1、Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private SectorI N S I G H T R E P O R TJ U N E 2 0 2 4In collaboration with L.E.K.ConsultingContentsImages:Midjourney,Getty ImagesForewordExecutive summaryIntroduction:Climate change and human health1 Climate-health intersections most i

2、n need of immediate attention1.1 Assessing the health impacts of climate change1.2 Assessing available evidence and guidance1.3 Priority health areas for intervention2 Engaging the private sector in climate-health interventions2.1 Identification of key underlying factors2.2 Identification of interve

3、ntionsConclusionAppendixContributorsEndnotes3461011141728303138396061 2024 World Economic Forum.All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,including photocopying and recording,or by any information storage and retrieval system.Disclai

4、mer This document is published by the World Economic Forum as a contribution to a project,insight area or interaction.The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are a result of a collaborative process facilitated and endorsed by the World Economic Forum but whose results do not ne

5、cessarily represent the views of the World Economic Forum,nor the entirety of its Members,Partners or other stakeholders.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector2ForewordClimate change presents an imminent and pervasive threat to human health around the world.It

6、 is already causing more climate-related deaths and worsening medical conditions including infectious diseases,chronic illnesses and mental health disorders.It is also increasing the strain on global health systems and on socio-economic factors that indirectly affect health outcomes.According to the

7、 World Economic Forums 2024 Global Risks Perception Survey,1 extreme weather is perceived to be the top risk most likely to trigger a significant global crisis over the next decade,with almost all other environmental risks also ranking among the top 10 long-term threats.2 Certain populations,particu

8、larly those in climate-exposed areas and reliant on natural resources,face compounded risks due to limited financial resources and simultaneous burdens of conflict and institutional fragility.However,they often receive comparatively less international assistance.3Given the cascading effects of clima

9、te change,failure to address it could condemn millions to poverty,exacerbate fragility and conflict,and irrevocably alter the fabric of our societies.5 Engagement and concerted actions across sectors are imperative to forge a path towards building climate-resilient health systems.These must take a h

10、olistic approach that encompasses building resilience,enabling agile response and supporting long-term recovery.However,as the Global Risks survey 2024 also revealed,key decision-makers regard the urgency of environmental risks differently.While civil society and governments view these risks as impe

11、nding priorities,the private sector primarily views them as longer-term concerns,despite its own indispensable role in the collaborative effort to safeguard human health against climate change.In addition,with substantial business interests and well-being of employees at stake,businesses can no long

12、er afford to overlook this issue.The World Economic Forums Climate and Health Initiative,through multistakeholder collaboration and cross-sector partnerships,aims to drive systemic transformation for improved climate change adaptation strategies to strengthen societal health and resilience.In collab

13、oration with L.E.K.Consulting and based on a robust review of existing research on health areas affected by climate change,this report aims to identify the key gaps in guidance,pinpoint areas requiring immediate action and recommend interventions where the private sector can play a significant role.

14、This report serves as a catalyst for meaningful dialogue,guiding strategic investments and tangible actions to help build a future where healthcare systems and communities stand resilient in the face of environmental challenges,all while ensuring that vulnerable populations are at the centre of thes

15、e responses.With the threat posed by climate change already visible and ever-increasing,stakeholders across sectors and around the world must stand united in their commitment to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations from its impacts.Shyam Bishen Head,Centre for Health a

16、nd Healthcare;Member,Executive Committee,World Economic ForumClay Heskett Global Managing Partner,L.E.K.ConsultingHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private SectorJune 2024Countries that are fragile and in conflict-affected settings are the ones that bear the biggest bru

17、nt of climate change.Anna Bjerde,Managing Director for Operations,World Bank4 Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector3Executive summary The impact of climate change on public health presents critical risks that demand urgent attention.Vulnerable populations suc

18、h as low-income communities,populations residing in natural disaster-prone areas,women,children and the elderly,in particular bear a disproportionate burden of such health risks with insufficient support for mitigation and recovery.It is crucial to acknowledge the interconnectedness of environmental

19、 changes and public health.Human health needs to be factored in climate and nature initiatives,as well as movements for effective climate action.This is essential to foster resilience within communities and mitigate the adverse health effects of climate change.While the visible impacts of climate ch

20、ange on weather patterns are widely acknowledged,there remains a need for greater understanding of its health effects and the corresponding actions that different stakeholders can take to mitigate these impacts.This report aims to pinpoint the climate-health intersections most in need of immediate a

21、ttention,and offers guidance for intervention by the private sector,the public sector and non-profit organizations.This report focuses on four main manifestations of climate change:Extreme weather:Extreme weather events affect approximately 189 million people annually,with developing countries exper

22、iencing 79%of recorded deaths and 97%of the total recorded number of people affected since 1991.6 Air quality:Air pollution causes 6.7 million premature deaths globally every year and disproportionately affects urban populations due to indoor air pollution,which is a major contributor to overall air

23、 pollution.Nearly 91%of premature deaths related to air pollution occur in low-and middle-income countries(LMICs),particularly in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific Region(as designated by the World Health Organization).7 Food and water risks:Food insecurity affects 2.3 billion people globally,

24、8 particularly in low-income countries where 60%of the population is affected;9 2 billion people around the world lack access to clean water,which affects low-income communities most severely.10 Infectious agents:Nearly 14 million deaths globally per year are infection-related,11 and over half of al

25、l infectious diseases are aggravated by climate change.12These climate change manifestations have diverse health impacts,with more severe and enduring effects in some areas than others.The assessment includes direct impact on health outcomes across different disease areas,as well as indirect impact

26、on the broader social,economic and healthcare factors that have a bearing on health.The assessment of the intersections between climate change and health helped identify 195 high-impact intersections where climate change has the biggest impact on health both directly and indirectly.Extreme weather,a

27、nd food and water risks,were found to have the most widespread and severe health impact compared to other climate change manifestations.Specifically,food and water risks displayed the most extensive direct health impact,while extreme weather and infectious agents showed the most extensive indirect h

28、ealth impact.Despite growing awareness that climate change threatens health,the availability of research efforts to better understand these intersections varies considerably between different climate change manifestations and related phenomena(called“sub-themes”in this report),as well as their healt

29、h effects,as does the availability of actionable guidance to address these impacts.To prioritize the areas most in need of intervention,the team behind this report carried out a comprehensive review of academic studies and reports to identify areas where research and actionable guidance fall short.T

30、he team identified 13,000 unique publications by scraping the web13 and found 39,000 matches with the areas where climate change has a high impact on health.Further,the team identified 22 priority topics spanning 10 health areas.These health areas are significantly affected by a range of climate cha

31、nge manifestations,14 and are designated either as“hot topics”,i.e.those receiving the most actionable guidance at present,or“lagging topics”,i.e.under-researched intersections that lack actionable guidance.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector4The 10 health

32、areas are listed below.Some of these are a mix of both“hot”and“lagging”topics.Priority direct health areas:immune system/infectious diseases(“hot”)nutritional and metabolic diseases(“hot”)neurodevelopment/mental health(“hot”)cardiovascular system(“hot”and“lagging”)respiratory system(“hot”and“lagging

33、”)pregnancy(“lagging”)digestive system(“lagging”)Priority indirect health impact areas:social inequality(“hot”)displacement and migration(“lagging”)health system and infrastructure disruption(“lagging”)The systemic drivers identified were a result of climate change or of pre-existing factors.The mos

34、t common of these drivers are:infrastructural damage or disruption;change in agricultural conditions;change in vector ecology;increased proliferation of contaminants;livelihood disruption and financial loss;health services constraints or access challenges;lack of infrastructure and resources;and gap

35、s in scientific knowledge.Given that many downstream health effects arise from several drivers acting together,interventions directed at addressing these common drivers hold the greatest promise for achieving widespread and effective mitigation of the health impacts of climate change.This report ide

36、ntifies six critical areas for intervention:Early warning systems Healthcare access expansion and equity Critical infrastructure and supply chain resilience Agricultural resilience Access to financial risk management Scientific researchThese areas are ripe for private sector involvement.Engaging pri

37、vate sector stakeholders across industries enables the development of cutting-edge technologies,efficient delivery of interventions and mobilization of financial resources.Clearly,action to enhance resilience and improve health outcomes extends beyond the healthcare and life sciences industry.The ag

38、riculture,construction,energy and transportation sectors also play pivotal roles due to their susceptibility to the effects of climate change and their critical contributions to economies and public infrastructure.The technology and financial sectors can contribute by providing tools and solutions c

39、rucial to enhancing the reach and effectiveness of interventions.A holistic approach towards building resilience,enabling agile response and supporting long-term recovery is crucial for addressing all health effects of climate change.To bring together financial resources with scientific,policy,commu

40、nity and infrastructure stakeholders is of paramount importance,along with ensuring that the private sector,public sector and non-governmental organizations(NGOs)work together.By harnessing the unique resources,expertise and perspectives of each sector,collaboration can unlock synergies,promote incl

41、usivity and maximize the effectiveness and sustainability of initiatives aimed at safeguarding public health in the face of escalating climate challenges.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector5Introduction:Climate change and human healthThe impact of climate c

42、hange on health manifests through different phenomena and drivers.Climate change influences public health through its physical effects on natural,climatic and ecological conditions.These changes pose different risks to health,necessitating the need to better define the manifestations of climate chan

43、ge that affect health.Based on frameworks established by leading climate change organizations,15 this report defines four overarching climate change manifestations(see Figure 1).It uses a largely consistent set of climate change-related natural hazards,as outlined by these frameworks,to define the f

44、allouts of each of the four main manifestations of climate change.This provides a more detailed characterization of the effects of climate change and serves as a guide for subsequent assessments.Defining the manifestations of climate changeClimate change manifestationsFIGURE 1Extreme weatherIncrease

45、 in frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as extreme temperature,wildfires,heavy rainfall,flooding,droughts,hurricanes and other natural disastersAir qualityDecrease in air quality due to increasing presence of harmful air pollutants,allergens and pollenFood and water riskRise of glo

46、bal food and water insecurity and deterioration in quality due to contamination and shifts in nutritional content Infectious agentsIncreasing emergence and spread of infectious diseases due to changes in spread and behaviour of disease-carrying vectors and pathogensSource:L.E.K.Consulting,World Econ

47、omic ForumHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector6Extreme weather is defined as unexpected,unusual,unpredictably severe or unseasonal weather,according to the United Nations(UN)Environment Programme.16 It includes heavy rainfall and flooding,droughts,heatwaves,

48、wildfires,storms,as well as geological hazards such as earthquakes and tsunamis.While these events occur due to natural climate variability,climate change alters their frequency,intensity,spatial extent,duration and timing.This can be attributed directly to increased greenhouse gases(GHGs)in the atm

49、osphere,or its results such as rising temperatures,shifting precipitation patterns,glacier melting,soil erosion,ocean acidification and rising sea levels.Human activities also amplify the likelihood of simultaneous extreme events,such as heatwaves alongside droughts.17Between 2000 and 2019,extreme w

50、eather events are estimated to have caused 1.2 million deaths and affected over 4 billion people.18 Extreme weather events occur across the globe,but the scale of the impact varies by region.For example,from mid-2020 to early 2023,India faced severe droughts,while China experienced significant flood

51、ing and heatwaves.19On average,over 130 million people worldwide are affected by natural disasters annually.20 The increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events disproportionately affects vulnerable populations,including children,pregnant women,older adults,outdoor workers,individuals

52、with disabilities or pre-existing health conditions,and coastal populations.Among the top 25 most climate-vulnerable countries,19 are fragile and/or conflictaffected,underscoring the alarming interplay of conflict,violence and fragility to growing climate and disaster risks.21In addition,extreme wea

53、ther events also contribute to the proliferation of microbial and chemical contaminants,both directly and indirectly.Heavy rainfall,flooding and storms exacerbate run-off of fertilizers and pesticides,leading to toxic algal blooms that endanger aquatic life and human and animal health if contaminate

54、d water is consumed.Moreover,rising air and water temperatures can fuel the growth of water-and food-borne pathogens.Linked to these risks,flooding,storms and hurricanes can disrupt sewage and waste-water disposal systems,further amplifying the spread of waterborne pathogens.Additionally,wildfires h

55、ave the potential to transform naturally occurring soil metals into cancer-causing airborne particles,compounding the health hazards posed by such events.22Extreme weatherAir pollutants and GHGs often come from similar sources,such as combustion of fossil fuels,coal-fired power plants and diesel-fue

56、lled vehicles.Worsening air quality occurs due to higher concentrations of air pollutants,such as carbon monoxide(CO),sulphur oxides(SOx),nitrogen oxides(NOx)and ozone(O3),as well as allergens and pollen.Combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural activities represent the main sources of air polluti

57、on.23 Short-lived climate pollutants such as black carbon,methane,tropospheric ozone and hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs)are the most important contributors to anthropogenic global warming after carbon dioxide(CO2),responsible for up to 45%of current global warming.24 In addition,particle pollution is assoc

58、iated with a wide range of health effects.These particles are emitted directly(primary)or formed from other pollutant gases(secondary)produced from combustion of carbon-based fuels.25 Wildfires,a key primary source of fine particles,are increasing due to climate change.26Warmer temperatures and risi

59、ng CO2 levels lengthen the pollen season,increase pollen concentration and allergenicity,and drive geographical expansion of plant species that produce allergenic pollen.27 Changes in humidity and thunderstorms further exacerbate pollen concentration in the air.It is estimated that one in four peopl

60、e suffer from pollen-related allergies,and severe symptoms can include shortness of breath and swelling of the airways.In Europe,the costs associated with treatment and missed workdays from severe reactions can add up to 150 billion($1.62 billion)each year.28Ambient(outdoor)and household(indoor)air

61、pollution causes 6.7 million premature deaths a year worldwide collectively,91%of these in LMICs.In particular,due to its ability to penetrate much deeper parts of the lungs,fine particulate matter(PM2.5)is driving the most significant health problems and premature mortality,with clear association t

62、o increased mortality from cardiovascular disease,respiratory disease and lung cancer.29 Pregnant and non-pregnant women,Air qualityHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector7children,the elderly,people with chronic conditions,people with low socio-economic status

63、 and people of colour are particularly vulnerable to particle pollution.For instance,due to higher exposure to polluting fuels and technologies at home,household air pollution causes more than 237,000 deaths of children under the age of five.In developed countries,the likelihood of poor air quality

64、is higher in major urbanized and industrial areas.For instance,over 96%of Europes urban population is exposed to air with fine particulate matter above the guidelines set by the World Health Organization(WHO).30 Climate change presents a multifaceted,complex challenge to the availability and quality

65、 of food and water.In addition to direct effects on water availability,it also affects food availability and increases contamination risks through changes in temperature,precipitation patterns and soil microbe composition,and also as a consequence of other climate change manifestations,most notably

66、extreme weather.31 These variables have profound implications on agricultural requirements,crop yield and nutritional quality.They also affect the risk and rate of contaminant proliferation,thereby threatening access,both economically and physically,to clean drinking water,sanitation and food.32 Fre

67、shwater availability and water stress are affected by disruptions to the water cycle,including altered precipitation patterns,accelerated glacier melting,rising temperatures and salinization of groundwater due to rising sea levels.According to the UN,terrestrial water storage has declined by about 1

68、 cm annually over the last two decades.As a result,an estimated 2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water and approximately 50%of the global population faces severe water scarcity for at least part of the year.33 Floods and droughts exacerbate these challenges by increasing the risk of wat

69、er contamination.This can occur due to the proliferation of waterborne pathogens resulting from the disruption of sewage and wastewater systems and stagnant water acting as breeding ground for vector-borne diseases.Sanitation issues,compounded by inadequate clean water supply,further heighten the ri

70、sk of water contamination and the spread of infectious diseases.The United Nations Childrens Fund(UNICEF)reports that 3,000 to 4,000 people die from diseases linked to inadequate water and sanitation every day,with approximately one-quarter of these deaths occurring among children under the age of f

71、ive.34The climate consequences of water extend to food security,safety and nutritional diversity.Reduced agricultural productivity results from increased pest infestation,adverse crop growth conditions,direct damage from extreme climate events and the ripple effects of heightened water scarcity.In 2

72、021,approximately 2.3 billion people faced moderate to severe food insecurity.35 Food and water risksClimate change alters the global distribution of pathogens,increasing the risk of a wide range of infectious diseases,including vector-borne,waterborne,food-borne,airborne and direct-contact diseases

73、.For vector-borne diseases,the shift is fuelled by rising air and water temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns and humidity levels,which create environmental conditions conducive to vector growth,survival and transmission.36 According to the WHO,vector-borne diseases cause 700,000 deaths

74、 annually and this number may continue to increase if preventive action is not taken.37 One study has projected that disease-carrying mosquitoes could reach an additional 500 million people by 2050,38 amplifying the threat of malaria,dengue and chikungunya.Another study has projected that warming te

75、mperatures could expose over 1.3 billion new individuals to Zika virus by 2050.39 Additionally,the risk of infection may also be exacerbated by other climate-related impacts on health,such as the weakening of the immune system due to air pollution and malnutrition due to food insecurity.40Moreover,e

76、xtreme weather occurrences can escalate these risks,triggering sudden spikes in specific vector-borne diseases.For instance,severe flooding in Pakistan in 2022 resulted in a five-fold surge in malaria cases within the country.41 Infectious agentsHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape an

77、d Role of Private Sector8Natural disasters such as heavy rainfall and flooding can compromise critical infrastructure and worsen run-off,leading to the transmission of a wide range of infectious pathogens such as noroviruses,cholera and typhoid.42While not directly caused by climate change,waterborn

78、e,food-borne,airborne and direct-contact pathogens can spread more rapidly due to warming temperatures and other changing ecological conditions.For example,air pollution particles act as vehicles for viral transmission,with a 1 microgram per cubic metre increase in fine particulate pollution corresp

79、onding to a 15%increase in COVID-19 deaths.43 In a 2022 review,climate change exacerbated 58%(218 out of 375)of infectious diseases studied.Changes in farming practices also play a key role,for example with poor-quality irrigation water due to water scarcity contributing to the spread of food-borne

80、and waterborne diseases,and intensified indoor livestock breeding heightening risks of zoonotic pathogen transmission.44 Humans are exposed to the manifestations of climate change through a variety of channels,ultimately leading to a range of health impacts.Apart from directly causing health problem

81、s,the far-reaching effects of climate change on ecosystems,economies,infrastructure and social dynamics can also indirectly affect health.45The health impact of climate change is intricately shaped by environmental,socio-economic,behavioural and personal factors,contributing to variations in health

82、outcomes between individuals.For instance,individuals with lower income,who have limited access to loans or insurance and/or whose livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture,are less likely to have the resources to mitigate health risks and may not be able to afford treatment.46 Moreover,these

83、 demographics often reside in areas geographically more prone to natural disasters and in lower income countries with less developed public infrastructure and policies.According to the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2022,on average every year,LMICs lose 0.8%to 1%of their nati

84、onal GDP(gross domestic product)to disasters,whereas high-and upper middle-income countries lose 0.1%and 0.3%,respectively.Subsequent sections of this report will pinpoint the climate-health intersections most in need of immediate attention,and then offer guidance on the interventions necessary(see

85、Figure 2).The link between climate change and healthAnalysis approachFIGURE 2What needs the most urgent attention?Identify health areas most significantly affected by climate changeAssess volume of evidence with actionable guidance for high-impact intersectionsIdentify health areas most significantl

86、y affected by climate change and that need more actionable guidance195 high-impact intersections13,000 relevant articles with 39,000 matches22 priority topics across 10 priority health areasAssessment of the health impacts of climate changeAnalysis stepObjectiveOutputWhat exactly needs to be done?1A

87、ssessment of available evidence and guidance2Identification of priority topics3Identification of key underlying factors4Identification of interventions 5Understand drivers involved in perpetuating health consequences in the priority topics identifiedIdentify overarching interventions required to add

88、ress systemic drivers11 systemic drivers6 key intervention“themes”Climate-health intersections most in need of immediate attention1Prioritizing health impact areas where climate change has more long-term or severe impact,and which lack actionable guidance,is a key step towards impactful and effectiv

89、e action.The extent to which climate change directly and indirectly impacts health varies substantially across health areas,as does the availability of actionable guidance to address these impacts.The need to identify and prioritize areas for targeted mitigation efforts is critical to ensure efficie

90、nt allocation of resources and effective implementation of interventions.This report presents a comprehensive framework to systematically identify intersections between climate change and health,focusing on areas where the impact is most pronounced.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape

91、 and Role of Private Sector10The team behind this report developed a framework to categorize the impact of climate change on health across the four main manifestations of climate change.This framework took into consideration climate changes direct impact on health outcomes in specific disease areas4

92、7 as well as its indirect health impact through socio-economic factors that act as health determinants.48 For each intersection in the framework,the evaluation of impact considered both the likelihood of occurrence and the severity of the impact.49 The overall approach is summarized in Figure 3.Asse

93、ssing the health impacts of climate change1.1Approach to assessing the impact of climate change on healthFIGURE 3Extreme weatherSix sub-themesBloodEar/mastoid processInfectious disease/immuneNeoplasmsRespiratoryCirculatoryMetabolic/nutritionalInjury/external causesNeurodevelopment/mental healthSkin

94、diseasesDigestiveCommunity healthQuality of lifeSocial inequalityGenitourinaryMusculoskeletalPregnancyVisualAir qualityTwo sub-themesFood and water risksFour sub-themesInfectious agentsFour sub-themes16 climate change sub-themes16 x 25=400 intersections195 high-impact intersections25 health impact a

95、reasSocialDisplacement and migrationInvoluntary migrationHousing damageor lossBroader economic impactPersonal financial lossHealth system disruptionHealthcare infrastructuredamageEconomicInfrastructure and servicesR&DResearch and developmentDirect health outcome groups15 key disease areasIndirect he

96、alth determinants10 broader dimensionsQualitative review of 350 documents-Extreme temperature-Wildfires-Heavy rainfall and flooding-Drought-Storms and hurricanes-Geological hazards-Allergens and pollen-Pollutant concentration-Food availability-Food quality-Water availability-Water quality-Vector-bor

97、ne-Water/food-borne-Airborne-Direct contactSource:L.E.K.ConsultingHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector11Of the 400 climate-health intersections,the analysis yielded 195 high-impact intersections where climate change is more likely to cause harm with severe h

98、ealth consequences(see Figure 4).Overall,extreme weather and food and water risks have the highest proportion of high-impact intersections,indicating more widespread and severe impact on health than other climate change manifestations.Specifically,food and water risks have the most extensive direct

99、health impact,while extreme weather and infectious agents have the most extensive indirect health impact.The significant physical damage typically caused by extreme weather events,which can cause severe physical injury and impair affordability of or access to healthcare services,is a primary driver

100、for its extensive overall and indirect impact.Food and water risks,on the other hand,have the most widespread direct health consequences due to the nature of food and water as fundamental necessities for sustaining life the contamination or inadequacy of which can affect a wide range of essential bo

101、dily functions such as metabolism and immunity.Similar to extreme weather events,infectious agents tendency to drive a rapid increase in demand for healthcare services and to disable societal functioning are key contributors to their extensive indirect impact.More in-depth analysis of the underlying

102、 drivers involved in specific intersections will be discussed in later parts of the report in the context of priority areas.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector12Distribution of high-impact intersectionsFIGURE 4Source:L.E.K.ConsultingExtreme weatherAir quali

103、tyFood and water risksVector ecologyHeavy rainfall and floodingDroughtWildfiresExtreme temperaturesStorms and hurricanesGeological hazardsAllergens and pollenAir pollutantsWater qualityWater securityFood quality Food security Vector-borneFood-and waterborneAirborneDirect contact Direct health outcom

104、e groupsImmuneNeoplasmsBloodMetabolic/nutritionalMental healthVisualEar/mastoid processCirculatoryRespiratory systemDigestive systemSkinMusculoskeletalGenitourinaryPregnancyInjuryIndirect health determinantsSocial inequalityQuality of lifeCommunity healthPersonal financial lossBroader economic situa

105、tionHousing damage/lossInvoluntary migrationHealth systems disruptionHealthcare infrastructure damageResearch and developmentHigh-impact intersectionsHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector13The team carried out an analysis to compare variance in the research a

106、nd guidance available for addressing the health impacts of climate change,and assess where the gaps lie.Scraping the web for publicly available,English-language,climate and health resources published from 2018 to 2023,including academic literature and publications from credible organizations active

107、in the climate and health space,50 the team gathered 13,000 unique articles.These yielded 39,000 matches with high-impact intersections(one article could match with multiple high-impact intersections;see Figure 5).Despite notching the highest number of high-impact intersections,wildfires,storms and

108、hurricanes,and geological hazards had a below-average number of matches displaying a disparity between their health impact significance and the amount of available research and guidance.This highlights a notable skew in global research attention towards key focal points such as direct-contact diseas

109、es(possibly due to global efforts towards the COVID-19 pandemic)and air pollutant concentrations(due to their central role in the greenhouse effect and climate change),while potentially neglecting other climate change topics with equally significant impacts on health.Assessing available evidence and

110、 guidance1.2Research available for each climate change manifestation sub-themeFIGURE 5Air qualityFood and waterInfectious agentsAverage number of relevant articles per high-impact intersection20004006008001,0001,2005002002006502002002009005003005004006002003001,100Heavy rainfall,floodingDroughtWildf

111、iresExtreme temperaturesStorms and hurricanesGeological hazardsAllergens and pollenAir pollutantsWater qualityWater securityFood qualityFood securityVector-borne diseasesWater-/food-borne diseasesAirborne diseasesAirborne diseases141017101516261413121310111114Number of high-impact intersections(maxi

112、mum 25 per sub-area)Indirect impactDirect impactExtreme weatherNote:Evidence that covers multiple climate change sub-themes or both direct health and indirect health impact areas is double-counted.Source:L.E.K.ConsultingHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector14

113、Geographical distribution:As shown in Figure 6,most available evidence is for Asia and North America,while available evidence is lowest for South America.This is in contrast to the level of climate risk:based on the Germanwatch Global Climate Risk Index 2021,51 50%of South American countries,38%of A

114、sian countries and 29%of African countries rank within the top quartile of countries most affected by climate risk.52 Conversely,less than 15%of countries in North America,Europe and Oceania fall within the top quartile.These findings suggest that current research efforts are not adequately focused

115、on countries facing the highest climate risks,particularly in South America and Africa,indicating a critical need for additional targeted research in these regions.Geographical distribution of available evidenceFIGURE 6Number of relevant articlesExtreme weatherAir qualityFood and water risks4,000Afr

116、icaAsiaEuropeNorth AmericaOceaniaSouth America4,0008,0006,0002,0001,8002,0004,0006,0008,00010,00035%30%25%10%35%20%15%30%35%30%25%15%30%30%25%10%35%25%5%30%40%35%5%25%Infectious agentsNote:Evidence that had matches with multiple regions or climate change manifestations is double-counted;Armenia,Azer

117、baijan,Cyprus,Georgia and Turkey are classified as Asian countries by the United Nations Statistics Division.Source:L.E.K.ConsultingAvailability of actionable guidance:Some 5,700 of the 13,000 articles identified contained actionable guidance on mitigation or adaptation(see Figure 7).Nearly 50-60%of

118、 the identified articles on air quality,food and water risks,and infectious agents contained actionable guidance.In contrast,actionable guidance was notably lacking for extreme weather,with only 35%of identified articles containing such guidance.Considering that extreme weather had the highest impac

119、t on health,particularly in terms of indirect factors such as quality of life or personal financial loss,the gap in actionable guidance is notable.Target stakeholders for actionable guidance:As many as 3,200(56%of 5,700)articles provided actionable guidance to the private or public sectors or both(s

120、ee Figure 8).For air quality,food and water risks,and infectious agents,some 37%of evidence catered to both sectors,with 22%tailored specifically to the private sector.In contrast,evidence for extreme weather was more sector-agnostic,indicating a need for additional evidence to facilitate sector-spe

121、cific actions.Overall,the availability of guidance for both the private and public sectors highlights the importance of collaboration in addressing climate-related health risks,while there is also ample evidence to support the private sector to act independently.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evid

122、ence Landscape and Role of Private Sector15Availability of actionable guidance by climate change manifestationFIGURE 7%of relevant articlesActionableNon-actionable02040608010013,000All high-impactintersections7,1002,4003,7005,20045%(5,700)55%65%45%40%50%35%(2,500)55%(1,300)60%(2,200)50%(2,600)Air qu

123、alityFood and waterInfectious agentsExtreme weatherNote:Evidence that is relevant to multiple climate change manifestations is double-counted.Source:L.E.K.ConsultingTarget stakeholder of evidence containing actionable guidanceFIGURE 8%of relevant articlesNeither public nor privateOnly publicOnly pri

124、vateBoth private and public0204060801005,700All actionable evidence2,5001,3002,2002,600Air qualityFood and waterInfectious agentsExtreme weather28%18%11%44%52%9%17%22%37%22%14%28%30%11%23%37%36%22%11%31%Note:Evidence that is relevant to multiple climate change manifestations is double-counted in the

125、 four bars on the right of the chart.Source:L.E.K.ConsultingHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector16As the global community grapples with the increasingly urgent need for solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change,it is imperative for stakeholders,inclu

126、ding the private sector,to strategically allocate resources towards impactful initiatives.This report prioritizes and narrows the focus on a select range of target areas for the private sector to streamline its efforts,allocate resources efficiently and drive meaningful impact at scale.The analysis

127、across all 25 health impact areas aims to provide an overarching view of what current research is most focused on and to inform future research directions.However,some of these areas may not be best suited as focus areas for intervention by the private sector and have therefore been excluded from th

128、e priority topic selection process:Quality of life(QoL):QoL is a result of a complex network of factors.Health-related QoL(HRQoL),in particular,is influenced by external factors such as disease,injury,healthcare and policy.53 As a result,intersections of climate change and health as related to QoL h

129、ave not been considered as priority topics since the resolution of QoL concerns requires addressing other high-impact intersections that represent the upstream causes of reduced QoL.Community health:There is emerging evidence that climate change can have a significant influence on crime and violence

130、,such as increased levels of domestic violence during an outbreak of direct-contact diseases,54 and increasing rates of violence associated with increase in temperatures.55 However,the intersection of climate change with community health has not been considered a priority topic because community hea

131、lth is a multifaceted societal issue and the primary responsibility for safeguarding and improving it rests with the public sector due to the central role of regulatory authorities and law enforcement.Research and development(R&D):The impact of climate change on R&D is mostly on disruptions to drug

132、development and difficulty conducting clinical trials.Pharmaceutical stakeholders can leverage findings from earlier parts of this report to inform future research direction,but given that the objective of this report is to provide guidance on cross-sector collaboration,intersections with R&D have n

133、ot been considered as priority topics.To identify priority topics,each of the four climate change manifestations was evaluated independently to maintain a clear focus on the specific dynamics and challenges of each.Factors taken into consideration include the volume of actionable evidence,the abunda

134、nce of high-impact intersections for each health impact area(i.e.whether multiple or the majority of intersections between climate change manifestations and a particular health impact areas are classified as high-impact),and the suitability for intervention by the private sector.Considering all thes

135、e factors,a total of 22 priority topics for intervention have been identified,the mapping of which is presented in Figure 9 and summarized in Figure 10.Two types of priority topics are identified:Hot topics:Intersections with higher volume of actionable evidence relative to the other high-impact int

136、ersections,representing areas of considerable existing attention,which highlights their critical importance and the need for continued focus and increased private sector intervention to drive further impact.Lagging topics:Intersections with lower volume of actionable evidence relative to the other h

137、igh-impact intersections,representing areas of high impact that are currently under-addressed or overlooked,indicating the need for increased attention and resources to mitigate their effects.Priority health areas for intervention1.3Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Pri

138、vate Sector17Mapping of priority topics for interventionsFIGURE 9Volume of actionable evidence(represented by bubble size)HotLaggingPriority topic numberAir qualityFood and waterInfectious agentsExtreme weatherInjury/external causesImmuneMusculoskeletalDigestiveNeoplasmsCardiovascularMetabolic/nutri

139、tional BloodNeurodevelopment/mental healthPregnancyRespiratoryGenitourinarySkin132489121234106Social inequalityPersonal financial lossBroader economic impactLoss of shelter or housingInvoluntary migrationHealth system disruptionHealthcare infrastructure 1051112136N N789Heavy rainfall,floodingDrought

140、WildfiresExtreme temperaturesStorms and hurricanesGeological hazardsAllergens and pollenAir pollutantsWater qualityWater securityFood qualityFood securityVector-borne diseasesWater-/food-borne diseasesAirborne diseasesAirborne diseasesNote:The sizes of the bubbles are relative only to others within

141、the same climate change manifestation and within each health area type(i.e.the sizes of bubbles cannot be directly compared across multiple climate change manifestations or between direct vs.indirect health areas).Source:L.E.K.ConsultingHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of

142、 Private Sector18Priority topics for intervention,by climate change manifestationFIGURE 101Floodings impact on infectious diseases2Droughts impact on nutritional and metabolic diseases3Extreme temperatures impact on the cardiovascular system4Extreme weather events impact on mental health5Drought and

143、 extreme temperatures impact on social inequality and personal financial loss1Extreme weather events impact on pregnancy2Extreme weather events impact on displacement and migration3Extreme weather events impact on health system and infrastructure5Food and water quality and availabilitys impact on th

144、e digestive system6Water and food availabilitys impact on migration7Food and water quality and availabilitys impact on healthcare infrastructure8Infectious diseases impact on pregnancy9Infectious diseases impact on healthcare infrastructure4Allergens and pollens impact on the cardiovascular and resp

145、iratory system8Water qualitys impact on infectious diseases9Food quality and availabilitys impact on nutritional and metabolic diseases10Food and water quality and availabilitys impact on mental health11Water quality and food availabilitys impact on social inequality6Air pollutants impact on the res

146、piratory system7Air pollutants impact on social inequality12Vector-borne and direct contact diseases impact on the immune system13Direct-contact diseases impact on social inequality and personal financial lossExtreme weatherTotal=22 priority topicsHot topicLagging topicAir qualityFood and water risk

147、sInfectious agentsSource:L.E.K.ConsultingPriority health impact areas The priority topics identified through this mapping exercise lie across a total of 10 health impact areas,seven of which are direct health outcome groups and three are indirect health determinants(see Figure 11).The following sect

148、ion will discuss findings regarding the priority topics by health impact area.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector19Health impact areas and priority topics identifiedFIGURE 11Extreme weatherAir qualityFood and water risksInfectious agentsDirect health outcom

149、e groups1.Cardiovascular2.Digestive3.Immune/infectious diseases4.Nutritional/metabolic5.Neurodevelopment/mental health6.Pregnancy7.RespiratoryIndirect health determinants8.Social inequality/personal financial loss9.Displacement and migration10.Health system and infrastructure disruptionHot topicLagg

150、ing topicSource:L.E.K.ConsultingCardiovascular systemThe priority topics identified through this mapping exercise lie across a total of 10 health impact areas,seven of which are direct health outcome groups and three are indirect health determinants(see Figure 11).The following section will discuss

151、findings regarding the priority topics by health impact area.Climate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Hot topic)Impact of extreme temperature on the cardiovascular systemAir quality(Lagging topic)Impact of allergens and pollen on the cardiovascular systemHealth Impacts of Climate Ch

152、ange:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector20As part of the analysis,all intersections between the cardiovascular system and extreme weather,apart from drought,were classified as high-impact(including heavy rainfall and flooding,wildfires,storms and geological hazards).Extreme temperature was

153、 prioritized due to the substantial volume of actionable evidence available nearly three times more than the average for all high-impact intersections between extreme weather and the cardiovascular system.However,actionable evidence still only represents 30%of the total evidence available for extrem

154、e temperatures impact on the cardiovascular system,indicating a gap in research dedicated to providing actionable guidance.Extreme temperatures heat or cold can strain the cardiovascular system from the need to maintain thermoregulation,increasing the risk of heart conditions such as heart attack,ar

155、rhythmia and heart failure,which may elevate cardiovascular mortality rates,particularly among the elderly and individuals with pre-existing heart diseases.56 Early warning systems are vital for reducing heatwave-related health risks,providing time to health systems and individuals for preparation a

156、nd action.A pilot project on an early warning system for heatwaves in China,part of a broader initiative funded by the WHO and the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP),emphasized the necessity of multisectoral cooperation in system design and implementation.57The impact of allergens and pollen

157、 on the cardiovascular system is a considerably under-researched area,with approximately 80%less actionable evidence available compared to the average for all high-impact intersections between air pollutants and direct health outcome groups.This can be attributed to the limited understanding of how

158、exposure to allergens and pollen links to cardiovascular diseases,with current hypotheses suggesting a potential association with increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines or other inflammatory mediators.58 Further research into this area can help inform future guidance and potentially help prev

159、ent the exacerbation of cardiovascular diseases due to climate change.Digestive systemThe priority topics identified through this mapping exercise lie across a total of 10 health impact areas,seven of which are direct health outcome groups and three are indirect health determinants(see Figure 11).Th

160、e following section will discuss findings regarding the priority topics by health impact area.Climate change manifestationPriority topicFood and water risks(Lagging topic)Impact of food and water quality and security on the digestive systemThe intersections between the climate change sub-themes of f

161、ood and water risks with the digestive system have all been evaluated as high-impact,highlighting the critical vulnerability of the digestive system.However,these intersections are substantially under-researched.The average volume of actionable evidence available for other direct health outcome grou

162、ps that have high-impact intersections with all food and water risks sub-themes(namely immune system/infectious diseases,neurodevelopment and mental health,pregnancy and nutritional and metabolic diseases)exceeds the research available for the digestive system by a factor greater than five.Consumpti

163、on of contaminated water is associated with gastrointestinal(GI)illness outbreaks,particularly when sanitation is compromised due to water scarcity.59 Densely populated,low-income areas are particularly vulnerable due to inadequate sanitation infrastructure,often with poor sewerage systems and limit

164、ed access to toilets,leading to increased water contamination risks,especially in low-lying areas vulnerable to stormwater discharge.60 Contaminated food and food insecurity can lead to food poisoning and infectious GI symptoms such as diarrhoea,vomiting and gastroenteritis.There is also evidence su

165、ggesting that alterations to soil composition due to climate change can affect gut microbiota,thereby influencing the incidence of functional GI diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease(IBD)and GI cancers,61 though additional research is required to inform future treatment needs and a shift in ag

166、ricultural approaches.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector21Immune system and infectious diseasesThe immune system stands out as a high-impact intersection with nearly all sub-themes within extreme weather,food and water risks,and infectious agents.Specifica

167、lly,intersections of heavy rainfall,flooding and water quality with vector-borne and direct-contact diseases have been identified as priority areas due to the significant volume of actionable evidence available,ranging from approximately 1.5-3 times higher than other high-impact intersections involv

168、ing the immune system/infectious diseases.Notably,within extreme weather,heavy rainfall and flooding was prioritized even though a similarly large volume of actionable evidence was available for wildfires and storms.Heavy rainfall and flooding had the lowest percentage of actionable evidence relativ

169、e to its total evidence pool,with only 21%of total evidence containing actionable guidance,while actionable evidence represented 40%to 50%of the total evidence available for wildfires and storms.The intersections of flooding,water quality and vector-borne diseases with the immune system present comp

170、lex and interconnected challenges that demand immediate attention.Floods and compromised water quality are intrinsically linked,with heavy rainfall and flooding exacerbating water contamination primarily through increased surface run-off and disruptions in sewage and wastewater systems during floodi

171、ng events,heightening the risk of waterborne diseases.62 Moreover,stagnant water resulting from heavy rainfall and flooding is fertile breeding ground for disease-carrying vectors such as mosquitoes,facilitating the spread of vector-borne diseases such as West Nile virus.Low-lying coastal cities sus

172、ceptible to rising sea levels and flooding are particularly vulnerable to disease outbreaks following natural disasters.Especially in East and Southeast Asia,simultaneous population growth and urban expansion in coastal areas increases the risk of such outbreaks in densely populated areas.63 These i

173、nterconnected dynamics highlight the urgent need for measures to enhance water management and sanitation infrastructure.Such actions are critical for safeguarding access to safe drinking water,bolstering resilience against natural disasters to minimize disruptions to water supply and mitigating the

174、proliferation of disease-spreading vectors.Vector-borne diseases constitute over 17%of all infectious diseases,according to the WHO.64 Considering how the behaviour and habitat range of disease-carrying vectors are changing with the climate,there is a pressing need for innovative vector-control stra

175、tegies and a reassessment of geographical demographics to address the shifting distribution of vector populations towards new areas.To address these challenges,the interconnectedness of the health of humans,animals and the environment should be recognized.This integrated approach,bringing together s

176、takeholders across human,animal and environmental health,can lead to more effective control and prevention measures against vector-borne diseases,zoonotic diseases and food safety in the context of climate change.65 Climate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Hot topic)Impact of water

177、quality on infectious diseasesFood and water risksInfectious agents(Hot topic)Impact of vector-borne and direct-contact diseases on the immune systemHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector22Nutritional and metabolic diseasesClimate change manifestationPriority

178、topicExtreme weather(Hot topic)Impact of drought on nutritional and metabolic diseases(Hot topic)Impact of food and water quality and security on nutritional and metabolic diseasesFood and water risksNutritional and metabolic diseases are a key health area affected by all four sub-themes of food and

179、 water risks,as well as by select extreme weather sub-themes,including heavy rain and flooding,drought and geological hazards.Specifically,the intersections with drought,food quality and food availability emerged as priority hot topics due to the two to four times higher volume of actionable evidenc

180、e available compared to the other high-impact intersections involving nutritional and metabolic diseases,indicating their critical importance and the ongoing need for focused action.The increasing frequency and severity of droughts pose a growing risk of malnutrition for millions worldwide.The Horn

181、of Africa,for example,experienced its worst drought in 40 years in 2022,leaving over 1.7 million children across Ethiopia,Kenya and Somalia in urgent need of treatment for severe acute malnutrition.66 Apart from reducing crop yield,droughts also deplete soil nutrients,exacerbating global micronutrie

182、nt deficiencies estimated to affect more than 2 billion people.67 Beyond malnutrition,limited food variety and reduced intake can also increase the risk of metabolic conditions.For instance,chronic food insecurity has been linked to the development of diseases such as type-2 diabetes.68 Initiatives

183、to fortify food,particularly through private sector partnerships,have shown promise in addressing nutritional deficiencies.69 However,agricultural interventions focusing on sustainable and resilient agricultural practices,such as multi-cropping and cover cropping,and increasing the use of agricultur

184、al technologies such as satellite imagery and crop and soil simulators,are essential for preventing nutritional and metabolic diseases caused by climate change.This is especially true given that agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for 86%of rural populations globally,who are also the mos

185、t vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition.70Moreover,the contamination of food with pesticides poses the significant health risk of disruption to hormonal function.71 Considering heightened pesticide contamination risks due to surface run-offs from heavy rainfall and increased volatilization from incr

186、eased temperatures,72 there is a pressing need for further research to understand the precise mechanisms through which pesticides affect the hormonal system.Neurodevelopment and mental healthClimate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Hot topic)Impact of extreme weather on mental healt

187、h(Hot topic)Impact of food and water quality and availability on neurodevelopment and mental healthFood and water risksAll intersections of extreme weather and food and water risks with neurodevelopmental and mental health were evaluated as high-impact intersections.These were selected as priority h

188、ot topics given the consistent and significant impact by both climate change manifestations.Research indicates extreme weather events are strongly correlated with an increase in the occurrence and severity of mental health and neurological disorders.This includes a range of conditions such as depres

189、sion,anxiety,memory impairment,sleep disturbances and isolation,as well as risk of self-harm and suicide.73Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector23Livelihood disruptions and displacement,triggered by extreme weather events,can have profound effects on individu

190、al,family and community support mechanisms.These disruptions may include loss of employment,damage to property and the depletion of financial resources,which can destabilize the foundational support systems that individuals rely on for day-to-day functioning.Additionally,the strain on community reso

191、urces,such as healthcare,education and local governance,can further erode the resilience of communities.Collectively,these factors contribute to a pervasive sense of insecurity and significantly elevate the risk of psychological distress among those affected.During a crisis,emotional distress is a c

192、ommon and expected reaction and most individuals tend to improve when appropriate supports are provided.These supports,which aim to strengthen individual,familial and community systems,play a crucial role in fostering resilience and facilitating recovery.However,some individuals may experience more

193、severe distress that impairs their daily functioning and requires targeted psychological interventions.A small percentage of these cases may necessitate specialized clinical care to address more complex mental health needs.According to the IASC MHPSS Guidelines(2007),recognizing the varied levels of

194、 support needed is essential in tailoring interventions that effectively address the continuum of mental health challenges following a crisis.Particularly vulnerable are children and individuals with pre-existing mental health conditions or physical disabilities,who may experience prolonged psycholo

195、gical distress following natural disasters.75 Similarly,water and food insecurity compounds stress and social isolation,increasing the risk of depression,anxiety and suicide.76Beyond these mental health concerns,the increasing threat to water and food quality and security also has implications for n

196、eurocognitive conditions.For instance,childhood exposure to substances like mercury,arsenic and prions has been shown to have long-term neurotoxic effects.77 This risk is heightened by the changing soil and water chemistry resulting from climate change,which is increasing the bioavailability of such

197、 neurotoxic substances.78 Additionally,childhood malnutrition is associated with impaired cognitive development.79 In response to these challenges,it is vital to promote and protect the mental health and psychosocial well-being of all communities,including the most vulnerable,at all levels of climat

198、e action policies and plans from preparedness and prevention to response and recovery.This includes strengthening promotive and preventative mental health and psychosocial services in the community;developing or improving mental health service delivery systems,and ensuring equitable access to care,t

199、raining and support for first responders across sectors to recognize and address mental health needs;reducing the risk of food and water contamination;preserving livelihoods dependent on food and water availability;and minimizing social and economic disruption following natural disasters.Pregnancy a

200、nd the perinatal periodClimate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Lagging topic)Impact of extreme weather on pregnancy(Lagging topic)Impact of infectious diseases on pregnancyInfectious agentsThe impact of climate change on pregnancy represents a key under-researched climate-health in

201、tersection.Almost all intersections of extreme weather,food and water risks,and infectious agents with pregnancy were assessed as high impact,but the volume of actionable evidence available was two to three times less than that available for other health areas that are also consistently affected.Fur

202、thermore,only 30%of all evidence that identified the impact of extreme temperature and geological hazards on pregnancy contained actionable guidance.Exposure to extreme weather events and its secondary effects,such as poor air quality resulting from wildfires,psychological distress from physical dam

203、age or livelihood disruption,and nutritional deficiency from food supply disruption,have been linked to a range of adverse pregnancy outcomes.These include preterm birth,labour complications,miscarriage,impaired foetal growth and birth defects.80 Additionally,temporary immunosuppression due to viral

204、 infection,heightened dehydration and reduced oxygen Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector24availability in maternal blood due to infectious diseases can increase the risk of maternal anaemia,miscarriage,premature delivery and low birth-weight.81As a“lagging”

205、topic with limited actionable evidence,there is a pressing need for further research to understand how extreme weather events and infectious diseases impact maternal and neonatal health.This research can provide valuable insights into treatment needs and interventions to improve pregnancy outcomes.A

206、dditionally,enhancing access to medical care and health monitoring solutions is essential for mitigating the health impacts of climate change on pregnant women.This is especially crucial in LMICs,such as those in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia,where the level of antenatal care is already low and

207、where populations are at a higher risk of natural disasters and face a higher disease burden.82 Closing the healthcare access gap in these regions is vital for safeguarding the health and well-being of pregnant women and their infants in the face of climate-related challenges.Respiratory systemClima

208、te change manifestationPriority topic(Hot topic)Impact of air pollutants on the respiratory systemAir quality(Lagging topic)Impact of allergens and pollen on the respiratory systemAir qualityThe impact of air quality on the respiratory system is a subject of heightened interest but has received vary

209、ing degrees of research.While the effects of air pollutants are widely recognized,awareness regarding allergens and pollen remains comparatively low.This discrepancy is highlighted by the substantial disparity in the volume of actionable evidence available,with research on the respiratory impact of

210、air pollutants outweighing that of allergens and pollen by a factor of 3.5.Moreover,the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the detrimental health impacts of poor air quality because they often have pre-existing chronic lung and cardiovascular conditions coupled with diminished immunity associate

211、d with aging.83 Given this disparity,additional research into understanding the respiratory effects of allergens and pollen is critically important.Moreover,the development of improved monitoring solutions,such as pollen count forecasting and reporting,can enhance community preparedness and reduce o

212、verall exposure to respiratory hazards.84 Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector25Social inequality and personal financial lossClimate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Hot topic)Impact of air pollutants on social inequality(Hot topic)Impact of

213、 water quality and food security on social inequalityAir qualityFood and water risksInfectious agentsSocial inequality has high-impact intersections with all climate change sub-themes apart from allergens and pollen,highlighting it as a key area of vulnerability to climate change.Specifically,the in

214、tersections with drought,extreme temperatures,air pollutants,water quality,food security and direct contact diseases emerged as priority hot topics due to the substantial volume of actionable evidence available for these intersections up to three times higher than the average volume of evidence avai

215、lable for other high-impact intersections involving social inequality.For personal financial loss,drought and direct-contact diseases were prioritized given that the volume of actionable evidence available was up to six times higher than for other high-impact intersections involving personal financi

216、al loss.This highlights the critical importance of addressing the financial impact of drought and direct-contact diseases and the ongoing need for focused action.Personal financial loss is closely connected with social inequality,as marginalized communities often lack access to insurance and loans a

217、nd rely heavily on climate-dependent livelihoods such as agriculture.Consequently,financial loss is one way in which climate change amplifies social inequality.Wealth disparities intensify the vulnerability of marginalized populations to the adverse impacts of climate change,thereby perpetuating a v

218、icious cycle of inequality and poor health outcomes.For instance,droughts disproportionately affect women in developing countries,as women constitute over 50%of the global agricultural workforce but possess significantly fewer land rights and decision-making power.85 Air pollution has a greater impa

219、ct on lower-income groups,as they tend to live in more polluted industrial areas with limited green spaces.86 Importantly,vulnerable populations often have restricted access to healthcare services due to financial constraints or because they reside in rural areas lacking medical facilities.87 To eff

220、ectively address the impact of climate change on social inequality,it is crucial to rectify these pre-existing inequities,ensuring that the most vulnerable communities receive adequate support and empowerment to withstand the challenges posed by a changing climate.Displacement and migrationClimate c

221、hange manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Lagging topic)Impact of extreme weather events on displacement and migration(Lagging topic)Impact of water and food availability on involuntary migrationFood and water risks(Hot topic)Impact of drought and extreme temperature on social inequality and

222、personal financial loss(Hot topic)Impact of direct contact diseases on social inequality and personal financial lossHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector26Displacement and migration emerged as a priority topic given that they are significantly affected by all

223、 extreme weather sub-themes(heavy rainfall and flooding,droughts,extreme temperatures,etc.)and due to the consistent lack of actionable evidence compared to other indirect health impact areas.All extreme weather sub-themes are likely to cause involuntary migration due to safety risks or livelihood d

224、isruptions.Additionally,with the exception of droughts and extreme temperatures,they can also lead to displacement due to housing or shelter damage.88 The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre attributed an average of 22.5 million internal displacements to weather-related disasters from 2008 to 20

225、22,89 and 75%of global displacements in 2020 to natural disasters.90 Likewise,scarcity of or compromised access to food and water can prompt both internal and international migration.According to the UN,water deficits alone are linked to approximately 10%of the surge in global migration between 1970

226、 and 2000.91To address displacement and migration,it is essential to build community resilience against natural disasters and food and water insecurity,with a particular emphasis on developing countries that are disproportionately affected by these challenges.For instance,in 2022,Afghanistan,Banglad

227、esh,the Philippines,Haiti and Senegal emerged as the five countries most affected by climate displacement.92 Yet,this critical topic is currently under-researched and lacks actionable guidance,highlighting the urgent need for awareness creation and action.This demands collaborative efforts between t

228、he private and public sectors to secure funding,improve infrastructure,enact policy changes and engage communities in adopting resilient approaches.Health systems and infrastructure disruptionClimate change manifestationPriority topicExtreme weather(Lagging topic)Impact of extreme weather on healthc

229、are system and infrastructure disruption(Lagging topic)Impact of food and water quality and security on healthcare system and infrastructure disruptionFood and water risksInfectious agents(Lagging topic)Impact of infectious diseases on healthcare system and infrastructure disruptionHealthcare system

230、s and infrastructure were identified as priority”lagging”topics across extreme weather,food and water risks,and infectious agents,due to their susceptibility to climate change impact across these three climate change manifestations and the consistently lower volume of actionable evidence available c

231、ompared to other high-impact intersections.Food and water security,extreme weather events and infectious disease outbreaks present distinct challenges to healthcare systems and infrastructure but also have similar disruptive impacts:they disrupt supply chains,leading to shortages of critical medical

232、 supplies;93 they cause sudden increase in patient admissions due to mass casualties;and contaminated food and water sources and infectious agents can trigger large-scale disease outbreaks.94 Routine healthcare services can also be disrupted as resources are redirected,particularly during disease ou

233、tbreaks,towards outbreak control and containment measures.95 Additionally,water insecurity compromises sanitation standards in healthcare facilities,while extreme weather events such as hurricanes and earthquakes pose a unique threat of direct physical damage to healthcare facilities,potentially ren

234、dering them temporarily or permanently inoperable.96Addressing these challenges requires improved resilience measures and response capacities.This highlights the critical role of the private sector in enhancing infrastructure and supply chain resilience,expanding access to healthcare services and ad

235、vancing disaster prediction and preparedness through innovative technologies.All this requires cross-sector collaboration,including engagement with the health workforce to enhance response preparedness and policy changes enacted by the public sector to drive healthcare access expansion.Health Impact

236、s of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector27Engaging the private sector in climate-health interventions2Translating insights into impact requires collaborative action in the fight against climate change.Involvement of the private sector is not only beneficial but necessaryThe

237、climate-health nexus analysis detailed in this report provides a foundation for future action by pinpointing priority climate-health intersections that are most in need of targeted interventions.While the public sector shoulders significant responsibility in responding to climate change emergencies,

238、private sector involvement is vital for accelerating and augmenting these efforts.The 2022 Global Landscape of Climate Finance showed that private climate finance has been increasing at half the rate of public finance.97 Private organizations possess specialized knowledge and expertise across variou

239、s industries,which can be leveraged to augment the public sectors response capabilities.By tapping into industry-specific insights and resources,collaborative efforts can adopt a more comprehensive and coordinated approach:Innovation and technology:Private sector innovation drives the development of

240、 cutting-edge technologies and solutions to address climate and health challenges,leading to improved resilience and health outcomes.Expertise and specialization:Private organizations bring expertise and experience as well as specialized skills across diverse industries to climate and health interve

241、ntions,which can provide valuable insights and tailored approaches for climate interventions.Financial resources:Private sector partnerships can mobilize significant financial resources for research,development and implementation of interventions,unlocking new funding sources and investment opportun

242、ities.Efficiency and scale:As businesses often have more agile and adaptable operational capabilities,private sector involvement can enhance efficiency,cost-effectiveness,and scalability of interventions,optimizing processes and maximizing resources for widespread impact.Accountability and credibili

243、ty:With appropriate accountability mechanisms,greater involvement of the private sector can ensure adherence to rigorous standards,regulations and best practices,ensuring the integrity and effectiveness of interventions.Furthermore,as the manifestations of climate change become more frequent and sev

244、ere,businesses face escalating risks,such as interruptions,physical damage and adverse effects on staff health and productivity.Recognizing these risks,private sector involvement becomes not only beneficial but necessary to safeguard business interests and strengthen community resilience.Sectors and

245、 industries need to act together To achieve a comprehensive and sustained response to climate-induced health challenges,collaborative efforts between the private sector and other stakeholders,such as public institutions,non-governmental organizations and communities,are essential.While the pharmaceu

246、tical and healthcare sectors hold pivotal positions,other sectors such as energy and utilities,transportation and agriculture,wield considerable influence on mitigating the impact of climate change on health.By embracing partnerships and sharing expertise,they can develop holistic solutions that add

247、ress the multifaceted impacts of climate change on public health.Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector28Particular populations are disproportionately vulnerable to the health consequences across all priority topics identifiedAcross the priority topics identif

248、ied,infants and children,women(pregnant and non-pregnant),the elderly,and lower-income individuals and countries consistently emerge as highly vulnerable.This is driven by a mix of physiological,geographical and social factors,often overlapping between populations.Infants,children,the elderly and pr

249、egnant women are particularly susceptible across priority health areas due to weakened physiological functions stemming from immaturity,frailty and pregnancy-related alterations,making them less adaptable to environmental shifts,such as increasing temperatures,and less effective in combating infecti

250、ons.98 Pregnant women face additional risks to both maternal and foetal health,including complications such as anaemia,low birth weight and miscarriage.99 Notably,air pollution is implicated in approximately 20%of newborn deaths.100 Women,in general,face heightened vulnerability due to gender inequa

251、lity,with their livelihoods more reliant on natural resources and limited capacity to withstand and recover from natural disasters.101 Geographical vulnerability and social vulnerability are deeply intertwined in climate changes health impacts.While countries such as the United States(US)and Austral

252、ia are also prone to environmental hazards like heat waves and wildfires,they are generally more able to implement effective measures as they have the requisite financial resources.102 In contrast,lower-income countries,including many in Africa and among the Small Island Developing States in the Car

253、ibbean and Pacific regions,lack adequate resources to cope with hazards like rising sea levels,extreme heat,vector-borne diseases and food insecurity.103 Nevertheless,vulnerability extends beyond national borders,encompassing socially disadvantaged populations within and outside these countries.Thes

254、e marginalized groups,including lower-income individuals and racial minorities,confront interconnected challenges,including higher rates of pre-existing medical conditions,substandard living conditions and limited access to healthcare services.104 Their vulnerability is compounded by restricted digi

255、tal connectivity and technological resources,limiting their ability to access critical information and support.In developed countries too,rural populations face vulnerabilities due to limited digital access and healthcare services.105 This intricate web of geographical and social vulnerabilities und

256、erscores the urgent need for comprehensive,equity-focused approaches to climate resilience and adaptation.A comprehensive approach to mitigating the health impacts of climate change is requiredTo address the priority topics identified in a sustainable and effective manner,it is critical to understan

257、d their underlying drivers.To ensure a comprehensive response that encompasses both prevention and reaction,interventions should aim to achieve three main objectives:Resilience:Interventions should focus on enhancing the ability and capacity to foresee and better manage the adverse effects of climat

258、e change and recover quickly from its impacts.Response:Interventions should be conducted during or immediately after climate events/circumstances,focusing on saving lives and protecting community assets.Recovery:Interventions should be sustained over a longer time horizon,spanning months to years af

259、ter climate events/circumstances,aimed at supporting affected communities by restoring physical infrastructure as well as social,economic,emotional and physical well-being.Currently,while funding for renewable energy has seen the most substantial increase within climate finance,there is a notable sh

260、ortfall in adaptation and resilience finance,especially in crucial sectors including agriculture,forestry,land use,industry and water management.106 Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector29For the 22 priority topics,a detailed analysis helped identify the key

261、underlying,contributing factors that add to the direct effects of climate change on peoples health(see Figure 12 as an example;the causal chain analysis for other priority topics can be found under section A4 in the appendix).This analysis aimed to identify the necessary interventions,specifically f

262、ocusing on opportunities for private sector involvement.(The analysis focused on the most important drivers linking climate change to its health impacts,and may not be exhaustive of all potential contributing drivers.)Identification of key underlying factors2.1Health impact areas and priority topics

263、 identifiedFIGURE 12Nutritional and metabolic diseasesUpstream climate-driven causesClimate change themesDownstream effectsPriority topicsHeavy rainfallWorsening of pesticides run-offPoorly understood mechanismUnhealthy/restricteddietHormone disruptionKidney/liver failureIncreased risk of type 2 dia

264、betesExacerbation of diet-sensitive digestive diseasesMalnutritionDroughtWorsening of pesticides run-offChange in agricultural conditions(e.g.reduced soil moisture,increased crop pests and diseases)Change in ecological conditions(e.g.marine disease outbreak,change in fish reproduction pattern)Food c

265、ontamination(pesticides)Food contamination(heavy metals)Food insecurity/reduced nutritionWildfiresHot topic 2:Droughts impact on nutritional and metabolic diseasesHot topic 9:Food quality and availabilitys impact on nutritional and metabolic diseasesExtreme weatherAir qualityFood and waterInfectious

266、 agentsContributing factorsPriority health areas affectedNote:The analysis focused on the contributing factors with the most severe downstream effects and most closely linking climate change to its health impact,and may not be exhaustive of all potential contributing factors.Source:L.E.K.ConsultingH

267、ealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector30Consolidating all contributing factors identified from this analysis,12 systemic drivers emerged across the priority topics,as summarized in Figure 13.These drivers can be grouped into four categories based on their role

268、in the causal chain,with some drivers fitting into multiple categories:Primary contributor:The initial and most immediate effects of climate change,serving as the starting point of the causal chain.Secondary contributor:While not directly caused by climate change,these drivers arise due to primary c

269、ontributors and add to downstream health consequences.Amplifiers:Pre-existing factors that exacerbate the severity of primary and secondary drivers,as well as the health impact of climate change.Health impact:The resulting consequence on health due to upstream drivers,which are often the end of the

270、casual chain,though in some cases may also act as a contributing factor that perpetuates further health impact.The causal chain analysis shows that many systemic drivers initiate the causal chain.This reinforces the fundamental interconnectedness of the health impacts of climate change,with many hea

271、lth challenges sharing common root causes.Figure 13 ranks the systemic drivers by the number of priority topics they are associated with.By prioritizing the top nine driver types,six key thematic areas for intervention were identified as crucial for mitigating the broad spectrum of the health conseq

272、uences of climate change.Focusing on these intervention themes would enable the development of resilience-building strategies,equipping communities and healthcare systems with the adaptive capacity to withstand and effectively respond to environmental challenges.While the remaining three driver type

273、s should not be disregarded,“behavioural influences”and“social disparities”are more pertinent for NGO and public sector involvement,respectively.The former primarily requires community engagement and education initiatives,while the latter represents deeper-rooted,systemic issues that require policy

274、reforms.“Environmental exposure risks”,such as heightened vulnerability to air pollutants and extreme temperatures,call for community education on individual protection strategies,which align less well with initiatives requiring private sector engagement.Identification of interventions2.2Health Impa

275、cts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector31Systemic drivers and thematic areas for interventionFIGURE 13Number of priority topics each systemic driver is implicated in(Total number of priority topics=22)Primary contributorSecondary contributorAmplifier79OverallIntervention

276、themes7765544430246810Healthcare services constraints or access challengesSurveillance and early warning systemsResilienceResponseRecoveryHealthcare access expansion and equityAgricultural resilienceAccessible financial risk management solutionsScientific researchCritical infrastructure and supply c

277、hain resilienceInfrastructure damage or disruptionInfrastructure or resource adequacyContaminant proliferationChange in agricultural conditionsLivelihood disruption or financial lossesScientific knowledge gapsChange in vector ecologyBehavioural influencesEnvironmental exposure risksSocial disparitie

278、sSurveillance and early warning systemsIntervention typeResilience ResponseRecoveryTarget systemic driverPrimarySecondaryAmplifierOverall(majority of drivers)Surveillance and early warning systems(EWS)provide a critical head-start for enacting emergency plans and taking precautionary measures for in

279、dividuals,communities,governments and businesses.This helps reduce damage and loss,making surveillance and EWS indispensable in safeguarding against disease outbreaks and atypical weather events.According to the“Atlas of Mortality and Economic Losses from Weather,Climate and Water-related Hazards”re

280、port,improved EWS and disaster management have reduced the number of disaster-related deaths by almost three-fold between 1970 and 2019.107 It is vital to recognize that successful implementation of a comprehensive surveillance and EWS hinges on three key pillars:timely and accurate forecasting and

281、monitoring,effective Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector32risk communication and implementation of preparedness activities.108 The private sector has a significant role to play in bolstering all three pillars,with particular emphasis on the first two.Accord

282、ing to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction(UNDRR),the number of countries with early warning systems has doubled since 2015,thanks to technological advancement.109 The private sector plays a vital role in advancing these efforts,leveraging technological innovations such as artifici

283、al intelligence(AI)and digital platforms to enhance the accuracy and timeliness of data collection,risk assessment and hazard forecasting.The Early Warnings for All initiative led by the World Meteorological Organization(WMO)and UNDRR is a global public-private initiative that aims to ensure univers

284、al protection from hazardous weather and climate events by the end of 2027.Since its launch in late 2022,several leading technology companies have joined the initiative.In the context of infectious diseases,the 2022“Access to Medicine Index”flagged the very limited R&D and pipeline activity dedicate

285、d to emerging infectious diseases(EIDs),with only five of the 20 leading pharmaceutical companies reviewed being active in this area.However,the research efforts of these five companies still only cover a minority of EIDs that are likely to trigger future pandemics or epidemics.110 Sharing of diseas

286、e surveillance data remains a key barrier in the speed of R&D into EIDs.However,COVID-19 provided a great example of how unprecedented data-sharing enabled rapid development of medical knowledge and effective vaccines to protect public health.111 To better prepare against future outbreaks,pharmaceut

287、ical companies and academia have significant collaboration opportunity to accelerate R&D activity in EIDs.Their collaboration with the public sector could help develop infrastructure and an appropriate regulatory environment to incentivize data-sharing.Risk communication is the second key pillar for

288、 successful implementation of EWS by ensuring that valuable insights derived from monitoring and forecasting tools are communicated effectively to the public.Private sector stakeholders in the media and telecommunications sectors can play a role in facilitating timely and accurate information dissem

289、ination.For example,during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran,a digital application for providing data on incidence and mortality rates,risk maps and other information was developed in partnership with the private sector.112 However,affordability remains a key barrier in the deployment and implementation

290、 of EWS,especially in low-income countries.As of 2023,just over half of all countries globally were covered by multi-hazard early warning systems(MHEWS),with particularly low coverage in the Americas,the Caribbean and Africa.The UNDRR highlighted the benefit of strengthening and expanding mobile net

291、works and internet connectivity,particularly for short-notice hazards like tsunamis.Private sector investments and public-private collaboration offer significant potential in scaling up and driving technology innovation for more inclusive and accessible multi-hazard EWS.In a world defined by escalat

292、ing climate injustices,early warning systems are the most basic tool for saving lives and securing livelihoods.Countries that are vulnerable to extreme weather,especially Small Island Developing States and Least Developed Countries and the entire African continent,should have the highest rates of pr

293、otection but they are well below the global average.Antnio Guterres,Secretary-General,United NationsHealth Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector33Healthcare access expansion and equalityIntervention typeResilience ResponseRecoveryTarget systemic driverPrimarySeconda

294、ryAmplifierHealthcare services constraint/access challengesIt is evident that climate change increases the demand for health services,particularly within priority topics identified such as pregnancy care,with heightened risks arising from extreme temperatures and infectious disease outbreaks.Accessi

295、bility of healthcare services plays a complex role in the causal chain between climate change and its health impacts,acting as a primary and secondary driver as well as an amplifier.For example,health services are susceptible to direct disruptions due to extreme weather events or large-scale water c

296、ontamination that compromise healthcare facilities and can also act as a secondary driver if a surge in patient numbers overwhelms the healthcare system and hinders its ability to provide emergency and routine services.Importantly,existing disparities in access to healthcare further amplify the adve

297、rse health effects of climate change.According to a 2023 report by the World Bank and the WHO,more than half of the global population lacks access to essential health services and approximately 1.3 billion people are pushed(further)into poverty due to out-of-pocket healthcare expenses.113 As such,ex

298、panding healthcare access is a critical component of an effective climate adaptation strategy.Access to mental health services also remains a significant area of unmet need,particularly in the context of natural disasters.The long-term mental health impacts of these events highlight a severe inadequ

299、acy in disaster-focused mental health services,spanning promotion,prevention and care.This gap is further exacerbated by chronic underfunding in the mental health sector.Highlighting this,reports by the WHO114 and UNICEF115 have called for immediate action to address these deficiencies and ensure th

300、at vulnerable populations receive the necessary support during critical times.To comprehensively address healthcare access needs and promote resilience as well as enhance response and recovery efforts against the health impacts of climate change,two primary factors must be considered:the provision o

301、f care and the accessibility of care.To ensure adequate care provision,it is crucial to bolster the disaster preparedness of frontline health workers and healthcare facilities,particularly in LMICs already grappling with resource and capacity constraints for routine demands.Training healthcare staff

302、 in emergency response protocols,including triage,patient management and psychological first aid,help equip frontline workers with the essential knowledge and skills needed to provide effective medical care during crises.116 This imperative presents manifold opportunities for various stakeholders to

303、 contribute to provision of training.For instance,the approach of the United Kingdom(UK)during the pandemic,which involved leveraging independent providers for enhanced training access,serves as a model for collaboration between public and private health providers.117 Furthermore,there is potential

304、for public-private-philanthropic partnerships to support localized training of healthcare workers in addressing specific diseases exacerbated by climate change.For example,focusing on cardiovascular and maternal health risks in the context of extreme heat can be a targeted area for skill development

305、 and capacity building among healthcare professionals.In many LMICs where private healthcare plays a significant role,engaging the private sector is particularly promising.For instance,in Pakistan,contracting with private providers has successfully expanded access to services in remote areas and imp

306、roved the functioning of public sector facilities.118 Drawing from lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic,private sector resources and expertise have been instrumental in bolstering the delivery of health goods and services,including the provision of healthcare equipment,facilities and personn

307、el to treat both COVID-19 and non-COVID patients.However,while leveraging private providers offers the potential to rapidly expand access to health services,public intervention to ensure meticulous governance is essential to ensure optimal capacity utilization and the sustainability of such initiati

308、ves.When considering the accessibility of care,achieving universal healthcare remains a complex endeavour,requiring effective leadership from the public sector to address challenges related to governance,regulations and financing.Nonetheless,healthcare innovators can accelerate the digital transform

309、ation by developing technologies and collaborating with local healthcare systems and non-profit organizations to expand access.Digital health solutions,in particular,offer novel avenues for delivering critical care closer to patients,especially in remote or underserved areas.While digital health com

310、panies have begun expanding care in rural regions globally,significant gaps persist for example,a survey conducted by a Mumbai-based company showed that only 25%of the semi-rural and rural population had health facilities within reach.119 Collaboration with Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence

311、Landscape and Role of Private Sector34telecommunication providers should also be explored to expand access to network infrastructure and digital devices.The private sector can also actively participate in capacity-building initiatives and collaborate with public entities to ensure the long-term sust

312、ainability of healthcare delivery.The need to build resilient and sustainable health systems has never been more pressing,given the diverse array of escalating health risks.However,achieving this mission necessitates a collaborative effort across the public,non-profit and private sectors.It is essen

313、tial for these sectors to engage in meaningful dialogue and forge stronger partnerships.An example is the Partnership for Health System Sustainability and Resilience,in which the Forum participates actively alongside partners such as the WHO Foundation,the London School of Economics,AstraZeneca and

314、other industry players.By harnessing innovation and fostering closer collaboration with the public sector,the private sector can assume a pivotal role in advancing universal healthcare and mitigating the health impacts of climate change.Critical infrastructure and supply chain resilienceIntervention

315、 typeResilience ResponseRecoveryTarget systemic driverPrimarySecondaryAmplifierInfrastructure damage/disruptionInfrastructure/resource inadequacyContaminant proliferationCritical infrastructure spanning the water,energy,transportation,communications and health sectors is susceptible to direct damage

316、 or disruption from destructive extreme weather events.Its functioning can also be compromised by large-scale water contamination.The failure or inadequacy of critical infrastructure exacerbates the detrimental impact of climate change on health,such as disruptions in sewage and wastewater disposal,

317、which can be key drivers of the impact of flooding on infectious diseases,120 while housing destruction caused by extreme weather events leads to displacement.Supply chain disruptions further compound these challenges.Notably,in many LMICs,the availability of essential medicines in healthcare facili

318、ties remains severely inadequate,primarily due to inefficient supply chains,even outside of the context of climate threats.121 Monetary losses from destruction of critical infrastructure and the resulting operational disruptions can also incur monetary costs detrimental to individuals and society,pa

319、rticularly for low-income populations.In certain Caribbean nations,the economic losses incurred from hurricanes in recent years have surpassed their GDP.122 Furthermore,with increasing risk of food and water contamination,primarily from chemical and microbial sources,the existing inadequacy of sanit

320、ation and processing infrastructure is becoming increasingly concerning.Investing in climate-resilient infrastructure is key to reducing the monetary and physical loss and damages incurred that can perpetuate downstream direct and indirect health effects.Companies in the energy,construction and tran

321、sportation industries play a pivotal role in addressing these issues by enhancing the durability and reliability of critical infrastructure.This may entail deploying innovative technologies to monitor infrastructure integrity,retrofitting existing systems to withstand severe weather conditions and d

322、iversifying supply chains to mitigate disruption risks.123 Particularly in less developed nations,interventions may revolve around installing essential infrastructure for basic services that are currently lacking.The private sector often engages in this area by forming partnerships with global inter

323、national organizations and/or local non-profit organizations familiar with community needs.In addition,maintaining and expanding the hardware required for connectivity,such as masts,satellite dishes,reliable electricity and mobile devices,is crucial for effective disaster response and communication

324、and to enable innovative approaches such as digital health solutions.The private sector can also contribute personnel,expertise,physical resources and financial funds to support various initiatives.These initiatives can include providing critical infrastructure security to accelerate the development

325、 of climate resilience projects.124 For instance,learning from the damages caused by some of the most destructive hurricanes,the federal government and some states in the US have started partnering with businesses in the architecture,engineering and construction industries for climate-resilient publ

326、ic infrastructure projects.125Health Impacts of Climate Change:Evidence Landscape and Role of Private Sector35Agricultural resilienceIntervention typeResilience ResponseRecoveryTarget systemic driverPrimarySecondaryAmplifierChange in agricultural conditionsAgriculture is one of the sectors most dire

327、ctly and profoundly impacted by climate change and is in urgent need of interventions due to its critical relevance to priority topics involving food and water,as well as flooding and drought.The challenges faced by agriculture are diverse and complex,ranging from shifts in natural agricultural cond

328、itions such as water availability and soil nutrition to the physical risks posed by extreme weather events.Emerging risks,including increased pest infestation and crop diseases,further compound these challenges,leading to adverse effects on crop yield and quality and exacerbating food insecurity.Agr

329、iculture serves as a cornerstone of food security and the prevention of downstream health effects,including nutrition,mental health,social inequality and financial loss.Its significance is particularly notable in developing countries,where agriculture accounts for 59%of jobs.126 Enhancing agricultur

330、al resilience not only promotes resilience in the face of changing agricultural conditions,but also ensures faster recuperation and recovery from climatic events,such as facilitating better pasture recovery following droughts.Particularly vulnerable are smallholder farmers,who are responsible for a

331、third of the global food supply but are increasingly facing challenges exacerbated by climate change.127 These farmers often lack resources and educational opportunities to adapt to shifting climatic patterns and diminishing yields.Hence,any meaningful intervention aimed at bolstering agricultural r

332、esilience must consider the plight of these smallholder farmers and recognize their central role in global food security and poverty reduction.Innovative agricultural technology(agritech)companies have been leading the way in developing new tools and approaches to tackle the various problems farmers

333、 face due to climate change,such as farm management software and precision farming methods.Moreover,stakeholders such as multinational corporations and agribusinesses wield considerable influence in shaping the resilience narrative.By forging direct partnerships with their suppliers and farmers,these entities can spearhead transformative initiatives aimed at promoting sustainable and resilient agr