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1、Issue BriefMay 2025Wuhans AIDevelopmentChinas Alternative Springboard to Artificial General Intelligence(AGI)AuthorsWm.C.HannasHuey-Meei ChangDaniel H.ChouWuhans AIDevelopmentChinas Alternative Springboard to Artificial General Intelligence(AGI)AuthorsWm.C.HannasHuey-Meei ChangDaniel H.Chou Center f

2、or Security and Emerging Technology|1 Executive Summary DeepSeeks emergence as a successful generative modela niche where the United States was believed to hold an uncontested leadis causing global artificial intelligence watchers to reassess Chinas standing in the race toward artificial general int

3、elligence(AGI)and pay closer attention to Chinas AI research and deployment.While large models continue to account for a significant part of its AI investment,Chinas top state-funded AI institutes are exploring alternative approaches to AGI that involve embodying AI algorithms in real environments.I

4、mbued with the Chinese Communist Partys pre-defined values,the AI interacts with its natural surroundings,learning as it proceeds.The test bed for this proactive approach to AGI is Chinas inland city of Wuhan,where the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS)Institute of Automation,Huawei,and a Peking Unive

5、rsity consortium are infusing the citys industrial and commercial enterprises with AI services and deploying a“social simulator”that expands AIs reach to all aspects of daily life.The intent is to optimize production and supervise social interaction while affording the AI opportunities to become mor

6、e intelligent,catalyzing its evolution into AGI.The Wuhan implementation is seen by its state-backed entities as a stepping stone to deployment throughout China,raising questions about the type of technosociety with which the United States needs to compete.Center for Security and Emerging Technology

7、|2 Table of Contents Executive Summary.1 Introduction.3 Large Computing Centers.5 AI Research Institutes.8 The AI Industry Chain.11 Wuhans AGI Initiatives.13 Values and Embodiment.15 Recommendations.18 Authors.19 Appendix.20 Acknowledgements.19 Endnotes.21 Center for Security and Emerging Technology

8、|3 Introduction The sudden emergence of Chinese company DeepSeek on the global scene drove home to western nations multiple lessons;namely,that the“gap”in AI between the United States and China is narrower than imagined,that scaled up models may not be the only or even most viable path forward,1 and

9、 perhaps most importantly,that the United States and its allies lack a reliable system to track Chinas AI progress.2 A fourth lesson is confirmation that China and the United States are in a race to build artificial general intelligence(AGI),*which is DeepSeeks aim and a goal shared by other Chinese

10、 companies,institutes,and the national government.3 While the race is typically characterized as a competition for data and chips,DeepSeeks shortcuts to prominencewith less lead time and computeremind us that Chinese organizations may have other routes to AGI,such as better algorithms or typological

11、ly different solutions(of which large statistical models may only be a component).4 One such approachsupplementing big static models with dynamic agents that interact with natural environmentswas proposed by Beijing AI scientists as early as 2021 as an alternative way to achieve AGI.5 An implementat

12、ion of this schema,referred to as“embodiment”(具身),is now being tested in Wuhan,with plans for a nationwide rollout.Like DeepSeeks earlier work,this event has not garnered attention outside China,although its import is potentially far greater.The Wuhan project has two main components.In May 2021,CASs

13、 Institute of Automation(中國科學院自動化研究所,CASIA,an AGI developer),Huawei,and Wuhan East Lake High-tech Development Zone revealed plans to build a Wuhan General Artificial Intelligence Platform(武漢通用人工智能平臺)and a“perception-cognition-decision whole chain ecology”as a basis for“autonomously controllable AGI”

14、(自主可控通用人工智能).6 The immediate aim was to infuse AI into Wuhans industrial,scientific,and commercial sectors.Subsequently in November 2022,a new organizationthe Peking University(PKU)-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence(北京大學武漢人工智能研究院)was created in the same East Lake zone by a second Beijing-b

15、ased bloc of AGI researchers,with the mission to build a“large-scale social simulator”(大型社會模擬器)meant to optimize social interaction and using Wuhan as a test bed.7 The two effortsone focused on production and research,the other on society in generalcame together at *Typically defined as“intelligence

16、 that matches or exceeds human skills at most cognitive operations.”Center for Security and Emerging Technology|4 a forum in October 2024 titled“AGI:Building a Data Ecosystem,Reshaping the Industrial System,and Empowering Social Governance.”8 Significant as the events are themselves,their importance

17、as the forums name suggestsis amplified by the developers vision that grounded inputs covering the whole of human activity,free of the disinformation proffered on the World Wide Web,will catalyze the emergence of AGI,further optimizing the systems performance in a self-improving cycle where implemen

18、tation is part of the growth trajectory.9 This paper begins by describing the facilities that make up Wuhans AI infrastructure,on which these projects depend.It then examines the citys“AI industry chain”through which AI drives scientific discovery,improves services,and optimizes industrial processes

19、.A section on“Wuhans AGI initiatives”details how exposing AI to real-world challenges supports Chinas march to general AI.The paper concludes with a sketch of where these developments are headed.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|5 Large Computing Centers Wuhan,the capital of Hubei province

20、,is located at the juncture of the Yangtze and Han Rivers,some 715 miles inland from Beijing.Despite its provincial location,the city is a major financial,manufacturing,and educational hub,and a locus for high-end scientific research.The citys three national development zones,four technology parks,a

21、nd some 2,000 research and high-tech enterprises10 are supported by multiple networks of computing centers and grids,whose total capacity is projected to reach 30 exaflops in 202511Chinas highest municipal concentration.12 The central cluster that hosts many of Wuhans AI services and supports the tr

22、aining of frontier models consists of two adjacent“twinned computing centers”(雙算力中心):the Wuhan AI Computing Center(武漢人工智能計算中心)and Wuhan Supercomputing Center(武漢超算中心),located on Ligou South Road(里溝南路)in the East Lake High-tech Development Zone(東湖新技術開發區 or 東湖高新區,also called China Optics Valley(中國光谷),s

23、hown in the image below.Figure 1.Wuhans“twinned”AI(upper)and supercomputing(lower)centers13 Ground photography shows the AI Computing Center in the foreground(red trim)and the Supercomputing Center to its right(glass).Center for Security and Emerging Technology|6 Figure 2.Wuhans“twinned”AI and super

24、computing centers14 The AI Computing Center powered up in May 2021 with an initial capacity of 100 petaflops,*expanding to 400 petaflops in September 2024.15 The center hosts Zidong Taichu(紫東太初),Chinas premium multimodal large generative model,first released in 2021 and now in version 3.0 with a cla

25、imed 100 billion parameters.16 Developed jointly by CASIA,Huawei,and Wuhan AI Research(see below),17 Zidong Taichu aims to realize AGI through“large models in the cloud and small model service terminals”18 and serve as a“full-stack domestic general artificial intelligence base”(全棧國產化通用人工智能底座).19 The

26、 system reportedly supports higher-order logical reasoning(高階邏輯推理)to achieve performance“closer to(更接近于)human understanding,reasoning and thinking.”20 While the AI Computing Center serves enterprises,organizations,and science research,21 the Wuhan Supercomputing Center mainly provides computing serv

27、ices for high-tech fields such as aerospace,genome sequencing,and national defense.22 The supercomputing center began operating in November 2022.23 Recent(November 2024)Graph 500 ratingsa measure of supercomputer performance based on data-intensive loadslist the Wuhan Supercomputing Center as second

28、 among the worlds top ten units on“breadth-first searches”and first in“single source shortest path.”24 Other Wuhan-based computing infrastructure includes a supercomputer at Wuhan University,online since 2015 for in-house research25;China Telecoms Central Intelligent Computing Center(中國電信中部智算中心),run

29、ning since January 202426;*One petaflop(P)=1,000 trillion floating-point operations per second.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|7 and the China Mobile(Wuhan)Smart Computing Center(中國移動智算中心(武漢),with a claimed capacity of 1,500 petaflops.27 These centers,in turn,are part of China Computing

30、NET(C2NET;中國算力網),a major national computing cluster involved in the distribution of responsibilities between the countrys coastal and inland areasnamely,the“east data,west compute”(東數西算)project,described as“sending data gathered from the more prosperous eastern regions of China to less-developed but

31、 resource-rich western regions for storage,calculation,and feedback.”28 This east-west formula parallels an arrangement identified by the authors in a prior paper that highlighted a concentration of AGI algorithmic research performed in the Beijing area with implementation of working models in Wuhan

32、,well outside the capitol region.29 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|8 AI Research Institutes Wuhans AI computing substrate is complemented by AI research institutes aimed squarely at realizing Chinas national goal of artificial general intelligence.Wuhan AI Research(武漢人工智能研究院 or 武智院),loc

33、ated in the same East Lake High-tech Development Zone,launched in December 2021 to research“cross-modal intelligence.”CASIA leads the effort supported by a planned team of 200 researchers recruited in China and from abroad.30 The institutes director is WANG Jinqiao(王金橋),who is also CASIAs deputy chi

34、ef engineer,a professor at the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences(UCAS)School of Artificial Intelligence(人工智能學院),and executive deputy director of the Zidong Taichu Large Model Research Center(紫東太初大模型研究中心)within CASIA.31 The latter centers goal is stated on its website as:“Establish an interpr

35、etable,trustworthy,and evolvable(可演化)multimodal AI infrastructure platform for open and complex environments(開放復雜環境),and build a new generation of AI infrastructure.”32 The key terms here for the present study are“evolvable”and“open and complex environments,”which distinguish the Wuhan effort from l

36、arge models typically pursued in the United States and other western nations that grow by ingesting static information.A second major component of the citys AGI brain trust is the PKU-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence(北京大學武漢人工智能研究院 or 北武院),established in November 2022 under Peking Universi

37、tys“lead”and also located in the East Lake Zone,33 pictured below.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|9 Figure 3.PKU-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence(far right)34 The PKU-Wuhan groups top two figures are both returned U.S.scientists.Its executive director,WU Zhiqiang(吳志強),was a di

38、stinguished professor of electrical engineering at Ohios Wright State University with expertise in AI and signal processing.35 ZHU Songchun(朱松純,AKA Song-Chun Zhu),a former UCLA professor and founding director of the Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence(北京通用人工智能研究院,BIGAI)with experti

39、se in computer vision,36 is the PKU-Wuhan Institutes chief scientist.37 Both Wu and Zhu were recipients of numerous U.S.government grants from defense-oriented agencies during their long tenures in the United States.38 Under their tutelage,the institute developed a“large-scale social simulator”(大型社會

40、模擬器),based on Zhus concept of“embodiment”(具身)as a precondition for genuine AGI(see below).The co-location of these two institutes in the same Wuhan development zone,each with their complementary approaches to AGICASIAs“evolvable”large-model and BIGAIs embodied platform that promises“small data,big t

41、asks”(小數據,大任務)39takes on special importance as they represent Chinas two largest state-funded AGI research blocs:CASIA-UCAS and the PKU-Tsinghua-BIGAI nexus.40 Chinas exploration of multiple paths(多路徑)to AGI41 also includes neuroscience approaches,which are mostly disfavored by western developers of

42、 AGI models but have been associated with AI in China since 2014.42 Given this broader perspective,it is perhaps significant that the China Optics Valley Brain Science Industrial Base(中國光谷腦科學產業基地)and the Optics Valley International Brain Science Innovation Center(光谷國際腦科學創新中心)are in the same high-tec

43、h zone as the two aforementioned AGI institutes.43 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|10 A quote from Wuhan AI Researchs website captures this studys point about Chinas intent to roll out AGI from Wuhan by pursuing a policy of“based in Wuhan,radiating to Hubei,and serving the whole country(

44、立足武漢,輻射湖北,服務全國).”44 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|11 The AI Industry Chain Wuhans compute centers and AI institutes are the top strata of what China views as a three-level“AI industry chain”(人工智能產業鏈).The third stratum consists of downstream beneficiaries,which double as grist for the e

45、volving AGI platform.Wuhans city government explains:45 The“foundational level”(基礎層)provides compute and“basic chips”(基礎芯片)and is represented by the Wuhan AI Computing Center,Wuhan Supercomputing Center,and local hardware manufacturing firms.46 Next is the“technical level”(技術層),with large models rep

46、resented by Wuhan AI Research;East Lake Virtual Reality(“SoulGPT”;東湖靈境),which does commercial large model training47;iFlytek,with its open AI platform;and GPT“localization”companies.The final“applications level”(應用層)includes local entities engaged in commercial production and services,such as smart

47、chips,IT equipment,medical,manufacturing,construction,education,and smart cities.The notice claims the chain is“pretty much complete”(較為完整).Statistics cited in relevant Chinese sources tend to bear this out.For example,as of December 2022 the Wuhan AI Computing Center had“more than 80 industrial con

48、sortium partners”and planned to incubate(孵化)some 100 AI“solutions.”48 By March 2023,the center had signed up 270“users.”49 As of September 2024,it reportedly was servicing 300 companies and had“jointly incubated more than 200 scenario-based solutions.”50 These statistics apply to the Wuhan AI Comput

49、ing Centers clients only.Taking the city as a whole,the numbers are much higher.A report issued in June 2024 by the Wuhan High-Tech Industry Association(武漢市高新技術產業協會)stated that in 2023 Wuhans“AI enterprises”(人工智能企業)reached 995.51 In October 2024,a Hubei newspaper updated the figure of AI-enabled com

50、panies in Wuhan to“more than 1,000”while reiterating the city governments point that“a full AI industry chain from chips to compute,from large models to applications,has been initially formed.”52 Notable entities participating in the“chain”are BGI-Research(華大生命科學研究院),which uses the twinned centers t

51、o run spatiotemporal omics gene sequencing*;“LuoJiaNet,”a joint Wuhan University-Huawei project to write“intelligent interpretation software for remote sensing images,”hosted by the AI Computing Center53;and Huazhong University of Science and Technologys(華中科技大學)Edraw *Spatiotemporal omics gene seque

52、ncing aims to map gene expression and other molecular features across tissues at specific locations and times to develop a better understanding of biological processes.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|12(億圖)software,claimed to be the worlds leading“high-performance graph computing system,

53、”running at the Wuhan Supercomputing Center.54 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|13 Wuhans AGI Initiatives The composite AI“chain”described above began in May 2021,when CASIA,Huawei,and the East Lake High-tech Development Zone first revealed their plan for a Wuhan General Artificial Intell

54、igence Platform for“autonomously controllable AGI.”55 The groundwork for this project likely predates BIGAIs founding in September 2020,which in early 2021 was still advertising for staff.56 Hence the evolution of CASs vision from what was an effort to turbocharge Wuhans industry with AI into a comp

55、rehensive program for citywide AGI governance was almost certainly catalyzed by BIGAIs rise and by its directors influence over Chinas AI research.57 A preview of the initiative was given by Wu Zhiqiang,co-manager with Zhu Songchun of the PKU-Wuhan AI institute,in a news release dated June 28,2024,w

56、herein Wu explained their effort to build the worlds first“large-scale social simulator”(大型社會模擬器)a value-driven(價值驅動,see below)form of AGI that differs fundamentally from existing large models built on static data.Unlike LLMs that just try to predict the next token,the system,in Wus words,will simul

57、ate“multiscale physical world and social complex systems”on its way to becoming“the operating model of a coexisting smart society”and a tool for social governance(社會治理).Wu added that the“basic platform”had already been completed.58 On October 24,2024,at a forum hosted by the PKU-Wuhan Institute,Zhu

58、Songchun provided further details of the project.Key to its realization is the aforementioned AI-powered large-scale social simulator,then in version 1.0.59 The platform integrates multidimensional data collected from individuals,groups,and public services for“social governance through early warning

59、 and analysis.”Zhu added that“the simulator will have a wide range of applications in managing megacities and complex social governance,including monitoring population flow.”60 Other excerpts from Zhus description,summarized in China Science Daily,follow:61 “The large-scale social simulator can solv

60、e the problem of inability to conduct experiments and repeat tests in the field of social sciences,help explore intelligent social governance models,and improve the modernization level of national governance.”“It can practice massive intelligent agent interactions in a 3D modeling simulation environ

61、ment,realizing multi-level complex system simulation and the emergence of group intelligence from individual behavior to overall city operation.”Center for Security and Emerging Technology|14 “It accurately deduces the entire process of complete,dynamic,and iterative social development,and creates a

62、 holographic(全息)intelligent social governance platform system,constructing a new paradigm of intelligent social governance.”62 More details on the simulators operation were provided by CHEN Shuo(陳爍),head of BIGAIs“multi-agent laboratory”(多智能體實驗室),on March 29,2025,at a forum hosted in Beijings Zhongg

63、uancun:63“The simulator uses distributed computing and high-concurrency scheduling technology to simulate the interaction and evolution process of individual agents and social-level agents in a highly realistic 3D simulation environment.It builds a virtual social system containing millions of people

64、 through multi-dimensional data fusion and dynamic interactive modeling.It uses multi-agent value modeling and digital twin technology to accurately deduce social operating rules,simulate the long-term impact of different social decisions,and provide forward-looking decision support.”Meanwhile,state

65、 backing for the social simulator was confirmed in a January 24,2025 release from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(國家自然科學基金委員會,NSFC),the countrys main funding and scientific oversight organization,in a section of its guide for AGI research titled“Credible generation of multi-agent si

66、mulation scenarios driven by physical processes.”64“Build a scenario model driven by physical principles to achieve highly realistic dynamic simulation of the environment;integrate multimodal information to enhance the interaction between intelligent agents and the environment,and ensure that the ch

67、aracteristics and behaviors of simulation entities match those of the real world;and establish and improve a simulation data credibility assessment system to ensure the reliability of simulation scenarios,thereby providing a solid virtual foundation for complex systems research and decision-making.”

68、The Wuhan forums theme,“AGI:Building a Data Ecosystem,Reshaping the Industrial System,and Empowering Social Governance,”65 aptly describes the projects transition from AI support for industrial developmentCASIAs original mandateto a design for total management.Center for Security and Emerging Techno

69、logy|15 Values and Embodiment The emphasis on“values”as the driver of AI-enabled social governance,expressed in the Wuhan rollout,is an outgrowth of values role in the AGI program advanced by BIGAI and the capitol area AI alliance.66 In this view,values injected into the model during its development

70、,in part to advance and safeguard the CCPs priorities,67 motivate the AI to explore its environment and ensure what it learns and outputs conform to the CCPs needs.The other distinguishing feature of the proposition is“embodying”AI in a real environment,or close simulation,so that learning mimics na

71、tural processes.68 This is precisely what the“social simulator”does.Embedded in a metaverse of human activity,the intent is for AI to optimize human behavior and learn from it.69 The result is a“blend”(混合)of human and artificial cognition,identified in Chinese state documents as a primary goal of Ch

72、inas AI research,70 and echoed in the following statement by Wu Zhaohui(吳朝暉),CAS vice president and former vice minister of Chinas Science ministry:71“We believe the fusion of brain and machine intelligence represents a new form of future AI,compatible with biological intelligences perception of env

73、ironment,cognitive mechanism,and ability to learn how to reason,and with machine intelligences capability for information integration,storage,and compute.”The basic intent is to start from the brain,use human information processing methods to build a virtual brain,and use brain-computer interaction

74、to realize the fusion and integration of a biological brain,virtual brain,and human-computer intelligence.Chinas academics and practitioners agree overall with this demarcation of tasks.The hybrid enhanced intelligence in the 2017 New Generation Artificial Intelligence Plan originated from this unde

75、rstanding.”Center for Security and Emerging Technology|16 Meanwhile,the symbiotic relationship between an AGI that governs and grows smarter by interacting with those whom it governs tightens.*The likelihood this“value+embodiment”paradigm will grow legs is evidenced by Fudan Universitys establishmen

76、t this year of an Institute of Trustworthy Embodied AI(可信具身智能研究院)aimed at producing human-like(像人類一樣)artificial intelligence,which is defined as AI that:“can interact with the environment and perform robust perception,learning,and decision-making,whose behavior follows human values and can sustainab

77、ly evolve.”The creation of this institute at Shanghais top university closes the circle from a regional perspective.72 Continued algorithmic development of the social simulator at Tsinghua University,part of the capitol-area AGI consortium,further suggests the Wuhan project is the forerunner of a na

78、tional effort.73 In February 2025,an interdisciplinary group of 16 Tsinghua researchers released a paper describing an AI“testbed for computational social experiments.”74 Among the“key social issues”the paper explores is“the spread of inflammatory messages,”which hints at where the project may be he

79、aded.75 A Sina article in the same month reiterated the studys claim that the model“can accurately simulate the spread of social public opinion,the polarization of cognitive views(認知觀點極化),and public policy responses.”While emphasizing the importance of“value”and“embodiment,”the article noted that th

80、e simulator is being endowed with a“human-like mind”(類人心智)that possesses“emotions,needs,motivations,and cognitive abilities.”76 Although Zhu Songchun downplays the connection,77 the interplay between Wuhans AGI roll out and the“city brains”or“city digital twins”(城市數字孿生)that underlie Chinas creation

81、of so-called“safe cities”78 is hard to ignore.And given the pervasiveness of state ideology in China and the dedicated efforts to embody this ideology in these AI systems,it is difficult to imagine an outcome to these events *The NSFCs 2025 AGI Guide,in a section titled“Humanlike cognitive learning

82、framework,”aims specifically for this outcome:“Explore humanlike cognitive learning frameworks,improve the intelligentization level of systems through the active perception and interaction of intelligent agents(智能體)and the autonomous learning and iterative updating of the model,and solve the interac

83、tive decision-making problems of embodied intelligent agents in complex physical environments,thereby providing support for embodied AI(具身智能)tasks such as causal model construction and physical common sense generation.”Center for Security and Emerging Technology|17 consistent with western freedom of

84、 choice and expression,79 or a more dystopian interpretation of AGIs end game.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|18 Recommendations Technology initiatives meant for nationwide deployment typically begin in China with local,proof-of concept“demonstrations”(示范)or“model”(模范)projects,and Wuhan

85、has served as the starting point for such in at least two other cases.80 If the Wuhan AGI project succeeds,or is seen to show promise,we can expect the Beijing government to follow through with its plan to deploy the system elsewhere in China.We recommend this process be closely monitored given its

86、importance and potential challenges.This recommendation is a microcosm of the authors standing plea for the United States and its allies to devote serious resources to track Chinas technological progress in general,as our national insight falls far short of Beijings comprehensive understanding of fo

87、reign scientific trends.81 Beyond the obvious need to assessand forecastChinas technology initiatives,there may be lessons to learn from China;in particular,its support for alternative approaches to AGI and early infusion of AI into industry and society.Chinas commitment to multiple paths to AGIa th

88、eme the present authors have emphasized in prior reporting82was restated in the NSFCs“Guide to the 2025 Annual Projects,”both in a general sense(“developing a system of new AI methods”)and in multiple categories that describe alternative AGI approaches beyond the large generative models that occupy

89、nearly all of western AI developers and policymakers attention.83 Finally,Chinas well-known penchant for operationalizing technical breakthroughs84 seen here in its roll-out of public-facing AI initiatives to bolster scientific research and optimize commerce and productioncould serve if not as a mod

90、el then as a stimulus for U.S.efforts to revitalize our own domestic industry by infusing it with AI.85 While focusing on AI safety and the dangers of weaponization,we should also keep in mind the real possibility of being out-competed by a country that moves more quickly and decisively to realize t

91、he promises that AI offers.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|19 Authors Wm.C.Hannas is CSETs lead analyst and formerly the CIAs senior expert for China open-source analysis.He is currently focused on U.S.-China technology competition,community outreach,and data discovery methodologies.Huey

92、-Meei Chang is CSETs senior China S&T specialist,co-editor of Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence:Perspectives and Challenges(Routledge,2023),and co-author of several papers on Chinas AI development.Daniel H.Chou is a data scientist at CSET.He has collected,enhanced,and analyzed data for multi

93、ple studies on China AI and technology development while supporting government and private sector projects.Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to John Chen of the RAND Corporation,Dr.Max Riesenhuber of Georgetown Universitys Center for Neuroengineering,and Dr.Valentin Weber of the German Counc

94、il on Foreign Relations(DGAP)Center for Geopolitics,Geoeconomics,and Technology for serving as outside readers.The authors are also grateful to CSETs Dr.Igor Mikolic-Torreira,Matt Mahoney,Rai Hasen Masoud,Lauren Lassiter,Ben Murphy,Jason Ly,and Shelton Fitch for their generous support during the rev

95、iew and publication process.2025 by the Center for Security and Emerging Technology.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License.To view a copy of this license,visit https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.Document Identifier:doi:10.51593

96、/20240059 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|20 Appendix Organizational Chart Figure A1.PKU-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence86 Center for Security and Emerging Technology|21 Endnotes 1 Wm.C.Hannas,Huey-Meei Chang,Maximilian Riesenhuber,and Daniel H.Chou,“Chinese Critiques of Larg

97、e Language Models,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,January 2025,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/chinese-critiques-of-large-language-models/.2 Wm.C.Hannas and Huey-Meei Chang,“Chinas STI Operations,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,January 2021,https:/cset.georgetown.edu

98、/publication/chinas-sti-operations/.3“DeepSeek(深度求索),founded in 2023,is a Chinese company dedicated to making AGI a reality,”Hugging Face,https:/huggingface.co/deepseek-ai.For additional examples of Chinese institutions doing AGI research,see:Wm.C.Hannas,Huey-Meei Chang,Max Riesenhuber,and Daniel Ch

99、ou,“Chinas Cognitive AI Research,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,July 2023,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/chinas-cognitive-ai-research/.4 Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chinese Critiques of Large Language Models.”5 Huey-Meei Chang and Wm.C.Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Instit

100、ute of General Artificial Intelligence,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,May 2023,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/spotlight-on-beijing-institute-for-general-artificial-intelligence/.6 Hu Changxing(胡長幸),“Chinese Academy of Sciences,Huawei,and East Lake High-tech Zone Jointly Build a

101、 New-Generation General Artificial Intelligence Technology Platform in China”(中科院,華為,東湖高新區共建國內新一代通用人工智能技術平臺),Jimu News(極目新聞),May 21,2021,https:/ See“Introduction to the Institute”(研究院簡介),http:/ Han Yangmei(韓揚眉),“The Worlds First Social-Level General Artificial Intelligence Simulator Platform Is Rele

102、ased to Empower Smart City Governance”(全球首個社會級通用人工智能模擬器平臺發布 賦能智慧城市治理),China Science Daily(中國科學報),October 26,2024,https:/ Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Institute;”Gerui Wang,“Why Embodied Intelligence Is the Next Frontier of AI,”Forbes,December 8,2024,https:/ Liu Qianwen(劉倩雯),“Hubeis Computi

103、ng Power Exceeds 10,000P,Expected to Drive Industry Scale to 120 Billion”(湖北算力規模突破 1 萬 P 預計帶動產業規模 1200 億),Changjiang Times(長江商報),December 11,2024,https:/ exaflops=30 quintillion floating-point operations per second.Center for Security and Emerging Technology|22 12 Xiong Zhanping(熊展平),“Wuhan Has Form

104、ed a Relatively Complete Artificial Intelligence Industry Chain and Will Play an Important Role in Domestic AI Computing Power”(武漢已形成較為完整人工智能產業鏈 將在國產 AI 算力中扮演重要角色),Yangtze Daily(長江日報),April 10,2024,https:/ Baidu Maps(百度地圖),retrieved February 28,2025,https:/ Photo by Peng Nian(彭年),Yangtze Daily(長江日報)

105、,October 25,2023,http:/ Hubei Provincial Peoples Government(湖北省人民政府網),“Hubei Ranks First in Central China in Terms of Computing Power Scale and Quality”(湖北算力規模和質效躋身中部第一),September 23,2024,https:/ Artificial Intelligence Computing Center Was Selected as the National New Generation Artificial Intellig

106、ence Public Computing Power Open Innovation Platform”(武漢人工智能計算中心入選國家新一代人工智能公共算力開放創新平臺),C114 Communication Network(C114 通信網),July 4,2023,https:/ Zhilan(胡之瀾),“The Worlds First 100 Billion Parameter Multimodal Large Model Zidong Taichu Has Been Upgraded Again”(全球首個千億參數多模態大模型“紫東太初”又升級了),Yangtze Daily(長江

107、日報),November 27,2024,https:/ to Zidong Taichu”(紫東太初簡介),https:/ Jinqiao,Director of Wuhan AI Research:Accelerate the Consolidation of Computing Power Foundation and Empower East Lake Science City with Zidong Taichu,”(武漢人工智能研究院院長王金橋:加快夯實算力底座,以“紫東太初”賦能東湖科學城啟航),China Optics Valley(中國光谷),August 10,2022,h

108、ttps:/ Xiong Zhanping,“Wuhan Has Formed a Relatively Complete Artificial Intelligence Industry Chain.”20 Hu Zhilan,“The Worlds First 100 Billion Parameter Multimodal Large Model.”21 Hubei Provincial Peoples Government,“Hubei Ranks First.”22“Wuhan Supercomputing Center Lights Up East Lake Science Cit

109、y”(武漢超算中心點亮東湖科學城),Department of Economy and Information Technology of Hubei Province(湖北省經濟和信息化廳),October 6,2022,http:/ Ma Wenjun(馬文俊)and Liu Yujia(劉雨佳),“Wuhan Supercomputing Center Won the Worlds Graph 500 Ranking Championship”(武漢超算中心獲世界 Graph 500 排行榜冠軍),Hubei Daily(湖北日報),May 28,2023,https:/ for Sec

110、urity and Emerging Technology|23 24 See“Graph 500 Complete Results,”https:/graph500.org/?page_id=238.BFS is a basic algorithm used to search tree data structures for all nodes at a given depth(i.e.,“breadth first”)before moving to the next level,best suited when the solution is near the starting poi

111、nt.SSSP measures a supercomputers ability to find the shortest path from a source node to all other nodes.25 See“Introduction to the Supercomputing Center”(超算中心簡介),https:/ Ze Long(澤瀧),“China Telecom Central Intelligent Computing Center Was Put into Operation in Wuhan,Supporting the Deployment of Lar

112、ge Models with Trillions of Parameters”(中國電信中部智算中心在武漢投運,支持部署萬億參數大模型),IT Home(IT 之家),January 27,2024,https:/ Connatser,“Chinas First Natively Built Supercomputer Goes Onlinethe Central Intelligent Computing Center Is Liquid-Cooled and Built for AI,”Toms Hardware,January 29,2024,https:/ Hubei Provinci

113、al Peoples Government,“Hubei Ranks First.”28 Yu Cheng,Kun Liu,“Wuhan Center to Enhance Countrys Supercomputing Fortitude,Acumen,”China Daily,August 17,2022,https:/ Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chinas Cognitive AI Research,”10-13.30“Introduction to Wuhan AI Research,”https:/ Jinqiao,Director of

114、 Wuhan AI Research:Accelerate the Consolidation of Computing Power Foundation and Empower East Lake Science City with Zidong Taichu.”31 See Wang Jinqiao(王金橋),https:/ Taichu Large Model Research Center”(紫東太初大模型研究中心),http:/ probably linked to“開放的復雜巨系統”(open complex giant system),a term introduced by Q

115、ian Xuesen(錢學森),a Chinese polymath known as the progenitor of Chinese rocket science,engineering cybernetics,and the inspiration for Chinas foreign S&T document collection network.See Qian Xuesen,Yu Jingyuan,and Dai Ruwei,“A New Discipline of ScienceThe Study of Open Complex Giant Systems and Its Me

116、thodology,”Chinese Journal of Systems Engineering and Electronics 4.2(1993),https:/ thanks to John Chen of the RAND Corp.for making this connection.33“Introduction to the Institute”(研究院簡介),http:/ See“PKU-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence”at https:/ for Security and Emerging Technology|24 3

117、5 See Wu Zhiqiang,https:/ Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence.”37“Message from the Chief Scientist”(首席科學家寄語),http:/ According to his Wright State University bio,Wu Zhiqiangs research has been funded by the Air Force Research Laboratory,the Air Force O

118、ffice of Scientific Research,the Office of Naval Research,the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,and the Department of Energy among others(https:/people.wright.edu/zhiqiang.wu).Wright State University has close ties with the National Air and Space Intelligence Center(NASIC),the USAFs dedi

119、cated foreign scientific intelligence research facility in Dayton.See“NASIC Representatives to Meet With Wright State Students,Staff,”Dayton Daily News,November 3,2021(https:/ Agreement Provides Air Force Researchers More Access to Work on Wright States Campus,”Wright State University Newsroom,Decem

120、ber 17,2024(https:/webapp2.wright.edu/web1/newsroom/2024/12/17/expanded-agreement-provides-air-force-researchers-more-access-to-work-on-wright-states-campus/).Zhu Songchuns U.S.-based work was supported by multiple DARPA and other U.S.Department of Defense grants.See Didi Kirsten Tatlow,“Exclusive:U

121、.S.Gave$30 Million to Top Chinese Scientist Leading Chinas AI Race,”Newsweek,November 1,2023(https:/ Zhu relocated to China in 2020(Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing”),he remains connected to UCLA as evidenced by a citation on Ran Gongs 2024 Ph.D.dissertation,where he credits Zhu as his thesis

122、co-chair.Gong,like his mentor,argues for“embodiment”as a path to AGI.https:/web.cs.ucla.edu/dt/theses/gong-ran-phd-thesis.pdf.39 Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Institute of General Artificial Intelligence.”40 Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,Chou,“Chinas Cognitive AI Research.”41 Jiao Yifei(繳翼飛),“Wu

123、 Zhaohui,Vice Minister of the Ministry of Science and Technology:Big Models Push Artificial Intelligence Toward the 3.0 Stage,and We Need to Explore the Development of General Artificial Intelligence Through Multiple Paths”(科技部副部長吳朝暉:大模型推動人工智能邁向 3.0 階段 要多路徑探索通用人工智能發展),21st Century Business Herald(21

124、 世紀經濟報道),March 24,2024,https:/ Wm.C.Hannas,Huey-Meei Chang,Catherine Aiken,and Daniel Chou,“China AI-Brain Research,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,September 2020,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/china-ai-brain-research/.43 PRC Ministry of Science and Technology,“The First Brain S

125、cience Industry Base in Central China Was Unveiled”(華中首個腦科學產業基地揭牌),September 22,2022,https:/ Chunxin(吳純新),“Optics Valley International Brain Science Innovation Center Unveiled”(光谷國際腦科學創新中心揭牌),Center for Security and Emerging Technology|25 Science and Technology Daily(科技日報),March 3,2024,https:/ to th

126、e Institute”(研究院簡介).https:/ Has Formed a Relatively Complete Artificial Intelligence Industry Chain,Mainly Concentrated in Optics Valley”(武漢已形成較為完整人工智能產業鏈,主要集中在光谷),Yangtze Daily(長江日報),April 12,2024,https:/ Yangtze Memory(YMTC;長江存儲),which specializes in flash memory,and Wuhan Yangtze Computing Techno

127、logy(武漢長江計算科技)are cited as examples.The latter makes servers,computing,and storage devices.47 See East Lake Virtual Reality homepage at https:/ See“Wuhan AI Computing Center”(武漢人工智能計算中心),“Success Cases”(成功案例),https:/ also“Wuhan Has Formed a Relatively Complete Artificial Intelligence Industry Chain”

128、for multiple examples of entities currently operating at each of the chains three strata,especially the applications level.49 Li Jia(李佳),“Wuhan Has a Dual Center for Supercomputing and Intelligent Computing.Technology Companies Buy Computing Power Like Buying Water,Electricity,and Gas.”(武漢擁有超算智算 雙中心

129、,科技企業像買水電氣一樣購買算力),Yangtze Daily(長江日報),May 29,2023,https:/ Hubei Provincial Peoples Government,“Hubei Ranks First.”51 I.e.,enterprises using AI services,not producing AI software per se.Li Qin(李琴),“There Are 995 Artificial Intelligence Companies in Wuhan,with an Industry Scale Exceeding 50 Billion Yu

130、an”(武漢市人工智能企業達 995 家,產業規模超 500 億元),Yangtze Daily(長江日報),June 24,2024,https:/ Li Yuan(李源),“Wuhans Artificial Intelligence Innovation Strength Ranks First in the Country”(武漢人工智能創新實力居全國第一方陣),Hubei Daily(湖北日報),October 25,2024,https:/ LuoJiaNET is paired with an image library known as LuoJiaSET.Wuhan Univ

131、ersity,“LuoJia Gemini of WHU Opens Up to the World,”July 17,2022,https:/ Xie Zhen(謝珍),“The Innovative Achievements of Wuhan Artificial Intelligence Computing Center and Wuhan Supercomputing Center Are Officially Released!”(武漢人工智能計算中心、武漢超算中心創新成果正式發布!),Yangtze Cloud(長江云),August 11,2023,https:/ also Mi

132、 Wang,Qianyu Wu,Jing Xiao,Deren Li,et al.,“Luojia 3-01 SatelliteReal-Time Intelligent Service System for Remote Sensing Science Experiment Center for Security and Emerging Technology|26 Satellite,”IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 17(2024),https:/ieeexp

133、lore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=10496159.55 Hu Changxing,“Chinese Academy of Sciences,Huawei,and East Lake High-Tech Zone jointly build.”56 Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence.”57 Chang and Hannas,“Spotlight on Beijing Institute for General Art

134、ificial Intelligence.”58 Tang Jie(唐婕),“Wu Zhiqiang:Exploring the No Mans Land and Ushering in the China Moment of Artificial Intelligence”(吳志強:探路 無人區,迎來人工智能 中國時刻),Yangtze Daily(長江日報),June 28,2024,https:/ The forum was backed by a new entity called the“National Intelligent Social Governance Experimen

135、tal Comprehensive Base”(國家智能社會治理實驗綜合基地).Han Yangmei,“The Worlds First Social-Level General Artificial Intelligence Simulator Platform;”Zhao Zhuqing(趙竹青),“General AI Large-Scale Social simulator Released”(通用人工智能大型社會模擬器發布),(人民網),October 25,2024.http:/ Liu Caiyu,“AI Social simulatorSimulator Released,C

136、apable of Data Deduction in Areas of School Bullying Prevention,Public Safety,”Global Times,October 26,2024,https:/ Han Yangmei,“The Worlds First Social-Level General Artificial Intelligence Simulator Platform.”62“Holographic”here refers to different display levels;for example,0.30.5 meter satellite

137、 imagery(L1),simplified 3-dimensional model(L2),and so on.https:/ Cited in“2025 General Artificial Intelligence Forum Was Successfully Held”(2025 通用人工智能論壇成功召開),Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence(北京通用人工智能研究院),March 31,2025,https:/www.bigai.ai/blog/news/2025 通用人工智能論壇成功召開.64 National

138、 Natural Science Foundation of China(國家自然科學基金委員會),“Guide to the 2025 Annual Projects for the Major Research Program on Explainable and Generalizable Next-Generation Artificial Intelligence Methods”(可解釋、可通用的下一代人工智能方法重大研究計劃 2025 年度項目指南),January 24,2025,https:/ full-text CSET English translation at htt

139、ps:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/china-2025-explainable-ai-project-guide/.65 Han Yangmei,“The Worlds First Social-Level General Artificial Intelligence Simulator Platform.”66 Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chinese Critiques of Large Language Models.”67 Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chine

140、se Critiques of Large Language Models.”Values in Zhus system are digital guidelines that motivate an AI to seek and act on environmental inputs,based on a set of standards that include“social value”and“group value.”Yujia Peng,Jiaheng Han,Zhenliang Center for Security and Emerging Technology|27 Zhang

141、,Lifeng Fan,et al.,“The Tong Test:Evaluating Artificial General Intelligence Through Dynamic Embodied Physical and Social Interactions,”Engineering 34,2024:1222.68 Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chinese Critiques of Large Language Models.”69 Zhu Songchun clarified the difference between his appr

142、oach and that of LLMs in an address at the March 29,2025 Zhongguancun Forum,where he stated:“Our relationship with large models is not one of opposition,but of symbiosis(共生).Large models are like the human subconsciousthey provide the foundation for perception and memory.What we aim to build on top

143、of that is the cognitive and decision-making architecture for general-purpose intelligent agents.”Li Hailun(李海倫),“Zhu Songchun at Beijing Universitys Institute of Artificial Intelligence:Chinas AI Narrative Has Cognitive Bias”(北大人工智能研究院朱松純,“中國的 AI 敘事”存在認知偏差),Tencent Network(騰訊網),March 29,2025,https:

144、/ translation by Tony Peng,“Chinas AI Looks Vibrant,But Its Fundamentally Chaotic,Scientist Warns,”Recode China AI,March 30,2025,https:/ Cf.“人機混合智能”(human-machine hybrid intelligence).PRC State Council,“New Generation Artificial Intelligence Plan”(新一代人工智能發展規劃),July 8,2017.English translation by Grah

145、am Webster,Rogier Creemers,Paul Triolo,and Elsa Kania,New America DigiChina Project,August 1,2017,https:/www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/digichina/blog/full-translation-chinas-new-generation-artificial-intelligence-development-plan-2017/.71 Wu Zhaohui,“From AI to CIthe Development of Bra

146、in-Machine Intelligence,”(從 AI 到 CI腦機智能的發展),Global Artificial Intelligence Technology Conference,Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence(中國人工智能學會),Hangzhou,China June 56,2021,https:/ Ge(胡舸),“Wu Zhaohui Appointed as Vice President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences”(吳朝暉任中國科學院副院長),Zhejiang Uni

147、versity,http:/ Fudan University as a whole offered some 116 AI courses in 20242025.Yu Yan(喻琰),“Fudan University Has Established a New Institute of Trustworthy Embodied Artificial Intelligence to Recruit Talents Worldwide,with Salaries Starting from 600,000 Yuan”(復旦新設“可信具身智能研究院”全球招聘人才,薪資 60 萬元起),The

148、Paper(澎湃新聞),February 7,2025,https:/ A glossy 84-page(undated)pamphlet describing the Wuhan project,released by the PKU-Wuhan Institute of Artificial Intelligence and titled“General Artificial Intelligence”(通用人工智能),includes a graphic showing the projects application across three scales:“group and com

149、munity”“city and social”“country and civilization”;https:/ Jinghua Piao,Yuwei Yan,Jun Zhang,Nian Li,et al.,“AgentSociety:Large-Scale Simulation of LLM-Driven Generative Agents Advances Understanding of Human Behaviors and Society,”arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.08691v1(2025).75 Jinghua Piao,Yuwei Yan,Jun

150、 Zhang,Nian Li,et al.,“AgentSociety:Large-Scale Simulation.”Center for Security and Emerging Technology|28 76“Tsinghua Team Builds Large-Scale Social simulatorSimulator AgentSociety to Promote Intelligent Social Governance and Research Paradigm Shift”(清華團隊構建大型社會模擬器 AgentSociety,推動智能社會治理與研究范式變革),Sina

151、(新浪科技),February 19,2025,https:/ large-scale social simulator built in Wuhan is neither a city brain nor a city digital twin as mentioned in the past,but a general-purpose intelligent agent on a social scale.”Zhu Songchun(朱松純),“Message from Chief Scientist Zhu Songchun.”78 Valentin Weber,“Data-Centri

152、c Authoritarianism:How Chinas Development of Frontier Technologies Could Globalize Repression”(National Endowment for Democracy,February 11,2025),https:/www.ned.org/data-centric-authoritarianism-how-chinas-development-of-frontier-technologies-could-globalize-repression-2/.79 Zhu Songchun,“The Race t

153、o General Purpose Artificial Intelligence Is Not Merely About Technological Competition;Even More So,It Is a Struggle to Control the Narrative”(通用人工智能不僅是科技競爭,更是敘事權爭奪),Economic View(中新經緯),January 12,2025,https:/ CSET translation at:https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/song-chun-zhu-ai-narrative-con

154、trol/.80 Chinas nationwide deployment of“Innovation Service Centers for New and High Technology”(高新技術創業服務中心)began with a center in Wuhan in 1987.In December 2010,the Wuhan East Lake High-tech Development Zone,in which these AGI initiatives are now embedded,became Chinas second such“innovation demons

155、tration zone”(創新示范區)after Beijings Zhongguancun(中關村).See William Hannas,James Mulvenon,Anna Puglisi,Chinese Industrial Espionage(London and New York:Routledge,2013),176;“Chinas Second National Independent Innovation Demonstration Zone Will Carry Out Three Major Innovation Pilot Projects”(我國第 2 個國家自主

156、創新示范區將開展 3 大創新試點),PRC Central Government(中華人民共和國中央人民政府),December 29,2009,https:/ Hannas and Chang,“Chinas STI Operations.”82 Wm.C.Hannas,Huey-Meei Chang,Daniel H.Chou,Brian Fleeger,“Chinas Advanced AI Research,”Center for Security and Emerging Technology,July 2022,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publicat

157、ion/chinas-advanced-ai-research/;Hannas,Chang,Riesenhuber,and Chou,“Chinas Cognitive AI Research;”William C.Hannas,Huey-Meei Chang,Rishika Chauhan,et al.,“Bibliometric Analysis of Chinas Non-Therapeutic Brain-Computer Interface Research:Alternative Paths to Cognitive Augmentation and Control,”Center

158、 for Security and Emerging Technology,March 2024,https:/cset.georgetown.edu/publication/bibliometric-analysis-of-chinas-non-therapeutic-brain-computer-interface-research/.83 National Natural Science Foundation of China,“Guide to the 2025 Annual Projects.”See in particular the section on“new-generati

159、on brain-inspired AI,”with its detailed vision for neuroscience-inspired AI models.By contrast,two of the present papers authors attended high-level U.S.and UK government-sponsored events on AGI in early 2025.The participants at both events focused exclusively on large Center for Security and Emergi

160、ng Technology|29 language models and used LLMs as a synonym for AI,seemingly oblivious to the possibility of alternativesnot to mention those China is actually pursuing.84 Joseph Needham,The Grand Titration:Science and Society in East and West(London:George Allen&Unwin,1969);Kai-Fu Lee,AI Superpower

161、s(New York:Harper Business,2018).85 Dewey Murdick and William Hannas,“Americas Next Chapter:Outpacing China Through Industrial Rebirth and Innovation,”The National Interest,March 27,2025,https:/nationalinterest.org/blog/techland/artificial-intelligence-china-and-americas-next-industrial-revolution.86 PKU-Wuhan Institute for Artificial Intelligence,https:/