1、A REPORT FOR THE NUCLEAR ENERGY INSTITUTEOCTOBER 2024THE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF THE US NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY2 The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryABOUT OXFORD ECONOMICSOxford Economics was founded in 1981 as a commercial venture with Oxford Universitys business college to pr

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7、ssociations;and top universities,consultancies,and think tanks.OCTOBER 2024All data shown in tables and charts are Oxford Economics own data,except where otherwise stated and cited in footnotes,and are copyright Oxford Economics Ltd.The modeling and results presented here are based on information pr

8、ovided by third parties,upon which Oxford Economics has relied in producing its report and forecasts in good faith.Any subsequent revision or update of those data will affect the assessments and projections shown.To discuss the report further please contact:Dan Martin Oxford Economics5 Hanover Sq,8t

9、h FloorNew York,NY 10004Tel:+1 646-786-18793The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry CONTENTSExecutive summary 41.Introduction 72.National economic contribution 92.1 Employment contribution 9Sustainability:Nuclear power and worker safety 132.2GDP contribution 142.3Tax contribution

10、14Sustainability:Nuclear power and air pollution 153.State-level economic contribution 16Sustainability:Nuclear power and land use 194.County-level economic contribution 21Sustainability:Used nuclear fuel 265.Conclusion 27Technical appendix 28Table of contents4Executive summaryThe economic contribut

11、ion of the US nuclear power industryEXECUTIVE SUMMARYIn 2022,the reference year for this report,the US nuclear power generation industry provided approximately 19%of the electricity output of the electric power sector,producing$52 billion of economic output.ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF THE NUCLEAR POWER

12、 INDUSTRYTo generate this electricity,the nuclear power industry directly employed 73,832 workers in 2022.This included 48,252 employees working at nuclear power plants themselves,with an average of 894 workers across each of the 54 operational nuclear power plants in the US.An additional 9,264 empl

13、oyees worked in the nuclear fuel industry,with an additional 16,316 direct nuclear power employees in other industries such as professional services.Altogether,these direct employees of the nuclear power industry received$10.7 billion in labor income and generated$40.5 billion in direct GDP.But the

14、full economic contribution of the nuclear power industry extends further.In addition to the direct activity of the nuclear power industry described above,the indirect contribution of the industryits full domestic supply chainemployed a further 69,583 workers who generated$13.5 billion of GDP.The ind

15、ustrys induced contributionthe economic activity supported by the spending out of wages of those employed directly and indirectlyemployed another 113,433 workers.Altogether,the total(direct,indirect,and induced)economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry in 2022 totaled 256,849 workers an

16、d$63.8 billion of GDP.This activity generated$15.9 billion in taxes,including$6.9 billion in federal,$4.9 billion in state,and$4.1 billion in local taxes.5The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryExecutive summaryGEOGRAPHIC BREAKOUTThe economic contribution of nuclear power varies s

17、ignificantly by state,largely following the geography of nuclear plants themselves.The state with the largest economic contribution from nuclear power was Illinois,with six nuclear power plants.In 2022,the economic contribution of nuclear power to the“Prairie State”totaled 19,086 workers and$5.9 bil

18、lion of GDP.Pennsylvania,with four nuclear power plants,had the second highest employment contribution from nuclear power,at 17,773 workers,and the second highest GDP contribution,at$4.8 billion.The state with the third largest GDP contribution,at$3.9 billion,was South Carolina,which has four nuclea

19、r power plants and a 2022 employment contribution from nuclear power of 15,607.California,had the third largest employment contribution,at 17,522,despite having only one nuclear power plant,and a GDP contribution of$3.6 billion.This in part reflects Californias Fig.1.Economic contribution of the US

20、nuclear power industry,2022INDUCED IMPACTINDIRECT IMPACTDIRECT IMPACT$5.6$9.8$10.7$40.5GDP ($billions)TOTAL$63.8Labor income ($billions)TOTAL$23.773,83269,583113,433TOTAL256,849Employment(Headcount)$7.4$13.56Executive summaryThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industrydisproportionate

21、indirect(supply chain)and induced(from the spending of wages)impact owing to the large size of its economy.In addition to the state-level breakout of the national economic contribution,this study also calculated the local impact of the US 54 nuclear power plants in each of the 52 counties in which t

22、hey operated.On average,each US county with a nuclear power plant had 1,758 workers whose job was supported,and an average GDP contribution of$770 million.NUCLEAR POWER AND SUSTAINABILITYNuclear power has a number of positive sustainability characteristics.Unlike electricity generated by burning fos

23、sil fuels like gas or coal,nuclear power generates no significant emissions of air pollution.This includes both climate changing greenhouse gases as well as other pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,which cause environmental and human health effects.At the same time,nuclear powers lan

24、d use footprint is the smallest of any electricity generating technology.Nuclear requires less than one-fiftieth the land that ground-installed solar needs,and one three-hundredth the land of on-shore wind per unit of electricity produced.Because of its strong commitment to safety,working at a nucle

25、ar power plant is one of the safest jobs in America,with zero fatal accidents since 2017,and a rate of non-fatal accidents one-seventh of the electric power industry as a whole,one-sixteenth of manufacturing,and one-fifth of professional services.Nuclear power does have the unique responsibility of

26、safely storing used nuclear fuel until the US Government removes it from power plants.While proposals exist to reuse at least some of this waste as fuel in advanced nuclear reactors,or to harvest economically useful isotopes,the physical quantity of high-level spent fuel waste is small.1.INTRODUCTIO

27、N1 In this report,the“nuclear power industry”is defined more broadly than the“nuclear power generation industry.”The nuclear power generation industry(industry 221113 under the North American Industry Classification SystemNAICS)refers only to the economic activity at nuclear power plants themselves,

28、with an output valued at$52 billion.The direct employment estimate of 73,832,on the other hand,refers to the direct employment of the broader nuclear power industry,which is defined and discussed further in section 2.1.1.There are currently 54 active nuclear power plants in the United States.In 2022

29、,the reference year for this report,these 54 nuclear plants supplied 19%of the 4.1-billion-megawatt hours of electric power generated by the electric power sector(Fig.2).The nuclear power industry generated nearly one-fifth of US electricity without significantly contributing to climate changing gre

30、enhouse gas(GHG)emissions or emitting other air pollutants affecting human health or the environment,and at a fraction of the land use needs of renewable sectors like wind,solar,and hydroelectric.In doing so,the nuclear power industry provided high-paying jobs to 73,832 direct employees.In addition,

31、the nuclear power generation industry produced$52 billion worth of economic output in 2022 according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis.1However,the full economic footprint of the nuclear power industry extends beyond the direct economic activity in the nuclear power industry itself.As quantified in

32、 this report,that full impact includes the nuclear power industrys full domestic supply chain(the indirect effect),as well as the economic activity supported by direct and indirect workers spending their wages(the induced effect).Chapter 2 of this report quantifies this full economic contribution of

33、 the US nuclear power industry across these three channels of impacts,measured in terms of jobs,GDP,and taxes.Chapter 3 decomposes this economic contribution geographically by state.Chapter 4 estimates the local economic impact of each of the nations 54 nuclear power plants on the 52 counties in whi

34、ch they operate.Chapter 5 concludes.Interspersed throughout the report are a series of boxes discussing a number of topics related to nuclear power and sustainability.7The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry1.IntroductionFig.2.Net electricity generation of the US electric power se

35、ctor,202222 Energy Information Administration“Electric Power Annual 2022.”Released October 2023.https:/www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/pdf/epa.pdf.Table 1.1.NuclearGasCoalHydroSolarOtherWindSource:Oxford Economics,EIA39+20+11+6+3+2+19+H4.1 billion megawatt hours19%39%20%11%6%2%3%81.IntroductionThe ec

36、onomic contribution of the US nuclear power industryECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION ANALYSIS3 Economic contribution analysis is similar to economic impact analysis.The difference between the two is that impact analysis quantifies the full economic footprint of a company or an establishment,while economic cont

37、ribution analysis considers the footprint of an entire industry.Because in an economic contribution analysis the entire industry is part of the direct channel,subsequent supply chain purchases from that industry are suppressed to avoid double-counting.For nuclear power this means that purchases by t

38、he nuclear industry itself or part of its supply chain of electricity generated by nuclear power are excluded from the analysis.See https:/ IMPLAN is a leading provider of IO economic impact software in the US.See .5 The modeling necessarily makes use of macroeconomic data to distribute these aggreg

39、ates geographically,and,for intermediate input spending,by industry.This involves quantifying the sectors contribution across three channels:3 Direct contribution,which relates to the nuclear energy industrys own activities.It encompasses the economic activity and employment at nuclear power plants

40、themselves.Indirect contribution,which encapsulates the economic activity and employment supported in the US supply chain of nuclear power plants,as a result of their procurement of goods and services from firms in other sectors.Induced contribution,which comprises the wider economic benefits that a

41、rise when employees at the nuclear plants,or those in the nuclear energy supply chain,spend their earningsfor example,in local retail and leisure establishments.The sum of these channels makes up the nuclear energy industrys total economic contribution.The following metrics are used to present a pic

42、ture of the sectors economic contribution:Employment,measured on a headcount basis;Labor income,total income received by workers,including both wages and the value of benefits;GDP,value-added economic output;and Taxes,generated by the economic activity.The modeling was conducted using an Input-Outpu

43、t(I-O)model of the US economy,produced by IMPLAN.4 The inputs to the modeling are estimates of the size and structure of the nuclear power industry,including the number of direct employees and the compensation they receive,the industrys spending on intermediate inputs to production,and the industrys

44、 capital income and directly paid taxes.5 These inputs are discussed further in the text below,with additional details provided in the technical appendix.Added together,these three effectsdirect,indirect,and inducedcomprise the total economic contribution of the company or sector.TOTAL CONTRIBUTIONF

45、ig.3.Overview of economic contribution analysisEmployees(including of the suppliers)spend their wages in the wider economy,generating more GDP,jobs,and tax revenue.INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONINDIRECT CONTRIBUTIONIt also spends money with suppliers,who employ staff,generate GDP,and pay taxes.They use other

46、suppliers in turn.DIRECT CONTRIBUTIONA company or sector employs a lot of staff.Its operations generate GDP and tax for local,state,and federal governments.9The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry2.National economic contribution2.NATIONAL ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION6 Economic contributi

47、on analysis is similar to economic impact analysis.The difference between the two is that impact analysis quantifies the full economic footprint of a company or an establishment,while economic contribution analysis considers the footprint of an entire industry.Because the entire industry is part of

48、the direct channel in an economic contribution analysis,supply chain purchases that one nuclear power plant(or its suppliers)make from others in the industry are suppressed to avoid double-counting.7 US Energy&Employment Report 2023.https:/www.energy.gov/policy/us-energy-employment-jobs-report-useer

49、.8 We follow the USEER in considering all three of these groups to be direct employees of the nuclear power industry rather than indirect(supply chain)workers.In particular,the nuclear fuel industry is not part of the operational supply chain of the nuclear power industry because nuclear fuel,which

50、has an operational lifespan around five years,is considered a capital rather than an operational expense of the nuclear power industry.This is discussed further in the technical appendix.In this chapter,we describe and quantify the economic footprint of the US nuclear power industry in 2022.To do th

51、is,we use a standard method called an economic contribution assessment,which is described in greater detail in the box on the preceding page.6 A comprehensive technical appendix to this report provides additional details on sources and methods.2.1 EMPLOYMENT CONTRIBUTION2.1.1 Direct employmentBefore

52、 beginning our analysis of the economic footprint of the nuclear power industry,it is first necessary to define the scope of the industry.To do this,we follow the Department of Energys(DOEs)US Energy and Employment Report(USEER).7 As defined in the USEER,direct employment in the nuclear power indust

53、ry comprises three components:employment at nuclear power plants themselves,workers in the nuclear fuel industry,and additional direct employees of the nuclear power industry in other industries,especially professional services.8Fig.4.Direct employment in the US nuclear power industry,2022Source:Oxf

54、ord Economics,NEI,USEERDirect workers100,00040,00020,000060,00080,000By functionPlant:48,252Fuel:9,264Other:16,31673,832By industryProfessional services:14,800Power generation:48,25273,832Other:78Mining:421Construction:2,120Manufacturing:4,563Wholesale:3,598102.National economic contributionThe econ

55、omic contribution of the US nuclear power industryIn 2022,the direct employment in the nuclear power industry was 73,832 workers(Fig.4).Of these,9,264 workers were employed in the nuclear fuel industry,and 16,316 direct nuclear power employees worked outside of nuclear power plants.Employment in the

56、se latter two groups,together 25,580,is sourced directly from the USEER report,which estimates them based on a survey conducted under contract for the DOE.Of these 25,580 direct nuclear power workers who did not work at nuclear power 9 In general,in US economic data a workers industry designation re

57、fers to the primary industrial purpose of the establishment at which the worker is employed.10 Other sources for employment at nuclear power plants(i.e.,in NAICS industry 221113)put this employment lower.For example,the USEER report,upon which our non-plant employment estimates are based,estimates t

58、otal employment at nuclear power plants at 40,605.Our estimate of 48,252 is based on data collected directly from nuclear power plants by NEI and is supported by an Oxford Economics analysis of employment at individual nuclear power plants in County Business Patterns data.See the technical appendix

59、for additional details.plants,14,800 work in professional services;3,598 in manufacturing;2,120 in construction;and 421 in mining.9The remaining 48,252 direct nuclear power employees worked at nuclear power plants themselves.This represents an average of 894 workers at each of the 54 operational nuc

60、lear power plants in the US.This estimate is based on an Oxford Economics analysis of data collected by NEI from the nuclear power plants themselves.102.1.2Full employment contributionIn 2022,the full economic contribution of the nuclear energy industry in the US measured in terms of employment tota

61、led 256,849 workers.This includes the 73,832 direct nuclear power employees described in section 2.1.1,along with an additional 69,583 workers employed indirectly in the nuclear power industrys full domestic supply chain.Finally,the industrys induced contribution,representing economic activity suppo

62、rted by the spending of wages of those employed directly and indirectly by the industry,totaled 113,433 workers.Of the 256,849 workers in the nuclear power industrys supply chain,90,293(35%)worked in business services.An additional 49,377(19%)worked in the utilities industry,most of whom(48,252)were

63、 direct workers at nuclear power plants themselves.Fig.5.Employment contribution of nuclear power by channel and industry,2022UtilitiesAgriculture,mining,manufacturing&constructionTrade&transportationBusiness servicesHealth,education&governmentPersonal servicesSource:Oxford Economics,IMPLAN73,832Dir

64、ectIndirectTotal49,37735,561Workers256,84925,98290,29335,47420,162Induced113,43369,583300,00050,000100,000150,000200,000250,000011The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry2.National economic contribution2.1.3Labor income11 The distinction between“labor income”and“worker compensation

65、”is that the former includes income received by self-employed workers.Because there are no self-employed workers in the nuclear power generation industryi.e.,at nuclear power plantswe use the terms interchangeably in that context.12 This average value is based on IMPLAN data.The economic contributio

66、n of the nuclear power industry in 2022,measured in terms of labor income,totaled$23.7 billion(Fig.6).Approximately 45%of this labor income,$10.7 billion,went to the direct employees of the nuclear power industry.Labor income includes not just wages,but the full value of employee compensation,includ

67、ing ancillary benefits like retirement benefits and health insurance,as well as employer-paid payroll taxes.11Fig.7 shows the average labor income per worker in each channel of impact in our economic contribution model of the nuclear power industry.Direct employees in the nuclear power industry earn

68、ed an average of$145,473 in labor income,nearly twice(98%higher)the economy-wide US average of$73,416.12 Workers employed indirectly in the nuclear power industry earned an average of$80,025,9%more than the US average.Fig.7.Average labor income per worker in the nuclear power industry contribution b

69、y channel,2022Source:Oxford Economics,IMPLAN,NEIDirect$145,473Indirect$80,025Induced$65,283$73,416Average labor income per workerNuclear contributionTotal$92,328Economy-wide average$160,000$120,000$0$80,000$40,000Fig.6.Labor income contribution of nuclear power by channel,2022Source:Oxford Economics

70、,IMPLANTotals may not sum due to rounding.$10,741DirectIndirectTotal$millions$23,714Induced$7,405$5,568$30,000$10,000$20,000$0Data from the Wages,Benefits,and Change report,13 a supplemental report to the USEER,reinforce the finding from Fig.7 that jobs in the nuclear power industry offer high compe

71、nsation,roughly twice the average across all US jobs.According to the Wages,Benefits,and Change report,in 2021,the 13 Wages,Benefits,and Change report,2021.A Supplemental to the Annual U.S.Energy and Employment Report.https:/www.usenergyjobs.org/wages.14 The definition of the nuclear generation indu

72、stry used in the Wages,Benefits and Change report is similar to what weve labeled the nuclear power industry.See section 2.1.1.15 116%=152%70%1.median hourly wage for jobs in the nuclear generation industry14 was 52%higher than the median hourly wage for all jobs in the electric power generation ind

73、ustry,across generation types;and was more than twice(116%higher)15 the national median hourly wage across all industries.122.National economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryFig.8.Industry median hourly wage as a percentage of median hourly wage for all electr

74、ic power generation,2021Source:Wages,Benefits,and Change report;Oxford Economics%of all electric power generation median hourly wageNuclear generation152%All electric power generation100%Overall energy industry94%70%All US industries160%60%0%40%20%80%100%120%140%13The economic contribution of the US

75、 nuclear power industry2.National economic contributionThe nuclear power industry puts a high premium on safety in everything it does as it deals with highly radioactive materials,resulting in an impressive safety record across US nuclear power plants.This attention to safety also means that working

76、 at a nuclear power plant is one of the safest jobs there is.In fact,according to a report by Forbes,working in the commercial nuclear industry was found to be the safest job in US,with less than 1 fatal injury per 100,000 workers.The other safest jobs included accountants,statisticians,and web deve

77、lopers.16 Over the past six decades,with over 18,500 cumulative reactor-years of commercial nuclear power operation across 36 countries,no worker has ever died because of exposure to radiation due to a commercial nuclear reactor incident.17 16 https:/ https:/world-nuclear.org/information-library/saf

78、ety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors.18 https:/www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1222/ML12220A081.pdf.19 https:/www.ukhsa-protectionservices.org.uk/radiationandyou/.This impressive safety record also holds in the case of non-fatal injuries as well.According to 2021 data from the Burea

79、u of Labor Statistics(BLS),the rate of non-fatal workplace injury in the nuclear power industry is only 20 per 10,000 workers,far less than the 150 per 10,000 workers in the electric power industry as a whole.It is also much less than rates seen in natural resource industries like agriculture and mi

80、ning(340),manufacturing(330),and less than one-fifth of the rate in seemingly safe industries like professional services(110).With regards to prolonged exposure to radiation,the annual radiation exposure of an average nuclear power station worker is 0.19 mSv.18 To put this into perspective,this is o

81、nly 3%of the average annual background radiation dose of a person living in the US(6.2 mSv)and 14%of the exposure one receives from a CT scan of the head(1.4 mSv).19NUCLEAR POWER AND WORKER SAFETYFig.9.Non-fatal injuries in 2021,by industry2020 https:/www.bls.gov/iif/nonfatal-injuries-and-illnesses-

82、tables/soii-summary-historical.htm#21Summary_Tables.Note that 2022 data do not break out the nuclear industry.Source:Oxford Economics,BLSNonfatal workplace injury&illnesses per 10,000 full-time workersNatural resourcesNuclear generationManufacturingElectric powerProfessional servicesTrade,transport&

83、utilitiesEducation&healthAll industriesWith days away from workWith job transfer or restrictionOther340203301501103603903005001002004003000142.National economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry2.2GDP CONTRIBUTION21 These results from our economic contribution mo

84、deling,especially the magnitude of the indirect(supply chain)contribution,are calculated based on a number rely on economic data on the spending of the nuclear power industry collected by NEI.See the technical appendix for more details.22 This direct GDP includes the direct labor income earned by wo

85、rkers in the industry quantified in section 2.1.3,as well as directly paid taxes,and a measure of capital income called Gross Operating Surplus(GOS).Both costs associated with the upfront capital cost of constructing a nuclear power plant,as well as with fuel(because nuclear fuel,which lasts about f

86、ive years,is a capital expenditure)are part of nuclear power plants direct GOS.See the technical appendix for additional details.In 2022,the GDP contribution of the nuclear energy industry across all three channels of impact(direct,indirect,and induced)totaled$63.8 billion.This includes a direct con

87、tribution of$40.5 billion,representing the value-added economic activity that took place in the nuclear power industry itself.The indirect GDP contribution of the nuclear industry,which represents the value-added economic activity of the industrys full US supply chain,was$9.8 billion.The induced GDP

88、 contribution,which represents the value-added economic activity supported by the spending of workers employed directly or indirectly,was$13.5 billion.21The substantial direct GDP contribution of the nuclear industry reflects the high value-add of the nuclear power generation industry.This,in turn,m

89、irrors the industrys high level of economic output($52 billion of output in 2022,according to the BEA)along with its relatively low operational costs.222.3TAX CONTRIBUTIONThe economic activity worth$63.8 billion described in section 2.2 above generated$15.9 billion of taxes for all levels of governm

90、ent in 2022(Fig.11).Of this,approximately$6.9 billion was in federal taxes,$4.9 billion in state taxes,and$4.1 billion in local taxes.Fig.11.Tax contribution of the US nuclear power industry,2022($million)Source:IMPLAN,Oxford EconomicsLocal taxesState taxesFederal taxes26+31+43+x$15,925 million$6,86

91、9 million 43%$4,137 million 26%$4,918 million 31%Fig.10.GDP contribution of nuclear power by industry of impact,2022UtilitiesAgriculture,mining,manufacturing&constructionTrade&transportationBusiness servicesHealth,education&governmentPersonal servicesSource:Oxford Economics,IMPLAN$40,531DirectIndire

92、ctTotal$36,712$millions$63,792$13,846$4,644Induced$13,476$9,785$2,173$2,196$4,220$75,000$15,000$30,000$45,000$60,000$015The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry2.National economic contributionAlong with renewable technologies like wind,solar,and hydroand in contrast to fossil fuel-

93、based energy generation from burning coal or natural gasnuclear electric power generation produces electricity with almost no emissions of air pollutants.Air pollution from power generation comes in two forms:Global-warming producing emissions of greenhouse gases(GHG),especially carbon dioxide from

94、the burning of fossil fuels.Emissions of hazardous air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,which can cause environmental damage like acid rain as well as damage to human health when inhaled.Fig.12 shows CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from different generation technologies.Nuclear,alo

95、ng with wind,hydro,and solar,each produce less than one-tenth the GHG emissions per unit of electricity generated as compared with the cleanest fossil fuel technology,natural gas.These emissions are primarily lifecycle emissions associated with the construction of the plant.The Nuclear Energy Instit

96、ute estimates that the United States avoided 476 million metric tons of CO2 emissions in 2021(equivalent 23 https:/www.nei.org/resources/statistics/old/emissions-avoided-by-us-nuclear-industry.24 https:/ https:/news.mit.edu/2023/study-shutting-down-nuclear-power-could-increase-air-pollution-0410.26

97、https:/pubs.giss.nasa.gov/abs/kh05000e.html.to removing over 100 million cars from the road)and a total of 16,727 million metric tons between 19952021.23 These statistics highlight the importance of nuclear power in achieving deep decarbonization.Along with reduced GHG emissions,nuclear produces les

98、s output of other air pollutants.When nuclear power plants have closed in the past,fossil fuel use has increased in response.For instance,the closure of the Vermont Yankee nuclear power plant in 2014 led to an increase in fossil fuel use,particularly natural gas.24 An MIT study conducted in 2023 fou

99、nd that if all US nuclear reactors were retired,polluting energy sources that fill the gap could cause more than 5,000 premature deaths per year.The study found a clear pattern;without nuclear power,air pollution worsened,mainly affecting regions in the East Coast where nuclear power plants are most

100、ly concentrated.25Moreover,a 2013 study conducted by NASAs Goddard Institute26 found that nuclear power had prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatons of CO2-equivalent(Gt CO2-eq)GHG emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning.The study found it

101、 could also prevent an average of 0.427.04 million deaths and 80240 Gt CO2-eq emissions due to fossil fuels by 2050,depending on which fuel it replaces.NUCLEAR POWER AND AIR POLLUTIONFig.12.Average life-cycle CO2-equivalent emissions by generation technologySource:IPCC(2018),Oxford EconomicsgCO2 equ

102、ivalent per kWhHydropower24Solar39Wind12Gas490Nuclear12Biomass740Coal8201,0002004008006000163.State-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry3.STATE-LEVEL ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION27 See the map in Fig.17 and the table in Fig.18 for the locations of US nuclear

103、 power plants.In this chapter,we break out the full(direct,indirect,and induced)national economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry described in the previous chapter and measured in terms of jobs,GDP,and taxes,by state.This analysis was carried out using multiregional input-output models

104、 in IMPLAN and is described in greater detail in the technical appendix.The contributions reported for each state are comprehensive and include supply-chain spillovers across states.Thus,even states without a single nuclear power plant receive some economic contribution from the nuclear power indust

105、ry(see Fig.17 for a map of US nuclear power plants).The total of the state-level contributions presented in this chapter equals the total national contribution presented in Chapter 2,as can be seen in the total row in Fig.15.Illinois has the largest employment impact,with 19,086 workers supported in

106、 the direct,indirect,and induced channels.The state also has the most nuclear power plants of any state,with six in total.27 Pennsylvania,with the second largest employment contribution of any state,17,773,has four nuclear power plants,and is tied with South Carolina,the state with the fourth larges

107、t employment contribution.By contrast,the state with the third largest employment impact,California,at 17,522,has only a single nuclear power plant,Diablo Canyon.The large state-level employment contribution in California also reflects the states large economy,which results in significant indirect a

108、nd induced spillover impacts.The state-level GDP contributions shown in Fig.14 show a similar distribution to the Fig.13.Full employment contribution of the nuclear power industry by state,20221298915,5303651,1651003,81719,08611,5917,78617,77313,1549857,3229,5268,9432122,5178,04811,7338,6021,3546,45

109、94931488075243,7043,5675,6453,8531,2641,0532292,6682,13111515,60711010,77417,5223,5185,015CT3,716MA323RI4,510MD10,378NJ444DC255DEEmployment contribution15,00120,00010,00115,0005,00110,0001,0012,5005011,000895002,5015,000442VT1,746NH17The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry3.State-

110、level economic contributionemployment contributions discussed above.Illinois and Pennsylvania again had the two largest economic contributions of any state,with total GDP contributions of$5.9 billion and$4.8 billion,respectively.South Carolina was in third with a$3.9 billion GDP contribution,with Te

111、xas and California in fourth and fifth places,respectively,with$3.6 billion each.The differences between the two maps reflects the large GDP contribution of nuclear power plants themselves relative to other parts of the direct nuclear power industry.Fig.15 lists the employment,GDP,and federal,state,

112、and local tax contributions for all 50 states and DC.Fig.14.Full GDP contribution of the nuclear power industry by state,2022($millions)GDP contribution$millions$5,001+$4,001$5,000$3,001$4,000$1,001$2,000$501$1,000$11$500$2,001$3,000$20$11$3,605$45$159$13$856$5,865$2,606$1,742$4,785$3,258$112$2,267$

113、2,772$2,286$24$684$2,478$2,764$2,038$166$1,452$82$16$110$61$885$978$1,524$980$161$132$25$688$277$14$3,872$12$2,762$3,584$1,058$1,505CT$630MA$37RI$1,141MD$2,512NJ$82DC$35DE$48VT$573NHFig.15.Full economic contribution of the nuclear power industry by state,2022StateEmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxe

114、s($millions)State&local taxes($millions)Total(US)256,849$63,792$6,869$9,056Alabama8,048$2,478$228$398Alaska129$20$2$2Arizona10,774$2,762$295$381Arkansas3,567$978$94$153California17,522$3,584$460$464Colorado1,165$159$23$13Connecticut5,015$1,505$174$239Delaware255$35$4$3District of Columbia444$82$9$61

115、83.State-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryStateEmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)Florida8,602$2,038$223$278Georgia11,733$2,764$293$374Hawaii89$11$1$1Idaho229$25$4$3Illinois19,086$5,865$581$946Indiana1,354$1

116、66$22$15Iowa2,131$277$37$20Kansas3,853$980$102$139Kentucky985$112$15$10Louisiana5,645$1,524$143$224Maine115$14$2$2Maryland4,510$1,141$122$170Massachusetts3,716$630$97$43Michigan11,591$2,606$292$340Minnesota6,459$1,452$165$213Mississippi2,517$684$62$112Missouri3,704$885$91$119Montana148$16$2$2Nebrask

117、a2,668$688$70$91Nevada1,264$161$24$14New Hampshire1,746$573$55$92New Jersey10,378$2,512$303$386New Mexico365$45$6$4New York13,154$3,258$390$455North Carolina9,526$2,772$274$412North Dakota100$13$2$1Ohio7,786$1,742$183$227Oklahoma524$61$8$5Oregon1,053$132$20$11Pennsylvania17,773$4,785$493$726Rhode Is

118、land323$37-$2$0South Carolina15,607$3,872$402$576South Dakota110$12$2$1Tennessee7,322$2,267$216$351Texas15,530$3,605$387$423Fig.15.Full economic contribution of the nuclear power industry by state,2022(continued)19The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry3.State-level economic contr

119、ibutionStateEmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)Utah807$110$15$9Vermont442$48$7$4Virginia8,943$2,286$245$326Washington3,518$1,058$119$145West Virginia212$24$3$2Wisconsin3,817$856$93$121Wyoming493$82$11$6Fig.15.Full economic contribution of the nuclear power in

120、dustry by state,2022(continued)Many forms of electricity generation have significant environmental impacts and require the use of scarce resources like fossil fuels.Land might not seem to be an obvious limiting factor in the generation of electricity,but increasingly it is becoming one.Land use,and

121、the land use of energy systems,can displace natural ecosystems,lead to land degradation,and create trade-offs for urban development and conservation.A recent analysis showed that energy sprawl is now the largest driver of land-use change in the United States.28 Furthermore,land-intensive energy sour

122、ces may face growing opposition during the siting process,potentially slowing down the rate of the clean energy transition.A recent study analyzed wind farms proposals in the western US and found that over 35%of projects faced some form of opposition.29 According to a Bloomberg analysis,the US curre

123、ntly uses about 81 million acres of land for energy generation,roughly the size of Iowa and Missouri combined and 28 Trainor AM,McDonald RI,Fargione J(2016).“Energy Sprawl is the Largest Driver of Land Use Change in United States.”PLoS One.https:/doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162269.29 Giordono,Lean

124、ne S.,Hilary S.Boudet,Anna Karmazina,Casey L.Taylor,Brent S.Steel(2018).“Opposition overblown?Community response to wind energy siting in the Western United States.”Energy Res Soc Sci 43:119131.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.05.016.30 Merrill,Dave(2021).“The U.S.Will Need a Lot of Land for a Zer

125、o-Carbon Economy.”https:/ approximately 4%of the contiguous United States.30The need for large land footprints is most evident in the case of the non-nuclear,low-carbon power generation technologies like wind and solar,which require large amounts of land on which to site turbines and photovoltaic pa

126、nels.These land resources can be partially offset through dual-use sitesinstalling solar panels on the rooftops of buildings or by using the space between wind turbines for agriculturehowever,this increase costs,limits scale,and is not an option in many cases.Moreover,the wind and solar projects are

127、 limited by local factors like topography and cloud cover,and they must be located near the electricity demand,where land is most scarce and expensive.Concerns over land use is not limited to large solar and wind facilities.Hydroelectric plants require flooding large areas,have significant NUCLEAR P

128、OWER AND LAND USE203.State-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryenvironmental effects on fish and other animals,and can only be built in suitable river basins;hence,the construction of new hydroelectric capacity in the US has virtually ceased.Coal powe

129、r plants have small physical footprints but require significant land use and damage natural environments through mining activity.Nuclear also has land use impacts from mining;but,owing to the much greater energy density of nuclear fuel,these are much smaller.Researchers in 2021 have found that nucle

130、ar power is by far the most land efficient way to generate electricity compared to other energy sources,globally.To generate the same amount of electricity,it needs 46 times less land than hydropower plants,50 times less land than coal,63 times less than solar.Nuclear powers low land use and high re

131、liabilitycapable of generating stable levels of electricity day and night in any weathermake it an excellent complement to more land-intensive power sources like wind and solar,able to be built on a small parcel of land close to electricity demand.NUCLEAR POWER AND LAND USE(continued)Fig.16.Land use

132、 requirements of power generation technologies3131 Hannah Ritchie(2022)“How does the land use of different electricity sources compare?”https:/ourworldindata.org/land-use-per-energy-source.Source:Ritchie(2022)m2 per MWh/yearNuclearGasRoofGroundLargeSmallCoalWind190.31413331599Solar(silicon)Hydro1002

133、040806004.COUNTY-LEVEL ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION32 As described in the box in Chapter 2,economic contribution analysis differs from economic impact analysis in that its a footprint of an entire industry or sector,and therefore indirect and induced purchases from that sector are suppressed to avoid doubl

134、e-counting.We follow this approach as well in the county-level models:indirect or induced purchases of nuclear power are suppressed.33 There are several factors that lead to this difference.Only the activity at nuclear power plants,and not the broader activity in the nuclear power industry,is consid

135、ered in these impacts(see section 2.1.1 for more on this distinction).Additionally,county-level contributions described here only consider the contribution of the plant in that county and do not include indirect or induced spillovers from other plants.Additionally,direct capital income(Gross Operati

136、ng Surplus)and directly paid Taxes on Production and Imports(TOPI)are excluded from the analysis,as these have little impact at the county level.See the technical appendix for additional details.34 Because of confidentiality concerns regarding individual plants,we are not able to present channel-lev

137、el breakouts at the state or county level.With 48,252 workers directly employed at nuclear power plants nationally,the average county-level direct employment contribution was 928(=48,252 52).As the US energy mix continues to shift away from older,more polluting fossil fuel-based electricity generati

138、on,localities with heavily polluting coal fired power plants face difficult decisions with important economic consequences.Understanding the economic contributions of nuclear power plants in the counties in which they operate,therefore,can provide useful context.In this chapter,we explore the local

139、economic contribution32 of nuclear power plants in the counties where they operate.In the previous chapter,the total national contribution of the nuclear power industry was decomposed across states;in Chapter 4,we look at the contribution of specific plants on specific counties.The results in this c

140、hapter,therefore,do not sum to the national impacts described in Chapter 2.33 In 2022,in the 52 US counties with nuclear power plants,an average of 1,758 workers were employed in the direct,indirect,and induced channels as a result of the local nuclear plant(s).34 The average contribution to county

141、GDP was$770 million,with$62 million in federal and$131 million in state and local tax contribution.21The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry4.County-level economic contribution224.County-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryFig.18.Fu

142、ll(direct+indirect+induced)economic contributions of nuclear power plants on the counties in which they operate,2022Map indexStateCountyPlant name(s)EmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)Mean 1,758$770$62$1311AlabamaHouston CountyJoseph M.Farley Nuclear Plant2,0

143、85$751$62$1262AlabamaLimestone CountyBrowns Ferry Nuclear Plant2,521$1,270$93$2273ArizonaMaricopa CountyPalo Verde Nuclear Generating Station6,949$2,249$212$3374ArkansasPope CountyArkansas Nuclear One1,946$768$64$1315CaliforniaSan Luis Obispo CountyDiablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant2,843$1,103$97$204

144、6ConnecticutNew London CountyMillstone Power Station2,642$1,102$94$199Fig.17.Map of the 52 US counties with nuclear plants3456781213141516172022212324181925262728303135363738394029932333441424443101246451147484950515223The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry4.County-level economic

145、 contributionMap indexStateCountyPlant name(s)EmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)7FloridaMiami-Dade CountyTurkey Point Nuclear Generating1,863$668$61$1068FloridaSt.Lucie CountySt.Lucie Plant1,682$698$57$1209GeorgiaAppling CountyEdwin I.Hatch Nuclear Plant1,33

146、6$704$56$11310GeorgiaBurke CountyVogtle Electric Generating Plant1,562$919$59$15511IllinoisDe Witt CountyClinton Power Station974$474$36$8712IllinoisGrundy CountyDresden Nuclear Power Station1,271$692$54$12713IllinoisLa Salle CountyLaSalle County Station1,576$742$57$14214IllinoisOgle CountyByron Sta

147、tion1,308$723$50$14215IllinoisRock Island CountyQuad Cities Nuclear Power Station1,392$712$51$13116IllinoisWill CountyBraidwood Station1,626$759$55$14517KansasCoffey CountyWolf Creek Generating Station1,457$673$56$10918LouisianaSt.Charles ParishWaterford Steam Electric Station1,157$565$37$9219Louisi

148、anaWest Feliciana ParishRiver Bend Station1,301$583$39$9320MarylandCalvert CountyCalvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant1,575$704$62$12421MichiganBerrien CountyDonald C.Cook Nuclear Plant2,655$988$84$16322MichiganMonroe CountyFermi1,517$609$52$9923MinnesotaGoodhue CountyPrairie Island Nuclear Generating

149、Plant998$473$36$8924MinnesotaWright CountyMonticello Nuclear Generating Plant792$333$26$6125MississippiClaiborne CountyGrand Gulf Nuclear Station914$533$48$8126MissouriCallaway CountyCallaway Plant1,312$581$47$92Fig.18.Full(direct+indirect+induced)economic contributions of nuclear power plants on th

150、e counties in which they operate,2022(continued)244.County-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryMap indexStateCountyPlant name(s)EmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)27NebraskaNemaha CountyCooper Nuclear Station1,

151、009$452$34$7528New HampshireRockingham CountySeabrook Station1,044$476$38$8429New JerseySalem CountyHope Creek Generating Station;Salem Nuclear Generating Station2,424$1,312$107$24930New YorkOswego CountyJames A.FitzPatrick Nuclear Power Plant;Nine Mile Point Nuclear Station2,442$1,174$101$20431New

152、YorkWayne CountyR.E.Ginna Nuclear Power Plant932$392$35$6632North CarolinaBrunswick CountyBrunswick Steam Electric Plant1,614$712$58$12233North CarolinaMecklenburg CountyMcGuire Nuclear Station2,642$1,087$88$16734North CarolinaWake CountyShearon Harris Nuclear Power Plant1,423$507$43$7735OhioLake Co

153、untyPerry Nuclear Power Plant1,480$571$45$9236OhioOttawa CountyDavis-Besse Nuclear Power Station1,191$484$40$7637PennsylvaniaBeaver CountyBeaver Valley Power Station1,760$776$62$13638PennsylvaniaLuzerne CountySusquehanna Steam Electric Station2,186$872$71$15639PennsylvaniaMontgomery CountyLimerick G

154、enerating Station1,996$867$64$14540PennsylvaniaYork CountyPeach Bottom Atomic Power Station1,932$849$64$15741South CarolinaDarlington CountyH.B.Robinson Steam Electric Plant1,146$449$42$7342South CarolinaFairfield CountyVirgil C.Summer Nuclear Station1,264$588$47$9643South CarolinaOconee CountyOcone

155、e Nuclear Station2,135$931$79$16144South CarolinaYork CountyCatawba Nuclear Station1,823$799$60$138Fig.18.Full(direct+indirect+induced)economic contributions of nuclear power plants on the counties in which they operate,2022(continued)25The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry4.Cou

156、nty-level economic contributionMap indexStateCountyPlant name(s)EmploymentGDP($millions)Federal taxes($millions)State&local taxes($millions)45TennesseeHamilton CountySequoyah Nuclear Plant2,412$953$78$15746TennesseeRhea CountyWatts Bar Nuclear Plant1,703$872$66$15647TexasMatagorda CountySouth Texas

157、Project2,233$1,004$80$16448TexasSomervell CountyComanche Peak Nuclear Power Plant1,481$832$60$13349VirginiaLouisa CountyNorth Anna Power Station1,486$733$61$12250VirginiaSurry CountySurry Power Station1,194$679$53$10451WashingtonBenton CountyColumbia Generating Station1,956$761$74$11652WisconsinMani

158、towoc CountyPoint Beach Nuclear Plant1,238$524$44$93Fig.18.Full(direct+indirect+induced)economic contributions of nuclear power plants on the counties in which they operate,2022(continued)264.County-level economic contributionThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryAs discussed in

159、the previous boxes,nuclear power generates electricity without producing any significant emissions of greenhouse gases or other air pollutants and has a far lower land use requirements than competing generation technologies.However,nuclear power does have a unique sustainability concern:the generati

160、on of radioactive materials that must be safely stored for long periods of time.What is commonly referred to as“nuclear waste”comes in two forms:35 High-level nuclear waste,which is mostly nuclear fuel rods that have completed their five-year lifespans in a nuclear power plant.Low-level nuclear wast

161、e,including items like gloves,tools,and machine parts that have been exposed to radioactive materials.By volume,there is far more low-level nuclear waste,but it does not require the same degree of long-term,secure storage as high-level waste.Some low-level nuclear waste only needs to be stored at th

162、e plant until it stops being radioactive,and then can be disposed of in normal trash.Most low-level waste is transported to one of four disposal sites in South Carolina,Washington,Utah,and Texas.3635 https:/www.nei.org/fundamentals/used-fuel.36 https:/www.nei.org/news/2019/what-happens-nuclear-waste

163、-us.37 https:/www.nei.org/advocacy/make-regulations-smarter/used-nuclear-fuel.38 https:/www.nei.org/resources/fact-sheets/safely-managing-used-nuclear-fuel.High-level nuclear waste requires safe storage for thousands of years.Currently,the US does not have an approved long-term storage facility for

164、high-level nuclear waste like used fuel,although the proposed storage facility at Yucca Mountain,Nevada has been found to meet NRCs and EPAs stringent safety and environmental regulations.There are also proposals to turn used nuclear fuel into a productive resource,either by extracting more energy f

165、rom it in an advanced nuclear reactor design,or by extracting economically valuable nuclear isotopes for purposes like medical imaging.37 Whether some of the current stockpile of used nuclear fuel is utilized for productive purposes or whether it is put into a long-term storage facility,there is sti

166、ll not a lot of it.If an average Americans entire lifetime electricity usage were supplied entirely by nuclear power,the nuclear fuel this would generate could fit inside a soda can.All the used nuclear fuel produced by the US nuclear energy industry over 60 years of operationapproximately 89,000 me

167、tric tonswould,if stacked end to end,only cover an area the size of a football field to a depth of about twelve yards.38USED NUCLEAR FUEL27The economic contribution of the US nuclear power industry5.Conclusion5.CONCLUSIONIn 2022,the nuclear power supplied 19%of US electricity.To generate this electr

168、icity,the industry directly employed 73,832 workers,of whom 48,252 worked at nuclear power plants themselves.The full economic contribution of the nuclear industry,including its indirect(supply chain)and induced(economic activity supported by spending of workers out of wages),was larger.In 2022,this

169、 full contribution totaled 256,849 workers,who together earned$23.7 billion and contributed$63.8 billion to US GDP.The full tax contribution from this activity was$15.9 billion,including federal,state,and local taxes.This full impact is distributed across all 50 US states,with impacts concentrating

170、in states with significant nuclear power presence,like Illinois,Pennsylvania,and South Carolina.In addition to presenting the economic footprint of the nuclear power industry,this report also nuclear power also has a number of positive sustainability characteristics that make it an attractive electr

171、icity generation technology.It produces no significant air emissions,it has the smallest land footprint of any generation technology,and it is among the safest industries as measured by workforce injury statistics,while generating small amounts of waste requiring long-term storage.28Technical append

172、ixThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryTECHNICAL APPENDIXThis appendix outlines the models,assumptions,and methodologies used in the analysis of the economic contribution of the nuclear power industry.DIRECT EMPLOYMENT39 https:/www.energy.gov/policy/us-energy-employment-jobs-rep

173、ort-useer.Note that the USEER 2023 presents data for 2022.40 The general convention in US employment data is to assign an industry code to a facility based on its primary purpose.41 See https:/www.census.gov/naics.42 This is split out by ownership as follows:37,216 workers at privately owned nuclear

174、 plants,1,347 at nuclear plants owned by the federal government,and 1,865 at nuclear plants owned by local governments.43 In the 2022 QCEW,nuclear power generating establishments are missing in Will County,Il(Braidwood Station),Hamilton County,Tennessee(Sequoyah Nuclear Plant),and Rhea County,Tennes

175、see(Watts Bar Nuclear Plant).In each of the 49 other counties with nuclear power plants,at least one nuclear power generating establishment was reported;however,because employment is suppressed in all but two cases,and because nuclear generation establishments are reported in some counties without n

176、uclear power plants,it is not certain that employment at all of these plants is included in the QCEW total.44 We made one adjustment to the NEI data.In the case of the Vogtle plant,employment reported to NEI was unusually high,likely due to construction activities at this plant.For this reason,emplo

177、yment at Vogtle was estimated based on the plants capacity and average employment per capacity at the remaining plants.As discussed in the main text,the US Energy Employment Report(USEER)provides the framework for our estimate of the direct employment of the nuclear power industry.39 The USEER separ

178、ates its nuclear employment estimate between nuclear fuels(9,264)and nuclear electric power generation(59,921).Both of these types of employment are broken down by industry,and,separately,by state;the utilities industry employment within the nuclear power generation component(40,605 of the 59,921)co

179、rresponds to direct employment at nuclear power plants themselves.40This USEER employment estimate of 40,605 at nuclear power plants in 2022 is close to the 2022 employment in the nuclear electric power generation industry(NAICS41 code 221113).In the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages(QCEW),th

180、e estimate is 40,428,42 and in the County Business Patterns(CBP)it is 38,376.Unlike in the USEER,nuclear power generation employment in the QCEW and the CBP can be broken out on a limited basis to the county level,allowing an analysis of plant-level employment in these two surveys.There are several

181、reasons to question the nuclear power generation employment in the QCEW and the CBP.Both give establishment counts(i.e.,total number of business locations)that far exceed the 54 operational nuclear power plants in the US:172 in the case of the QCEW,and 164 in the CBP.While some plants may be include

182、d in these surveys under multiple establishments,both surveys show nuclear power generation establishments in counties without nuclear power plants,although the actual employment value at most of these establishments is suppressed due to data privacy concerns.This suggests that the total nuclear pow

183、er generation employment may be overestimated due to the industry misclassification of some establishments.At the same time,nuclear power generation employment may be underestimated if employment at some plants is excluded.This possibility is suggested by missing nuclear power establishments in the

184、QCEW in three counties with nuclear plants.43Because of these concerns,the direct employment at nuclear power plants in 2022 reported in this study,48,252,was sourced not from a government survey like QCEW,CPB,or USEER;but rather from employment data collected by NEI directly from each of the 54 nuc

185、lear power plants in the US.44 A county-level analysis for the 22 counties,for which data are reported directly in either the QCEW or the CBP,shows a close alignment between NEIs estimated employment and that reported in official government surveys at the county/plant level where there is overlap(Fi

186、g.19).Overall,the nuclear employment in these counties totaled 21,732 according to the NEI figures,and 20,525 in government sources.This close alignment of the NEI-reported nuclear power plant employment with government sources at the plant/county level helps support our decision to rely on NEI empl

187、oyment data for direct nuclear power plant employment in this work.A final concern with direct nuclear employment is that(some of)the 19,316 non-plant electric power generation jobs reported in the USEER might be misclassified as direct nuclear employment when they should be considered indirect(supp

188、ly chain)jobs instead.This is not the case for the 9,264 nuclear fuel jobs in the USEER,because nuclear fuel purchases are treated as a capital expenditure45 of the nuclear power industry rather than an 45 See,for example,the BEA Investment in Private Fixed Assets data(https:/apps.bea.gov/national/F

189、A2004/Details/Index.htm),which shows investment by the electric power generation industry(NAICS 2211)in nuclear fuel was$2.2 billion in 2022.46 Nuclear fuels status as a capital expenditure does,however,mean that it is part of the industrys capital stock,on which capital income is earned annually.Th

190、is capital income is included as part of the direct GDP impact of the nuclear power industry.47 https:/www.nei.org/resources/reports-briefs/nuclear-costs-in-context.48 EIA 2023.“Electric Power Annual 2022”table 1.1.https:/www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/pdf/epa.pdf.49 Detailed purchases by the electr

191、ic power industry in the detailed(402-industry)2017 input-output(IO)tables were adjusted to reflect changes between in the summary(71-industry)IO tables between 2017 and 2022.See https:/www.bea.gov/industry/input-output-accounts-data.operational expenditure that would generate an indirect supply cha

192、in impact.46 In the case of the non-plant electric power generation employment,we follow USEER by considering these jobs,and their associated economic activity,as direct nuclear power industry jobs,rather than part of the supply chain of nuclear power generation.We use data from the USEER to charact

193、erize the non-power plant direct employment of the nuclear power industry by state and industry.INTERMEDIATE INPUTS AND DIRECT EMPLOYEE COMPENSATIONPurchases of intermediate inputs by the nuclear power industry were estimated using data collected by NEI from nuclear power operators on the cost of nu

194、clear power generation and reported NEIs publication Nuclear Costs in Context.47 Fuel and capital costs were excluded from the analysis.Operating costs,which were reported at$18.68 per MWh in 2022 and totaled$14.4 billion given the total output of 772 million MWh of nuclear power that year,48 were a

195、veraged over the period 2019-2023 to avoid excessive influence of a particular year of data.These operating costs were split between labor income and purchases of intermediate inputs using unpublished NEI data.Intermediate input purchases were further split between goods on the one hand and services

196、 on the other using the same source.Intermediate input spending on goods and on services was broken out into specific commodities(i.e.,the outputs of specific industries such as engineering services,or machinery)using BEA data on intermediate input spending by the electric power industry.4929Technic

197、al appendixThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryFig.19.County-level nuclear power generation employment in official government surveys against NEI plant employmentSource:NEI,QCEW,CBP,Oxford EconomicsNEI employment 20223,0005001,0001,5002,0002,5000Employment in official survey02,

198、5002,0001,5001,000500CBP 2022CBP 2021CBP 2018QCEW 202230Technical appendixThe economic contribution of the US nuclear power industryDIRECT VALUE ADDED50 See table UGO305-A“U.Gross Output by IndustryDetail Level.”(May 23,2024)https:/apps.bea.gov/iTable/?reqid=151.“Gross Output by Industry”under“Under

199、lying detail.”51 An industrys value added is equal to the value of its outputs minus the value of its inputsi.e.,gross output minus intermediate inputs.This value added can itself be split into three pieces:labor income,capital income,and Taxes on Production and Imports(TOPI).Taxes paid out of labor

200、 or capital income,such as payroll and income taxes,and corporate taxes,are part of these factor incomes.Mixed labor and capital income by self-employed workers are also part of an industrys value add,but are not relevant to the nuclear power generation industry.52 The fundamental identity,expressed

201、 visually in Fig.2,is Gross Output=Intermediate Inputs+Labor Income+Capital Income+Taxes on Production and Imports.53 GOS represents value-added income accrued by owners of capital,and includes interest paid to debt holders as well as profits paid to owners.See https:/www.bea.gov/index.php/help/glos

202、sary/gross-operating-surplus.54 See https:/www.bea.gov/industry/input-output-accounts-data.The primary implications of this split between GOS and TOPI are for the tax impacts reported in section 2.3 of the paper.55 It is worth comparing our modeling assumptions to the profile of the nuclear power ge

203、neration industry data in the IMPLAN system,which is estimated based on a variety of government sources and IMPLANs own modeling.For the nuclear power generation industry in 2022,IMPLAN estimates gross output of$45.1 billion,intermediate input spending of$21.2 billion,labor income of$10.9 billion fo

204、r 42,316 workers,capital income of$7.8 billion,and TOPI of$5.2 billion.The largest difference between IMPLANs estimates of the nuclear power generation industry and the inputs in our modeling is the spending on intermediate inputs,which IMPLAN estimates to be over three times larger than our estimat

205、es based on NEI data.However,given the lack of any direct government data source on intermediate input costs specific to nuclear power,and after reviewing material provided by IMPLAN explaining their methodology in constructing these estimates,we determined,given this studys focus on the nuclear pow

206、er industry,to ground our estimates of intermediate input and labor costs in the data collected by NEI as described above.As noted in the papers introduction,the overall economic output of the nuclear power generation industry in 2022 was$52 billion according to BEA data.50 Because of concerns over

207、high energy prices in 2022 distorting results,the average gross output for the nuclear industry from 20192022 was used for this work:$42.5 billion.With expenditures on intermediate inputs and labor income calculated using NEI data as described above,the remaining components of direct value added51 w

208、ere calculated by subtracting them from gross output.52 These remaining components,namely capital income53 and directly paid Taxes on Production and Imports(TOPI),were calculated by subtracting intermediate inputs and labor income from gross output.The split between direct capital income and TOPI wa

209、s made proportional to this split for the electricity industry as a whole in 2022 BEA IO data.54This approach to modeling the nuclear power generation industryrelying on NEI data on direct expenses(intermediate inputs and labor income)and BEA data for total industry output and the split between capi

210、tal income and TOPIwas taken because of the lack of official government data on the spending of the nuclear power industry,especially on non-labor costs.55Fig.20.Output of the nuclear power generation industry broken down between intermediate inputs and components of direct value added(labor income,

211、capital income,and taxes on production and imports)Source:NEI,Oxford Economics$billionsGross output$42.5 billionLabor income$7.9 billionCapital income$21.7 billionIntermediate inputs$50$5$10$15$20$25$30$35$40$45$0$6.6 billionTOPI$6.2 billion31Technical appendixThe economic contribution of the US nuc

212、lear power industryMODELING THE CONTRIBUTIONS56 Specifically,the 421 workers in mining were assigned the uranium-radium-vanadium ore mining industry,the 2,130 workers in construction were assigned the maintenance and repair construction of nonresidential structures industry,the 4,572 workers in manu

213、facturing were assigned the other basic inorganic chemical manufacturing industry,the 3,611 workers in wholesale trade were assigned the wholesale of machinery,equipment,and supplies industry,and the 14,846 workers in professional services were assigned the architectural,engineering,and related serv

214、ices industry.57 The difference between economic contribution and economic impact,which is discussed in the methodology box in the main paper,is that economic contribution(typically)looks at the economic footprint of an entire industry,so that subsequent indirect or induced purchases from that indus

215、try would result in the full(direct plus indirect plus induced)impact representing more than 100%of the industrys output.To prevent this,indirect and induced purchases from that industry are suppressed.For more discussion on contribution analysis,see:https:/ Direct employment at each nuclear power p

216、lant was taken from the NEI data discussed above,and county-level labor income was split out of the national total proportionally to employment.Other componentsintermediate inputs,capital income,and TOPIwere split out of the national totals proportionally to the simple average of each plants share o

217、f national employment,and its share of the national 2022 summer capacity based on EIA data,https:/www.eia.gov/nuclear/reactors/reactorcapacity.php.The economic contribution of the nuclear power industry was modeled in IMPLAN economic impact software using a series of events.Activity at nuclear power

218、 plants was modeled using an Industry Impact Analysis(IIA)event type,which allows for the simultaneous adjustments of the four components of gross output shown in Fig.20,as well as adjustments to the commodity makeup of intermediate inputs.This corresponds to the 48,252 direct employees working at n

219、uclear power plants.Other direct activity in the nuclear power industry identified through the USEER report,a total of 28,580 direct nuclear power industry workers working at locations other than nuclear power plants themselves,was modeled using Industry Employment events,which assume a default indu

220、stry production pattern based on government data scaled by the number of direct workers.The industry broad sectors for these workers(e.g.,manufacturing,professional services,etc.)come from the USEER report;specific industry codes were selected in IMPLAN that correspond best to the nuclear power indu

221、stry.56 A$1 Industry Contribution event in the nuclear power industry was run in each region to prevent additional supply chain purchases of nuclear power that would otherwise cause total(direct,indirect,and induced)impacts in the nuclear industry to exceed 100%.57The national level contributions,re

222、ported in Chapter 2 of the main report,were calculated using a single national IMPLAN model with the above events.The state-level breakouts of the national results,reported in Chapter 3 of the main report,were calculated using a series of 51 Multi-Regional Input Output(MRIO)models,each modeling the

223、impacts in a single state(or DC),and following supply chain purchases back-and-forth into a second region consisting of the rest of the country.Full impacts on the focus state were collated from each of these models and then scaled by measure(employment,GDP,labor income,and taxes)and channel(direct,

224、indirect,and induced)to match the national total impacts.The state-level contributions thus sum to the national contributions.County-level contributions,reported in Chapter 4 of the main report,were calculated using 52 county-level models.Each model consisted of an Industry Impact Analysis event,cor

225、responding to the countys share of the total national impact,58 and a$1 contribution event in nuclear power as described above.As noted in the main text,the direct capital income and TOPI components are suppressed(i.e.,are assigned a$0 value)in the county-level contribution models,because these comp

226、onents of value added have limited economic effects at the local level.Non-nuclear power plant activity from the USEER was not considered in the county-level analysis,and county-level impacts only examine the within-county impact of each nuclear plant(i.e.,indirect and induced impacts from all other

227、 nuclear plants not in the county are not considered).For these reasons,the county-level contributions sum to less than the national contributions.Global headquartersOxford Economics Ltd Abbey House 121 St Aldates Oxford,OX1 1HBUKTel:+44(0)1865 268900London4 MillbankLondon,SW1P 3JA UKTel:+44(0)203 910 8000FrankfurtMarienstr.15 60329 Frankfurt am MainGermanyTel:+49 69 96 758 658New York5 Hanover Square,8th Floor New York,NY 10004USATel:+1(646)786 1879Singapore6 Battery