crucial issues and challenges,as well as co

26、ordinating policy implementation and importantly funding across levels and functions of government.6|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Striving for an environment wherein all people,in all their diversity can thrive equally is first and foremost a moral and social imperative.Bu

27、t it also has a strong economic basis,as incorporating more women on an equal footing into the labour market is crucial for sustained economic growth in future.Education is one area where girls and women have made huge progress,and the level of educational attainment of young women is higher than th

28、at of young men in all G7 countries.However,choices in area of study remain frequently driven by attitudes rather than aptitude,and young women tend to choose certain fields like education,health,and welfare,rather than the often financially more rewarding study-areas of Science,Technology,Engineeri

29、ng and Mathematics(STEM).The labour market remains fraught with gender-related challenges that inhibit women from reaching their full potential,and women from disadvantaged minorities(ethnic/racial,low socio-economic background,migrants)often face multiple barriers to overcome.Women are less likely

30、to engage in paid work,face a persistent wage gap,and encounter glass ceilings in professional advancement.One important reason for these disparities lies in structural barriers and discriminatory social and gender norms that result in an elevated burden of unpaid care-and housework for women,and mo

31、thers in particular.Indeed,mothers typically take parental leave for longer than fathers do,resulting in more time away from the workplace.Also,many mothers return to work on a part-time basis,which often stalls further career progression.All these labour market challenges impede womens economic emp

32、owerment and contribute to the“leaky pipelines”partially responsible for the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles in the public and private sectors(OECD,20231).Global challenges can,at least temporarily,exacerbate existing gendered disparities within and across countries and particularly

33、 affect women and girls in all their diversity.For example,during the COVID-19 pandemic,women,who make up most workers in health-and care related occupations,were at the front lines of the pandemic response.At the same time gender gaps in entrepreneurship widened as sectors where women are concentra

34、ted(e.g.personal services and tourism)were disproportionally affected.School and childcare closures increased mothers portion of unpaid care work,exacerbating labour market disadvantages and stress.Other global crises,such as Russias war of aggression against Ukraine and the cost of living and energ

35、y crisis have also particularly affected women and girls(OECD,20231;Queisser,20212).Sexual and gender-based violence(GBV)constitute an abhorrent form of gender inequality in G7 countries and beyond.GBV can impact anyone,but it mainly stems from power imbalances that leave women and girls in especial

36、ly vulnerable situations.Globally,for countries for which data are available,nearly one in three girls and women(28%)aged 15 to 49 years experienced Intimate Partner Violence(IPV)at least once in her lifetime;and one in ten women in this age group experienced IPV over the past 12 months(OECD Develop

37、ment Centre/OECD,20233)and(OECD,20234).The impact of GBV is also intersectional,with particular populations facing even greater marginalisation.For example,racial and ethnic minority women,as well as members of the LGBTIQA+community(G7 Hiroshima Summit,20235),face heightened risks of such violence,u

38、nderscoring how gender disparities can amplify other forms of disadvantage and vulnerability(UN Women,20196).Beyond G7 countries,women in fragile and conflict-1 Setting the scene:Gender gaps persist|7 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 affected regions encounter an acutely eleva

39、ted risk of sexual-and gender-based violence,highlighting the need for enhanced protection and support for women in these contexts(OECD,20227).To address these challenges,there has been an increasing focus on addressing GBV as a policy priority among G7countries and beyond over recent years,with an

40、emphasis on prevention,survivor support,and legal mechanisms as well as official development assistance(ODA)towards the elimination of violence against women and girls.Recognising these and other intersectional gender-related issues,the need for policy action has been an important feature in the G7s

41、 annual Leaders Communiqus.Pledges to strive for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls in all their diversity,include measures towards reducing barriers and increasing womens equal and meaningful participation in the workforce and entrepreneurship,support for womens leadership in th

42、e public and private sector,educational programmes focused on educational choices,and initiatives that combat gender-based violence in G7 countries and conflict-zones.Beyond the commitments in Leaders Communiqus,G7 countries are mainstreaming gender equality across many levels,so that several minist

43、erial tracks make commitments on gender equality as well.For example,under the Japanese G7 presidency of 2023,a total of 9 Ministerial Meetings discussed gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls in all their diversity,committing,among other things,to reduce gender inequity and inequali

44、ty in the health sector,to enhance financial access to women farmers and to increase the participation of women in the energy sector(G7 Japan,20238).Together with the annual G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps,first released under the stewardship of the German G7 presidency in 2022,this implementation repor

45、t is part of a monitoring and accountability mechanism,that aims to track progress on the implementation of G7 commitments in the field of gender equality.The Gender Equality Implementation Report is scheduled for release every three years.This mechanism was proposed by the Gender Equality Advisory

46、Council(GEAC),with support from the GEAC Secretariat in the United Kingdoms Cabinet Office,following an invitation from G7 Leaders at the Carbis Bay Summit in June 2021.The main objectives of the monitoring and accountability mechanism are to collate,analyse and provide existing robust,international

47、ly comparable,and transparent data on gender equality within the G7 and on the implementation of G7 Leaders commitments in the field of gender equality.The mechanism aims to inform and support G7 decision-making and action on gender equality,including by Leaders,Sherpas and the GEAC.It also aims to

48、promote mutual accountability across the G7 by clearly and,where appropriate,publicly communicating progress made by the G7 and its partners in promoting gender equality.Box 1 details the methodology of the report.8|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Box 1.Methodology of the G7

49、Gender Equality Implementation Report The Gender Equality Implementation Report evaluates gender-related commitments made during G7 Presidencies and monitors how G7 countries policies have evolved to meet these commitments.This report covers gender equality commitments made during G7 presidencies ov

50、er the past six years,including those from Taormina(2017),Charlevoix(2018),Biarritz(2019),Carbis Bay(2021),and Elmau(2022).The Gender Equality Implementation Report tracks policy developments over time for all G7 countries as well as EU-wide policy prescriptions,such as EU-Directives that all EU-mem

51、ber countries must adhere to.In some cases,this report also presents best practices of specific EU or OECD countries outside of the G7 to highlight policies that have proven to be effective in fostering gender equality.Mainly considering policy progress since 2017,this report covers developments sin

52、ce the 2017 summit in Taormina,and therefore also addresses policy progress that has been made beyond the recent developments brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic,Russias actions in Ukraine,and the prevailing cost-of-living crisis.Occasionally,the report also refers to the status quo of policy in pla

53、ce before 2017 to provide context and highlight differences in the policy environments across G7 countries.Commitments assessed in this report are mainly selected from G7 Leaders Communiqus using specific criteria.Selected commitments are also taken from gender related G7 Roadmaps that are referred

54、to in G7 Leaders Communiqus as well as G7 Declarations on Gender Equality and Womens Empowerment.Each of the chosen commitments should be of immediate relevance to present-day gender equality policy concerns and utilise firm language tied to clear actions or outcomes,and progress towards the impleme

55、ntation of the commitments should be measurable over time and of good quality,but an exception has been made for gender-based violence as it has such a particularly high policy relevance.Other areas where internationally comparable data of good quality is lacking and/or under development are not add

56、ressed here but could feature in future issues of the report.The report also seeks to avoid duplication,hence it does not focus on commitments already covered by other monitoring mechanisms,such as by the Accountability Working Group(20239),and should also be concise and be limited to a manageable n

57、umber of commitments.This report considers commitments in the following areas.Promoting gender equality in the labour market and entrepreneurship(G7 Charlevoix Summit,201810).Policies to support more women in work using digital,scientific,and technological skills(G7 Taormina Summit,201711;G7 Taormin

58、a Roadmap,201712).Addressing gender inequalities globally(G7 Elmau Summit,202213).Policies that address gender-based violence(G7 Charlevoix Summit,201810;G7 Biarritz Summit,201914;G7 Carbis Bay Summit,202115;G7 Elmau Summit,202213).There can be some overlap between different commitments made over th

59、e years,also because the importance of policy issues leads to“re-commitment”of Leaders to policy action on a particular issue(e.g.gender-based violence).Hence,policy actions can often be linked to more than one G7 commitment,and the sections below can refer to more than one commitment.Gender inequal

60、ities often have a compounding effect,intensifying the disadvantages faced by women and girls from different groups.These intersectional disadvantages cut across many dimensions such as migrant status,race,ethnicity,sexual orientation,gender identity and disability status.For instance,in the United

61、States,not only do Hispanic and Black women earn significantly less than White,non-Hispanic men,but their earnings are also lower than those of White,non-Hispanic women(Bleiweis,Frye and|9 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Khattar,202116).Despite the importance of recognising t

62、hese multi-faceted disadvantages,there is a lack of data in national statistics,making a comprehensive understanding of intersectionality a challenge across many G7 and/or EU countries(Box 2).For this reason,most of the report highlights general disparities between men and women,without the capacity

63、 to disaggregate data further.Box 2.Ethnic and racial data collection in G7 countries While each G7 country records data on the country of birth of their citizens,the availability of data on racial and ethnic identity varies across G7 countries(Table 1).For instance,the United States and Canada have

64、 a long history of collecting census data on race,ethnicity,and indigenous origin,reflecting their unique national contexts.The United Kingdom has included questions on ethnic origin and racial identity in their Census.In other G7 countries,there is generally no collection of Census data nor data in

65、 most period sample surveys that covers either racial or ethnic identity.This is often a result of the specific national historical context but can follow from privacy and human rights legislation that prohibit the collection of such data,as is the case in Germany,or the concept of equality of all c

66、itizens irrespective of their origin or identity,such as in France.Table 1.Collection of census data on migrant status and racial and ethnic identity Migrant status/Country of birth Racial identity Ethnic identity Canada Yes Yes Yes France Yes No No Germany Yes No No Italy Yes No No Japan Yes No No

67、United Kingdom Yes Yes Yes United States Yes Yes Yes EU-countries*24 in 24 1 in 24 10 in 24 OECD-countries 38 in 38 8 in 38 14 in 38 Note:Data does not include information on Croatia,Cyprus and Malta.Source:Balestra and Fleischer(201817),“Diversity statistics in the OECD:How do OECD countries collec

68、t data on ethnic,racial and indigenous identity?”,https:/doi.org/10.1787/89bae654-en.Nevertheless,across the G7 and beyond,there is an increasing recognition of the intersectional nature of inequalities.The Sustainable Development Goals emphasise that disaggregation by race,ethnicity,and indigenous

69、identity is essential to help identify policy priorities within countries.Notwithstanding,the important role that racial and ethnic backgrounds can play,data availability remains limited overall,and a further statistical effort is needed if countries are to live up to the 2030 SDG Agendas aspiration

70、 of“leaving no one behind”(Balestra and Fleischer,201817).Beyond racial and ethnic identity,data on sexual orientation,and gender identity would also be necessary to fully account for the intersectional nature of issues.However,sample sizes and disclosure control measures to address privacy concerns

71、 limit the available statistical detail in many OECD and EU countries.The following sections focus on separate areas of policy action concerning the relevant gender related G7 commitments.Each section first introduces current gender-related challenges in relation to the G7 commitments and then proce

72、eds to discuss recent progress over separate policy areas.Wherever data is available,it is used to illustrate the challenges and,if possible,the progress made since the introduction of specific policy measures.10|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 2.1.Supporting women and econom

73、ic growth Charlevoix G7 Summit Communiqu(2018),Paragraph 10“.We recognize that gender equality is fundamental for the fulfilment of human rights and is a social and economic imperative.However,gender inequality persists despite decades of international commitments to eliminate these differences.We w

74、ill continue to work to remove barriers to womens participation and decision-making in social,economic,and political spheres as well as increase the opportunities for all to participate equally in all aspects of the labour market.Our path forward will promote womens full economic participation throu

75、gh working to reduce the gender wage gap,supporting women business leaders and entrepreneurs,and recognizing the value of unpaid care work.”In G7 countries there has been a notable convergence in labour market outcomes between men and women in all their diversity over the past decades.Today,most hou

76、seholds in G7 countries are dual-earner households,in which two partners simultaneously engage in the labour market and contribute to overall household income.Nevertheless,the full economic empowerment of women in all their diversity is held back by stubborn inequalities in many labour market outcom

77、es,such as labour force participation and hours worked.At the same time,women continue to shoulder most of the unpaid care and housework within families with adverse effects on their labour market engagement and potential.These gender gaps in labour market outcomes typically widen once children are

78、present in households,as mothers take the longest leaves of absence from work.Upon their return to the labour market,many mothers are in part-time employment to manage the dual work-family responsibility that mostly falls on them,especially if affordable,quality childcare services are not available(

79、OECD,20231).In all G7 countries,Working-age(15-64 years)men continue to be more likely to be employed than working-age women,despite women of working-age having similar or higher levels of educational attainment in most countries(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023 Indicators 2a.and 3a.).On average acr

80、oss the OECD the gender gap in labour force participation was 10.4 percentage points in 2022,(Figure 1),and men were 9.7 percentage points more likely to be employed than women in 2022.Gender gaps in the intensity of employment participation also persist.On average across G7 countries,women work abo

81、ut 6 fewer hours per week than men(Figure 2).Especially for mothers,it can be attractive to turn to part-time employment to combine continued labour market attachment with family responsibilities.While short-to medium-term part-time employment offers some degree of flexibility,it further contributes

82、 to gender inequalities in pay and career progression(OECD,20231),also when employed men and women have similar skills.Across G7 countries with available data,the gender wage gap(GWG)between similarly skilled men and women mostly reflects differences within firms,rather than differences between firm

83、s.OECD(202118)found that in most countries,this intra-firm gender wage gap mainly reflects differences in tasks and responsibilities,whereas differences in pay for work of equal value tend to be relatively small.This 2 Promoting gender equality in the labour market|11 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATI

84、ON REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 suggests that one policy priority besides others proven to be important such as pay reporting must be to promote access for women to better jobs within firms.The remainder of the GWG results from the concentration of women in low-wage firms and industries.This may be the res

85、ult of discriminatory hiring practices by employers,womens preferences for firms with flexible working-time arrangements,as well as the role of past educational choices and gendered socialisation processes earlier in life(OECD,202118).Figure 1.Gender gaps in labour force participation are substantia

86、l Gender gap in labour force participation rates(men women),15-64 year-olds,2022 percentage points Source:OECD Employment database,www.oecd.org/employment/emp/employmentdatabase-employment.htm.Figure 2.Gender gaps in usual weekly working hours Average usual weekly hours worked on the main job,total

87、employment*,15-64 year-olds,2022 Note:Data for the United States refer to dependent employment only.Data for the Canada refers to 15+year-olds.Source:OECD Employment database,www.oecd.org/employment/emp/employmentdatabase-employment.htm,Statistics Canada,e-Stat Japan.02468101214161820CanadaFranceGer

88、manyItalyJapanUnited Kingdom United StatesEU AverageOECD AverageG7 Average30323436384042CanadaFranceGermanyItalyJapanUnited Kingdom United StatesEU AverageOECD AverageG7 AverageMenWomen12|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Fostering gender equality is both a social and economic

89、imperative.Existing gaps in employment participation limit economic potential by not fully tapping into the vast talent pool of women and their productivity potential.Should G7 countries close their gender gaps in labour force participation and working hours by 2060,they could expect a substantial b

90、oost of economic growth(Box 3).Box 3.The potential growth effects of gender equality in employment in G7 countries Across the G7,closing the remaining gender gap in labour force participation by 2060 could increase potential GDP per capita growth by 3.1%by 2060 relative to a situation which assumes

91、a continuity of the initial institutional and policy settings over the projection period(Figure 3).By far the biggest effects can be expected in Italy,where the gender gaps in labour force participation are largest today.Because differences in working hours are more pronounced in most G7 countries,c

92、losing such gender gaps holds even more potential.In fact,closing working hours gaps by 2060 could result in a 4.3%boost to GDP in 2060.The United States and France,where gaps in working hours are comparatively small,are the only G7 countries that would benefit 4%or less by 2060.Combining a closure

93、of gender gaps in working hours with a closure of the gap in labour force participation would lead to a 7.8%boost to GDP in 2060.Figure 3.Gains in economic growth from closing gender participation and working hours gaps Difference relative to the baseline in projected potential GDP per capita in 206

94、0,closure of gender gaps in labour force participation and working hours,percent Note:The projections assume that labour force participation and working hours gaps close by 2060.LFP:Labour force participation,HRS:Working hours.For detail,see Fluchtmann,Keese,and Adema(202419),forthcoming.Source:OECD

95、 estimates based on the OECD Employment database,www.oecd.org/employment/emp/employmentdatabase-employment.htm and the OECD Long-Term Growth Mode,www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/b4f4e03e-en.pdf?expires=1633010984&id=id&accname=ocid84004878&checksum=AB7261FA5FDE3F4328C8F16C7B41FD6D.Labour force and e

96、mployment participation gaps may have narrowed,but one of the reasons for their persistence is that women continue to bear an unequal burden of unpaid care-and household work.Women in most G7 counties spend about 90 minutes per day more on unpaid work than men,but this gender gap is almost three hou

97、rs per day in Japan and Italy(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023 Indicator 5a.).During the COVID-19 pandemic,mothers also took on the brunt of the additional unpaid care work and experienced additional labour market penalties and stress(Queisser,20212).The gender 00.020.040.060.080.10.120.140.16Canada

98、FranceGermanyItalyJapanUnitedKingdomUnited StatesEU-22AverageOECDAverageG7 AverageScenario A(LFP:gap closed by 2060,HRS:Baseline)Scenario B(LFP:Baseline,HRS:gap closed by 2060)Scenario C(LFP&HRS:gap closed by 2060)|13 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 imbalance in unpaid work i

99、s rooted in the persistence of social norms that cast women as the primary caregivers,while workplace conditions often make it challenging for women to reconcile career and family responsibilities.Unpaid care and housework may not be renumerated,its value is sizeable and estimated to amount to betwe

100、en 20 and 50%of GDP on average in G7 countries,depending on the used estimation approach(OECD,202120;van de Ven,Zwijnenburg and De Queljoe,201821).Furthermore,the demands for formal and informal care for relatives with care needs will increase with population ageing.Across 21 European OECD countries

101、 for which comparable data is available,26%of people over 65 who report severe limitations in activities of daily living receive no care,28%receive formal care only,24%receive a combination of formal and informal care,and 22%receive only family care,and women are the main caregivers in this regard(O

102、ECD,202322).There are major concerns about access to good quality elderly care services now and in the future.Productivity gains can help address capacity issues,but a comprehensive policy strategy is needed to tackle poor pay2 and working conditions(see below)and insufficient social recognition of

103、long-term care work to attract workers in the sector and avoid labour shortages reaching unacceptable levels.It is unlikely that all care requirements will be addressed by formal care in future,nor may this be desirable from a clients or carers perspective.However,there is a risk that women will be

104、increasingly burdened with informal care,which is why a special focus should be placed on reconciling informal care and work.G7 countries have committed to removing barriers to womens full participation in the labour market(e.g.G7 Charlevoix Summit(201810).Labour market barriers often coincide with

105、the presence of children in households.Therefore,it is important for countries to provide a well-aligned system of family supports over the early years of a childs life,so that establishing and supporting a family as well as pursuing labour market opportunities is a realistic life-choice for both pa

106、rents in all their diversity.Such a“continuum of supports”generally comprises a system of well-paid and sufficiently(but not overly)long parental leaves that also incentivise the uptake of leave by fathers(and/or partners),widely accessible and affordable early childhood education and care(ECEC)from

107、 an early age so that parents can seamlessly transition from parental leave taking to making use of childcare services,and possibly flexible working arrangements too.The following section reviews the status quo and the policy actions taken by G7 countries in recent years.2.1.1.Parental leave policie

108、s and incentives for a more gender equal use Employment-protected and paid leave entitlements around childbirth are a central feature of family policy approaches in most G7 countries.Such leave entitlements usually administered through maternity-paternity-and parental leaves protect the health and w

109、ell-being of infants and mothers around childbirth and allow parents to take leave of absence from work to provide care for their children in the early years of life (for same-sex couples,they generally provide paid leave for the biological or adoptive parent and,among G7 countries,in most cases als

110、o for her/his partner3(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.6).Through employment protection,fathers and mothers can return to work after taking leave,while leave benefits and allowances ensure that parents are financially supported throughout their absence from work.However,overly long family leave e

111、ntitlements can have negative consequences for workers human capital development and career progression(Fluchtmann,202323).2 Across the OECD on average,personal care workers employed in residential and non-residential care earn around 70%of the economy-wide average hourly wage.One-quarter of persona

112、l care workers in the LTC sector and in hospitals earn at most 53%and 60%,respectively,of the average wage in the total economy(OECD,202322).3 As the formal recognition of same-sex marriages or partnerships expands across countries,there is increasing recognition of same-sex partners within parental

113、 leave legislation.In most G7 countries,parental leave is extended to female as well as male same-sex parents,as well as in 14 out of 27 EU countries(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.6).14|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 As of April 2022,six G7 countries offer national/fede

114、ral paid parental leave around childbirth and for the early months and years of a childs life(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.1).The United States is the only country without a national paid leave entitlement,though 12 states and territories offer all or some employees the statutory right to inco

115、me support during leave,while parents may also have access to employer-provided leave benefits.4 In 2021,with the Gender-Data Expansion project,the United States supported further efforts towards closing gender data gaps in the policy areas of digitalisation,teleworking,taxation and child-related le

116、ave to support womens economic empowerment(see(OECD,202324)on the US supported“gender data expansion project”).On average across the G7,about half of all parental leave entitlements in G7 countries are reserved for exclusive use by mothers(31 weeks)through maternity leave and/or earmarked parental l

117、eave entitlements and 17 weeks for exclusive use by fathers through paternity leave and/or reserved parental leave periods.Figure 4.The United States is the only G7 country without national paid parental leave entitlements Duration of earmarked and shareable parental leave entitlements,in weeks,2023

118、*Note:Except for OECD and EU averages,which refer to April 2022,information here refers to maternity-,paternity-,home care-and parental leave in pace as of September 2023.Periods labelled“mother only”and“father only”refer to individual non-transferable entitlements for paid employment-protected leav

119、e of absence for employed parents,“mummy and daddy quotas”or periods of an overall leave entitlement that can be used only by one parent and cannot be transferred to the other,as well as any weeks of shareable leave that must be taken by one or both parents for the family to qualify for“bonus”weeks

120、of parental leave.Weeks of shareable leave refer to parental-and home care leave entitlements that can be freely shared between mothers and fathers.Subject to fulfilling eligibility criteria,parental leave in Japan is an individual non-transferable retirement for fathers and mothers that can be take

121、n until a child is 12 months old.However,the leave can be extended until the child is 14 months old if both parents take some of the leave,even though each parent is only entitled to 12 months after birth.The bar is therefore shaded.Source:OECD Family Database,www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_lea

122、ve_systems.pdf.Non-transferable periods of parental leave for exclusive use by the mother or father on a“use it or lose it”basis,are often implemented to encourage more sharing of leave entitlements among parents and in some countries they have been relatively successful at that.Among OECD countries

123、,Iceland has gone as far as providing equal leave entitlements of 6 months per parent/partner of which only 6 weeks can be 4 The nature of schemes varies,but in 2022,publicly stipulated paid leave provisions that could be used around childbirth were available in California,Colorado,Connecticut,Hawai

124、i,Massachusetts,New Jersey,New York,Oregon,Rhode Island,Washington State,the District of Columbia,and Puerto Rico.Also,federal employees are entitled to 12 weeks of paid parental leave at the birth,adoption,or foster care placement of a child.01020304050607080Earmarked for mothersEarmarked for fathe

125、rsShareable(most often taken by mothers)|15 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 transferred to the other partner(Fluchtmann,202323).However,mothers still use the vast majority of paid parental leave entitlements in G7 countries and also take leave for longer periods than fathers(

126、OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.2).Indeed,fathers(or partners)never make up more than a quarter of paid parental leave recipients except for in the United States,where much of paid parental leave is part of employer-provided schemes and fathers make up about 38%of paid leave users.However,even wh

127、ere fathers make up 40%of the users of parental leave in OECD countries,such as in Iceland,Norway,Portugal and Sweden they only use about a quarter of the available days(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.2).In some countries,earmarked entitlements take the form of bonus months or weeks,that offer a

128、dditional weeks of paid leave if both parents use a certain portion paid leave entitlement.In practice,this means that a certain number of weeks are effectively reserved for fathers or the second parents if parents want to maximise their time on leave.For example,since 2007,households in Germany are

129、 entitled to two extra months of parental leave for the partner/father if they used at least two months of this leave.Fathers involvement in paid parental leave taking has risen substantially since the introduction of bonus months and in 2020 the share of fathers among all benefit recipients stood a

130、t 43.7%(2020)(Blum,Reimer and Schober,202225;Statistisches Bundesamt,202326).Canada introduced bonus weeks in 2019,granting an additional five weeks of benefits under the standard option if each parent uses at least 5 weeks of leave,and an additional eight weeks of benefits is available under the ex

131、tended option if each parent uses at least 8 weeks of leave(Doucet et al.,202227).5 In Canada,paternal leave use increased following the introduction of bonus weeks and is now at 24%in provinces other than Quebec(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF2.2).In Japan,mothers and fathers have an individual e

132、ntitlement of about one year,in addition to two bonus months if both parents take some of the leave.While currently only 17%of fathers make use parental leave,the number of fathers on leave has been increasing over recent years.To further promote paternal engagement in parental leave taking,the Japa

133、nese Government has set ambitious targets in 2023,expanding further targets to a goal of 50%of fathers to take parental leave by 2025,and 85%by 2030(Japans Prime Ministers Office,202328).Since April 2023,employers with over 1 000 employees must also annually report on the share of male workers eligi

134、ble for leave as well as the share that take it.Moreover,as part of the ongoing efforts to incentivise paternity leave,Japan introduced a four-week paid paternity leave in October 2022(Nakazato,Nishimura and Takezawa,202229).Japan,France and Italy provide both parents with individual and non-transfe

135、rable paid parental leave entitlements.In France,the individual parental leave entitlements introduced in 2014,were further refined in 2015.Since then,each parent can receive 6 months of paid leave for their first child.For any child born subsequently,one parent can take up to 24 months,while the ot

136、her parent has a dedicated 12-month leave reserved.However,partially because of low flat-rate leave benefits,fathers only make up 4%of leave users.Paid paternity leave was extended from 2 to 5 weeks in 2021(Boyer and Fagnani,202230).Since August 2022,parental leave in Italy includes three months of

137、paid leave entitlements for each parent alongside three months of shareable leave,while paternity leave has been successively increased from 1 to 10 days between 2016 and 2021.Prior to the parental leave reform,Italian fathers made up about 22%of leave users(Addabbo et al.,202231).Recent budget law

138、establishes a higher percentage of paid leave allowances from 30%up to 80%of the salary for a maximum duration of one month of leave and up to the sixth year of the childs life.Employed mothers in the United Kingdom can transfer up to 50 weeks of maternity leave(and 37 weeks of pay)to the father,and

139、 this period of leave is termed Shared Parental leave(UK Government,202332).5 In Canada,paid maternity-and parental leave entitlements are generally provided through the Employment Insurance scheme.However,the province of Qubec has its own scheme the Qubec Parental Insurance Plan,which offers more g

140、enerous leave benefits and also provides for paid paternity leave.16|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 But otherwise,the United Kingdom does not provide paid parental leave,and only reserves 2 weeks of paid leave for fathers through paternity leave(Koslowski et al.,202233).Sign

141、ificant changes in non-transferable leave entitlements for fathers or partners have also been spurred on by efforts of EU countries to align with the EU Directive on Work-Life Balance(Directive 2019/1158/EU),which postulates a minimum of 10 working days paternity leave for fathers as well as an indi

142、vidual right to four months paid parental leave of which at least two months need to be non-transferable to the partner.The stipulations in the directive had to be implemented by August 2022(EU,201934).2.1.2.Affordable and accessible quality childcare After entitlements to paid parental leave expire

143、,participation in early childhood education and care(ECEC)is essential for both parents to be in paid work and ensure greater gender equality in labour market outcomes(Alajsk and Fluchtmann,202335)and(Sikiri,202136).Enrolment in ECEC facilities differs widely across G7 countries,particularly for chi

144、ldren under the age of three(OECD Family Database,Indicator PF3.2).This reflects differences in availability,affordability and norms concerning the provision of childcare in-or outside the home.In some G7 countries,the net(out-of-pocket)childcare costs for parents are high,despite supports such as s

145、ubsidised access to public ECEC facilities,cash supports and/or tax reliefs(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps,Indicator 5b).In recent years,initiatives in G7 countries towards extending ECEC-participation,frequently concerned extending compulsory“schooling”to younger children and fiscal commitments to exp

146、and ECEC capacity.Recent progress towards increasing ECEC availability was also made in the context of the policy response to the COVID-19 pandemic.For example,with the Recovery and Resilience Plan,Italy where enrolment among children aged 0 to 2 has remained low(26%)has committed investments to cre

147、ate about 264 000 new ECEC places by 2026(Eurydice,202337).The United States where only about two-thirds of children 3-5 year-olds are enrolled in childcare facilities committed USD 24 billion of the 2021 American Rescue Plan Act for childcare business grants by 2023,aiming to increase the capacity

148、and quality of the sector(Quinton,202238).Germanys COVID-19 response also committed EUR 1 billion with the intention to create 90 000 new ECEC places between 2020 and 2022(Eurydice,202339).France has one of the highest ECEC-enrolment rates for children aged 0-2,and coverage mostly concerns“assistant

149、es maternelles”providing ECEC services at home.Since 2019 children in France are legally required to attend pre-school(coles maternelles)from age three onwards,and ECEC-enrolment rates 3-5 year-olds are close to 100%(Alajsk and Fluchtmann,202335).Since 2013,Germany has a statutory right to an ECEC p

150、lace from age one(previously age three).However,despite these entitlements and strong increases in enrolment 38%of 0-2 year-olds and of 94%of 3-5 year-olds in 2020 there is still a substantial gap between supply and demand as forecasts expect a lack of 384 000 ECEC spaces in 2023 about 13%of current

151、 enrolment(Stein,Bock-Famulla and Girndt,202240).Denmark,Norway and Sweden grant a statutory right to an ECEC-place as from 6 to 12 months of age,which contributes to particularly high ECEC enrolment rates in these countries(OECD,202341).6 Back in 2002,the European Council established the Barcelona

152、Targets with the intention of raising the availability of ECEC to boost female labour force engagement in the European Union.The targets aim for an enrolment rate of 33%for children under 3 years of age and 90%for children from the age of 3 up to compulsory schooling age by 2010.In 2022,the European

153、 Council adopted an upward revision of the targets to 45%among under 3 year-olds with specific targets for countries that have yet to reach the 6 Denmark grants a statutory right to a place in a day-care facility from 26 weeks of age,while municipalities face financial sanctions if they do not provi

154、de such a place.Sweden and Norway offer an ECEC guarantee from age one and parents can file complaints with the municipality or school inspectorate for non-compliance.|17 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 2002 goals and 96%from the age of 3 up to compulsory schooling age,to be

155、reached by 2030(European Commission,202242).High childcare costs for parents can strongly reduce their financial incentives to participate in the workforce and/or work(more hours).For low-earning couples(and single parent families in the United States)with two young children,ECEC costs can be a subs

156、tantial barrier in Canada,the United Kingdom and the United States(OECD Tax and Benefit Models,2022).Targeted supports for those who would otherwise be unable to afford ECEC is critical to advance gender equality(e.g.Van Lancker(201743).Across the G7,there is a plethora of childcare support programm

157、es with the aim of reducing costs for low-income earners and families in vulnerable situations.For example,under the Act on Good Childhood Education and Care and the Childcare Quality Act Germanys Federal Government provides Lnder(federal states,who have authority over the education and care system)

158、with EUR 9.5 billion between 2019 and 2024,aimed at increasing quality and supporting families through ECEC subsidies(Eurydice,202339).In 2019,Japan introduced the right to free ECEC for 3-5 year-olds in 2019 and exempts children aged 0 to 2 from low-income households from ECEC fees as well(Nakazato

159、,Nishimura and Takezawa,202229).Nevertheless,less than a third of the latter are enrolled in ECEC.Between 2024 and 2025,the United Kingdom(England)7 plans to successively extend the 15 hours of free childcare per week for all 3-4 year-olds which were introduced in 2010 to all children of working par

160、ents under the age of five,while the entitlement is also planned increase to 30h per week(The Education Hub,202344).With 45%among 0-2 year-olds and 100%among of 3-5 year-olds,attendance is already relatively high.In addition to the above-mentioned childcare business grants,the United States also com

161、mitted USD 15 billion in ECEC supports through the 2021 American Rescue Plan Act,with earlier support through the 2020 Coronavirus Aid,Relief,and Economic Security Act as well(Quinton,202238).For low-income and vulnerable families,these supports are,for example,available through the Head Start progr

162、amme.8 Canada is currently undertaking a big push to extend ECEC coverage.Between 2021 and 2026,the government is rolling out a country-wide Early Learning and Childcare System which,among other things,includes a guarantee for a fee of maximum CAD 10 a day in licensed childcare facilities and the cr

163、eation of 250 000 new ECEC spaces by 2026.Overall investment involves a commitment of up to CAD 30 billion spread over a period of 5 years,which,alongside previous investments announced since 2015,will sum to a yearly allocation of CAD 9.2 billion for the ECEC reform(Government of Canada,202345).By

164、the end of 2022,this reform targeted a 50%reduction in average ECEC fees towards a fee of CAD 10 a day on average in 2026 in all provinces other than Qubec.The province of Qubec had already made licenced ECEC available for CAD 5 a day in 1997.The province Qubec saw impressive increases in maternal e

165、mployment in the years following childcare reform,with an estimated boost of 1.7%to the provinces GDP and substantial net fiscal returns of close to CAD 1 billion(Cleveland,202246;Fortin,Godbout and St-Cerny,201347).2.1.3.Flexible working arrangements Flexible working allows employed parents to adju

166、st their paid work hours to accommodate caregiving responsibilities.This can improve workers well-being and productivity,especially when workers exercise some control over working conditions,but it may also carry a stigma around the level of commitment to the job(Chung,202048).Since the onset of the

167、 COVID-19 pandemic,teleworking has emerged as a more prominent flexible working arrangement.Before the pandemic,about 10%of men and women in 7 Authority over Early Childhood Education and Care(ECEC)is devolved to the four nations in the United Kingdom:England,Northern Ireland,Scotland,and Wales,resu

168、lting in considerable diversity in ECEC policy(Atkinson,OBrian and Koslowski,2022196).8 Other support programmes include the Childcare and Development Fund(CCDF),the Social Services Block Grant(SSBG)and the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families(TANF).18|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 202

169、3 OECD 2023 G7 countries used regular or irregular teleworking arrangements but this surged to about 40%at the height of the pandemic(OECD,202149).Teleworking has the potential to help workers improve their work/life balance and increase job satisfaction through increased autonomy and reduced commut

170、ing times.However,it can also increase work intensity and unpaid overtime hours and contribute to social and professional isolation.Pre-pandemic evidence suggested that an increase in the number of men who telework may help reduce the gender care gap.Encouraging men to view teleworking as a family-f

171、riendly arrangement could help foster a more equal sharing of household work(Touzet,202350).Some G7 countries have recently introduced,reinforced and/or adapted their flexible working regulations.For example,in 2017,Italy introduced an enforceable right to request occasional teleworking and the regu

172、lation of“agile working”(or smart working),including a right to disconnect.The regulations have since been updated in 2022,now requiring individual agile work agreements to be made with every worker.All public sector workers also have individual agile work agreements,but the majority of working days

173、 must be spent in the office.Private sector workers with children under the age of 14 are granted a statutory right to agile work(Lavoro,202251).While currently not having a regulated right to teleworking,Germany introduced a right to reduce contractual working time for a fixed period(from 1 to 5 ye

174、ars)in 2019,covering workers with minimum of 6-month tenure in companies with more than 45 employees.Employers can only refuse on legitimate business grounds,while those who employ less than 200 workers only have to grant a reduction of working time to 1 in 15 workers(Bundesministerium fr Arbeit und

175、 Soziales,201952).In France,teleworking is regulated in the labour code since 2012,granting workers a right to request telework.However,employers can refuse such requests on various ground,making it in practice unenforceable(OECD,202149).By mid-2023,France has not yet transposed the right to request

176、 flexible working arrangements for working parents.The United Kingdom has an enforceable right to request flexible working for all workers with at least six months tenure,which was introduced in 2003 and expanded in 2007 and in 2014(UK Government,201453).This includes a variety of different forms of

177、 flexible working,such as job sharing,teleworking,part-time work,compressed hours and flexitime,among others.Applications can only be rejected by employers for legitimate business reasons and existing health and safety regulations extend to telework.While there have been no recent reforms,the govern

178、ment is planning to remove the six-month qualifying period(DBEI,202254).In 2019,Canada introduced a right to request flexible work arrangements for federally regulated employees,which make up about 6%of the workforce.This allows to request a change in the location of work and/or an adjustment of wor

179、king hours in terms of scheduling or total hours worked,which can only be denied on legitimate business grounds(Government of Canada,202255).9 After introducing teleworking guidelines in 2018,Japan amended guidelines in 2021 to better reflect practical concerns in a transition to a teleworking arran

180、gements,particularly following the rapid shift to work-from-home for many workers during the COVID-19 pandemic(Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training,202156).Nevertheless,Japan does not grant workers a statutory right to request flexible working arrangements so far.Similarly,the United State

181、s do not have a federal statutory right to request flexible working arrangements and have not made noticeable amendments to federal flexible work regulations in recent years.10 9 Additional changes in legislation have been made within provincial labour codes,under which most workers are covered.For

182、example,the Working for Workers Act 2021 enshrined a right to disconnect in companies with 25 or more employees in the labour code of Ontario in order the reduce the blurring of boundaries between work and private life(Government of Ontario,2021197).10 Relevant regulations can be developed at local

183、level.For example,New Hampshire and Vermont have implemented laws that grant a right to request flexible working arrangements;at municipal level,Berkeley,New York City and San Francisco have introduced similar regulations.|19 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 EU countries had t

184、o align with the EU Directive on Work-Life Balance(Directive 2019/1158/EU),which prescribed that working parents of children up to eight years old had to receive the right to request flexible working arrangements,such as remote work,flexible schedules,or reduced working hours by August 2022(EU,20193

185、4).This right can be subject to a maximum service qualification period of 6 months,and employers may only refuse the request for sufficient business reasons.2.2.Policies to reduce gender pay gaps and improve womens leadership in public and private sectors Taormina G7 Leaders Communiqu(2017),Paragrap

186、h 18“.Although girls and women today are better educated than ever before,they are still more likely to be employed in low-skilled and low-paying jobs,carry most of the burden of unpaid care and domestic work,and their participation and leadership in private and public life as well as their access t

187、o economic opportunities remains uneven.We therefore remain committed to mainstreaming gender equality into all our policies.”Charlevoix G7 Summit Communiqu(2018),Paragraph 2“.We are committed to removing the barriers that keep our citizens,including women and marginalized individuals,from participa

188、ting fully in the global economy.We endorse the Charlevoix Commitment on Equality and Economic Growth,which reinforces our commitment to eradicate poverty,advance gender equality,foster income equality,ensure better access to financial resources,and create decent work and quality of life for all.”Th

189、e inequalities in labour force participation and working hours across the life course contribute to employed women on average earning less than men while they are also less likely to reach leadership positions in public and private sectors.This limits womens financial independence and security and i

190、ncreases the likelihood of women experiencing poverty in old age due to lower lifetime earnings,pension contributions and savings.On average across the G7,the gender wage gap(GWG)measured at median earnings for full-time workers stands at about 14%(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023 Indicator 4).Gende

191、r pay gaps have a strong intersectional bearing,and women belonging to minority groups(for example belonging to marginalised groups and indigenous peoples have lower earnings than women on average(Box 4).The GWG among top female and male earners is almost twice as large(OECD Gender Portal).Women are

192、 also often more likely to work in occupations that pay well below-average wages even when factors such age,education and sector are taken into account.A prominent example is the long-term and elderly care sector,in which about 9 in 10 employees are women.Across G7 countries with available data,empl

193、oyees in this sector are only paid two-thirds of the economy-wide average hourly wage(OECD,202322).Across G7 countries on average,women make up 35%of the board seats of the largest publicly listed companies and 37%of senior managers in the public sector(OECD,20231).Women still have difficulty gettin

194、g through the glass ceiling and when they do,they are,on average,paid less than their male peers in senior positions.More gender equality in decision-making positions is likely to have positive spill-over effects on board dynamics and governance with a wider range of backgrounds,experiences,perspect

195、ives,and problem-solving skills.Equity,productivity,and innovation objectives together underline the need for policy to help employers reduce pay gaps in the workplace and sustain and further develop policies that help them to reduce discriminatory gender pay gaps,such as pay transparency tools and

196、gender pay audits(OECD,202257;OECD,202358).20|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Box 4.The intersectional dimension of wage disparities Wage disparities are not solely a matter of gender,but also pervasively affect ethnic minorities and LGBTIQA+populations and women therein.Syst

197、emic biases and structural inequities contribute to these groups often earning less than their peers.However,for different reasons data is not available in all G7 countries(Box 2),complicating the cross-national measurement of wage-disparities vis-a-vis majority populations.When data is available,it

198、 highlights significant gaps in earnings between majority and minority populations.For example,in Canada,members of indigenous peoples or visible minority populations often have lower earnings than members of the majority population.For example,average hourly earnings of Filipino Canadians can be as

199、 much as 26%lower than those of Canadians not part of a visible minority or indigenous peoples,while this gap for Black Canadians is about 16%(Statistics Canada,202259).The median hourly pay gap between White and ethnic minority groups is as low as 2%in the United Kingdom(England and Wales),but it v

200、aries widely across ethnic minority groups and can be as large as 15%for Bangladeshi and Pakistani ethnic minorities(Office for National Statistics,202060).Pay differentials with other groups also affect employees self-identifying as LGBTQ+(OECD,202061;forthcoming62).However,such inequalities also i

201、ntersect with gender,insomuch that Hispanic and Black women in the United States earn only about USD 0.57 to USD 0.64,respectively,for every US Dollar earned by a White,non-Hispanic man(Bleiweis,Frye and Khattar,202116).Note:Reference to majority and minority populations is made according to specifi

202、c national conventions reported in the statistics of the data source.2.2.1.Pay transparency measures to reduce gender pay gaps among similarly skilled workers Pay transparency and wage mapping policies aim to draw attention to inequalities in pay between men and women,in particular within firms.The

203、goal of these initiatives is to support firms in preventing and addressing pay inequality,to provide employees and their representatives with more knowledge to discuss and reduce gender pay gaps and help governments to determine the best ways to address gender wage inequalities.For eliminating the d

204、iscriminatory wage gap,or the portion of the gender wage gap that cannot be attributable to observable worker characteristics,such as educational attainment,pay transparency initiatives can be particularly helpful(OECD,202358;202163).Most pay transparency measures have only recently been implemented

205、 and evaluations are still scarce.However,initial evidence suggests that the effectiveness of pay transparency tools depends on different factors,including robust enforcement,active third-party involvement,and public visibility.For example,Denmark,which operates with annual gender-segregated pay rep

206、orts based on pre-existing information provided by the national statistical office,has seen a reduction in gender pay gaps by about 2 percentage points,mostly due to a suppression in the growth of male wages.In countries where pay transparency measures are“weaker”they seem to have had a more limited

207、 effect.The design,implementation,and the broader cultural and institutional context co-determine the effectiveness of pay transparency policies(OECD,202358;202163).Over recent years,most G7 countries have introduced some form of pay transparency measures.In 2023,the United States had no nation-wide

208、 pay transparency legislation,while employer reporting on the gender composition of the workforce is mandatory(OECD,202358).At the federal level,the US Government is in the process of enacting new policies that prohibit the federal government and federal contractors from considering salary history d

209、uring the pay setting process(The White House,202164;The White House,|21 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 202265;U.S.Office of Personnel Management,202366).At the state level,California,Colorado,Connecticut,Maryland,Rhode Island and Washington have introduced laws that prohibi

210、t employers from asking candidates about their past salaries during the recruitment process to prevent the continuation of historical wage disparities.As of 17 September 2023,New York State businesses with four or more employees are required to list compensation ranges for designated job opportuniti

211、es,promotions,and transfers(New York State-Department of Labor,202367).Canadas Pay Equity Act,introduced in 2018 and in force since 2021,mandates that federally-regulated employers follow a five-step equal pay plan to ensure equitable wages by comparing and adjusting compensation between female and

212、male job classes performing work of equal or comparable value(OECD,202358;202163).However,this legislation covers only about 6%of the overall workforce.Individual provinces have also developed their own pay transparency laws in recent years.11 Among G7 countries,Italy was the first to introduce comp

213、rehensive pay transparency measures with the Equal Opportunities Code of 2006.While previously applying to employers with 100 or more employees,the Gender Equality Act of 2021 expanded these requirements to include all public and private employers with 50 or more employees.Every two years,employers

214、must prepare a comprehensive report including gender-disaggregated data on annual gross remuneration,hiring,promotion and termination rates,training rates,and parental leave uptake(companies with less than 50 workers can prepare such reporting on a voluntary basis).Companies with significant gender

215、gaps must devise and implement an adequate plan to eliminate such disparities.Failure to do so,or non-compliance with reporting regulations,can lead to financial penalties(OECD,202358;202163).In 2021,with the Recovery and Resilience Plan,Italy introduced the gender equality certification system for

216、enterprises to encourage greater inclusion of women in the labour market and to ensure a higher quality of womens work,promoting transparency on business processes,reducing the“gender pay gap”,increasing opportunities for growth in the company and support work/life balance.The system is based on the

217、 definition of guidelines and related incentives for companies that successfully conclude the certification process.The certification process was fully functional in July 2022 and as of 4 October 2023 there are 588 certified companies.In 2023,a self-discipline code was set up for companies who want

218、to be more socially responsible and contribute to supporting family-friendly workplace conditions The code focuses on three areas,supporting mothers career continuity,health prevention and care,and adaptation of working time and work methods.The United Kingdom implemented pay reporting requirements

219、with the Equality Act 2010(Gender Pay Gap Information)Regulations in 2017,which mandates private and public sector employers with 250 or more employees to disclose information on the differences in pay and the distribution of men and women across pay quartiles on a government website dedicated to pa

220、y gap reporting(UK Government,202368).While there are no direct penalties for non-compliance,the Equality and Human Rights Commission can instigate legal action against non-compliant employers,potentially resulting in unlimited fines.Several studies have found that pay transparency rules in the Unit

221、ed Kingdom have led to a slight narrowing of the gender pay gap and to more women-friendly hiring practices(OECD,202358;202163).Also in 2017,Germany introduced the Transparency in Wage Structures Act,which allows employees in establishments with a workforce that usually consists of over 200 employee

222、s with the same employer to request information inter alia on the average monthly gross remuneration of colleagues performing similar work or work of equal value.Employers with a workforce that usually consists of more than 500 employees who are required to file a management report must regularly di

223、sclose gender disaggregated data on total,full-time,and part-time employees as well as their efforts to foster gender equality and equal pay,though no sanction exists for non-compliance.The Act encourages private employers with a workforce that usually 11 For example,in May 2023,British Columbia ena

224、cted legislation that requires public and private employers to prepare annual pay transparency reports and mandates that employers cannot inquire about pay history while also posting salary expectations in job advertisements.Mandatory reporting is scheduled to be introduced in stages and by 2026 wil

225、l also apply to companies with 50 employees or more.22|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 consist of more than 500 employees to use internal company evaluation procedures to assess their remuneration provisions and components on a regular basis,but at present it doesnt require r

226、eporting on wage gaps(OECD,202358;202163).Since 2019,France requires public and private employers with at least 50 employees to conduct an annual gender pay audit under the Professional Equality Index between Women and Men(PEI)and publish the results on their websites.The PEI evaluates companies bas

227、ed on five factors:average pay gaps by age and job category,rates of individual pay increases,promotion rates,pay increases post-maternity leave,and gender representation among the highest paid employees.Companies scoring less than 75 out of a possible 100 points must implement corrective measures t

228、o raise their score within a maximum of three years and face potential financial penalties amounting to up to 1%of their payroll for non-compliance or consistently low scores.There is descriptive evidence indicating a narrowing wage gap following these regulations(OECD,202358;202163).Legislation int

229、roduced in July 2023 creates a similar PEI for public employers and will go into effect from the end of the year.The Japanese Act on Promotion of Womens Participation has mandated yearly gender-disaggregated pay reporting from private employers with 301+employees since July 2022.In addition to repor

230、ting on pay gaps,this also includes details about female representation and the development of a work-family balance-friendly environment.Since 2023,companies with 101-300 employees must report on at least one of these latter two metrics.Non-compliance may result in public naming by the Ministry of

231、Health,Labour,and Welfare or local bureaus(OECD,202358).Adopted in 2023,the European Unions Pay Transparency Directive(Directive 2023/970/EU)requires that job applicants must be provided gender-neutral pay information before an interview,while employers cannot inquire about past salaries.The Directi

232、ve also requires employers with at least 100 employees to report pay information,with a requirement for pay assessments if a gender pay gap of 5%or more is detected and not rectified.Member states have until 2026 to transpose the Directive into national law and must set down precise sanctions for in

233、fringement of these rules,including fines(European Union,202369;OECD,202358).2.2.2.Voluntary targets and mandatory quotas to promote women in leadership G7 countries have implemented various measures to develop the pipeline for female talent and boost womens presence on boards and in senior position

234、s in the public and private sector.These strategies include disclosure mandates,quotas,and targets,as well as other legislative initiatives targeted at improving board and management diversity.In the short and medium term,voluntary targets and mandatory quotas have often been used to help to close g

235、ender gaps in pay and representation in leadership positions especially when they are enforced with the threat of sanctions for non-compliance but they are not a long-term fix.Private sector Except for Canada,12 all G7 countries have introduced voluntary targets or mandatory quotas to promote womens

236、 presence in leadership in the private sector.Quotas are more likely to be met quickly than suggested targets but are only used in three G7 countries.For example,introduced in 2011 and binding since 2017,France requires at least 40%women on corporate boards for listed companies as well as for compan

237、ies that either have revenues or assets above EUR 50 million or employ more than 500 persons for three consecutive years.In 2022,France also introduced a quota of 30%women among senior executives and management board members for companies with more than 1 000 employees,to be reached by 2026.This wil

238、l be extended to a 40%quota in 2029 and needs to be reached by 2031.Non-compliant companies face sanctions,ranging from annulled board appointments,withheld board 12 In the province of Qubec,crown corporations must have gender parity on boards following 2006 legislation.|23 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEM

239、ENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 attendance fees and fines up to 1%of the companys payroll(Denis,202270).At 45%France has the highest representation of women on boards on listed companies in the G7,just slightly behind the leading OECD country Iceland(Denis,202270).After requiring listed companies to

240、reserve at least 20%of corporate board seats for the underrepresented sex with the first board appointment from August 2012,and a minimum of 30%for both with the second appointment,Italy expanded the quota to a minimum of 40%of women on boards of listed companies in 2020 and has reached a 43%represe

241、ntation of women on boards in 2022(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023,Indicator 8.This quota is set to apply for six successive terms of board appointments,a total of 18 years.Companies that do not comply can receive fines ranging from EUR 100 000 to EUR 1 million and risk that future board appointmen

242、ts may be invalidated.In 2015,Germany passed a law requiring publicly listed companies subject to equal co-determination(2000 employees)to have at least 30%of the underrepresented sex on their supervisory boards.In 2021,and with a transitional implementation period of 12 months,Germany extended the

243、prescriptions by requiring publicly listed companies subject to equal co-determination to appoint at least one woman to the executive board if it consists of more than three persons(Denis,202270).Four G7 countries have introduced voluntary targets towards board diversity.In 2020,Japan set a target o

244、f 12%of female executives by 2022 for companies listed in the first section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange.By the end of 2023,Japan will establish an outcome goal up to 2025 concerning the ratio of female executives in the(total)number of executives at companies listed on the Prime Market.Based on the

245、Basic Policy on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women 2023,the following provisions were included in the Tokyo Stock Exchanges regulations in October 2023:(i)Each company listed on the Prime Market shall strive to appoint at least one female executive by 2025;(ii)Each company listed on the Prime

246、Market shall aim to raise the ratio of female executives to 30%or more by 2030;and,(iii)Each company listed on the Prime Market is recommended to formulate its action plan to achieve the aforementioned goals(Government of Japan,202371).The United Kingdom introduced a target of at least 25%of women o

247、n the boards of the 100 largest FTSE-listed companies in 2011,to be reached by 2015.Between 2016 and 2022 this was successively further extended to 40%of women,and one director of minority ethnic background,on the boards of the 350 FTSE-listed companies,to be reached by 2025.13 Both Japan and the Un

248、ited Kingdom do not have any sanctions for non-compliance with these targets,but the Japanese Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry,and the Tokyo Stock Exchange have jointly been selecting“Nadeshiko Brands”labels to highlight listed companies that actively promote women on boards and in senior mana

249、gerial positions(Denis,202270).In 2022,the United Kingdom reached its goal among the largest listed companies(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023,Indicator 8),but Japan remains at a low level compared to other countries,and it will have to further efforts to increase the ratio of female executives.The

250、United States has implemented targets for female representation of boards of some companies and combines these with sanctions in case of non-compliance or failure to justify zero-targets.Since 2021,the United States have a target of at least two diverse directors only one of which would need to be a

251、 woman,while the other must be from another under-represented minority for NASDAQ-listed companies.14 If there are five or fewer directors on the board,there only needs to be at least one diverse director.The targets are set to be implemented by 2025,with an intermediary goal of at least one diverse

252、 director by 2023.Companies that do not comply with these targets have to provide a justification or else face sanctions.For co-determined(500 employees)or listed companies that are not already subject to mandatory quotas,Germany requires voluntary target setting for the representation of women on s

253、upervisory 13 In 2022,70%of these companies already reached the target of at least one director of minority ethnic background,while among the 100 largest FTSE-listed companies 96 already do so(Tyler,2023198).14 Some states,for example California and Washington State,have their own board diversity re

254、quirements.24|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 boards,corporate boards and two senior executive levels below the corporate board.These targets were introduced in 2015,but since 2021 companies that set a zero-target goal for female representation on their corporate boards will

255、have to justify this decision or else risk sanctions(Denis,202270).With the adoption of EU Directive on Improving the Gender Balance Among Directors of Listed Companies(Directive 2022/2381/EU)in 2022,companies with 250 or more employees in EU countries will have to have at least 40%of the underrepre

256、sented sex among non-executive directors or 33%among all directors on corporate boards by July 2026.Moreover,major publicly traded companies are also expected to set specific goals to achieve gender balance within their executive boards.Candidates for board posts should be selected based on a define

257、d set of unbiased criteria that allows for an objective comparison of their qualifications.This guarantees that each applicant will be assessed only on the basis of their own unique strengths,regardless of their gender.Companies failing to comply will be faced with“effective,dissuasive and proportio

258、nate”penalties,to be determined by the individual member states when they transpose the directives prescriptions into national law by the end of 2024.This can include annulments of director appointments and/or fines(European Commission,202272;OECD,20231).Public sector,politics,and governance In addi

259、tion to quotas and targets for private sector companies,G7 countries are also using various tools to increase gender balance in politics,governance,and the public sector.In terms of better representation of women in politics and parliaments,Italy mandates a gender distribution of candidates for elec

260、tions of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate under the electoral law implemented in 2017,stipulating that none of the two genders shall be represented in a percentage exceeding 60%.Non-compliance can be sanctioned with reduced reimbursement of electoral campaign expenses,proportional to deviation

261、 from the 60%threshold but limited to 10%of the total reimbursement(IDEA,202373).France introduced legislation in 2000 to ensure gender parity in elections,requiring equal representation of male and female candidates through the“Loi sur la Parit”.15 Similar to Italy,if parties fail to comply with th

262、ese requirements,they face financial penalties in the form of reductions in public funding proportional to the extent of gender imbalance(IDEA,202374).These laws may explain that Italy and France have the highest representation of women in parliament,even though neither yet reach gender parity(G7 Da

263、shboard on Gender Gaps 2023,Indicator 9).In 2018,Japan introduced the Act on Promotion of Gender Equality in the Political Field,striving to move closer to equal representation of male and female candidates in the House of Representatives,the House of Councillors,and local government councils.This l

264、aw delineates the responsibilities of national and local governments,and the efforts of political organisations such as political parties.However,no penalty exists(G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps 2023,Indicator 9 and Waseda Institute of Comparative Law(201975).Outside of politics,some countries have mad

265、e progress in improving the representation of women in public sector and legislative leadership positions as well as on board of publicly owned enterprises.For example,a growing number of EU countries have been introducing measures to encourage gender parity in recruitment and promotion procedures f

266、or judges(European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice,202076).In 2021,the Public Service Commission in Canada released an audit report with the intent to foster recruitment based on merit.The report also suggested examining policies and practices to guarantee a proportionate representation of

267、both genders across all job categories in the public sector(Public Service Commission of Canada,202177).In addition,the quota of a minimum of 30%of women on boards outlined above extends to state-owned companies and the same applies since 2021 for the German quota on 15 For elections of the National

268、 Assembly in France,the discrepancy in the number of male and female candidates presented by a party or coalition should not exceed 2%.For Senate elections,the gap between male and female candidates cannot exceed one in proportional representation districts,whereas in majoritarian districts,if a pri

269、mary candidate is male,the alternate must be female,and vice versa.|25 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 supervisory boards when the government is the majority stakeholder(Denis,202270).In France,a 2012 law aims for 40%gender representation on executive boards of state-owned en

270、terprises in the public sector by 2018(Demossier et al.,201978).2.3.Promoting gender equality in entrepreneurship Taormina G7 leaders Communiqu(2017),Paragraph 18“.Increasing womens involvement in the economy such as by closing the gender gaps in credit and entrepreneurship,and by enhancing womens a

271、ccess to capital,networks and markets can have dramatically positive economic impacts.We therefore remain committed to mainstreaming gender equality into all our policies.”Charlevoix G7 Summit Communiqu(2018),Paragraph 10“.Our path forward will promote womens full economic participation through work

272、ing to reduce the gender wage gap,supporting women business leaders and entrepreneurs,and recognizing the value of unpaid care work.”The gender gap in entrepreneurship is persistent and costs economies ideas,innovation,and jobs.Several G7 countries have recently estimated this cost.Estimates in Cana

273、da in 2017 suggest that closing the gender gap in entrepreneurship by 2026 could add up to CAD 150 billion(USD 113 billion)to the Canadian economy,which is 6%more growth than the status quo forecast for 2017-26(Government of Canada,202279).Similar estimates regarding the United Kingdom suggest that

274、GBP 250 billion(USD 325 billion)would have been added to the United Kingdoms economy in 2017 or 12%of GDP if women started and scaled businesses at the same rate as men(Alison Rose,201980).Another way to approximate the size of the gender gap in entrepreneurship is to estimate the number of“missing”

275、entrepreneurs,which is the number of women entrepreneurs that there would be if they were as active as“core age”men(i.e.30-49 years old)in early-stage entrepreneurship.OECD(2023,Forthcoming81),estimates that there would be an additional 13.6 million women entrepreneurs across G7 countries if they we

276、re as active as men in early-stage entrepreneurship.This section presents different estimates of changes in the gender gap in entrepreneurship since 2018 based on international entrepreneurship surveys and self-employment data.It also presents recent policy actions taken in G7 countries that seek to

277、 reduce gender gaps,notably in the areas of strengthening policy frameworks and access to finance.The section therefore partially addresses the commitments made in Charlevoix(2018)paragraph 10 and Taormina(2017)paragraph 18.On average,international entrepreneurship surveys show that men are about 1.

278、6 times more likely than women to be involved in starting or managing a new business in G7 economies(Figure 5).Among G7 countries,survey responses indicate that women appear to be the most active in working on a pre-start-up(i.e.nascent entrepreneurship)in the United States(10%)and Canada(9%)between

279、 2018 and 2022,and the least active in Italy(1%)and Japan(2%).Over this period,the gender gap was smallest in the United States where men were only 1.2 times more likely than women to be working on a pre-start-up.Similarly,international surveys suggest that fewer new start-ups are created by women.O

280、ver the 2018-22 period,about 6%of women in the United States and 5%in Canada were owners of a new business(i.e.those less than 42 months old).These rates were the highest among G7 countries(Figure 5).Conversely,fewer than 2%of women in Japan and France were new business owners over this period.These

281、 low rates are in part explained by a low proportion of women indicating that they started a business because they had difficulties finding a job.Some of these gender gaps have closed slightly over the past five years.The gender gap in pre-start-up activity rates closed in all G7 countries except fo

282、r Japan where it increased slightly.The gender gap in new business creation rates closed in three G7 countries(Canada,the United Kingdom and the United States)and was unchanged in France.The increase in the gender gap 26|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 in new business creatio

283、n is broadly consistent with recent research that shows that women entrepreneurs were more heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic than their male counterparts.These differences are largely due to sector effects as those sectors that were impacted the most during the pandemic are also those where

284、women entrepreneurs were disproportionately affected(e.g.personal services,tourism)(OECD/European Commission,202182)and many of these sectors have not yet fully recovered.However,several recent country-specific studies found that women have been driving business creation in the United States(Tanzi,2

285、02383)and Canada(Women Entrepreneurship Knowledge Hub,202384)over the past two years,driving the recovery from the COVID-19 crisis.Figure 5.Progress in closing the gender gap in early-stage entrepreneurship Percent of population(18-64 years old),2018-22 Note:Nascent entrepreneurship is the proportio

286、n of the population that is actively involved in setting up a business they will own or co-own;this business has not paid salaries,wages,or any other payments to the owners for more than three months.New business ownership is the proportion of the population that is currently an owner-manager of a n

287、ew business that has paid salaries,wages or any other payments to the owners for more than three months but not more than 42 months.The actual change in the gender gap refers to the percentage change in the gender gaps between two periods(2016-20 and 2018-22)for people aged 15-64 years old.Source:GE

288、M(202385),Special tabulations for the OECD of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor(GEM)adult population survey for the years 2018 to 2022.-30-25-20-15-10-50510152025CanadaFranceGermanyItalyJapanUnited Kingdom United StatesEU averageOECD averageG7 Average%A.Nascent entrepreneurship rate-80-60-40-20020

289、40CanadaFranceGermanyItalyJapanUnited Kingdom United StatesEU averageOECD averageG7 Average%B.New business ownership rateWomen(2018-22)Change in gender gap(%)Men(2018-22)|27 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Overall,self-employment rates have declined over the past decade.This

290、decline accelerated slightly during the COVID-19 pandemic and self-employment levels have not yet recovered to pre COVID-19 levels.The gender gap in self-employment closed in all G7 countries between 2018 and 2022 except for Canada,where it remained unchanged.This is largely due to a decline in the

291、rates of self-employment among men over the same period except for France and the United States.Self-employment among women increased by 21%in France(relative to 7%among men)and nearly 10%in the United States(compared to 2%among men),leading to the gender gaps in self-employment decreasing by 10%and

292、 18%respectively.Another way to approximate entrepreneurship is to use self-employment data from labour force surveys.Among G7 countries,men were about 1.5 times more likely than women to be self-employed.In 2022,the self-employment rates for both men and women were highest in Italy in 2022 women:14

293、%;men:23%(Figure 6).However,it also had the largest gender gap in self-employment,where men were 1.6 times more likely to be self-employed.Conversely,the self-employment rate for women was about 6%in Germany,Japan and the United States.The smallest gender gap was in Canada,where men were only 1.1 ti

294、mes more likely to be self-employed than women in 2022.Figure 6.The gender gap in self-employment has narrowed in all G7 countries since 2018 Percent of working population,2022 Note:Self-employment data for Canada,the United Kingdom and the United States are from 2021.The change in the self-employme

295、nt gender gap refers to the percentage change in the gender gaps between 2018 and 2022 for the working population.Source:Eurostat(202386),Employment and Unemployment(LFS)Database,https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/database;Statistics Canada(202387),Table 14-10-0027-01 Employment by class of worker

296、,annual(x 1 000),www150.statcan.gc.cat1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1410002701;Statistics of Japan(202388),Labour Force Survey.2.3.1.Reporting on womens entrepreneurship Governments need more and better gender-disaggregated data to better tailor their entrepreneurship policies and programmes to the needs

297、of women entrepreneurs.More gender-disaggregated data will help policy makers understand the nature and scale of different barriers and identify priority areas for government intervention.This requires greater efforts to collect gender disaggregated data,improving data linkages between government ag

298、encies,and strengthening policy evaluation frameworks and practices.The G7 is collectively working to strengthen the collection of gender-disaggregated finance data through the G20.Beginning in 2013,the G20 recognised the importance of data collection and analysis as a priority action in addressing

299、the SME finance gender gap and has since developed a set of gender-disaggregated-30-20-100102030Canada*FranceGermanyItalyJapanUnited Kingdom*United States*G7 Average%WomenChange in gender gap(%)Men28|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 financial indicators as part of the G20 Glob

300、al Partnership on Financial Inclusion(World Bank,202089).Moreover,the need for more gender-disaggregated data collection was reinforced in the 2022 Updated G20/OECD High-Level Principles on SME Financing(OECD,202290).Several country-level initiatives have also been implemented towards this objective

301、.The Women Entrepreneurship Knowledge Hub(WEKH)in Canada has improved the collection,analysis and dissemination of data related to womens entrepreneurship and business ownership through its network of 300 partners and 10 regional hubs since its creation in 2018.The government renewed its commitment

302、to improve data accessibility by investing an additional CAD 5 million(USD 4 million)in WEKH in 2021(Government of Canada,202279).In the United Kingdom,the government launched the Investing in Women Code,which aims to improve women entrepreneurs access to tools,resources and finance from the financi

303、al services sector(HM Treasury,202191).The Code calls on financial institutions,such as banks,venture capital firms and angel investors,to commit to nominate a senior leadership team member be responsible for supporting equality in all its interactions with entrepreneurs,provide the a commonly agree

304、d upon data set concerning all female-led businesses,mixed-gender businesses and all male-led businesses,and to adopt internal practices that aim to improve the potential of women in entrepreneurship.The first round of data collection was carried out from January to September 2020 and will serve as

305、a benchmark for future collections and analysis of gender-disaggregated data.Across traditional bank financing,venture capital and angel investment groups,data found that women were substantially under-represented among applicants and among entrepreneurs who received funding.2.3.2.Tailored measures

306、to support potential women entrepreneurs Women entrepreneurs experience more and greater barriers to entrepreneurship than men.These barriers are often inter-related and reinforce each other.A large body of research shows that the most common barriers faced by women in entrepreneurship are greater d

307、ifficulties accessing start-up financing and smaller,and less effective professional networks that are less effective at identifying the resources need to operate a successful business.Other barriers include negative social and cultural attitudes towards entrepreneurship,and institutional barriers(e

308、.g.family and tax policies),but they can also be hindered by inadequate policy frameworks for entrepreneurship.Among G7 countries,policy actions to address the gender gap in entrepreneurship have been concentrated in the areas of bolstering policy frameworks and reducing gender gaps in access to fin

309、ance.Promoting entrepreneurship through policy frameworks Policy frameworks for womens entrepreneurship can help to bring coherence and consistency to womens entrepreneurship policies and programmes by indicating clear objectives,priorities,targets,activities,responsibilities,and budgets.In practice

310、,policy frameworks are often articulated as strategies.These also help raise awareness of womens entrepreneurship issues and signal a commitment by the government to pursue the outlined objectives.These strategies and frameworks can help to ensure that resources are secured in the short and medium t

311、erm,which is often a struggle in countries without clear policy frameworks.Several G7 countries have introduced more inclusive infrastructure and national strategies to support women entrepreneurs,including Canada,France,the United Kingdom and the United States(OECD,202192).In Canada,the Womens Entr

312、epreneurship Strategy(WES)was launched in 2018 and serves as a framework for womens entrepreneurship policy.It aims to increase women-owned businesses access to finance,talent,networks,and professional expertise they need to start up,scale up and access new markets.It also invests in research and da

313、ta development(Government of Canada,202193).France renewed a framework agreement with the BPIfrance agency in support of womens entrepreneurship for the period 2021-23,which aims to develop better entrepreneurship support,improve access to finance for women entrepreneurs and combat gender stereotype

314、s in the entrepreneurial ecosystem(bpifrance,|29 G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 202194).In 2023,Germany introduced the action plan“More female entrepreneurs for small and medium-sized enterprises.”The strategy includes more than 40 measures that aim to support women in entre

315、preneurship and self-employment,including through increased financial resources,an improved regulatory environment and more visibility and recognition for the contributions and accomplishments of women entrepreneurs(BMWK,202395).The United Kingdom has had dedicated innovation policy for women manage

316、d by Innovate UK(innovation agency),which aims to encourage and support the participation of more women entrepreneurs in innovation support schemes.Since its launch in 2016,the number of women applying for Innovate UK support has increased by 70%(UK Research and Innovation,202396).The United States

317、have introduced a National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality(The White House,202397).as well as the U.S.Strategy on Global Womens Economic Security(U.S.Department of State,202298),which both include support for women entrepreneurs.Supporting access to capital The lack of equitable access to cap

318、ital for women entrepreneurs remains an issue across the G7 countries.These gender gaps in access to finance are often due to institutional and market failures on both the supply-side and demand-side of financial markets(e.g.bias in financial markets,ineffective policies and programmes,information a

319、symmetries),as well as to specific characteristics of women-owned firms-size,sector,age of the firm(OECD,20231).For example,in the United States,25%of women-owned business had their loan applications denied compared to only 19%of men-owned businesses in 2022(Bareham,202399;Corcoran et al.,2023100).M

320、oreover,there is a significant financial gender gap among growth-oriented firms.Globally,women-founded businesses that seek venture capital investments receive about 2%of total investment and the funding amounts received are smaller,on average,than the investments made to men-founded businesses(OECD

321、,20231).Gender biases in lending practices and investor preferences are due in part to the small number of women investors and lenders.For example,19%of partners at venture capital firms in Canada are women(Canadian Venture Capital Private Equity Association,2021101).G7 countries have increased thei

322、r efforts to address the gender gap in entrepreneurship finance,notably among innovative and high-growth firms in recent years.As noted earlier,the WES in Canada aims to expand access to finance for women entrepreneurs directly through the CAD 55 million Women Entrepreneurship Loan Fund(USD 40 milli

323、on),which provides loans of up to CAD 50 000(USD 36 500)to women business owners and entrepreneurs(Government of Canada,202193).WES also invests in the entrepreneurship ecosystem to strengthen overall capacity and address ecosystem gaps for women entrepreneurs through the CAD 165 million(USD 120 mil

324、lion)WES Ecosystem Fund,which provides financial support for not-for-profit organisations supporting women entrepreneurs,and the Inclusive Women Venture Capital Initiative CAD 15 million(USD 11 million),which seeks to increase venture capital funding to women entrepreneurs,reduce gender biases and b

325、uild a more inclusive risk and venture capital environment in Canada.With the 2021 Budget Law,the“Womens Enterprise Fund”was established in Italy to provide subsidised financing and non-repayable grants to women-owned businesses,with a specific focus on high-tech sectors.Additionally,it includes pro

326、grammes and initiatives to promote an entrepreneurial culture among the female population and training guidance programmes for fields and professions with low female representation.Initially the fund had resources of EUR 40 million,which later increased by EUR 400 million from the resources of the N

327、ational Recovery and Resilience Plan(Italian Government,2022102;JERI-WEC,2023103).Since 2013,the central guarantee fund for SMEs has had special provisions to facilitate access to financing for womens businesses.By the end of 2023,the Department for Equal Opportunities and the Ministry of Business a

328、nd Made in Italy will sign an agreement to update the conditions of access to the guarantee fund.30|G7 GENDER EQUALITY IMPLEMENTATION REPORT 2023 OECD 2023 Strengthening access to microfinance Microfinance is an important financial tool for supporting women entrepreneurs because it is designed to ad

329、dress the obstacles faced in the traditional banking sector and credit market.Women are the most significant target client group for microfinance institutions(MFIs),accounting for nearly 60%of microfinance borrowers in the European Union(OECD/European Commission,202182).The vast majority of MFIs off

330、er integrated support schemes,which bundle microloans with non-financial services(e.g.mentoring,coaching and training schemes).By packaging financial support with complementary support services,MFIs help increase the chance of business sustainability and the repayment of the loan by their clients.Ev

331、aluations show that these non-financial services are effective and are typically impactful for women entrepreneurs considering their relatively greater skills gaps and limited professional networks(OECD/European Commission,202182;Halabisky,2018104).G7 countries have already implemented initiatives t

332、o support and bolster the microfinance sector,including increasing available supply of microcredit and modernising business practices.For example,Adie,the largest microfinance institution in France,which receives public support,introduced an electronic signature or“e-signature”in 2020,which has redu

333、ced loan processing times and accelerated the disbursement of funds to entrepreneurs(OECD/European Commission,202182).In Italy,the government introduced several policy actions aimed at reducing the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on entrepreneurs benefitting from microfinance,including a moratorium on loan repayments,loan guarantees of up to 80%of the loan amount and an increase in the m