1、 SOLAR PV A GENDERPERSPECTIVEACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study was developed under the guidance of Rabia Ferroukhi(Director,IRENA Knowledge,Policy and Finance Centre),authored by Celia Garca-Baos and Michael Renner(IRENA)with valuable inputs from Arslan Khalid and Divyam Nagpal(IRENA)The statistical analys

2、is was carried out by Adrian Whiteman(IRENA).The survey was translated by Abdullah Abou Ali(Arabic),Kathlen Schneider(Brazilian-Portuguese),Huiyi Chen and Jinlei Feng(Chinese),Elena Tagliani and Emanuele Bianco(Italian)and Celia Garca-Baos(Spanish).Surveys dissemination benefited from efforts by Afr

3、ica Solar Industry Association(AFSIA),APPA Renovables,Clean Energy Business Council(CEBC),Clean Energy Council,Council on Energy,Environment and Water(CEEW),ENERGIA-Hivos,Energy Community,Global Solar Council(GSC),Global Womens Network for the Energy Transition(GWNET),Inter-American Development Bank

4、(IADB),National Energy Administration(NEA),Power For All,Rede Brasileira de Mulheres na Energia Solar(MESol),Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency(RCREE),REN21,SADC Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency(SACREEE),Sustainable Energy for All(SEforALL),SELCO Foundation,S

5、olar Power Europe,Sosai Renewable energies,United Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO),World Resources Institute(WRI),and many individuals who anonymously shared the link in within their networks.DISCLAIMERThis publication and the material contained herein are provided as is.All reason

6、able precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material.However,neither IRENA nor any of its officials,agents,data providers or other third-party content providers offers a warranty of any kind,expressed or implied,and they accept no responsibility or liability for any co

7、nsequence of use of the publication or the material it contains.The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of all Members of IRENA.The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in prefere

8、nce to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region,country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the

9、delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.IRENA 2022Unless otherwise stated,material in this publication may be freely used,shared,reproduced,printed and/or stored,provided IRENA is appropriately acknowledged as the source and copyright holder.Material in this publication that is attributed to third p

10、arties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions,and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material.ISBN:978-92-9260-466-0 Citation:IRENA(2022),Solar PV:A gender perspective,International Renewable Energy Agency,Abu Dhabi.ABOUT

11、IRENAThe International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future and serves as the principal platform for international co-operation,a centre of excellence,and a repository of knowledge on policy,tech

12、nology,resources and financing related to renewable energy.IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,including bioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solar and wind energy in the pursuit of sustainable development,energy access,energy security and low

13、-carbon economic growth and prosperity.www.irena.org3Contents 011.1 Narrowing the data gap on gender in the solar energy sector:IRENAs survey _131.2 Share of women in the solar PV workforce _19 Womens share in solar PV,by role _19 Womens share in solar PV,by region _21 Womens share in solar PV,by ac

14、tivity _ 23 Womens share in solar PV,by organisation size _ 24About the Gender Perspective Series _ 6Key findings _ 8Introduction _ 9Women in the solar PV workforce _ 122.1 Barriers to entry,retention and advancement _ 29 Barriers to entry _ 29 Barriers to retention_30 Barriers to advancement _ 322.

15、2 The gender pay gap _ 34Up close:Challenges and opportunities for women in off-grid solar power _4002Challenges that limit womens participation in the solar PV workforce 26Annex IRENAs 2021 online survey on gender and solar PV energy _ 54 A.1.Limitations of the survey _ 55 A.2.Representativeness of

16、 the survey _ 55References _ 52033.1 Availability of employment benefits _ 43 Employment benefits according to organisations 43 Part-time employment _ 45 Employment benefits according to individuals 453.2 Broader solutions to supporting women in the solar PV workforce _46 Understanding the complexit

17、y of issues women face by raising gender awareness _ 47 Improving national policies and removing restrictive laws _ 47 Establishing better workplace practices,policies and regulations _48 Forming networks and systems to support training and mentorship _ 49Practical measures to support women in solar

18、 PV _ 4204The ultimate goal:Diversifying the solar PV workforce _ 50TABLE OF CONTENTS SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEBoxes,tables and figuresBoxesBox 1.1 Glossary of terms _ 18Box 2.1 The salience of more-generous maternity and paternity leave _ 31Box 2.2 The glass ceiling and the sticky floor effect

19、as factors in the gender pay gap _34Box 2.3 Initiatives empowering women in the off-grid solar PV workforce _ 41TablesTable 1.1 Sex and educational status of individuals responding to the survey _ 18Table 2.1 Availability of maternity and paternity leave _ 31Table 2.2 Perceptions of pay equity and b

20、arriers to participation in the solar energy workforce,by region _36Table 2.3 Differences in perceptions of pay equity and barriers,by organisation size and activities _38Table A.1 Location of survey respondents and employment in solar PV _55 Toa55/S Juice Flair/S5FiguresFigure I.1 Labour requiremen

21、ts along the value chain and occupational patterns for workers in solar PV _ 10Figure 1.1 Geographical distribution of survey respondents _ 15Figure 1.2 Distribution of survey respondents by region _ 15Figure 1.3 Distribution of survey respondents by main activity _ 16Figure 1.4 Distribution of surv

22、ey respondents by organisation size _ 17Figure 1.5 Women in oil and gas,renewables overall,wind,solar PV,and economy-wide average _ 19Figure 1.6 Women in the solar PV workforce,by role _20Figure 1.7 Women in management positions in solar PV and wind energy _ 21Figure 1.8 Women in the solar PV workfo

23、rce,by region _22Figure 1.9 Women in the solar PV workforce,by activity and region _22Figure 1.10 Women in the solar PV workforce,by activity _23Figure 1.11 Women in the solar PV workforce,by activity and role _24Figure 1.12 Shares of women in the solar PV workforce,by organisation size _25Figure 2.

24、1 Male and female perceptions of gender-related barriers in solar PV _ 27Figure 2.2 Perceptions of gender-related barriers in solar PV,by region,activity,size of organisation,and respondents educational background _28Figure 2.3 Relevance of various barriers to entry for women working in solar energy

25、 _29Figure 2.4 Relevance of various barriers to retaining women working in solar PV _30Figure 2.5 Relevance of various barriers to advancement for women in solar energy _33Figure 2.6 Individuals perceptions of pay gaps in solar PV and in the overall economy _35Figure 2.7 Perceptions of pay gaps in s

26、olar PV and the overall economy,by gender _ 37Figure 2.8 Reasons given for gender pay gaps _38Figure 2.9 Barriers to womens participation in expanding access to energy using renewables,by region _40Figure 3.1 Availability of employment benefits _44Figure 3.2 Availability of other employment benefits

27、 and measures,by organisation size _45Figure 3.3 Preferences for measures to support women in solar PV energy _46Figure A.2 Weight of organisation size categories in calculation of global averages _56SOLAR PV A GENDER PERSPECTIVELIST OF BOXES,TABLES AND FIGURES6SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEAbout the

28、 Gender Perspective SeriesThe Gender Perspective series is an integral part of IRENAs extensive research work on the effects of renewable energy deployment during energy transitions.The initial focus on employment creation and skills was expanded over time to cover other socio-economic elements such

29、 as gross domestic product,broader measures of welfare,local economic value creation,improved livelihoods and gender-differentiated impacts.IRENA has explored opportunities to improve the gender balance in the global energy transformation,first by deploying a gender lens in most of the agencys publi

30、cations dealing with the socio-economics of the energy transition,and second by researching ways to maximise the socio-economic dividends of gender mainstreaming in stand-alone reports.Some of the highlights of the latter category of work are mentioned below.In 2017,IRENA,Bloomberg New Energy Financ

31、e and the Clean Energy Business Council published a joint brief that reported the results of a regional survey of the Middle East and North Africa region.In 2019,the first global report dedicated to gender in renewable energy was published.Renewable Energy:A Gender Perspective examined the question

32、of gender equity across various renewable energy technologies.It was one of the most extensive surveys conducted on gender in renewable energy to date.Building on a ground-breaking survey of employees,companies and institutions,the study found that much remained to be done to boost womens participat

33、ion and allow their talents to be fully utilised.It revealed that 32%of the renewable energy workforce were women and highlighted substantial opportunities for a better gender balance in the global energy transformation.In early 2020,a new publication focused on the wind energy sector.Based on a sur

34、vey of around a thousand individuals and organisations,it tracked the presence of women in the wind energy value chain and examined gender-inclusive policies and perceptions of gender bias in the industry.A key finding was that the share of women in the wind industrys workforce(21%)remained substant

35、ially below the average for all renewables.Pressmaster/S PriceM/S7ABOUT THE GENDER PERSPECTIVE SERIESThese and other reports can be downloaded from www.irena.org/Publications.Analyses of local capacities2016201720182021ForthcomingForthcomingRENEWABLE ENERGY BENEFITSLEVERAGING LOCAL CAPACITY FOR SOLA

36、R PV RENEWABLE ENERGY BENEFITSLEVERAGING LOCAL CAPACITY FOR ONSHORE WIND RENEWABLE ENERGY BENEFITSLEVERAGING LOCAL CAPACITY FOR OFFSHORE WIND RENEWABLE ENERGY BENEFITSLEVERAGING LOCAL CAPACITY FOR SOLAR WATER HEATERS Studies of access context20122014201620172018201920202021IOREC 2012International Of

37、f-Grid Renewable Energy Conference KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONSInternational Renewable Energy AgencyIRENAInternational Renewable Energy AgencyIRENAACCELERATING OFF-GRID RENEWABLE ENERGYIOREC 2014:KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Second International Of f-Grid Renewable Energy Conference-IOREC 20

38、14International Renewable Energy AgencyIRENAIRENA woRkINg pApERRenewable Energy Jobs:StAtUS,PROSPECtS&POlICIESBIOfUElS AND gRID-CONNECtED ElECtRICIty gENERAtIONJune 2012Renewable Energy Jobs&AccessRENEWABLE ENERGY BENEFITSDECENTRALISED SOLUTIONSIN THE AGRI-FOOD CHAINAccelerating Off-gridRenewable En

39、ergyIOREC 2016Key Findings and RecommendationsThird International Off-grid Renewable Energy ConferenceOff-grid renewable energysolutions to expandelectricity access:An opportunity not to be missedCommunity and citizen empowermentLocal value creationSocio-economicdevelopmentAdaptableand scalableDecen

40、tralised and demand-drivenLivelihood improvementProven technologyCost competitiveEnvironmentally sustainableA joint report of the custodian agenciesTHE ENERGY PROGRESS REPORTTRACKING SDG 72020United NationsStatistics DivisionTHE ENERGY PROGRESS REPORT2021TRACKING SDG7A joint report of the custodian

41、agenciesUnited NationsStatistics DivisionFOSTERING LIVELIHOODSWITH DECENTRALISED RENEWABLE ENERGYAN ECOSYSTEMS APPROACHAnnual reviews of employment in renewables2011-2013201420152016201720182019202020212022International Renewable Energy AgencyIRENAIRENA woRkINg pApERRenewable Energy Jobs:StAtUS,PROS

42、PECtS&POlICIESBIOfUElS AND gRID-CONNECtED ElECtRICIty gENERAtIONJune 2012Renewable Energy Jobs&AccessRenewable Energy and JobsDecember 2013Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2014MAY 2014Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2015 2015Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2016millionjobsin 20

43、158.1millionjobsin 20158.1Renewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 20179 9 9.8 8 8millionmillionmillionmillion i in n 201620162016201610.3million jobs in 2017Renewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 20181111million jobs in 2018million jobs in 2018Renewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 2019www.irena.org1

44、1.511.5million jobs in 2019million jobs in 2019Renewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 2020www.irena.orgmmmi i il l ll l lionionion jobsjobsjobsi i in n n 202020202020Renewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 2021www.irena.orgSPECIAL EDITIONLabour and Policy PerspectivesIn Collaboration withH2million jo

45、bs in 2021million jobs in 2021www.irena.orgIn Collaboration withRenewable Energy and JobsAnnual Review 2022The present report evaluates the role of women in the solar PV industry using the largest sample of global responses on solar PV energy and gender gathered to date.Based on our survey of some 1

46、 300 individuals and organisations,it reports the share of women in the industry(40%),highlights the barriers and opportunities within the sector,and flags the similarities and differences between the solar PV workforce and the previously analysed sectors.Assessing gender equity in renewable energy2

47、017201920202022 Bloomberg Finance L.P.2017 No portion of this document may be reproduced,scanned into an electronic system,distributed,publicly displayed or used as the basis of derivative works without the prior written consent of Bloomberg Finance L.P.For more information on terms of use,please co

48、ntact .Copyright and Disclaimer notice on page 12 applies throughout.1 Women in Clean Energy,Middle East and North Africa Survey 2017 The Clean Energy Business Council,the International Renewable Energy Agency and Bloomberg New Energy Finance have gathered baseline data on challenges faced by women

49、in the clean energy sector in the Middle East and North Africa(MENA).Findings from the survey suggest key actions to attract more women and draw from a more diverse talent pool.More than 50%of the respondents in MENA say their workplace has more men than women,with only 29%reporting an even gender b

50、alance.Women face additional challenges compared with men,according to 34%of survey respondents from MENA.Key barriers to their entry to the clean energy industry include lower enrolment in science,technology,engineering and mathematics(STEM)programmes and a biased view of gender roles.Some responde

51、nts suggest that women join the industry in entry-level roles,but do not reach the highest levels.Key challenges for women in the MENA region,as in the rest of the world,include the glass ceiling for promotion prospects and lower wages for similar work.Although two thirds of MENA participants said t

52、he companies where they work pay women and men the same,one third said women still receive a lower salary for the same role.Men are more likely to believe that salaries are equal than women.Many MENA countries have policies on maternity leave that are similar on paper to those in Europe and better t

53、han in the United States.However,only 60%of respondents noted the availability of parental leave,which might reflect an absence of paternity leave.Compared with respondents from outside the region,MENA respondents reported lower levels of family-friendly policies that allow for better work-life bala

54、nce within their companies.Parental leave was reported to be the most adopted policy,followed by flexibility measures like flexi-time,part-time hours and work-from-home schemes.Female respondents were most enthusiastic about networking events,mentoring and training as potential ways to help them in

55、their career progression.Networking events should not be limited to women,since 14%of female respondents said that they preferred events open to both genders,while 84%had no preference either way.Figure 1:Gender balance in MENA clean energy workplaces(percentage of respondents)Source:Women in Clean

56、Energy MENA 2017 29%23%29%10%8%Strong malemajorityMore menthan womenRoughly evennumbersMore womenthan menStrong femalemajorityCelia Garcia CGarciairena.org Jenny Chase Amanda Glatthaar gender/?/noun1.euphemism for the sex of a human being,ofen intended to emphasize the social and cultural,as opposed

57、 to the biological,distinctions between the sexes.RENEWABLE ENERGY:A GENDERPERSPECTIVE WIND ENERGY:A GENDERPERSPECTIVE SOLAR PV:A GENDERPERSPECTIVE8SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEKEY FINDINGS The solar photovoltaic(PV)sector is the largest employer within the renewable energy sector,accounting for som

58、e 4.3 million jobs in 2021 one-third of all renewable energy jobs.The solar PV sub-sector will remain the largest source of employment in an energy transition pathway consistent with the Paris Climate Agreement,accounting for almost 14million jobs by 2030 37%of the total for the renewable energy sec

59、tor.The share of women working in full-time positions in the solar PV industry is 40%.This is almost double the share in the wind industry(21%)and the oil and gas sector(22%).The solar PV industry also compares well with the 32%share across the entire renewable energy landscape.Most women in solar P

60、V are employed in administrative jobs,where they account for 58%of the workforce.They are not as well represented in technical positions not related to science,technology,engineering and mathematics(STEM),where they hold only around 38%of the jobs.Examples of such positions include lawyers or procur

61、ement experts.Their share in STEM positions is even lower:just 32%of the total.Meanwhile,driven in part by off-grid solar PV deployments,women account for 35%of other non-technical positions(e.g.marketing,sales,distribution,and product assembly and installation).Regarding leadership positions,women

62、hold 30%of managerial jobs and barely 13%of senior management posts in the solar PV industry.Solar PV manufacturing does best in employing women,with a 47%share.Service providers and developers follow with 39%and 37%,respectively.It is harder for women to find a job as a solarPV installer,an activit

63、y in which women account for barely 12%of the total.Women face challenges to entry,retention and advancement in the solar PV workforce.The most prominent barriers are perceptions of gender roles,lack of fair and transparent policies,and cultural and social norms that shape behaviour.In the context o

64、f expanding access to energy women also face challenges,but off-grid solarPV offers plenty of opportunities,especially in consultation and planning,construction,and operation,as well as through the development of productive uses enabled by the availability of decentralised energy solutions.Measures

65、to eliminate barriers are critical.Addressing the complex issues women face will require raising gender awareness;improving national policies and removing restrictive laws;establishing better workplace practices,policies,and regulations;and forming networks and systems to support training and mentor

66、ship.Improving womens representation in solar PV needs to be part of a broader objective:diversifying the workforce as a whole so it includes everyones vision,talents and skills.This means not only women,but also all other minority groups.9INTRODUCTIONIntroductionEconomic empowerment is a particular

67、ly effective means for women to gain more control over their own lives.Yet women are still frequently ignored,undervalued and unpaid,preventing them from fulfilling their full economic potential.Without their full engagement,inclusive growth is unattainable.Yet gender equality remains the greatest h

68、uman rights challenge of all time(Ban,2016),and the COVID-19 pandemic appears to have made matters worse.1Gender equality is essential because it is an intrinsic human right and a core development objective.2 It is also a critical instrument for development.It increases productivity and improves the

69、 welfare of families and children while exerting positive effects on GDP per capita.Furthermore,climate change and gender equality are inextricably linked.Strategies and programmes to address the effects of climate change must include the participation,experiences and voices of women,not only becaus

70、e they are disproportionately affected by climate change,but also because they have valuable points of view,experience and knowledge to contribute to building community and national resilience(Williams,2021).Energy sourced from renewables and efficiency in the use of that energy are the keys to deca

71、rbonising all end uses,massively cutting carbon emissions and helping to mitigate climate change(IRENA,2022).The energy transition can boost economic development,create jobs and significantly improve welfare.In fact,the global renewable energy labour market is estimated to have grown to around 12.7

72、million jobs in 2021 and is estimated to nearly quadruple by 2050 if a holistic policy framework can be put in place(IRENA,2021a;2022;IRENA and ILO,2022).The solar photovoltaic(PV)sector is the largest employer within the renewable energy field,accounting for some 4.3 million jobs(IRENA and ILO,2022

73、).Large-scale solar facilities feed power to the grid,while small,off-grid solar applications offer much-needed access to electricity in remote and energy-poor communities(IRENA,2021a).In IRENAs energy transition scenario,solar PV will remain the largest driver of job growth in renewable energy,beco

74、ming the source of 14million jobs by 2030 along a pathway consistent with the Paris Climate Agreement(IRENA,2021a;2022).In other words,its job creation potential all along the value chain(from project planning to decommissioning)is immense.1 Women suffer disproportionately from economic shocks and r

75、estrictions such as those induced by COVID-19,in part because nearly 60%of women work in the informal economy.Additionally,women have played a disproportionate role in responding to the virus(frontline healthcare workers and providers of home care).Moreover,school closures have accentuated womens al

76、ready disproportionate burden of childcare(United Nations,n.d.).2 Gender equality is the fifth of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015.Image Source Trading Ltd/S KornT/S10SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEFor a typical 50MW solar PV facility,about 230 000 person-day

77、s are required for project planning,manufacturing,construction,installation,and operations and maintenance.That works out to a years work for 885people for a single large-scale facility.Solar PV offers employment prospects for people with a wide range of experiences and occupations.There is demand f

78、or individuals with training in the STEM fields(science,technology,engineering and mathematics)and with high-level qualifications in non-STEM fields(such as lawyers),as well as people with lower formal skills(such as construction)who could be leveraged from different industries with minimum training

79、(see FigureI.1).The low threshold of skills required for many of these jobs opens doors to employment for many people.Policy makers need then to match skills demand and facilitate the supply of an adequate workforce through active labour market policies;and when possible,create new job opportunities

80、 by leveraging capabilities of the female half of the workforce(IRENA,2016).Figure I.1 Labour requirements along the value chain and occupational patterns for workers in solar PVSource:Based on IRENA(2016).Note:New data and analysis are forthcoming,but the fundamental skills patterns are unlikely to

81、 shift dramatically,even as automation exerts a greater impact.LowercertificationSTEMprofessionalsNon-STEMprofessionalsAdministrativeHuman resourcesrequirements50 MWSolar PV229 055person-days64%31%1%22%2%17%56%2%4%1%ProjectplanningProcurement andmanufacturingInstallation andgrid connectionOperations

82、 andmaintenanceDecom-missioningTransport11INTRODUCTIONThe under-representation of women in the energy sector is well known.Men vastly outnumber women in the oil and gas industry,with women accounting for barely 22%of sectoral employment.Renewable energy does better than traditional energy,with women

83、 occupying 32%of jobs(IRENA,2019).The takeaway is that renewable energy,as a younger and more dynamic sector,represents an opportunity for change.The expanding solar PV industry offers long-term and challenging career opportunities in both on-grid and off-grid contexts,with real potential for women

84、as construction managers,technicians,electricians,plumbers,sales representatives,installers,human resource managers and marketers,among others(IRENA,2016).If the solar industry fails to incorporate more women,it will be missing out on the talent pool that women represent as well as the opportunity t

85、o create a better working environment for all employees,as having more women in the workplace improves the organisational culture,resulting in better employee engagement and retention(Clerkin,2017).Chapter 1 of the present report outlines the share of women in the solarPV workforce.Chapter 2 examine

86、s the barriers women face.It is followed by a close look at women living and working in the off-grid context.Chapter3 surveys the role that decentralised solar PV can play in empowering women,particularly in areas with low electrification rates.Chapter4 discusses the path towards a more diverse sola

87、r PV workforce.only_kim/D.Nagpal/IRENA Sunflower Light Pro/S1Women in thesolar PV workforce AlessandroBiascioli/S13WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE his chapter discusses the main findings of IRENAs online survey of nearly 300organisations.It analyses women in the solar PV workforce by role,region,act

88、ivity and organisation size.Interestingly,the results show no significant differences between off-grid and on-grid employment of women;therefore the results are considered similar for women in both contexts.31.1 Narrowing the data gap on gender in the solar energy sector:IRENAs surveyEchoing previou

89、s methodologies used by IRENA,the report is based on the results of a global survey directed at organisations and individuals working in the solar PV sub-sector.The study outlines quantitative insights derived from the organisations responses,and qualitative insights on the barriers to entry,retenti

90、on and advancement based on individual responses.Drawing on both sets of findings,the report also suggests policy solutions.Initially planned for 2020,the survey was postponed due to the global health crisis,as some construction and other key activities along the solar PV value chain suffered delays

91、 or disruptions from the lockdown measures imposed by countries around the world(IRENA,2020b).The survey was available online from 8March2021(coinciding with International Womens Day)to 31 December 2021.It was widely publicised through IRENA distribution channels and further disseminated in the news

92、letters,mailing lists,etc.of various partner organisations.T3 As noted in IRENAs previous gender surveys,online surveys have limitations.While they offer an easy,convenient,and inexpensive means of data collection,online surveys commonly suffer from methodological limitations,including the fact that

93、 the population to which they are distributed is technologically aware and educated and thus self-selected.There could also be geographical imbalances,that is,higher participation rates in some countries than in others,or self-selection bias,given those choosing to participate may not be a full repr

94、esentation of the population.While these limitations cannot be eliminated,IRENA is committed to increasing collaboration and partnership with different organisations for further analysis,aiming to reach broader audiences.011 283 responses294 organisations989 individuals123 countries 14SOLAR PV:A GEN

95、DER PERSPECTIVEOnline surveys have limitations.While they offer an easy,convenient and inexpensive means of data collection,they commonly suffer from methodological limitations,including the fact that the population to which they are distributed is technologically aware and educated and thus self-se

96、lected and therefore not a full representation of the population.There could also be geographical imbalances;that is,higher participation rates in some countries than others.Respondents could choose to complete the survey either as individuals or as representatives of their employers(i.e.on behalf o

97、f organisations).From individuals,information was collected about perceptions of the main barriers and challenges to attracting and retaining women in the workforce,as well as suggestions for potential solutions to some of these problems.From representatives of organi-sations,the survey asked for mo

98、re quantitative information about the gender distribution in the organisations workforce and the policies and measures used to support greater gender diversity.4 Answering these questions accurately requires some know-ledge of the relevant staff statistics,so respondents were encouraged to consult w

99、ith their human resources department to complete this part of the questionnaire.A total of 1 283 organisations and individuals completed the questionnaire(294 organisations and 989 individuals).The survey was made available in Arabic,Chinese,English,Italian,Portuguese and Spanish.Geographical and re

100、gional distribution.Participation was worldwide,with individuals and organisations from 123 countries replying(see Figure 1.1).Unlike previous IRENA surveys,responses were not dominated by replies from Europe and North America.In particular,a relatively high proportion of replies(26%among organisati

101、ons,31%among individuals)came from the Asia-Pacific region,where a great deal of solar energy development is taking place.Figure 1.2 shows the regional distribution of responses.Given that most solar PV jobs are located in Asia-Pacific(around 80%of the global total),followed by Europe and North Amer

102、ica(12%),Africa(5%),and Latin America and the Caribbean(3%),responses were adjusted.Weights were used to calculate global averages,so that the results would more accurately reflect the regional distribution of employment in the sector.4 For the purpose of this report gender refers to women and men.“

103、Other”was also offered as an additional choice for respondents.However,only six individuals identified themselves as such,not a sufficiently significant number to warrant aggregating their answers into a separate category.Participation wasworldwide,with individuals andorganisations from 123 countrie

104、scompleting the survey PradeepGaurs/S0115WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE Figure 1.1 Geographical distribution of survey respondentsFigure 1.2 Distribution of survey respondents by region Note:Baseline map data 2022 Google,overlaid with data points from the survey.Disclaimer:This map is provided for

105、illustration purposes only.Any boundaries and names shown do not imply any endorsement or acceptance by IRENA.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.IndividualrespondentsOrganisationalrespondentsEurope andNorth America30%Africa22%31%Asia-PacificLatin Americ

106、aand Caribbean17%Europe andNorth America34%Africa26%26%Asia-PacificLatin Americaand Caribbean15%AfricaAsia-PacificEurope andNorth AmericaLatin Americaand Caribbean16SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEActivity distribution.Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of respondents by main activity,which refers to th

107、e functions of companies and other organisations that may relate to segments of the solar PV value chain.For the purposes of this report,this includes project developers;solar panel installers;manufacturers(of solar panels,components,or other solar devices);service providers(including finance,insura

108、nce,research and trade associations);and others.The latter included a wide range of activities(mostly technical and engineering activities,often involving the application of solar power outside the energy sector).Responses were quite evenly distributed across the various activities and are thus like

109、ly to represent the views of a broad selection of organisations and individuals active in the sector.However,as in previous surveys,manufacturers were possibly under-represented in the sample against their contribution to employment in the sector as a whole.To account for the fact that many organisa

110、tions have business activity outside solar PV(including a range of renewable energy technologies),the survey asked both organisations and individuals to specify the proportion of their activity related to solar energy.Responses were used as an additional weighting factor in the calculation of global

111、 averages and totals.On-grid,off-grid,or both.Individuals and organisations were asked to indicate whether they work in on-grid solar PV,off-grid,or both(given the overlap in several segments of the value chain).Among both organisations and individuals,35%of respondents specified they were working i

112、n an on-grid setting,roughly 20%in off-grid,and the reminder(around 45%)in both contexts.Employer size.With respect to entities size,more than half of the responses from organisations and almost half of the individual responses came from the two smallest size classes:organisations employing fewer th

113、an 20 people or between 21 and 50people(see Figure1.4).While it is possible that a relatively high share of employment in the solar sub-sector is in small organisations(given the importance of distributed deployments),the distribution of responses for solar contrasts strongly with the previous wind

114、energy employment survey(where half of the individual responses came from people working in organisations employing more than 1 000 people).The size of an organisation is an important variable for the calculation of global averages for two reasons.First,answers may differ significantly among respond

115、ents from organisations of Figure 1.3 Distribution of survey respondents by main activitySource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.IndividualrespondentsOrganisationalrespondents21%Developer23%Developer13%OtherManufacturing13%Manufacturing19%24%Operator15%OperatorService provider29%Service provider16%

116、Other27%DeveloperOperatorManufacturingService providerOther0117WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE different sizes.Second,and more important,size is a crucial variable for the interpretation of responses from organisations,where each reply must be treated as though it represents several employees in the

117、 sector.The lack of information about the true size distribution of organisations working in solar PV remains a challenge for scaling up survey results to produce reliable population estimates,particularly with respect to the weight that should be given to replies from large organisations responding

118、 to the survey.Survey participation by women and men.Women and men were fairly evenly balanced among respondents,with a 54%share for women and 46%for men.Survey participation by educational achievement.The level of education of male and female respondents was similar,with that of women being slightl

119、y higher(see Table 1.1).The survey included a question on the educational status of the individual respondents,as the composition of respondents by background could influence survey results.The distribution of educational status indicates that 86%of respondents had a university degree and 42%had a m

120、asters or doctoral degree.Individuals with lower levels of education are poorly represented in the sample compared with those holding a tertiary degree.The under-representation of less-educated employees can affect the analysis.As noted earlier,online surveys are at risk of several types of bias.How

121、ever,as this survey is focused on a single sector for which more information is available about the population of interest(employees in the sector),it was possible to adjust responses to reflect the distribution of characteristics in the underlying population.The following sections discuss the resul

122、ts of the analysis.Some of the results confirm previous findings from IRENAs work while others offer valuable additional insights.Section1.2 is a quantitative analysis of the share of women in the solar PV energy sector,broken down by role,region,activity and organisation size.Box1.1 defines key ter

123、ms used.Figure 1.4 Distribution of survey respondents by organisation sizeWomen and men were fairly evenly balanced amongrespondents,with a 54%share for women and 46%for menSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.IndividualrespondentsOrganisationalrespondents34%under 20employees40%under 20employees

124、23%over 1000 employees11%over 1000 employees51-100 employees11%51-100 employees12%101-500vemployees13%101-500employees11%15%21-50employees20%21-50 employees501-1000employees4%501-1000employees6%under 20employees21-50employees51-100employees101-500employees501-1000employeesover 1000employeesBox 1.1 G

125、lossary of termsRole.For the purpose of this report,the roles of solar PV sub-sector employees fall into the following categories:administration,STEM(science,technology,engineering and mathematics),other technical(non-STEM,such as lawyers),and other non-technical(e.g.marketing,sales,distribution,pro

126、duct assembly,installation),management and senior management.Some of the categories may overlap.A person with a STEM degree,for instance,may rise into a management or senior management role.Region.The regions considered are Africa,Asia-Pacific,Europe and North America,and Latin America and the Carib

127、bean,including Mexico.Activity.Activity refers to the functions of organisations in the solar PV value chain.For this report,the activities are installer,developer,manufacturing,service provider,and others(including consultancy companies,think tanks,academic and research institutes,training and educ

128、ational centres,financial institutions,governmental agencies and marketing companies).18SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVETable 1.1 Sex and educational status of individuals responding to the surveyNote:Diploma includes technical certificates,such as vocational training in a technical field.Source:IRENA

129、online solar PV survey,2021.SubjectsHighest level of educationAll replies High schoolDiplomaBachelorsMastersDoctoralSTEM qualifications Males 3%7%21%11%3%46%Females10%6%20%16%2%54%All respondents13%13%41%27%6%100%Non-STEM qualifications Males 12%7%18%6%2%46%Females16%5%20%13%-54%All respondents29%12

130、%39%19%2%100%Highest level of either qualification Males 2%6%21%13%4%46%Females3%4%22%23%2%54%All respondents5%10%44%36%6%100%WomenMen pattarawat/S0119WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE 1.2 Share of women in the solar PV workforceIRENA has examined gender equity issues through a series of reports.In 20

131、19,a first global report was built on a ground-breaking survey of employees,companies and institutions.The study found that 32%of the renewable energy workforce are women(IRENA,2019).A subsequent survey focusing on wind energy put the share of women in that workforce at 21%,substantially below the a

132、verage for all renewables(IRENA,2020a).The current analysis finds that the share of women working full time in the solar PV industry is 40%,the highest share of any renewable energy sub-sector analysed by IRENA to date(see Figure 1.5)and well above estimates for the oil and gas sector,which have rem

133、ained at 22%since 2017(BCG,2021).Yet the 40%share held by women in solar PV still trails the global average of women in the overall economy,estimated at 45.9%by the International Labour Organization as of 2020(ILO,2022a).Womens share in solar PV,by roleBeyond the overall share of women working full-

134、time in solar PV,it is important to examine whether there are any imbalances among the different roles that women fulfil in the industry.Indeed,similar to the results for renewable energy overall and for wind,the survey indicates that women are not equally re-presented across the industry.5Figure 1.

135、5 Women in oil and gas,renewables overall,wind,solar PV,and economy-wide average 5 Throughout this analysis,statistical significance is measured against a null hypothesis of randomness(or no relationship)using a 5%probability level(i.e.randomness or no difference/relationship is rejected if its prob

136、ability is less than 5%).A significance level of 5%or less can be assumed if it is not stated,but where a relationship is significant at a different probability level this will be given.40%women working full time in thesolar PV industryNote:The results did not show any significant difference between

137、 off-grid and on-grid employment of women.Therefore we assume similar shares of women in both contexts.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.All renewable energyOil and gasWindSolar PV0%20%40%60%80%100%economy-wide average45.9%45.9%21%21%22%22%40%40%32%32%RE SofikoS/S20SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTI

138、VEMost women in solar PV hold administrative jobs(58%),followed by non-STEM technical positions(38%).6 According to UNESCO(2017),only 35%of STEM students in higher education are women.Our survey finds that women in STEM positions in solar PV are close to the global figure,at 32%of the total.Meanwhil

139、e,driven in part by off-grid solar PV deployments,the survey finds that women account for 35%of other non-technical positions(e.g.marketing,sales,distribution,product assembly or installation)(see Figure 1.6).Gender inequality is most evident at decision-making levels.It is well reported that across

140、 the economy,in policy making and governance,womens presence on company boards and in senior management positions is painfully small.The absence of female role models is even more acute in energy-related fields.According to IRENAs wind survey,women hold barely 13%of managerial jobs and 8%of senior m

141、anagement positions in that industry.Women are faring better in solar PV.IRENAs survey data show that women account for just under one-third of the sectors management positions(30%),but this drops to 17%for senior management.7 In both industries,the share of female managers is far below womens avera

142、ge share in the workforce but very similar to the overall 31%of all senior management positions,globally,in 2021(Grant Thornton,2021).It is not as high as the average proportion of women in management positions in the overall economy of the G20 countries,which stood at 38%in 2020(see Figure 1.7).8 F

143、igure 1.6 Women in the solar PV workforce,by role6 Non-STEM technical positions require higher education.Examples include lawyers and human resources professionals.7 Senior management includes positions responsible for setting long-term goals and defining strategies to achieve them.Examples may incl

144、ude chief executive officers,vice presidents,directors and division heads,board members,etc.If the data are not weighted(considering that the number of people serving on boards of directors is likely to be quite similar across all organisations),the share of women in these senior positions is 23%.8

145、The average share of women in managerial roles in G20 nations with data by economic sector is 38%,with significant variances among sectors.While the proportion of women in management positions is less than 25%in traditionally male-dominated sectors such as mining and quarrying(19.6%)and construction

146、(13.7%),it is greater than 50%in sectors such as health and social work(67%),education(61%),household activities as employers of domestic personnel(60.5%),and other service activities(51.5%)(ILO,2020).Note:STEM=science,technology,engineering and mathematics.Differences were significant in all cases

147、except for the share of women in administration.While the share of women employed in administration is very large,this is due primarily to the patterns of employment in large firms(which have a major impact on the global average share of employment of women in administration).Across all firms,the sh

148、are of women in administration is variable,such that no significant difference was found between it and the overall share of female employment.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Other non-technicalNon-STEM technicalAdministrationSTEM0%20%60%80%100%average share in solar PV40%40%58%58%38%38%32%

149、32%35%35%0121WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE Therefore,while women are better represented in solar PV management than in other technologies and sectors,substantial efforts are nonetheless needed to enable greater participation of women at all levels and to expand the pool of skills and talents neede

150、d to drive the transformation.Womens share in solar PV,by regionWomens share of solar PV employment is smaller in Europe and North America and in Latin America and the Caribbean than in the Asia-Pacific and Africa regions(see Figure 1.8),but the differences are not significant.These figures are cons

151、istent with findings from various national reports and statistics.Estimates from Australia,for example,indicate that 38%of its solar PV workforce are women(CEC,API and ETU,2021).A recent study of women in Brazils solar PV sub-sector finds that just a third of professionals are women(CFF and MESOL,20

152、21).Likewise,the United States National Solar Jobs Census yielded the finding that womens share in the workforce of all solar technologies grew from 26%in 2019 to 30%in 2020(SEIA,Solar Foundation and IREC,2021).In the solar PV sub-sector,women are more represented in administrative positions across

153、all world regions(see Figure 1.9).The spread between womens shares in administration and in all other roles is most pronounced in companies in the Asia-Pacific region.The heavy representation of women in administration explains why the region fares better in comparisons of womens overall participati

154、on in the solar PV workforce.Figure 1.7 Women in management positions in solar PV and wind energySource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021,and IRENA(2021),Grant Thornton(2021)and BCG(2021).ManagementSenior management0%20%60%80%100%average share in solar PV40%40%17%17%30%30%ManagementOil and gasWind e

155、nergySolar PVSenior management0%20%60%40%80%100%8%8%13%13%All management/senior management positions0%20%60%40%80%100%Economy-wide average31%31%13%13%average share in wind energy21%21%22SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEFigure 1.8 Women in the solar PV workforce,by regionFigure 1.9 Women in the solar PV

156、workforce,by activity and regionSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.AfricaLatin America and the CaribbeanEurope and North AmericaAsia-Pacific0%20%40%60%80%100%27%27%33%33%40%40%38%38%SeniormanagementSTEMAdministration0%20%40%60%80%100%Other non-technical

157、ManagementNon-STEM technicalGlobal averageAsia-PacificEurope andNorth AmericaLatin Americaand the CaribbeanAfrica58%58%17%17%35%35%30%30%38%38%32%32%0123WOMEN IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCE Womens presence in Australias solar workforce appears to be similar to IRENAs Asia-Pacific results,with women occup

158、ying 62%of administrative positions,31%of STEM and managerial jobs,and 19%of senior management positions.However,non-STEM technical professionals are better represented in the Australian results,with almost half(48%)of positions being held by women(CEC,API and ETU,2021).Meanwhile,the figures on the

159、share of women in managerial positions in Europe and North America(23%in both)are aligned with the US study cited above,which found that of the 26%women in the solar workforce in 2019,only 28%of them held positions at the manager,director or president level.In addition,participating solar firms repo

160、rted that women represented just 20%of senior executive roles(Solar Foundation and SEIA,2020).Womens share in solar PV,by activityManufacturing appears to employ the greatest proportions of women(47%).The“other activities”category which includes con-sultancy companies,think tanks,academic and resear

161、ch institutes,education and training centres,financial institutions,governmental agencies and marketing companies follows with 40%.Meanwhile,among service providers and installers,the proportion of women decreases remarkably,suggesting that it is harder for women to find employment in those activiti

162、es(see Figure 1.10).The share of women employed in organisations engaged in off-grid,on-grid or both types of solar energy also showed no significant differences,either overall or in the different roles;therefore we assume similar shares of women in both contexts.Figure 1.10 Women in the solar PV wo

163、rkforce,by activity47%share of women in manufacturingSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Service providerOtherManufacturerInstaller0%20%40%60%80%100%47%47%40%40%12%12%39%39%Developer37%37%aslysun/S24SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEFigure 1.11 disaggregates the findings presented in Figure 1.10,bre

164、aking down the share of women in each activity by broad occupational category(STEM,non-STEM technical,other non-technical,administrative and both levels of management roles).Significant differences were found in the case of administration,where developers,manufacturers and“other”employ more women.Th

165、e share of women is by far the lowest in senior management across all activities,attesting to the existence of gender-specific obstacles such as the glass ceiling that will be discussed in Box 2.2 in the following chapter.9 Womens share in solar PV,by organisation sizeShares of women in the workforc

166、e did not vary significantly by organisation size.Although the proportion is highest in the largest organisations(i.e.those with more than 1 000 employees),organisations in other size categories had fairly similar scores(see Figure 1.12).Smaller organisations have a slightly higher share of women in

167、 senior management.The next section analyses the barriers to entry and advancement that women face.9 “Glass ceiling”refers to an unstated barrier to advancement in a profession.It affects women and members of minority groups in particular.For more information,see Box 2.2.Figure 1.11 Women in the sol

168、ar PV workforce,by activity and roleSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Global averageDeveloperInstaller0%20%40%60%80%100%ManufacturerOtherService providerAdministrationOthertechnicalSTEMOther non-technicalManagementSeniormanagementAllpositions12%12%40%40%47%47%40%40%39%39%37%37%0125WOMEN IN TH

169、E SOLAR PV WORKFORCE Figure 1.12 Shares of women in the solar PV workforce,by organisation size58%share of women working in administrative jobs Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.101-500501-1 0001 0001000c)By size of organisation200%20%60%80%100%39%39%61%61%49%49%49%49%51%51%51%51%62%62%38%38%

170、65%65%35%35%40%51-100501-100048%48%53%53%No,there are no barriersYes,there are barriers 63%63%37%37%51%51%49%49%0229CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCERespondents who affirmed that women faced gender-related barriers were asked follow-up questions about the main barr

171、iers to entry,advancement and retention.The following section sheds light on the impediments highlighted by respondents.2.1 Barriers to entry,retention and advancementBarriers to entryWomen may begin their careers expecting the path to success to be based on merit.However,hard work and personal achi

172、evements alone do not determine career advancement.Women face unseen hurdles that men do not;indeed,they face these challenges even before they enter the workplace.The survey asked individuals to rank the relevance of various barriers that confront women seeking entry-level employment in solar energ

173、y,either as a first job or as their first opportunity in the sector after a career switch.As in IRENAs previous surveys,two of the major barriers identified were social and cultural factors:perception of gender roles and social and cultural norms.The lack of gender targets and hiring practices were

174、also highlighted.However,in contrast to previous surveys,limited mobility was also mentioned as a major barrier.This could be due to the survey being carried out after the COVID-19 breakout,with lockdowns being on respondents minds,or to the fact that many of the respondents worked in manufacturing,

175、where most opportunities are in cities and may require a willingness to move or commute longer distances for work.Other barriers were seen as less relevant,particularly those related to educational background and self-perceptions of women seeking to work in the sector.Male-dominated sectors and occu

176、pations may deter female applicants,who struggle to see themselves fitting in.In some cases,women perceive that they are not suited for a role simply because they are women;in other cases,they are self-conscious because they may be considered the token woman.On still other occasions,the organisation

177、s culture may be perceived as hostile to or uncomfortable for women.However,results suggest that women working in the solar PV industry are aware of their capabilities and do not perceive themselves as ill-prepared to enter the sector if they have a background relevant to it(see Figure 2.3).Figure 2

178、.3 Relevance of various barriers to entry for women working in solar energySource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Cultural and social norms Hiring practicesLimited mobilityPerception of gender rolesLack of gender targets Lack of awarenessof opportunitiesSelf-perceptionLack of STEM backgroundLack o

179、f non-STEM backgroundWorkplace policies30SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEBarriers to retentionRetaining women in mid-career has always been a problem.It has been particularly challenging in the last few years because of the COVID-19 pandemic,which hit mothers of child-bearing age and caregivers particu

180、larly hard.Studies of the US corporate sector show that in 2020,23%of women with children under 10 considered leaving the workforce,while only 13%of men thought about it(McKinsey,2021).As in the IRENA wind energy survey,the relevance of barriers to retaining women in the solar workforce scored much

181、higher than those related to job entry and career advancement(see Figure 2.4).Fairness and transparency in internal policies and processes was again identified as the most relevant concern,closely followed by several of the other barriers,including lack of maternity and paternity leave(see Box 2.1),

182、a common barrier for women to remain in the workforce.This result confirms the previous findings that a focus on investing in the retention of female employees could be an effective strategy for improving gender balance in the sector.Figure 2.4 Relevance of various barriers to retaining women workin

183、g in solar PVSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Fair and transparent policiesMaternity leavePaternity leaveFlex-timePart-time workingGender targetsOnsite childcareJob sharingOption to work from homeTraining and mentoring02Box 2.1 The salience of more-generous maternity and paternity leaveOrgan

184、isations and individuals were asked whether maternity and paternity leave were available beyond that required by national employment legislation and,if so,how many additional weeks of leave were available(see Table 2.1).As the table shows,the responses from organisations and individuals were quite d

185、ifferent.Only 8%of the participating organisations reported that neither maternity nor paternity leave were available,while 23%of the individuals participating indicated that these were unavailable within their organisations.However,just over half of both groups said that maternity and paternity lea

186、ve were available at the legal minimum requirement.In terms of additional leave,36%of organisations said that it was available,but only 11%answered the follow-up questions about how many weeks were available,possibly suggesting that this was decided on a case-by-case basis.For individuals,26%affirme

187、d that additional leave was available;18%could say how many additional weeks were granted.Based on these responses,it seems that around half of the solar workforce is entitled to maternity and/or paternity leave as specified in national law;1020%may not receive any;1020%may enjoy a greater amount of

188、 leave;and another 1020%may receive the legal minimum and be able to negotiate for more.In terms of the amount of additional maternity or paternity leave available,there were also major differences in the responses of organisations and individuals,with individuals reporting much larger amounts of ad

189、ditional leave where this was available.Again,this could suggest that organisations reported only the minimum that may be available and that more might be available on request.The consistent finding from the responses of organisations and individuals alike was that additional paternity leave was muc

190、h less common than additional maternity leave,with many respondents reporting that no additional paternity leave was available.In terms of gender equality,only 15%of organisations and 10%of individuals stated that the same number of additional weeks were available for maternity and paternity leave,w

191、ith all reporting lower amounts of additional paternity leave.31CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCETable 2.1 Availability of maternity and paternity leave Availability and amountOrganisationsIndividualsNot available at all8%23%Available at legal minimum 56%51%Additio

192、nal(unspecified)leave available25%8%Additional(specified)leave available11%18%Average maternity leave in addition to legal minimum(weeks)327Average paternity leave in addition to legal minimum(weeks)15Note:Responses are weighted.32SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEBarriers to advancementWhile challenges

193、to retention scored as a greater concern,barriers to advancement in womens careers are a big issue as well.Women are frequently disadvantaged compared with men,as they are more likely to step into roles that offer fewer prospects for advancement(Leung,2016).Additionally,the road to leadership positi

194、ons and the larger corporate culture still embody antiquated male norms that make it difficult,if not impossible,for women to reach the top(McKinsey,2021).Furthermore,despite data showing that female leaders are taking on more work,women in leadership roles are more likely than men to encounter micr

195、o-aggressions(including being interrupted,having their emotional condition remarked on,and having their judgement called into question)that reflect doubts on their competency to act as a leader.The same microaggressions are less frequently experienced by men and tend to become even less frequently a

196、s men gain seniority.Men gain respect;women lose it(McKinsey,2021).In the solar PV industry survey,respondents again pointed to social and cultural norms as the most relevant barrier to advancement.Those norms are followed,again,by mobility limitations(see Figure2.5).Many studies have reported how w

197、omen are often penalised when mobility is a requirement,ignoring that they may have different patterns,needs and behaviours.So-called trip-chaining travel involving multiple purposes to single or multiple destinations and time impoverishment define womens mobility.Because women carry out three-quart

198、ers of unpaid domestic care work globally,they must consider commuting schedules and travel connection options when applying for a job or accepting a promotion.Additionally,womens routes and modes of transportation are influenced by the need for personal safety.This is especially true when traveling

199、 alone at night,given that women are more vulnerable than men in unsafe situations and more likely to be assaulted or harassed(Criado Perez,2019).Lack of childcare and the absence of gender targets and workplace flexibility were the next most often cited barriers.Mothers are three times more likely

200、than men to be responsible for the majority of housework and childcare;this was especially true during the pandemic(McKinsey,2021).While this is a cultural and social construct that needs to be changed through awareness and education,systemic change will take time.Solutions need to be found in the m

201、eantime,through measures such as flexibility and childcare facilities.A surprising outcome from the survey analysis was that the perception of a glass ceiling was much lower than in IRENAs previous survey of gender and employment in the wind energy industry.This may be due to the large number of res

202、pondents working in manufacturing,where women tend to assume roles with limited prospects for growth.As a dynamic industry less dominated than wind by a small number of large,established companies,solar PV may well be more progressive(see Figure2.5).Axel Fassio/CIFOR0233CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS

203、PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEIn summary,the responses support the following conclusions:The most significant barrier for women in the solar energy workforce is the general perception of gender roles.10 Responses differ widely by region and other underlying characteris-tics.Generally,respon

204、dents from the Asia-Pacific region viewed almost all of the barriers to entry,advancement and retention as less relevant than respondents from Latin America and the Caribbean.Respondents working in organi-sations employing more than 500people(i.e.the two largest size categories)tended to see most ba

205、rriers as less relevant,particularly with respect to retention.The reported relevance of various barriers was also usually higher in the minds of individuals possessing a technical certificate or a masters degree,but relatively lower for those with a secondary-school diploma,a bachelors degree or do

206、ctoral education.The lack of any clear trend in perception of barriers by education level likely reflects the types of work done by respondents at different education levels,although it does seem that those at the opposite ends of the spectrum tended to view most of the barriers as less relevant.Fig

207、ure 2.5 Relevance of various barriers to advancement for women in solar energy10 As in IRENAs previous gender studies,the difference in importance of most of the barriers was not significant,as most of the scores given to these barriers had a confidence limit of about+/-2 percentage points.Patriarch

208、yis a social system in which men dominate over others,but can also refer to dominance over women specifically Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Cultural andsocial normsLack of childcare facilitiesLack of gender targetsLack of workplace flexibilityGlass ceilingLack of mentoringLack of training

209、Workplace practicesLack of skills Lack of skills Workplace practices Lack of training Glass ceiling Lack of mentoring Lack of workplace flexibility Lack of gender targets Lack of childcare facilitiesCultural and social normsBox 2.2 The glass ceiling and the sticky floor effect as factors in the gend

210、er pay gapThe“glass ceiling”refers to the obstacles that keep women from advancing in their careers.An example of its contribution to the gender pay gap would be a woman declining a promotion or not considering applying for one because of her care-giving responsibilities.“Sticky floors”refer to disc

211、riminatory employment patterns that affect even highly educated women when they are hired at the bottom of a hierarchy while their male peers tend to get positions further up the scale.One example could be lower salaries in job offers made to women on the assumption that women are less qualified or

212、more likely to accept the lower offer.Pay gap refers to the overall differences in pay between classes of people within a grouping,such as a country,sector or organisation.Pay equity means equal compensation for employees with similar job duties,experience,time on the job,location and performance.Pa

213、y equality is broader than pay equity.It refers not just to equal pay for employees in similar situations,but also to equality of opportunity,motivation and acceptance that yield roughly equal proportions of men and women in positions across the pay spectrum.34SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVE2.2 The ge

214、nder pay gapThe gender pay gap is a multi-faceted problem,with its causes rooted in the discrimination women face in access to work,advancement and rewards.First,there is womens greater concentration in lower-paying jobs,either because they hold specific low-wage jobs or because they work in industr

215、ies that generally pay less than those that are male-dominated.This career preference could be attributed to societal and cultural norms that channel women into less male-oriented careers(and which can play an indirect role in dissuading women from entering STEM-related fields)(Spiggle,2021).Additio

216、nally,women are more likely to experience career disruptions,particularly for child-rearing and care-giving reasons.Added to this is the fact that women may perform as much as 30%more unpaid work than men in some countries(Donner and Goldberg,2021).Phenomena such as the glass ceiling and the sticky

217、floor also hold back pay equity (see Box 2.2).0235CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEAll of these factors combine to produce the gender pay gap.The most egregious situation arises when women are not paid the same as men for identical or equivalent jobs.Women,unfortun

218、ately,face a conscious and unconscious bias that can result in pay discrimination.The underlying sexism leaves women in a weaker position when negotiating pay raises.To assess perceptions of pay equity and equality,individual respondents were asked how they perceived hourly wages for female employee

219、s compared with male employees both in the overall economy and in solar PV,based on their own experience.Overall,28%of respondents believed that men were paid more for equivalent work,while 4%believed that pay was higher for women.Individuals perceptions of a pay gap in their current employment(in s

220、olar PV)were slightly higher than their perceptions of a pay gap in the workforce as a whole(see Figure 2.6).At the global level,the share perceiving pay equity in solar PV was 68%compared with 64%for employment across the economy.This slight difference appeared in all the regions except Latin Ameri

221、ca and the Caribbean,where a smaller share of respondents believed pay to be equivalent in solar PV and across the economy.It was also noticeable that a relatively high share of respondents from this region and from Europe and North America believed that women were paid more than men in solar PV.The

222、se differences between the regions in perceptions of pay equity were highly significant(see Table 2.2).Figure 2.6 Individuals perceptions of pay gaps in solar PV and in the overall economy28%of respondents believed that men were paid more for equivalent work in the solar PV sectorSource:IRENA online

223、 solar PV survey,2021.Who is paid more in solar PV?Who is paid more in the global economy?Women are paid moreMen are paid moreMen and women are paid the same34%34%64%64%2%2%68%68%4%4%28%28%Jub-Job/S36SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVETable 2.2 Perceptions of pay equity and barriers to participation in th

224、e solar energy workforce,by regionParticipants across all regions believe the pay gap in the solar PV industry is lower than in the overall economySource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.RegionWho is paid more(in solar PV)?Who is paid more (entire economy)?MenNeitherWomenMenNeitherWomen%of responde

225、nts%of respondentsAfrica 30%66%4%38%60%3%Asia-Pacific 26%73%1%31%67%3%Europe and North America 46%37%17%66%33%1%Latin America and the Caribbean 44%34%22%60%40%0 New Africa/S0237CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEDisaggregating responses by gender,men perceive greater

226、 pay equity than women,with 76%believing equity to exist in solar PV,compared with 41%of women sharing that perception.A similar difference was observed for pay equity in general although,again,perceptions of equity in solar PV were slightly better than for employment in general.These differences be

227、tween the responses from men and women were highly significant and very similar to the responses to IRENAs earlier survey of the wind energy sector(see Figure 2.7).The difference in perception between men and women indicates that pay inequity is a structural problem requiring structural solutions.Se

228、veral other factors had a significant effect on perceptions of pay equity and barriers to womens employment.Table 2.3 shows the differences in perceptions of employees of organisations of different sizes,engaged in different activities and with different educational backgrounds.Generally,perceptions

229、 of pay equity are stronger for those working in larger organisations and among employees in manufacturing,where,congruently,perceptions of barriers are much lower as well.Perceptions of pay equity also vary significantly among individuals working in organisations of different sizes11(see Table 2.3)

230、.Figure 2.7 Perceptions of pay gaps in solar PV and the overall economy,by gender 11 Significance at the 10%probability level.76%of men believe equityexists in solar PV,compared with 41%of women sharing that perceptionSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Who is paid more in solar PV?Who is paid

231、more in the global economy?61%61%39%39%1%1%51%51%41%41%8%8%According to womenWho is paid more in solar PV?Who is paid more in the global economy?26%26%71%71%3%3%15%15%76%76%9%9%According to menWomen are paid moreMen are paid moreMen and women are paid the same Frame Stock Footage/S38SOLAR PV:A GENDE

232、R PERSPECTIVETo explore why gender pay gaps occur,respondents reporting that pay was not equal were also asked why that might be the case.Figure 2.8 presents the relative frequency of the possible reasons cited by respondents,including the variance in responses where men or women are perceived to be

233、 paid more.The lack of a common pay scale or company policy was the most frequently identified explanation of perceived pay differences,with 45%of respondents citing it as a reason.Differences in the types of work performed was the next most frequent answer(40%of respondents),followed by negotiating

234、 skills(35%).Seniority was mentioned by 23%respondents.A variety of other reasons were also given,mostly cultural reasons why men or women are expected to do certain types of jobs.Many of these answers mentioned that women are not expected or encouraged to enter careers in engineering.Employees of m

235、anufacturers and large organisations,as well as people working in the Asia-Pacific region,tend to have greater access to some important benefits,higher perceptions of pay equity and lower perceptions of barriers for women in the sector.A large portion of the solar workforce is employed in organisati

236、ons meeting one or more of these criteria,which may explain why the overall share of female employment in the sector is relatively high.Large manufacturing companies may also be more likely to have common pay scales and policies.For other regions of the world,activities other than manufacturing and

237、smaller organisations,the sector is not as homogenous and probably requires a different mix of skill sets,experiences and educational qualifications.Under these circumstances,more barriers to womens employment are reported by respondents.Closing the wage gap and removing the employment barriers that

238、 women face demand an investment of time and resources.Chapter 3 explores the measures available and possible solutions.Table 2.3 Differences in perceptions of pay equity and barriers,by organisation size and activitiesOrganisation sizeWho is paid more?MenNeitherWomen%of respondentsUnder 20 39%52%9%

239、21-5035%55%10%51-10034%51%15%101-50032%57%11%501-1 00038%59%3%Over 1 00028%67%5%ActivityWho is paid more?MenNeitherWomen%of respondentsDeveloper37%55%8%Other38%54%8%Service provider33%56%11%Installer34%55%12%Manufacturer26%73%1%Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.0239CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMEN

240、S PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEFigure 2.8 Reasons given for gender pay gaps Many factors contribute to the gender wage gap,including discriminatory practices;in this case,against women.Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.60%50%40%30%20%10%0Respondents stating that women are paid moreR

241、espondents stating that men are paid moreAll respondentsLack of commonpay-scale/policyDiferences inactivitiesDiferences innegotiating skillsDiferences inseniorityOtherreasons Photo_apisak/S OWRA photography/S40SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEIn contexts where access to modern forms of energy is scarce,

242、off-grid solar-based solutions are playing a growing role in expanding access.Combined with energy efficiency,the off-grid solar PV value chain offers significant opportunities to engage women both in delivering solutions and as beneficiaries.In fact,studies suggest that women,as customers,are great

243、 ambassadors for rural electrification.Women who purchase solar kits,for example,refer four new customers on average,compared to three by men(Deign,2018).Women represent a vast reservoir of entrepreneurial potential,talent and resilience that can ignite productive activity and anchor a path for sust

244、ainable economic development.They are well positioned to lead and support the implementation of innovative energy access via solar PV products and services,including through entrepreneurship(IRENA,2019).However,restrictive laws in some countries prevent them from participating actively in the econom

245、y,notably as entrepreneurs.Additional impediments are found in countries that restrict womens asset ownership(IRENA,2019;Almodvar-Reteguis,2019).IRENAs 2019 survey found that barriers to womens participation in settings where access to modern forms of energy was being established or expanded were as

246、sociated with several factors.Cultural and social norms were cited by respondents as the most common impediment,followed by inequity in ownership of assets and lack of gender-sensitive policies and skills(see Figure 2.9).In addition,more than half of the respondents to that survey also cited improvi

247、ng access to finance and mainstreaming the gender perspective in energy access programmes as important to improving womens engagement.Up close:Challenges and opportunities for women in off-grid solar powerFigure 2.9 Barriers to womens participation in expanding access to energy using renewables,by r

248、egion Source:IRENA,2019.Unequal asset ownershipCultural and social norms0%20%40%60%80%100%Lack of gender specific trainingLack of skillsGlobal averagePercentage shares of respondents citing each factorAsia-PacificEurope andNorth AmericaLatin Americaand the CaribbeanAfrica72%72%41%41%34%34%41%41%?024

249、1CHALLENGES THAT LIMIT WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEThrough unpaid work,women play critical roles in the rural economy.They are responsible for the well-being of their family members,including food preparation and caring for children and the elderly,while also functioning as keepers

250、 of traditional knowledge,which is critical to the livelihoods,resilience and culture of their communities.Yet women suffer barriers to economic participation due to gender-based discrimination and societal norms,disproportionate participation in unpaid labour,and uneven access to education,healthca

251、re,property,and banking and other services.This makes them disproportionately vulnerable to the effects of natural catastrophes and climate change(ILO,2019).Off-grid solar PV can help redress these imbalances by facilitating womens access to education where lighting is an issue,helping them to impro

252、ve their livelihoods through productive uses of electricity and allowing them to become decision-makers in household energy management.Wider access to health care,water and sanitation facilitated through off-grid renewables is a particular boon to those who bear a disproportionate share of household

253、 and child-related duties.In the solar PV survey reported in this volume,respondents from the off-grid sector referred to the need for more funding for off-grid projects targeting women as beneficiaries.Respondents also referred to the need for more training,flextime and home-based work,as well as m

254、ore maternity leave.In the energy access context,women represent a crucial stakeholder group whose talents and energy should be exploited in the electrification of off-grid areas.Many successful examples suggest how off-grid renewables offer employment opportunities to women and how their engagement

255、 brings essential improvements in womens self-perception and empowerment within the community(IRENA,2019).Several of these are described in Box 2.3.Such initiatives help make women agents of change.The link between gender inclusion and energy access is well established(UN Women,2016),as is that betw

256、een womens empowerment and decent employment(ILO,n.d.b).Solar PVs value chains related to grid extension,mini grids and solar home systems present excellent opportunities for inclusive,sustainable economic growth and a larger supply of decent jobs.Ensuring equitable participation of women and other

257、disadvantaged groups is crucial to create sustainable solar businesses.Box 2.3 Initiatives empowering women in the off-grid solar PV workforce Barefoot College is an example of the transformative potential of training women in rural areas.Over six months,trainees many of whom are grandmothers receiv

258、e instruction on the assembly,installation,operation and maintenance of solar lanterns,lamps,solar water heaters and parabolic cookers,among other devices.The programme has trained over 2 200 women from 93countries,leading to the deployment of at least 1 million solar systems(Barefoot College,n.d.).

259、Solar Sister is a training and job creation initiative for female entrepreneurs that distributes portable solar lights in rural Sub-Saharan Africa.Over 5 800 Solar Sister Entrepreneurs have reached 2 million people in Africa with clean energy(Solar Sister,n.d.).Remote Energy mentors aspiring Solar P

260、V technicians and motivated instructors in remote and underrepresented communities worldwide.They have trained over 933students and teachers,with almost half of them women(Remote Energy,n.d.).PradeepGaurs/S3 Practical measures to support women in solar PV UNDP Mauritius43PRACTICAL MEASURES TO SUPPOR

261、T WOMEN IN SOLAR PV03oor representation of women in solar PV can cause several problems.Among them is a skills shortage that is already in evidence,and which may bedevil the sector for an extended period of time.An expanding solar energy sector implies a growing demand for labour.But if women are no

262、t properly considered for job openings,the industry runs a severe risk of not having enough professionals to cover its needs.Therefore,not only does the sector need to consider women for its hiring needs,but it must create an attractive environment for them.Offering decent pay and adequate benefits

263、is the first step to attracting talent to the sector.This section discusses the benefits presently available,according to the organisations and individuals who participated in the survey.There are several ways to increase womens participation in solar PV.3.1 Availability of employment benefits Growi

264、ng numbers of organisations understand that they must prioritise their employees well-being,acknowledging that people are their most important resource.12 The well-being of employees is an important determinant of an organisations long-term performance.Many studies reveal a clear relationship betwee

265、n production levels and workers health and well-being(ILO,n.d.).Meeting employees needs translates into a commitment to the company,decreases workplace conflicts and improves overall performance.Making available a wide range of benefits will boost employees happiness and lower their stress levels.Th

266、is is especially critical in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic(Miller,2021).Solutions vary widely;they include leadership,communication,and a focus on learning and development.Yet even basic benefits are still not fully available around the world.Employment benefits according to organisationsTo

267、 sketch a picture of present realities in solar PV,participating organisations were asked to identify the benefits available to their full-time employees.Figure 3.1 shows the share of the total solar workforce covered by each benefit as well as the same information for women working in the sector.12

268、 According to the International Labour Organization,“workplace well-being”relates to all aspects of working life,from the quality and safety of the physical environment,to how workers feel about their work,their working environment,the climate at work and work organisation(ILO,n.d.a).Solutions vary

269、widely;they include leadership,communication,and afocus on learning and development.Yet even basic benefits are still not fully available around the world.P44SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEThe figure shows that maternity leave and health care are available to many employees(benefits that are,in many c

270、ountries,compulsory and regulated by law).These are followed by paternity leave and flexible work arrangements.The availability of maternity leave and health benefits for women working in solar PV is the same as for the workforce as a whole;probably driven by legal and regulatory requirements in mos

271、t countries.However,the availability of other benefits,such as education funds and mentorship programmes,were not only lower overall but were lower for women than for men.One interesting result was that the availability of flexible work was quite low compared with the results from previous surveys(f

272、or wind and for the renewables sector as a whole).This is probably due to the weight in the sector of large-scale manufacturers,where the scope for flextime work may be more limited.In smaller companies outside manufacturing,flexibility has probably been more available,especially during the COVID-19

273、 health crisis.The availability of mentoring was also relatively low,possibly for the same reason.Several“other”benefits are also available for solar PV employees.Some respondents mentioned pension and insurance schemes,profit sharing or bonus schemes,and benefits such as transport and meal subsidie

274、s.13 Again,these mentions could be explained by manufacturings large share in the sample.Figure 3.1 Availability of employment benefits13 Some answers reflected a duplication of other benefits already listed(e.g.health care,education and training).Source:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.100%80%60%4

275、0%20%0MaternityleaveHealthcarePaternityleaveOtherOnsitechildcare facilitiesMentorshipEducationFlexiblearrangementsBy total workforceBy female workforce Knut-Erik Helle Folgen;The Barefoot college0345PRACTICAL MEASURES TO SUPPORT WOMEN IN SOLAR PVEmployment benefits according to individualsIndividual

276、s were also asked about the benefits their organisations made available.As in the case of the organisations responses,the most common benefit mentioned was maternity leave which,as mentioned,is prescribed by law in most countries.However,paternity leave was not reported as available at the rate sugg

277、ested by responses from participating organisations.As Figure 3.2 shows,the availability of benefits also differs between small and large organisations.The measures having a positive impact on the reporting of no barriers(maternity and paternity leave,training opportunities,and fairness in policies)

278、are far more frequently available in organisations employing over 100 people than in smaller organisations.Conversely,home-based remote work and part-time work is much more widely available in smaller organisations.Part-time employment Several questions were asked about part time employment in organ

279、isations.Sixty percent of respondents said that part-time employment is available,which translates,after weighting,into a 10%share of the solar workforce that can avail itself of this option.For those where part-time work is available,the weighted results showed that 20%do not get any other benefits

280、 and 65%get fewer benefits than full-time employees.Only 15%of part-time workers get the same benefits as full-time workers.The share of female employment in part-time jobs(where available)is also relatively low at 25%.Due to the weighting of the survey responses by location,activity and size,the re

281、sults for part-time employment largely reflect the situation in large employers and manufacturers.These organisations make a major contribution to full-time female employment in the solar sector,but the results also suggest that these employers do not present many opportunities for part-time employm

282、ent and the jobs that are available may not be increasing female participation in the workforce.Figure 3.2 Availability of other employment benefits and measures,by organisation sizeSource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.100%80%60%40%20%0MaternityleaveTraining PaternityleaveJobsharingChildcarefaci

283、litiesPart-timechildcareFlexi-timeHomeworkMentorsGendertargetsFairpoliciesUp to 100More than 100Unweighted average46SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEThe upshot is that,as might be expected,there are fewer barriers to female employment in large organisations compared to small organisations,largely due to

284、 the greater availability of benefits and measures that lead survey respondents to feel that there are no significant barriers to female employment.For those measures that seem to have a negative impact on the perception of whether there are barriers,this may result from their greater availability i

285、n smaller companies(where the positive benefits are less commonly found)rather than indicating that these benefits have a negative impact on female employment.3.2 Broader solutions to supporting women in the solar PV workforce Women face significant obstacles in gaining access to decent work.Measure

286、s to eliminate those barriers are critical.IRENAs solar PV survey included a question on preferred solutions(see Figure 3.3).Additional measures that would be helpful for the solar PV sub-sector,and for the overall economy,are discussed below.A majority of the respondents simply mention the need for

287、 equal opportunity and no discrimination.However,the other half were more specific,citing equality in recruitment and promotion,decision making and other aspects of their work.Several respondents mentioned the need for someone(manager,director)with responsibility for gender issues.A few mentioned me

288、asures such as anonymising CVs and ensuring womens representation on interview panels.While only one respondent suggested the need for new laws or regulations on gender equality or discrimination,several others felt that existing laws on this issue needed to be implemented or enforced.Figure 3.3 Pre

289、ferences for measures to support women in solar PV energySource:IRENA online solar PV survey,2021.Workplace safetyGender trainingEqual opportunities!Quotas or targets!Capacity buildingParental leavePay equalityFlexibilityWork practicesMentoring networkingCultural changeTransparency0347PRACTICAL MEAS

290、URES TO SUPPORT WOMEN IN SOLAR PVThe second most commonly mentioned specific measure was a target or quota for womens recruitment or employment or some sort of affirmative action.This was usually mentioned in terms of general recruitment,but some respondents specifically mentioned recruitment or pro

291、motion of women into senior positions.Respondents also mentioned training,sponsorships,internships or education(grouped together as“capacity building”).While most referred simply to more training for women,quite a few mentioned improving womens access to existing training and capacity-building activ

292、ities.A number also mentioned more generally the need to encourage women to take STEM courses and pursue other relevant qualifications or for schools to begin breaking down perceptions that women are not suited to careers in these areas.Maternity and paternity leave,flexible or home-based work oppor

293、tunities and improvements in workplace facilities and practices were each mentioned by around 10%of respondents.These responses covered a wide variety of issues.With respect to maternity leave,very few mentioned that this was needed(i.e.does not exist);most suggested improvements,usually an expansio

294、n of coverage to staff who do not currently qualify or the improvement of benefits.However,several mentioned other problems related to maternity leave and its impact on womens careers,stating that the career break clearly has an impact on womens professional growth and development.Quite a few respon

295、dents also mentioned the need for men to be treated equally by making paternity leave available.Mentoring/networking,cultural change(in general)and gender training/mainstreaming(within organisations)were each mentioned by 6%of respondents.The need for improved workplace safety for women(codes of con

296、duct,combatting harassment)was mentioned as well,together with the need for greater transparency in pay,hiring and other areas(as seen in Figure 3.3).Understanding the complexity of issues women face by raising gender awarenessThrough gender awareness,solar PV companies can increase general sensitiv

297、ity,understanding and knowledge about the challenges that women face,as well as the ingrained bias against women that 9 out of 10 men and women around the world hold(UNDP,2020).Gender awareness can also support solar PV by promoting the idea that the sector presents opportunities for women.Additiona

298、lly,raising awareness about gender will make it easier to include a gender perspective in policies,programmes,projects and services that respond to the differential needs of women and men,and to eliminate negative economic,social and cultural practices that impede equality and equity.Improving natio

299、nal policies and removing restrictive lawsBillions of women still do not have the same legal rights as men,and nearly 2.4 billion women of working age worldwide are still not afforded equal economic opportunities.Some countries still have laws that actually prevent women from working in specific job

300、s or require a mans consent to such work(World Bank,2022).Removing these restrictions is imperative,not only as a matter of fairness,but because gender equality makes economic sense,as it increases productivity and improves the welfare of families and children while boosting per capita GDP over time

301、.Countries can take many measures to combat the forms of discrimination and inequality that affect women.SofikoS/S48SOLAR PV:A GENDER PERSPECTIVEThe key is mainstreaming gender equality and womens empowerment within all their policies and programmes,including education,labour and property laws.The r

302、ight to education on the basis of non-discrimination and equality is recognised under human rights law(United Nations,n.d.).Yet women and girls continue to face gender-based barriers to exercising their right to education.Girls and women are often steered away from science and math.Educators need to

303、 ensure that young girls are encouraged to explore their potential and remove the bias that women should pursue only certain careers(such as care-giving or administration).Additionally,integrating a gender lens into national labour laws that is,provisions making those laws sensitive to gender issues

304、 is critical to ensure that womens rights are protected and to guarantee that women have equal job opportunities and receive the same wage for equivalent work as men.Furthermore,legislation and regulations should protect those who choose to start a family,ensuring that all parents are entitled to pa

305、rental leave.14 Paternity leave can help fight cultural and social norms,as it can lay the groundwork for more equitable responsibility sharing in the future and shape fathers decisions about how to devote resources to childcare,household duties,and paid labour in later years.Despite these benefits,

306、however,fewer than half of the countries in the world offer statutory paid paternity leave at present(Promundo,2019),and the statutory paid minimum is often no more than a few days.Longer leave periods are typically voluntary,with the result that few men take them for fear of career setbacks(New Yor

307、k Times,2021b).While the potential of women as entrepreneurs is under-utilised across the economy,solar PV is a sector with unique conditions to empower womens entrepreneurship,especially in the off-grid context.Solar entrepreneurship can allow women to become financially independent while boosting

308、efforts to bring clean energy to all.However,existing gender gaps in access to finance,information,technology,goods and services,and markets make this an elusive goal.Efforts are needed to facilitate access to finance and capital for women entrepreneurs,and to abolish restrictive laws.15Establishing

309、 better workplace practices,policies and regulationsWhile a bedrock of national laws and regulations is needed to combat workplace gender discrimination,organisations can adopt additional measures to ensure that women are fully represented in the workforce and are empowered to take up leadership pos

310、itions.First,organisations can gather more gender-disaggregated data.Gender statistics are scarce but critical.They reflect the workplace realities of women and men.Establishing a clear picture is the basis for designing proper gender policies and the first step towards improving womens representati

311、on at all levels.Gender quotas can be put in place to correct gender disparities in various occupational roles and leadership positions.Also,organisations need to increase transparency,particularly related to hiring practises,promotions,and equal pay.Hiring processes could include salaries on job ad

312、vertisements,for instance,to close gender and ethnicity pay gaps.Eliminating the pay gap would create trust between the organisation and female employees,improving morale and working relationships.If not required by law(or if the law is very conservative),organisations can take the lead in offering

313、maternity and paternity leave to employees.Promoting work-family balance and a more equal sharing of care responsibilities can be achieved by facilitating,and perhaps even subsidising,workplace child-care or breast-feeding facilities.This can result in better access to a larger talent pool 14 While

314、this report focuses on parental leave for mothers and fathers,IRENA acknowledges that there are many other kinds of families(families with two mothers or two fathers,adoptive families,and so on)that face similar challenges and thus can benefit from parental leave.15 Many countries still legally unde

315、rmine womens economic participation and under-value womens work.Of the 189 economies surveyed for the World Banks 2018 report on Women,Business and the Law,90%have at least one regulation that impedes womens economic opportunities.0349PRACTICAL MEASURES TO SUPPORT WOMEN IN SOLAR PVfor the organisati

316、on(including of women in management positions).The global workforce is rapidly evolving,and the preference for workplace flexibility is increasing,especially in the wake of the COVID-19 health crisis and the rise of remote work.Organisations can provide flexibility in work arrangements.Flexible work

317、 arrangements include hybrid work,telecommuting,remote work,condensed work weeks,flextime,part-time work,shift work and job sharing.Allowing employees to adapt their traditional office schedules to meet personal or family needs can result in lower absenteeism,longer tenure,less turnover and generall

318、y better performance.Flexible work arrangements help women only if they are also offered to men;otherwise,such measures may actually make things worse for women(Ruppanner and Meekes,2021).Forming networks and systems to support training and mentorshipOrganisations can support women by facilitating t

319、raining,mentorship and network systems.These can arise within single organisations,but a growing body of industry associations and womens networks are coming together within sectors.This is true of solar PV and the broader renewable energy landscape.Networking is important for career development and

320、 success.Often,women have fewer opportunities to develop and exercise networking skills.Because professional networks are closely implicated in career advancement,limited access becomes an obstacle to womens progress.Networks empower women by connecting them with other expert women who could become

321、long-term business contacts.Whether these networks operate within solar PV or the broader renewable energy sector,they provide an excellent platform for securing advice from peers and experts and for sharing knowledge and experiences.They promote greater visibility for women,offer mentoring opportun

322、ities and professional connections,and even provide career opportunities,including internships that allow them to make a start in the workforce.They also allow women to become role models,which can change other womens self-perceptions and increase awareness of the multiple opportunities available to

323、 them.Some examples of such networks include:Women in Solar Energy(WISE),a network to foster diversity and inclusion in all aspects of the solar energy industry(WISE,n.d.);MESol is a Brazilian support network for women in solar energy(Rede MESol,n.d.);AMES(Asociacin de Mujeres en Energa Sustentable)

324、(AMES,n.d.);and Global Womens Network for the Energy Transition(GWNET,n.d.).Beyond networks,skills training and education can help to level the playing field between women and men.Dedicated training programmes can provide women with the skills and knowledge they need to become competitive and confid

325、ent decision makers,technicians and educators in the solar PV industry.Womens participation in the solar PV industry and the renewable energy sector more broadly can enhance womens quality of life while benefitting the sector,boosting economic growth,and assisting governments in providing gender-bal

326、anced,sustainable energy for all.goodluz/S4The ultimate goal:Diversifying the solar PV workforce Dan76/S51THE ULTIMATE GOAL:DIVERSIFYING THE SOLAR PV WORKFORCEhere is no quick fix to improving womens representation in solar PV,the renewable energy sector,or the economy at large.To make meaningful pr

327、ogress,the solar PV industry should implement measures to attract,retain and promote women.16 Including women in C-suite positions can translate into a 15%increase in profitability for a typical firm(Harvard Business Review,2016).17 Engendering:to endow with gender;to create gender or enhance the im

328、portance of gender.Ensuring womens empowerment within society and the energy transition,supporting women as active agents,instead of as passive beneficiaries(IRENA,2019).18 LGBTIQA+stands for lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,intersex,queer/questioning,asexual and many other terms(such as non-binary

329、and pansexual)(ILO,2022b).Attraction.Provide access to training at all levels and remove restrictive laws to unlock new livelihood opportunities focusing on access to financing and markets.Retention.Ensure leadership accountability and managerial support,especially in the childbearing years.Promotio

330、n.Foster networks and mentoring for women to help build tomorrows leaders.Setting gender quotas to encourage gender diversity on corporate boards can improve a companys profitability.16TAchieving diversity in the renewable energy sector is critical to making the energy system inclusive and sustainab

331、le.When societies become more equal and equitable,economies become more resilient.For that,the solar PV sub-sector,the renewable energy sector,and the larger energy sector must mainstream gender at all levels,including policy making,programme design and project implementation.While engendering17 the

332、 energy sector is critical,diversity extends beyond women.Energy transition efforts must incorporate an economic empowerment agenda that builds on and values everyones vision,talents and skills:women,minority groups,indigenous communities,migrants and refugees,elders and youth,LGBTIQA+,18 people wit

333、h disabilities,and other disadvantaged groups.Addressing the interests of single segments of the population runs the risk of creating new inequities.04AttractionPromotionRetention52SOLAR PV A GENDER PERSPECTIVEReferences Almodvar-Reteguis,N.L.(2019),Where in the world do women still face legal barriers to own and administer assets?World Bank Data Blog.https:/blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/where-worl