蘭德：2024年從天空實現人類安全報告利用空間力量能力造福人類（英文版）（32頁）.pdf

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1、The White Houses 2022 National Security Strategy(NSS)recognizes that human rights are a cornerstone of the nations security,and that security also depends on the nations ability to address shared human challenges,such as climate change,food insecurity,communicable diseases,terrorism,energy shortages

2、,and inflation.1 Nested under the NSS,the U.S.Department of Defenses(DoDs)2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States(NDS)also emphasizes the importance of addressing cross-cutting security challenges,many of which address human rights concerns,while also ensuring secure and stable allies.2

3、To address these human and national security challenges,the United States must be not only reactive to the changing national security environment but also proactive to ensure that human crises are mitigated and potentially prevented before they occur.The Department of the Air Force(DAF)can be proact

4、ive and enhance human security by using the U.S.Space Forces(USSFs)capabilities and mission sets to add a human security perspective to promote U.S.security interests.The USSF,as the space-focused component of the U.S.military,is uniquely qualified to ensure KYLEANNE M.HUNTER,JOSLYN FLEMING,JACKIE L

5、.BURNS,GRACE FALGOUST Enabling Human Security from SpaceUsing Space Force Capabilities to Better HumanityExpert InsightsPERSPECTIVE ON A TIMELY POLICY ISSUESeptember 20242AbbreviationsDAFDepartment of the Air ForceDoDU.S.Department of DefenseHA/DR humanitarian assistance/disaster responseIPDsinterna

6、lly displaced personsISRintelligence,surveillance,and reconnaissance I&Windications and warningLOELine of EffortNASANational Air and Space AdministrationNDS2022 National Defense Strategy of the United StatesNGOnongovernment organization NSSNational Security StrategyPNTposition,navigation,and timing

7、SATCOM satellite communicationsUKUnited KingdomUSSFU.S.Space Forcethat military decisionmakers have vital information to make human securityenabled decisions when address-ing national security challenges.Although several U.S.government agencies and commercial partners collect and monitor indicators

8、that are potentially related to human security,the USSFs role as a military service makes it a natural nexus for embedding human security principles and perspectives in the security workforce.As a military service,the USSF understands the unique needs of military commanders.This integration is vital

9、 because proactive natural disaster prevention and humanitarian crisis response are priorities in the 2022 NSS and the 2022 NDS.However,the DAFs response to these challenges has,historically,been reactive.Incorporating a human security focus to the USSFs position in DoD and its partnerships across t

10、he U.S.government and with U.S.allies and partners can help improve proactive engagement.We explore this and other opportunities for the USSF to use its capabilities to promote human security and present areas for con-sideration for how the DAF,through the USSF,can man,train,and equip to effectively

11、 incorporate human security perspectives.The NSS recognizes the relationship between human security and national security.Although both are focused on“security,”the concepts and definitions of human and national security differ in two key ways.First,although national security typically conceives of

12、protection in terms of the ability to guard the integrity of the state by compel-ling or deterring adversaries through force,human secu-rity instead places individuals at the center and seeks to preserve the integrity and safety of persons,not the state.Second,to the extent that the national securit

13、y framework is concerned with individuals,it is concerned with the citizens of a particular state.Conversely,a human secu-rity framework recognizes that states are often negatively affected by the insecurity of citizens beyond their borders.3 Human security comprises four essential characteristics:I

14、t is universal,its components are interdependent,it is best ensured through prevention,and it is people centered.4 Although human security has commonly been addressed through diplomatic and development interven-tions,it also carries significant implications for U.S.mili-tary operations and national

15、and strategic defense priori-ties.Military forces are often called upon to respond to humanitarian crises that are a result of human insecurity,as well as to ensure that human security is preserved in the wake of disaster response.5 Bolstering regional and global 3resilience and mitigating potential

16、 human security crises require a proactive posture in which closely monitored indications and warning(I&W)of impending crises and developed partnerships enable mitigation efforts that can prevent destabilization and violence,particularly in already fragile regions.It is in this context that we propo

17、se that the USSF has a key national security and defense role to play in ensur-ing that emerging sources of human insecurity are both identified and mitigated.As the space-focused military service branch,the USSF services a practical role both in integrating space capabilities into military operatio

18、ns and in promoting a culture within key military operations centers of proactively engaging with human security.Space capabilities,which include technologies,partnerships,and the policy frameworks that enable them,can help catalyze proactive action to bolster human rights and human secu-rity engage

19、ment in line with NSS priorities and the USSF mission to“Secure our nations interests in,from,and to space”(emphasis added).6 Space Policy Directive-4,the foundational document establishing the USSF and U.S.Space Command,specifies that these organizations should“provide vital effects and capabilitie

20、s to joint and coalition forces during peacetime and across the spectrum of conflict.”7 General B.Chance Saltzman,Chief of Space Operations,issued a memoran-dum emphasizing the importance of partnerships in ensur-ing the USSFs contribution to lasting security.8 Identifying what capabilities are nece

21、ssary and what partnershipswithin the U.S.government,with commercial interests,and with allies and partnersneed to be established or strengthened is a key to understanding how the USSF can contribute to promoting human security.An emphasis on human security does not come at the expense of traditiona

22、l national security.Some scholars argue that human security adds to traditional security by providing a framework to better understand how factors that enhance the welfare of individual citizens also stabi-lize a state or region.9 Proactively addressing human secu-rity challenges is critical to enha

23、ncing global and regional resilience,which is necessary for strengthening defense relationships with partners and allies and reducing the need to respond with force to instability and humanitar-ian emergencies.10 By expanding its focus to include those factors that might destabilize the security env

24、ironment and proactively addressing them,and by incorporating a human security lens into the way it engages with the rest of the Joint Force,the USSF,through its Title X function,can enhance its ability to achieve key national security priori-ties and build resilience.We propose that the USSF has a

25、key national security and defense role to play in ensuring that emerging sources of human insecurity are both identified and mitigated.4Additionally,a USSF focus on human security does not come at the expense of other governmental and com-mercial space activities that enhance the security and well-b

26、eing of people in the United States and around the world.Several U.S.governmental agenciessuch as the Department of Agriculture and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationcollect data on and monitor several attributes that can be seen as early warning signs of human security crises.A USS

27、F focus on a framework that includes human security would complement these efforts and help ensure that they are addressed as part of the national security and defense enterprise.This paper is organized as follows:First,we discuss the dimensions of human security and the intersection between human s

28、ecurity and defense;describe several areas in which space capabilities can be used to support human security;and explain how the USSF can support decisionmaking,communications,and proactive interven-tions in human security in unique ways because of its posi-tion in DoD.We then identify barriers to u

29、sing USSF capa-bilities to address human security issues and discuss next steps.To illustrate our findings,a case study involving a humanitarian crisis in Somalia is provided in Appendix A,offering examples of human security indicators that could be used to intervene in such crisis situations.The In

30、tersection Between Human Security and DefenseAlthough an emphasis on shared challenges and issues that affect human security,such as food insecurity,disease,and climate change,might seem to represent a departure from DoDs primary security concerns,and from the USSFs mission more specifically,these i

31、ssues have a long history in the literature and practice of postCold War strategic thinking on security and resilience.11 The United Nations has categorized seven dimensions of human security:environmental,economic,food,health,personal,political,and community security.12 These seven dimensions,descr

32、ibed in Figure 1,exist at local,national,regional,and global levels and in multiple sectors(e.g.,pri-vate,public,civil).Across dimensions and levels of analysis,the conditions for human security vary significantly at dif-ferent points,both across and within countries.13 A USSF focus on human securit

33、y does not come at the expense of other governmental and commercial space activities that enhance the security and well-being of people in the United States and around the world.5 Indicators already exist for each of these dimensions.These indicators are most often descriptive in nature.However,deli

34、berate tracking and sharing of these indica-tors can allow for proactive engagement that might prevent humanitarian crisis.Table 1 provides examples of indica-tors for each of the human security dimensions.Military analyses already track some human security indicators,but they can also better incorp

35、orate comprehen-sive I&W monitoring for all seven human security dimen-sions into defense operations,which can help facilitate more successful planning,partnerships,and noncombat activities to mitigate future unrest and conflict.Not only can increased focus on the human security aspects of I&W monit

36、oring reduce the need for future military and costly humanitarian interventions,it can also play an important role in campaigning within the gray zone14a key priority in the NDS.As the NDS lays out,mutually beneficial part-nerships and alliances are the United States greatest stra-tegic advantage,pa

37、rticularly for gray zone operations,and it calls for these partnerships to be strengthened through FIGURE 1Dimensions of Human SecurityDimensionOperational DefinitionSOURCE:Adapted from United Nations Development Programme,Human Development Report 1994.Physical environment is habitable and can susta

38、in life(including temperatures in which humans can live,ability to respond to adverse weather,ability to provide shelter and food)Access to minimum basic income to sustain health and well-being,earned or through social welfareAccess to food of sufficient quantity and quality to ensure healthy growth

39、 and developmentAccess to healthcare(preventative and responsive);freedom from disease or ability to safely treat diseasePreservation of personal physical safetyProtection from systematic human rights violation;equal protection in the eyes of the lawCultural dignity;intercommunal peaceEnvironmentalE

40、conomicFoodHealthPersonalPoliticalCommunity6collaborative operations,increased intelligence and infor-mation sharing,and new operational concepts.15 By strengthening partnerships and alliances,the United States can disrupt and prevent competitors coercive behaviors and their attempts to advance thei

41、r objectives in the gray zone.16 By adding a human security lens to USSF capabilities to strengthen regional partnerships and capac-ity,DoD can better prevent and mitigate malign adversary activities and influences while also developing greater preparedness to respond to future conflicts or crises.Y

42、et,to effectively campaign in the gray zone,the United States must build stronger partnerships than its adversaries and prevent situations in which its competitors are able to capi-talize on insecurities to either carry out malign activities or swoop in as a savior.Utilizing USSF capabilities and pa

43、rt-nerships to strengthen human security in the gray zone can provide a strategic advantage in both building strong part-nerships and preventing future crises that can be exploited by competitors.While the intersection of defense and human secu-rity could be misconstrued as a direct line from human

44、insecurity to military interventions,it is important to note the fraught history of such paradigms that overly pro-mote the use of force to improve humanitarian or human rights conditions.Human security does have a direct link to national security and defense outcomes,however,and many of the United

45、States defense activities do not lead to physical combat or wartime activities.Rather,a great deal of defense activities are dedicated to achieving national security and defense objectives through strategic planning and prioritization of resources and partnerships to increase resilience and prepared

46、ness and prevent the need for costly military interventions.Figure 2 illustrates the intersection of human security and defense,including potential out-comes from this relationship.A Focus on Human Security Supports the USSF Mission and Key Lines of EffortBy incorporating a human security focus,the

47、USSF will see direct benefits to its mission to secure U.S.interests in,from,and to space by enhancing the efforts of joint and coalition forces while offering decisionmakers collaborative options to achieve national security objectives.At an organizational TABLE 1Indicators of Human Security Dimens

48、ionsDimension Operational Definition EnvironmentalClimate(temperature,rainfall,etc.),deforestation,natural disasters EconomicBasic income,gross domestic productFoodNutrition,birthweight HealthDisease ratesPersonalPhysical violence in all its forms,human trafficking,child labor Political Voting rates

49、,access to legal protection,transparent courtsCommunityPreservation of cultural sitesSOURCES:Features information from Fragile States Index,Fragile States Index Annual Report 2023;Gorokhovskaia,Shahbaz,and Slipowitz,Freedom in the World 2023;United Nations Development Programme,Human Development Rep

50、ort 2021/2022;United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security,Human Security Handbook.NOTE:This is not an exhaustive list of indicators,but it is some of those most commonly used by human security scholars.7level,supporting human security will help strengthen rela-tionships with the combatant commands

51、across which part-nerships are being built,amplified,and sustained.This is aligned with USSF Line of Effort(LOE)3,“Partner to Win,”which is in direct support of key NDS objectives.17Collaboration to meet human security objectives also supports U.S.foreign partnerships and builds deeper secu-rity coo

52、peration that will ensure cooperation under adver-sarial stress while also allowing for a better understanding of the ground-based technologies that U.S.partners cur-rently have or need to effectively work with the USSF and other U.S.military or commercial components.By aligning the USSF to strength

53、en regional partnerships and capac-ity,DoD can better prevent and mitigate malign adversary activities and influences while also developing greater pre-paredness to respond to future conflicts or crises.This will in turn help strengthen and clarify necessary partnerships with industry and commercial

54、 space actors,building the resiliency and operational advantage of the United States and its partners in increasingly contested spaces.Strengthening partnerships will also ensure that guard-ians and U.S.allies are fully equipped,by leveraging other government and commercial partner capabilities and

55、resources,to meet future challenges with bold and col-FIGURE 2Intersection of Human Security and DefenseDefensePrioritiesRegional andglobal resilienceGray zonecampaigningDefenseOutcomesMitigating futureconflict and crisisBolstering regionalpartnershipsPreventing theneed for costlymilitary interventi

56、onsIncreasing preparedness for future conflict or crisisDefenseActivitiesMonitoring I&W and preventing deterioration 8laborative problem solvingdirectly supporting the USSF LOE 2,“Amplify the Guardian Spirit.”This will also be supported through training guardians to employ a human security lens.18 B

57、y incorporating human security into pro-fessional military education,exercises,and policies,guard-ians will be armed with a new tool set to employ in building partnerships and supporting national security and defense priorities,making sure that important strategies and ideas to help the United State

58、s retain and advance its operational advantage are not left on the table.A systematic application of a human security lens across the doctrine,organization,training,material,leadership,personnel,facilities,and policy(DOTMLPF-P)framework will thus enhance the USSFs organization,training,and equipment

59、 in line with LOE 1,“Field Combat-Ready Forces,”to better conduct prompt and sustainable operations against adversaries by drawing on all resources,skills,and tools available.19 Existing USSF Capabilities Can Be Leveraged to Support Human SecurityAs noted above,existing USSF space capabilities and t

60、he abilities of guardians are uniquely suited to integrate human security indicators into military and defense plan-ning and operations.As part of DoD,the USSF is ideally situated to provide a critical analysis of the national defense implications within emerging human security challenges,as opposed

61、 to other government organizations that might analyze human security indicators through the lens of their own agencies agendas.Additionally,space capabilities can be used for interven-tions that might prevent adverse human security outcomes.Peacetime opportunities for utilization of space capabiliti

62、es are immense and include sharing access to information through satellite communications(SATCOM)platforms;tracking agricultural and weather trends through environ-mental monitoring;and ensuring sustainable development via intelligence,surveillance,and reconnaissance(ISR)capabilities.20 During a cri

63、sis(whether a natural disaster or humani-tarian crisis),when populations are lacking access to the internet and SATCOM,USSF capabilities can provide access to telehealth,online learning,and mobile bank-ing,thus improving health care outcomes,educational opportunities,and economic access,which might

64、advance broader U.S.security interests during the disaster or crisis response.Because ensuring human security is a key part of the NDS,it is important that the USSF take a proactive role in using its capabilities to provide awareness and early intervention where appropriate to inform defense and sec

65、u-rity operations.We identify four primary space capabilities that enable human security:environmental monitoring;ISR;SATCOM;and position,navigation,and timing(PNT).These represent core USSF mission sets that can easily be expanded to consider broader security dimensions.Moni-toring and data collect

66、ion along several human security dimensions are being conducted by other entities elsewhere in the U.S.government and commercially.Therefore,we do not propose that the USSF unilaterally be responsible for these missions,but rather we identify them as areas where the USSF can leverage its existing mi

67、ssion sets and further invest in partnerships,training,or capabilities to support 9a broader human security focus.These four space capabili-ties are also areas in which commercial operators would benefit from having a connection with DoD because they intersect with key national security defense prio

68、rities.Environmental MonitoringEnvironmental monitoring includes monitoring of both terrestrial and space environments to provide meteorologi-cal and oceanographic information that affects the military operating environment.21 Environmental monitorings ability to forecast,alert,and predict enables a

69、dvanced warning of weather patterns that may result in disaster.One example is in agrometeorological monitoring:The constant monitoring of rainfall amounts,in addition to its direct military application,can be a useful input into crop performance estimators,which in turn can predict the like-lihood

70、of famine.Using satellite capabilities to supplement ground systems in conducting this constant monitoring has improved the capacity for monitoring of large areas while also improving the accuracy of the predictions.22 Currently there are multiple U.S.government organizations that con-duct environme

71、ntal monitoring,23 including the Foreign Agricultural Service of the U.S.Department of Agriculture,which tracks global meteorological data;24 the National Air and Space Administrations(NASAs)Earthdata program,which provides public access to agriculture and water man-agement data;25 and the National

72、Geospatial-Intelligence Agency,which maintains multiple data layers,including hydrographic information.26 The U.S.Air Force(USAF)has a history of partner-ing with government agencies to support environmental monitoring.For example,a merging of modeling systems between the USAF and NASA led to the co

73、llaborative development of the Land Information System Agriculture Meteorology system.27 This partnership benefits not only NASA and the USAF but also the broader research com-munity.This type of partnership can serve as a model for the USSF to leverage existing monitoring and collection activities

74、to deliberately apply a human security focus.The USSFs expertise,as well as its connection with other DoD entities(such as the combatant commands),makes it well positioned to analyze and present data from environmental monitoring in a way that is focused on secu-rity.28 For example,U.S.Africa Comman

75、d(AFRICOM)noted in its 2023 Posture Statement that climate change is a“risk accelerant”in the region and that strategic engage-ment in mitigating the impacts of the climate crisis reduces the need for the United States to engage in kinetic defense The USSFs expertise,as well as its connection with o

76、ther DoD entities,makes it well positioned to analyze and present data from environmental monitoring in a way that is focused on security.10operations.29 As a force provider to AFRICOM,the USSF is positioned to contribute capabilities and analysis in ways that are distinct from other government agen

77、cies and lever-age environmental monitoring data in a way that is integral to security decisionmaking.For this type of monitoring to be effective and to feed policy decisionmaking,it requires not only technological capacity for receiving this imagery but also training,policy,and data-sharing agreeme

78、nts that ensure the ability of local,regional,and international stakeholders to exchange information in a timely and efficient manner.30 Military systems can contribute to capacity.Military leadership in this space can also strengthen key partnerships,if these sharing arrangements are established,an

79、d partner nations can receive and interpret data in a timely manner.Training on what aspects of environmental change are most essen-tial to a particular region ensure that data are appropriately and effectively integrated.Although much of this data col-lection is currently being conducted within DoD

80、,and the USSF more specifically,there is a limited focus on human security.If executed correctly,this type of information sharing can provide focus on targeted areas or regions that might be most susceptible to human security challenges,allowing military decisionmakers to more completely take action

81、 to reduce the likelihood of further conflict.Intelligence,Surveillance,and ReconnaissanceAs defined by Joint Publication 3-14,ISR is“space-based intelligence collection that synchronizes and integrates sensors,assets,and systems for gathering data and infor-mation on an object or in an area of inte

82、rest on a persistent,event-driven,or scheduled basis.”31 Remote sensing and optical imagery satellites provide opportunities for ISR col-lection.Advancements in methodologies,such as models that use veryhigh-resolution satellite imagery,nighttime satellite imagery,and machine-learning algorithms,hav

83、e bolstered the capabilities of satellite technologies for ISR collection.32 These satellites can monitor everything from the climate to peoples movements.Analysis of satellite imagery can help detect changes in vegetation and crop production.33 The normalized dif-This type of information sharing ca

84、n provide focus on targeted areas or regions that might be most susceptible to human security challenges,allowing military decisionmakers to more completely take action to reduce the likelihood of further conflict.11ference vegetation index(NDVI)is a measure of vegetation health that is calculated u

85、sing satellite imagery.By compar-ing current NDVI values to historical data from periods with increased conflict and migration,trends can be iden-tified that relate changes in vegetation to periods of crisis.34Veryhigh-resolution imagery has been shown to be useful for tracking conflict-driven crop

86、abandonment.35A 2022 review of satellite imagery from 2016 to 2018 highlighted how shared and standardized satellite imagery enables the creation of mosaics,a term for satellite imagery that is stitched together to form a comprehensive view of a region.Comprehensive views allow observation of urban

87、centers,the focus of traditional satellite imagery analysis,and rural areas,which are important for livelihoods,food security,and biodiversity during and after a conflict.Although this study was retrospective in nature,it shows how imagery,when combined with analysis,can provide insight into the imp

88、act of conflict on the environment and human well-being.36Historical examples further show how early warning indicators provide insight into areas that are vulnerable to humanitarian crises or conflict,such as in Xinjiang,where China has been ramping up its repression of Muslim Uyghurs since 2016.RA

89、ND researchers were able to use satellite data,including historical patterns of nighttime light emissions,to reveal an active and growing network of reeducation camps and prisons that China had previously denied existed and then claimed were empty.37 Figure 3 provides an example of satellite imagery

90、 and the patterns of nighttime light emissions of one such reeducation camp.This example illustrates how persistent monitoring of“hot spots”could inform policy responses earlier.In another example,satellite imagery has been used in both Sudan and South Sudan to provide warning of and even prevent im

91、pending atrocities and the outbreak of intercommunal violence.38 The Russia-Ukraine conflict provides a current example.Prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine,satellite images of Russian troops on the Ukrai-nian border raised awareness of the conflict in military FIGURE 3Satellite Imagery Depictin

92、g the Construction and Nighttime Light Emissions from a Reeducation Camp in Xinjiang SOURCE:Reproduced from Robinson and Mann,Part 1:Investigating the Growth of Detention Facilities in Xinjiang Using Nighttime Lighting.NOTE:ASPI=Australian Strategic Policy Institute.Tier 1 Reeducation CenterASPI Cam

93、p#143(43.98,81.53)April 2014September 2018Nighttime Lighting(20142020)12headquarters and in mainstream media.As the conflict has progressed,human rights organizations and nontraditional collectives have also used satellite images to verify Russian military attacks and investigate war crimes.39 Space

94、 assets and capabilities can also be used to detect indicators of personal insecurity.Satellites have been used to identify brick kilns in Asias“Brick Belt”to help locate slavery and human traffickers.40 Likewise,satellite imagery has helped identify charcoal ovens in the Amazon Rainfor-est,often in

95、dicating illicit deforestation activity and forced labor.41 Synthetic aperture radar can also be helpful in identifying boats and has a good track record identifying pirated vessels off the Horn of Africa.42 Yet capability alone is not enough.Policy priorities,tasking,and sharing agreements might ha

96、ve to change for ISR to be leveraged to promote human security and prevent humanitarian crisis.The examples above were based on researchers and analysts utilizing already-available imag-ery in a retrospective manner.To leverage the full potential of ISR in support of human security,assets must be in

97、 the right place to collect images of the required locations and guardians must be trained to focused on human security issues.The USSF has an opportunity to work with key actors in the national security space,such as the combatant commands,to ensure that assets are gathering imagery that aligns wit

98、h security priorities and that analysts are engag-ing with other DoD actors in the most meaningful way.Satellite CommunicationsMilitary SATCOM systems provide situational aware-ness by facilitating beyond line-of-sight connectivity.43 In addition to military situational awareness,SATCOM systems also

99、 can provide economic and societal benefit.SATCOM systems have demonstrated their effectiveness in disaster scenarios where traditional communication means might be damaged or destroyed,but SATCOM can also play important roles pre-disaster or pre-conflict to enable human security.SATCOM systems are

100、particularly useful in establishing communications with remote regions or populations that lack terrestrial communication capa-bilities,such as refugees or internally displaced persons(IDPs).SATCOM systems can ensure connectivity for these affected populations,which in turn can ensure access to info

101、rmation that might increase population resiliency.When displaced persons are facing food insecurity,whether from natural or man-made causes,SATCOM can help inform humanitarian groups efforts in“implementa-tion of disaster risk financing,agricultural insurance,and access to credit”which increases res

102、ilience for the com-munity.44 In a health emergency,SATCOM can be instru-Policy priorities,tasking,and sharing agreements might have to change for ISR to be leveraged to promote human security and prevent humanitarian crisis.13mental in providing access to telehealth and telemedicine resources,parti

103、cularly in remote or hard-to-access loca-tions.SATCOM is also a critical enabler of other dimen-sions of human security,ensuring access to education and enabling social and political engagement.This is par-ticularly true for portions of the population that might be disenfranchised,such as women.Earl

104、y evidence suggests that space-enabled education and financial resources might improve womens social and economic standing,lessening the likelihood of corruption that often follows human-caused humanitarian crisis.45Use of SATCOM to mitigate human insecurity through such applications as telehealth o

105、r mobile education is a more proactive use of space capabilities than is traditional for military organizations.This is a potential area where partnerships can be leveraged through military leadership.Additionally,broadening what the USSF defines as security could enable some use of military space a

106、ssets to facilitate these applications in areas prone to conflict or disaster.Position,Navigation,and TimingPNT systems enable“precise and accurate geo-location,navigation,and time reference services.”46 Although in a military application PNT is often used for weapon systems,there are applications t

107、hat enable humanitarian assistance to take care of human needs.For example,PNT can be linked with other ISR data to map and monitor personnel displacement,but personnel displacement is a low use case for satellite applications.47 This could present an oppor-tunity for the USSF to assist in filling a

108、 void.Historical tracking of movement can be combined with other socio-economic indices to build machine learning models that can better predict migration patterns and identify potential responses.48 In health emergencies,PNT resources can be used proactively to forecast communicable disease spread

109、or in the height of an emergency to deliver health care with precision,“for example,identifying areas of malaria risk by identifying breeding grounds via stagnant water map-ping and consequently targeted interventions.”49 Accuracy and management of location data have been an observed deficiency in h

110、umanitarian disaster contexts,indicating an area for increased participation.PNT systems also enable mobile banking and electronic currency.Particularly in disaster-prone areas,the security that comes from these systems can improve economic resiliency and promote sustainable growth that might preven

111、t the beginnings of a humanitarian disaster.The USSF Is Well-Suited to Be a Leader on Human Security IssuesThe space environment is composed of a variety of stake-holders,in addition to military actors,with different roles,interests,and motivations.The private sector supplies a PNT can be linked wit

112、h other ISR data to map and monitor personnel displacement.14large share of satellite applications.These suppliers gener-ate satellite data,cloud infrastructure platforms,and other use platforms.Public-sector agencies,including academia,nongovernment organizations(NGOs),and government agencies,are a

113、lso involved in satellite use and application.NGOs collect locally gathered information and data that can be used to enhance and validate information derived from satellites.NGOs also leverage satellite data to anticipate and respond to crises on the ground.50 Some government agencies supply data an

114、alysis,such as mapping agencies or statistical bureaus.Others,such as NASA,also directly oper-ate satellites.Most agencies use analysis from earth observa-tions to inform policy,strategy,and operations.51In 2006,the United Nations established the United Nations Platform for Space-based Information f

115、or Disaster Management and Emergency Response(UN-SPIDER).UN-SPIDER was designed to“ensure that all countries and international and regional organizations have access to and develop the capacity to use all types of space-based infor-mation to support the full disaster management cycle.”52 As we will

116、discuss,proactive engagement in disaster manage-ment can greatly benefit human security concerns.Aca-demic institutions throughout the United States currently participate in UN-SPIDER activities and missions.And although the USSF should not necessarily take the lead in participating in these activit

117、ies,it can serve as a bridge between the activities in partner states and increasing awareness and understanding of DoD leadership.In 2015,the United Nations published the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,which outlines sus-tainable global development goals and calls for new data approaches,i

118、ncluding the use of Earth observation and geospatial information,to support and track progress toward those goals.53 Following this call,global initiatives,such as the Group on Earth Observations Earth Observa-tions for the Sustainable Development Goal Initiative and the United Kingdom(UK)Space Agen

119、cys International Partnership Programme,have increased the understanding and application of space observation data for humanitarian and human security concerns.54 Governments and satellite agencies have also increased engagement with the humani-tarian community to ensure that satellite data provides

120、 maximum societal benefit and optimal return on taxpayer investment.55 However,civilian agencies and private-sector compa-nies face limitations and challenges in data consolidation and application to the military context that the USSF is sit-uated to address.As an embedded military asset,the USSF ca

121、n engage with miliary decisionmakers in ways that other Civilian agencies and private-sector companies face limitations and challenges in data consolidation and application to the military context that the USSF is situated to address.15organizations cannot.DoD has significantly invested in commercia

122、l satellite capabilities to provide expanded and redundant capability.Assessment of the commercial space capabilities market identifies areas where support is strong,such as SATCOM,and other areas that are emerging,such as remote sensing and environmental monitoring.56Commercial providers respond to

123、 market incentives and government acquisitions.In immature markets,devel-opers might not have the financial stability or customer base to support continued development and innovation,which could lead to a lack of support or resources for the technology in the future.57 Additionally,public-sector age

124、ncies might not have control over the development process or the intellectual property associated with the applications developed by the private sector,which can limit their ability to modify or improve the applications as needed.58 Therefore,the commercial landscape will adapt to the needs of deman

125、dan area that the USSF has the ability to shape to ensure that human security perspectives are considered as part of that demand calculation.Addi-tionally,nonmilitary space programs might not be squarely focused on human security because of competing priori-ties,whereas the NSS and NDS give the USSF

126、 a charge to prioritize human security.The USSF Can Support Human SecurityRelated Decisionmaking and CommunicationIncreased cooperation and information sharing between civilian and military space organizations is one path toward ensuring a broader application of space capabilities to protect human s

127、ecurity.There is also an opportunity for military space capabilities to act independently and for the USSF to serve as a leader in this space.The USSF has the potential to serve as a facilitator of collaboration across agencies and stakeholders in the space field and enhance humanitarian management

128、and decisionmaking processes.The USSF can serve as a mediator and voice for right thinking and equitable sharing of resources among the community.The clear scope of military responsibilities and established communication channels within the military can facilitate comprehensive,accurate,and predicti

129、ve analyses.Military organizations have a narrow focus:to enable security strategies and enforce standards.Military Increased cooperation and information sharing between civilian and military space organizations is one path toward ensuring a broader application of space capabilities to protect human

130、 security.16organizations also share joint policies and procedures that enhance collaboration,which will help address gaps in information sharing.USSF capabilities can enhance continuity of data.Vulnerabilities in the market,such as supply chain disrup-tions or shortages of critical components,can a

131、ffect the private sectors ability to fulfill contracts and continuously produce mission-essential information,such as infrastruc-ture mapping used in operations or early warning systems necessary for disaster response.The USSF faces fewer disruptions,particularly in crisis-affected areas,as an inte-

132、grated part of the DoD supply chain.Its augmented moni-toring technologies could improve stability and might even manifest in a competitive advantage through quicker and more-robust access to information.In the case of Russia and Ukraine,early analysis indicates that open-source intel-ligence and vo

133、lunteer civilian analysis gave a smaller,less well-resourced state an advantage over a bigger power that was more reliant on a traditional security approach.This is an important parallel for human security applications.Barriers to Using USSF Capabilities to Address Human Security IssuesWe identified

134、 three types of challenges that could impede the application of space capabilities to humanitarian emer-gencies:service culture,capacity of existing systems,and lack of coordination among actors.CultureOne impediment to the use of USSF assets in humani-tarian contexts is service culture.Information

135、collec-tion that is useful in disaster responseboth natural and humanitarianby DoD is characteristically reactionary rather than proactive,often occurring in the aftermath of disaster.This is evident by the limited use of satellite imagery in predisaster scenarios but more extensive use in postdisas

136、ter operations.59 The focus on postdisaster phases might make it difficult to fully obtain essential information throughout the life cycle of a crisis,reducing the likelihood of de-escalation and potentially increasing the negative impacts of the crisis.For example,during the 2010 Haiti earthquake,l

137、ack of understanding of the operating environment impeded mili-tary decisionmakers situational awareness,which delayed response efforts and caused providers to make decisions based on poor assumptions.60 Lessons learned identified that“future HA/DR humanitarian assistance/disaster response efforts c

138、ould be improved if host nation personnel and NGOs are involved in the processing,exploitation,and discrimination(PED)of real-time full motion video(FMV)before disaster occurs.”61 This highlights a need for environ-The USSF faces fewer disruptions,particularly in crisis-affected areas,as an integrat

139、ed part of the DoD supply chain.17mental monitoring and ISR collection prior to the onset of a disaster,whether the disaster develops quickly or slowly.A 2017 report on United Nations humanitarian and peacekeeping operations further found that although situ-ational awareness was part of the military

140、 mandate in these operations,cultural barriers,such as unwillingness to share information outside a community,lack of cultural understanding and language skills,and inadequate train-ing on key indicators within the environment,reduced situational awareness in nearly all cases.62 A 2022 study of Indo

141、-Pacific regional navies engag-ing in disaster response alongside U.S.forces noted that although the responsive actions had a positive diplomatic signal,“expanding their focus from post-disaster HA/DR operations to encompass pre-disaster risk mitigation and preparedness in collaboration with other s

142、takeholders”would be a more effective use of naval resources and pro-mote more stability in the region.63 These recent findings highlight how proactive engage-ment with a regionally appropriate human security lens to the analysis of information from space assets and engage-ment with partners to ensu

143、re that the right people are get-ting the right information are beneficial to overall security and stability.Additionally,they show that intelligence shar-ing protocols and partnerships should be established prior to the occurrence of disaster to help shape this understand-ing of the operating envir

144、onment.Infusing a culture of human security into the USSF can help promote these.Additionally,classification policies and a culture that overclassifies information have hindered information shar-ing even among allies and partners.General B.Chance Saltzman,Chief of Space Operations,identified overcla

145、s-sification as a key barrier to achieving his lines of effort for the USSF.64 Addressing this cultural concern is also impor-tant for proactively engaging in human securitycentric activities.SystemsUSSF system capacity requires additional capacity and redundancy to meet current demand.Current capac

146、ity fails to meet the services increasing appetite for imagery and collection.The USSF is exploring commercial and allied partner capabilities to expand its capacity and increase the resiliency of its architecture.65 Because human security has not been prioritized within the department to the same l

147、evel as other national security issues have,collection and invest-ment in new technologies might reflect this imbalance.Collection of data,imagery,and other information to support human security would likely levy additional collec-Intelligence sharing protocols and partnerships should be established

148、 prior to the occurrence of disaster to help shape this understanding of the operating environment.18tion requirements that would exceed current satellite capac-ity.Therefore,partnerships with government and commer-cial organizations appear to be a promising area for further development.Normative sh

149、ifts in policy that prioritize human security as a strategic imperative could also enable investment in critical enabling resources.This normative shift could also use current collections with new analytic frameworks that better capture human security needs.Incompatible systems impede the ability to

150、 share information and collaborate with critical partners in this space.Although DoD implemented a department-wide data strategy in September 2020,there are still challenges faced by the department to ensure that it achieves its objec-tives of“making data visible,accessible,understandable,linked,tru

151、stworthy,interoperable,and secure.”66RelationshipsBecause of the number of actors operating in space,there is poor visibility into what other actors are con-tributing and little coordination between actors.Space capabilities have the possibility to improve data collection in humanitarian crises wher

152、e there is a lack of available data,procurement of data might be cost prohibitive,or the data might lack the specificity required.However,there is a lack of understanding and an inability to share informa-tion between customers(in this case humanitarian orga-nizations)and suppliers(DoD,including the

153、 USSF;other U.S government organizations;and private companies).Potential solutions could include“bridge organizations”that facilitate this sharing of information.Additionally,increased training and education that encourages interac-tion between these two communities of interest could reap benefits.

154、There is also a misalignment of missions among actors working in space.In the area of humanitarian response,private companies are the largest supplier of satellite applications,and government organizations are the largest customers.67 Private companies might be moti-vated by profit or beholden to bo

155、ards that have interests and goals separate from national interests,which can lead to difficulties in sharing information as they seek to retain their proprietary control of technology.From a supplier perspective,military organizations providing satellite capabilities are limited in their ability to

156、 share information because of national security concerns.However,there has been a growing shift to create a more hybrid space architecture that leverages both military and civilian capabilities.68 Although this architecture is focused on resiliency and reducing vulnerability to attack,there are Norm

157、ative shifts in policy that prioritize human security as a strategic imperative could also enable investment in critical enabling resources.19implications for how a hybrid space architecture could be pursued to address human security concerns.Conclusion and Next StepsThe USSF has capabilities that c

158、ould make a major contri-bution to addressing human security issues.These include technologies that could be used to support environmental monitoring,ISR,SATCOM,and PNT.Importantly,USSF data could provide both an accurate and forward-looking picture of human security vulnerabilities.In addition,the

159、USSFs position within DoD and its mission to protect U.S.interests from space provide a clear scope of responsibilities and established communication channels that can support comprehensive,accurate,and predictive analyses using the data gleaned from space technologies.By taking a leading role in us

160、ing space technology to address human security factors,the USSF would give legitimacy to this endeavor.However,as discussed in this paper,there are many barriers to using USSF capabilities to address human secu-rity challenges.Although military and regulatory policy support U.S.involvement in human

161、rights and human security issues,greater involvement of the USSF in human security would require some expansion of the forces cur-rent focus.Such an expansion is likely difficult to justify,given that the USSFs capacity cannot meet current opera-tional demand.Although the USSF can potentially play a

162、 leading role in the human security area,it will need to rely on partnerships,likely with both public and private organi-zations,to provide the needed capabilities and capacities.To enable these capabilities and mitigate identified challenges,the USSF can take some immediate steps in the short term

163、while investing in longer-term solutions.In the short term,the USSF can work with public-sector organi-zations,as well as with partners and allies,to more clearly define metrics related to human security through security cooperation training efforts.Additionally,the USSF should train guardians to in

164、clude considerations of human secu-rity in their collection and analytic tasks.This training can be included in PME and as injects to wargames and exer-cises.In the long term,the USSF will need to address orga-nizational challenges that prevent partnerships in this area,such as creating roles within

165、 the combatant commands and the joint force that incorporate space technologies to address human security challenges.Additionally,the USSF can work to build legitimacy in using space technology to address human security factors.By using space capabilities to monitor such human security indicators as

166、 those proposed in this paper,the USSF can help identify human security challenges as they are emerging,thus opening the door to interventionspotentially involving both resources on the ground and in the broader international community.Such interventions might help prevent the escalation of cascadin

167、g challenges.USSF data could provide both an accurate and forward-looking picture of human security vulnerabilities.20AppendixHow USSF Capabilities Can Enhance Human Security:A Case Study of Somalia To understand how space capabilities could be applied to enhance human security and to identify curre

168、nt gaps(both technological and policy-related)in how space capabili-ties are applied in that context,we illustrate through a case study.A case-specific analysis grounded in accurate historical evidence gives insight into which methods of The majority of human security challenges should be expected t

169、o occur in states and regions with a history of or currently ongoing instability and where new and innovative tools for monitoring and intervention could help improve outcomes and prevent further escalation.measurement have been previously successful in capturing threat indicators and outcomes in a

170、crisis and provides a tangible example.We developed a scenario of a slow-onset drought in Somalia,a nation located strategically next to major oil shipping routes,and for which the United States and the USSR vied for influence during the Cold War through military and humanitarian support.Although So

171、malia has been in various stages of instability for decades,it pro-vides an illustrative real-world example of how monitoring human security indicators in regions experiencing political instability can help prevent wider crises.The majority of human security challenges should be expected to occur in

172、 states and regions with a history of or currently ongoing instability and where new and inno-vative tools for monitoring and intervention could help improve outcomes and prevent further escalation.We used operational definitions of the dimensions of human secu-rity to show how a crisis can result i

173、n compounded security concerns.The scenario is grounded in historical data but does not map to a certain point in time.Instead,it seeks to create a realistic context to show how space interventions could lead to early integration of these security concerns into military decisionmaking to allow for i

174、ntervention prior to the onset of a broader crisis.Somalia Case StudyA famine has been declared in Somalia by the United Nations as hundreds of thousands of Somalis have died of malnourishment and over a million people have been displaced because of drought conditions.The United Nations classifies a

175、 famine if it meets the following three 21acute diarrheal disease cases have increased by 40 per-cent compared with levels prefamine,cholera cases have increased by 103 percent,and measles cases have increased by 123 percent.75 The Famine Early Warning System Network and the Food Security and Nutrit

176、ion Analysis Unit both predict escalating food insecurity within Somalia as drought conditions continue to result in low crop yields,declines in livestock productivity,and heightened rates of animal morbidity.These disruptions have led to abnormal migra-tion of pastoralists and an overall increase i

177、n displacement of people within the country.The famine also has resulted in a spike in food prices.To address the critical needs of criteria:acute malnutrition rates among children exceed-ing 30 percent,extreme food shortages facing at least 20 percent of households and limited ability to cope,and m

178、ore than two people per 10,000 dying per day.69 Since the onset of drought,the rate of deaths has been three times the minimum criteria for famine classification.It is estimated that next year,43,000 excess deaths will occur.Children under the age of five are expected to make up half of these deaths

179、.70A primary driver of the famine has been five con-secutive years of poor rainfall with a high likelihood of below-average rainfall over the next year.In the past year,the OctoberDecember Deyr(short)rains were also below average across the entire Horn of Africa.This was followed by meager Gu(long)r

180、ains from April to June.Variations in weather conditions linked to La Nia have given Early Warning Systems clear indications that the drought will persist.71 Drought conditions often can be predicted by Early Warning Systems,but little is done because mobiliza-tion of resources is dependent on accur

181、ate data and media coverage up to and during the crisis.72However,drought conditions alone do not make a disaster;rather,it is a combination of other socioeconomic factorsmany of which are preexisting.Access to food is a critical issue,particularly in the areas of Bay,Bakool,Sool,Sanaag,Bari,and Nug

182、al,where malnutrition rates already surpass 30 percent.Malnutrition is a leading indicator of a famine reaching crisis levels.73 Current estimates are that 388,000 children are acutely malnourished and 87,000 chil-dren are severely malnourished,requiring life-saving inter-ventions.74 Other health is

183、sues are affecting the human security situation.Acute watery diarrhea and cholera and measles outbreaks are widespread.Laboratory-confirmed Drought conditions often can be predicted by Early Warning Systems,but little is done because mobilization of resources is dependent on accurate data and media

184、coverage up to and during the crisis.22the affected population,NGOs have redirected assets and increased humanitarian aid.As an example,the Interna-tional Committee of the Red Cross has devoted more than half of its aid budget to Somalia alone.Within Somalia,poverty is widespread,which makes already

185、 vulnerable populations even more vulnerable.According to the World Bank,70 percent of Somalis live in poverty and 90 percent of Somalis live in multidimensional poverty,which is more broadly defined by needs for“edu-cation of children and adults,improved access to water,improved sanitation,and acce

186、ss to electricity.”76 Poverty is particularly acute in rural households and in IDP resettle-ment camps.The drought and subsequent famine have led to a drastic increase in IDPs,with 1 million Somalis dis-placed since the drought began,including 800,000 people displaced in the past year.77The high lev

187、el of need,exceptionally higher than other countries in the Horn of Africa,is exacerbated by ongo-ing conflict and high levels of insecurity.The famine has caused particularly devastating effects on those living in the southern and central regions of Somalia.These are areas with a high presence of a

188、l-Shabaab militants,which has made aid distribution in these areas extremely difficult.Al-Shabaab is in open conflict with the Somali National Army in Federal Somalia and has attacked peacekeeping missions in the country,such as the African Union Transi-tion Mission in Somalia(ATMIS).Critical protec

189、tion risks have been observed by NGOs and humanitarian assistance organizations operating in the area.These include forced displacement,family separation,sexual violence and abuse,and early marriage of girls.78 The ongoing security crisis in Somalia has resulted in multiple military missions over th

190、e years by the United States and other countries,in addition to ATMIS.Currently the United States has a small,persis-tent presence that provides advise-and-assist support to the Somalis,but military personnel do not engage in direct military action.79 A lack of government capacity and personal freed

191、oms further exacerbate famine conditions and contribute to the disastrous effects of the famine.Freedom House has given Somalia a score of 7/100,indicating that it is“not free.”80 Of particular note,Freedom House finds that the government is unable to meaningfully enforce laws or ensure the basic pr

192、ovisions of services to its citizens.In addition to harming Somalis and denying them protection under the law and basic resources,this lack of government efficacy also makes it difficult for the international community to receive accurate and objective information about the changing situation on the

193、 ground.The government is also not able A lack of government capacity and personal freedoms further exacerbate famine conditions and contribute to the disastrous effects of the famine.23to address the corruption and extortion resultant from the ongoing conflict with al-Shabaab.The lack of government

194、 capacity also means that aid workers face barriers in per-sonal security and infrastructure supports,such as com-munication channels.In this case study,and in the 1991 and 2011 famines and 2023 drought,the existing Early Warning Systems were not enough to prevent negative secondary effects of famin

195、e.These historical trends illustrate the need to track other converging factors.In Table A.1,we summarize the human security dynamics at play in this case study and their associated metrics,and we identify leading indicators that might be observable.Human Security Metrics Across DimensionsDimensions

196、 of human security are typically measured through retrospective metrics.They are based on what has happened and can lag several years.Although these metrics might be effective for understanding trends of a particu-lar area or region,they make it difficult to predict what will happen,or act on inform

197、ation in a timely manner.TableA.1 highlights what these metrics look like for the Somalia case study.We also note what types of space indi-cators or interventions could provide more-timely under-standing or proactive engagement to prevent the furthering or spreading of crises.TABLE A.1Applications o

198、f Space Capabilities to Dimensions of Human Security in SomaliaDimension of Human Security Available Indicators to Understand Human Security in SomaliaTrackable Indicators via Space Capabilities Interventions with Space CapabilitiesEnvironmental The region experienced 23%environmental degradation.Li

199、mited rainfall and drought conditions occurred in 20152023.Flash floods affected more than 175,000 people in April 2023.Land degradation Water level changes Weather detection Informed preparations of land-based operations based on weatherEconomic The population lacks resources to purchase basic nece

200、ssities.Access to mobile banking resources and to mobile or virtual education Food 6.6 million people experienced food insecurity in 2023.Weather has affected food production.Food prices remain above their 5-year average by 20%.1.8 million children are malnourished.Changes in food production Identif

201、ication of hoarding of resources Sharing space data on changes in agriculture or food production 24Dimension of Human Security Available Indicators to Understand Human Security in SomaliaTrackable Indicators via Space Capabilities Interventions with Space CapabilitiesHealth Laboratory-confirmed chol

202、era cases have surged by 103%in 2023.Acute diarrheal disease cases haven increased by 40%.Measles cases have increased by 123%.Cases of severe acute malnutrition with medical complications among children under five years increased twofold from January 2022 through December 2022.Fewer than 30%of Soma

203、lis have access to basic health care.Access to telehealth Access to online education for health care providers Personal 822,000 people fled their homes because of violence.More than 6,000 violent events against civilians occurred in 2022.Somalia ranked 191 of 193 countries in resilience to interpers

204、onal violence in 2021.Migration of peoples Sharing information on what is happening on the ground Political 121 government officials were killed by militants in 20212022.Somalia scored 7/100 on the World Freedom Index in 2021.Early indicators of further political violence In-country access to intern

205、et for transparency on political figures Secure and mobile political engagement Sharing information on political security risks Community The United Nations finds that“Casualties and trauma injuries resulting from clan-based conflict over meagre pastures and water for livestock have also increased b

206、y over 50%.”a Famine increasing already high levels of social unrest in Somalia represents both a humanitarian concern and a threat to the success of U.S.-and ally-backed military efforts in the region.Patterns of violence Access to online community engagement platforms SOURCES:Features information

207、from Dubow,“Somalia Needs Its Trees to Restore Landscapes and Livelihoods”;Gorokhovskaia,Shahbaz,and Slipowitz,Freedom in the World 2023;Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime,Global Organized Crime Index 2021;Integrated Food Security Phase Classification,Nearly 6.6 Million People i

208、n Somalia Still Face Crisis(IPC Phase 3)or Worse Acute Food Insecurity Outcomes Despite Relative Improvement in Rainfall Forecast and Decline in Food Prices;United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund,Somalia Humanitarian Situation Report No.3;United Nations,“Amid Devastating Drought,Ongoi

209、ng Rights Violations,Somalia Pushes Forward in Fight against Al-Shabaab Terror Group,Security Council Hears”;United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs,Drought Response and Famine Prevention;United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs,Somalia:Gu Rainy S

210、eason 2023 Flash Floods Update No.3;Wambui,“Somalia May Take Many Years to Clear Land Mines Placed to Fight Al-Shabaab”;World Bank Group,“Somalia Economic Update.”a World Health Organization,Emergency Health Response Plan for Drought in Somalia,p.3.Table A.1Continued25Notes1 White House,National Sec

211、urity Strategy.2 DoD,2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States.3 Howard-Hassmann,“Human Security:Undermining Human Rights?”4 King and Murray,“Rethinking Human Security.”5 Brzoska,Omitoogun,and Skns,The Human Security Case for Rebal-ancing Military Expenditure.6 USSF,“About.”7 Space Policy

212、Directive-4,Establishment of the United States Space Force.8 Saltzman,“Line of Effort 3-Partner to Win.”9 Axworthy,“Human Security and Global Governance:Putting People First,”p.23.10 DoD,2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States.11 Bajpai,Human Security:Concept and Measurement,p.1.12 Unite

213、d Nations Development Programme,Human Development Report 1994.13 United Nations Development Programme,Human Development Report 1994.14 Mazzar,Mastering the Grey Zone.15 DoD,2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States,p.2.16 DoD,2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States,p.12.17 Salt

214、zman,“Line of Effort 3-Partner to Win.”18 Saltzman,“Line of Effort 2-Amplify the Guardian Spirit.”19 Saltzman,“Line of Effort 1-Field Combat-Ready Forces.”20 United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research,Outer Space and Global Security.21 Terrestrial weather data include meteorological and ocean

215、ographic data,while space weather data describe the conditions of the space envi-ronment around the earth,such as charged particles and radiation that result from solar activity.See Joint Chiefs of Staff,Joint Publication 3-14.22 For more than 35 years,the U.S.Agency for International Develop-ments

216、Famine Early Warning Systems Network has offered evidence-based recommendations to support effective humanitarian relief efforts in drought and famine.For a discussion of the uses of monitoring in effective intervention,see Funk et al.,“Recognizing the Famine Early Warning Systems Network,”and Tades

217、se et al.,“The Need for Integra-tion of Drought Monitoring Tools for Proactive Food Security Manage-ment in Sub-Saharan Africa.”23 Government satellite assets available to DoD include nearly 50 orbital platforms operated by civil,military,and international space entities.See Farrar and DeMarco,Air F

218、orce Space-Based Environmental Moni-toring(SBEM)Update,and Sawtelle,“After 9/11,Weather Forecasting Played a Pivotal Role in Afghanistan Military Operations.”24 Public access to data is available on the U.S.Department of Agricul-tures website.See Foreign Agricultural Service,“Data Sources.”25 NASAs

219、Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center provides data-sets and tools that combine earth observation data with socioeconomic data to inform the sustainable use of available resources.Public access to data is provided at Agriculture and Water Management Data Pathfinder.See Earthdata,“Agriculture an

220、d Water Management Data Pathfinder.”26 Public access to data is provided on the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency website.See Maritime Safety Information,“Mari-time Safety Office.”27 Eylander et al.,“History and Development of the USAF Agriculture Meteorology Modeling System and Resulting USAF

221、NASA Strategic Partnership.”28 For further discussion of how the USSF could bolster joint capabili-ties,see Rice,“Balancing Space Superiority and Space Services to Better Sustain the Joint Force.”29 Townsend,Investing in Americas Security in Africa,p.2.30 An analysis of 2008 drought and famine chall

222、enges in sub-Saharan Africa found that a lack of integrated drought monitoring tools,inad-equate Early Warning Systems,and insufficient information flow within and between levels of government hampered response efforts.The authors recommended integration of existing drought monitoring tools.For furt

223、her discussion,see Tadesse et al.,“The Need for Integration of Drought Monitoring Tools for Proactive Food Security Management in Sub-Saharan Africa.”31 Joint Chiefs of Staff,Joint Publication 3-14,p.x.2632 A model with similar characteristics was used to produce depend-able and reusable data for co

224、mparative evaluation of the effects of the Rakhine conflict.See Aung et al.,“Using Satellite Data and Machine Learning to Study Conflict-Induced Environmental and Socioeconomic Destruction in Data-Poor Conflict Areas.”33 Politically Speaking,“Eyes in the Sky for Peace.”34 Aung et al.,“Using Satellit

225、e Data and Machine Learning to Study Conflict-Induced Environmental and Socioeconomic Destruction in Data-Poor Conflict Areas.”35 For discussion of how data-driven satellite remote assessed crop abandonment in South Sudan,see Olsen et al.,“The Impact of Conflict-Driven Cropland Abandonment on Food I

226、nsecurity in South Sudan Revealed Using Satellite Remote Sensing.”36 Bennett et al.,“Improving Satellite Monitoring of Armed Conflicts.”37 Robinson and Mann,Part 1:Investigating the Growth of Detention Facilities in Xinjiang Using Nighttime Lighting.38 Convergne and Snyder,“Making Maps to Make Peace

227、.”39 For more descriptions of recent applications of remote monitoring in conflict,see Sticher,Wegner,and Pfeifle,“Toward The Remote Moni-toring of Armed Conflicts.”40 Boyd et al.,“Slavery From Space.”41 Andrews,“Detecting Modern-Day Slavery From the Sky.”42 Becerra,Ariza,and Gamarra-Amaya,“Use of O

228、pen-Source Satellite Data to Combat Organized Crime Case Study.”43 Joint Chiefs of Staff,Joint Publication 3-14.44 Costella et al.,Beyond Borders,p.41.45 Hunter,“Looking for a Few Good Operators.”46 Joint Chiefs of Staff,Joint Publication 3-14,p.x.47 Costella et al.,Beyond Borders.48 Costella et al.

229、,Beyond Borders.49 Costella et al.,Beyond Borders,p.43.50 Livingston,“Satellite Imagery Augments Power and Responsibility of Human Rights Groups.”51 Kargieman,“Public Sector Expands Earth Observation Applications.”52 United Nations General Assembly,Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly,61/110.5

230、3 United Nations,Transforming Our World.54 Earth Observations for the Sustainable Development Goals,EO4SDG.The program,which used the UKs expertise in satellite technology and data services to tackle development challenges through 43 projects in 47 countries,concluded in 2022.For more information,se

231、e UK Space Agency,“International Partnership Programme:Space Projects in Developing Countries.”55 The report UK Space Agency International Partner Space Solutions for Development includes use cases of satellite applications for a variety of human security needs.This report focuses on British systems

232、 but out-lines ways in which these systems have been employed in many develop-ing countries.See UK Space Agency,UK Space Agency International Partnership Programme:Space Solutions for Development.56 Yonekura et al.,Commercial Space Capabilities and Market Overview.57 Wong et al.,Leveraging Commercia

233、l Space Services.58 Wong et al.,Leveraging Commercial Space Services.59 British Geological Survey,“Using Satellite Imagery for Emergency Disaster Response.”60 Winkels,“Expanding Integrated Coalition and NGO ISR to Better Support HA/DR Operations.”61 Winkels,“Expanding Integrated Coalition and NGO IS

234、R to Better Support HA/DR Operations.”62 Willmot,Improving UN Situational Awareness.63 Upadhyaya,“Naval Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief(HA/DR)Operations in the Indo-Pacific Region,”p.283.64 Albon,“Secrecy Hinders Info-Sharing With Allies,Says Space Com-mand Deputy.”65 Erwin,“Space Force

235、to Examine U.S.Military Needs for Low-Orbiting Surveillance Satellites”;Albon,“US Space Force Wants New Commercial Imagery Tool to Boost Resiliency.”66 DoD,“DOD Issues New Data Strategy.”67 Costella et al.,Beyond Borders.2768 Miller,“Resilient Architecture vs.Civilian Risk.”69 USA for United Nations

236、 High Commissioner for Refugees,“Famine Explained.”70 Integrated Food Security Phase Classification,Nearly 6.6 Million People in Somalia Still Face Crisis(IPC Phase 3)or Worse Acute Food Insecurity Outcomes Despite Relative Improvement in Rainfall Forecast and Decline in Food Prices.71 Ferris and Pe

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280、t of Defense,RAND Corporation,RR-A578-2,2022.As of February 21,2024:https:/www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA578-2.htmlAcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank RAND Project AIR FORCE leadership for funding this publication.We would also like to thank our review-ers,Rich Girven and Jessica

281、West,for their thoughtful comments that strengthened this work.Additional thanks to Lily Hoak and Karina Orozco for their administrative support.About the AuthorsKyleanne M.Hunter is a senior political scientist at RAND.Her research interests include military gender integration,suicide preven-tion,s

282、exual assault and harassment prevention,gun violence preven-tion,and the impact of emerging technologies on military personnel pol-icies.She holds a Ph.D.in political science and international relations.Joslyn Fleming is a defense policy researcher at RAND.She special-izes in military logistics,with

283、 a particular interest in how to plan for logistics in future operating concepts.She holds an M.A.in international affairs with an Africa regional specialty.Jackie L.Burns is a senior policy analyst at RAND.Burns is interested in conflict and stabilization issues;the diversity,equity,and inclusion i

284、ssue set with a focus on gender and security;international and national security questions;and defense and intelligence policy.She holds an M.P.P.in international policy and development.Grace Falgoust is a qualitative research assistant at RAND.Her research interests include multi-team systems,organ

285、izational culture,and paring emerging technologies with human skill sets to develop a more effective workforce.She holds a B.A.in psychology.www.rand.orgPE-A2905-1About This PaperThis publication is part of a RAND Project AIR FORCE series exploring“big unanswered questions”for the Department of the

286、Air Force.It con-siders how the U.S.Space Force(USSF)might contribute to enhancing human security.Human security is a cornerstone of the White Houses 2022 National Security Strategy and the Department of Defenses National Defense Strategy.In this publication,we highlight how the USSF is uniquely qua

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