國際勞工組織（ILO）：2018-2019年全球工資報告（英文版）（172頁）.pdf

1、Global Wage Report 2018 / 19 What lies behind gender pay gaps Global Wage Report 2018/19 What lies behind gender pay gaps ContentsContents International Labour Organization The International Labour Organization (ILO) was founded in 1919 to promote social justice and thereby contribute to universal a

2、nd lasting peace. The ILO is responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. It is the only tripartite United Nations agency that brings together representatives of governments, employers and workers to jointly shape policies and programmes promoting decent work for all. Th

3、is unique arrangement gives the ILO an edge in incorporating “real world” knowledge about employment and work. ContentsContents Global Wage Report 2018/19 What lies behind gender pay gaps INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE GENEVA ContentsContents The designations employed in ILO publications, which are in

4、conformity with United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation o

5、f its frontiers. The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with their authors, and pub- lication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office of the opinions expressed in them. Reference to names of firms and c

6、ommercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Office, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval. Information on ILO publications and digital products can be found at: www.ilo.org/publns. Co

7、pyright International Labour Organization 2018 First published 2018 Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is

8、indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation, application should be made to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email: rightsilo.org. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications. Libraries, institutions an

9、d other users registered with a reproduction rights organization may make copies in accordance with the licences issued to them for this purpose. Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country. ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data This publication was produced by the

10、 Document and Publications Production, Printing and Distribution Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. Graphic and typographic design, manuscript preparation, copy editing, layout and composition, proofreading, printing, electronic publishing and distribution. PRODOC endeavours to use paper sourced from forests

11、 managed in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner. Code: DTP-WEI-CORR-MUS Global Wage Report 2018/19: What lies behind gender pay gaps International Labour Office Geneva: ILO, 2018 ISBN 978-92-2-031346-6 (print) ISBN 978-92-2-031347-3 (web pdf) wages / wage differential / wa

12、ge policy / gender equality / women workers / developed countries / developing countries 13.07 Also available in Chinese: ISBN 978-92-2-132016-6 (print), 978-92-2-132017-3 (web pdf); French: ISBN 978-92-2-031350-3 (print), 978-92-2-031351-0 (web pdf); and Spanish: ISBN 978-92-2-132008-1 (print), 978

13、-92-2-132009-8 (web pdf) Cover illustration: Panos pictures ContentsContents Preface Gender pay gaps represent one of todays greatest social injustices, and I am glad to see that eradicating this injustice has taken on significant momentum in recent times. Central to this effort is Sustainable Devel

14、opment Goal (SDG) target8.5 which calls, among other things, for equal pay for work of equal value within the framework of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. To reinforce the achievement of SDG target8.5, the ILO, together with UN Women and the OECD, established the Equal Pa

15、y International Coalition (EPIC), an ini- tiative to accelerate the closing of the gender pay gap across the world. The success of our efforts is crucial because inequalities within and among countries, including wage inequality, continue to be a significant obstacle to achieving a better and more s

16、ustainable future for all. This years ILO Global Wage Reportthe sixth of its seriestherefore pro- vides a detailed examination of gender pay inequalities so as to better under- stand the gender pay gap as a form of unacceptable inequality in the world of work. The report further continues the tradit

17、ion of previous editions by providing comparative data and information on recent global and regional wage trends. It shows that global wage growth in 2017 was not only lower than in 2016, but fell to its lowest growth rate since 2008, remaining far below the levels observed before the global financi

18、al crisis. This remains something of a puzzle given the recent recovery in economic growth and the gradual reduction in unemployment in major countries around the world. And although possible explanations have been offered to solve that puzzleslow productivity growth and the intensification of globa

19、l competition, among otherswhat is now widely recognized is that slow wage growth has become an obstacle to achieving sustainable economic growth. The growing consensus is that improving wages, reducing income inequalities and promoting decent work opportunities continue to be challenges that play a

20、 central role if we are to succeed in achieving the UN 2030 Agenda. The second part of this years report is devoted to the gender pay gap. Much has been written on the topic and a huge amount of research is aimed at explaining the reasons why men continue to be paid more than women across the world.

21、 So why another report? First, this report provides a critical assessment of the standard measures commonly used to estimate gender pay gaps. That assessment leads to a proposal for a new, complementary and simple way of measuring gender pay gaps that we hope will be a useful tool for the purposes o

22、f policy-making and for monitoring the evolution of the gender pay gap. Accordingly, the estimates in PartII, which cover some 70 countries and about 80per cent of wage employees worldwide, show that on average women currently continue to be paid approxi- mately 20per cent less than men. Second, the

23、 report analyses and breaks down gender pay gaps to better understand what lies behind this figure. The evidence shows that, in fact, much of the gender pay gap cannot be explained by any of the ContentsContents viGlobal Wage Report 2018/19 objective labour market characteristics that usually underl

24、ie the determination of wages. In high-income countries, for example, almost all of the gender pay gap remains unexplained. So what could then be the factors that lie behind gender pay gaps? The report shows that education is not, in most countries, the main issue: women wage employees across the wo

25、rld have just as goodif not bettereducational attainments than men. However, occupational segregation and the polarization by gender of industries and economic sectors stand out as key factors. Women continue to be under-represented in traditionally male-occupied categories and within similar catego

26、ries women are consistently paid below men, even if womens educational attainments are just as good or better than those of men in similar occupations. Gender polarization is also an important factor: the report shows that in Europe, for example, working in an enterprise with a predominantly female

27、workforce can bring about a 14.7per cent wage penalty compared to working in an enterprise with similar productivity attributes but a different gender mix. This 14.7per cent gap can translate into a loss of about 3,500 (approximately US$4,000) in salary per year for those who work in feminized secto

28、rs. Finally, the report shows that motherhood brings about a wage penalty that can persist across a womans working life while the status of fatherhood is persistently associated with a wage premium. Part III of the report suggests a number of policy measures to achieve pay parity between women and m

29、en. It is my hope that together with the empirical evidence presented earlier in the report, Part III will provide policy-makers, social partners, academics and key stakeholders with a valuable source of information to contribute to eradicating pay inequalities across the world. Guy Ryder ILO Direct

30、or-General ContentsContents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Executive summary . . . . .

31、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Part I. Major trends in wages 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 Global wage trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1 Wage trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.2 The global context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 Regional wage trends .

33、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Wage indices over the last ten years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5 Wages and productivity in high-income economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 6 Wage i

34、nequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Part II. Measuring gender pay gaps and understanding what lies behind them 7 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35、 19 8 Measuring the gender pay gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8.1 The raw gender pay gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8.2 Going beyond the raw gender pay gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36、 . . . . 27 8.3 A complementary measure: The factor-weighted gender pay gap. . . . . 36 9 What are the factors that lie behind the gender pay gap? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 9.1 Estimating the gender pay gap across the hourly wage distribution. . . 46 9.2 What part of the gender pay gap can

37、be explained by differences in the characteristics of women and men in the labour market?. . . . . . 55 9.3 Understanding what lies behind the unexplained part of the gender pay gap: The undervaluation of womens work and the motherhood pay gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38、 . . . . . 68 Part III. Which way forward? 10 Measures for sustainable wage growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 11 Reducing the gender pay gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 12 The need for better data . . . . . . . .

39、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Contents ContentsContents viiiGlobal Wage Report 2018/19 13 The need to move beyond simple measures of the gender pay gap . . . . . . . . . . 90 14 Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution, and reviewing the effe

40、ctiveness of labour market institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 15 Tackling the “explained” part of the gender pay gap: Education, polarization and occupational segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 16 Tackling the “unexplained” part of the gender pay gap: The undervaluation of wor

41、k in feminized occupations andenterprises, and implementation of equal pay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 17 Reducing the motherhood pay gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 18 Time to accelerate progress in closing gender pay gaps . . . . . . .

42、. . . . . . . . . . 97 Appendices I Global wage trends: Methodological issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 II Real and nominal wage growth, by region and country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 III Country and territory groupings, by region and income level . . . . .

43、 . . . . . . . 131 IV Coverage of the Global Wage database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 V National data sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 VI Decomposing the gender pay gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 VII Educational attainments of men and women wage employees by their location and ranking in the hourly wage distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45、. . . . . . 155 ContentsContents ixContents Boxes 1 Wage statistics in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Probability versus cumulative distribution functions: An illustrative example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46、 . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3 The factor-weighted gender pay gap: An illustrative example. . . . . . . . . . . 37 4 Decomposing the gender pay gap: An illustrative explanation. . . . . . . . . . 57 5 Empirical evidence of the gender pay gap at enterprise level . . . . . . . . . . . 74 6 The Swiss equa

47、l pay tool for small firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7 Parenthood status in the dataA word of warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 A1 What are wages?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Figures 1 An

48、nual average global real wage growth, 200617 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Annual average real wage growth in the G20 countries, 200617. . . . . . . . 3 3 Total increase in the real average wages of G20 countries, 19992017 . . . . 4 4 Annual average economic growth, 200617 (GDP in consta

49、nt prices). . . . 5 5 Inflation, 200617 (average consumer prices). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 Annual average economic growth by region, 2015 and 2017 (GDP in constant prices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7 Inflation by region, 2015 and 2017 (average consumer prices). . . . . . . . . . . 7 8 Annual average real wage growth by region, 200617 (percentage change) 8 9 Average real wage index for advanced G20 countries, 200817 . . . . . . . . . 11 10 Average real wage index for emerging G20 countri