1、FUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear2Contents5 Technology readiness5.1 Introduction 305.2 Pressurised water reactors 315.3 Heat pipe micro reactors 325.4 Molten salt reactors(MSR)335.5 Lead-cooled fast reactors(LFRs)345.6 High-temperature gas reactors 357 Other resources and annexes7.1 Links and other resources

2、 377.2 Annex 1 386 Summary and conclusion6 Summary and conclusion 364 Nuclear fuel production and supply4.1 Introduction 274.2 Supply and demand forecasts 284.3 Reactor decommissioning and radioactive waste 293 Drivers for Nuclear3.1 Regulations 203.2 Ship operator demand and interest 243.3 Techno-e

3、conomic drivers 252 General Safety and radioactivity issues2.1 Public perception of nuclear technologies 102.2 General safety and radioactivity 11131517182.3 Nuclear regulation 2.4Specific refuelling considerations 2.5 Port readiness and regulation 2.6 Fuel quality 2.7 Summary 191 Introduction1.1 In

4、troduction from NEMO 41.2 Nuclear fact file 51.3 Nuclear readiness as a marine energy source 7PrefaceIntroduction 3ContentsFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear3PrefaceThe challenge of maritime decarbonisation is not that it is happening,but that it needs to happen so quickly.The evolution of sail to its heyday

5、of the great tea clippers took centuries,and the transition to coal-fired steam ships led to a transformation of shipping characterised by greater supply chain mobility and speed.The arrival of oil-fired steam followed by diesel engines made further incremental improvements on the shift from sail to

6、 mechanical power.The energy transition the maritime industry faces today is distinct from those earlier evolutions.It is not driven solely by technological advances or economics,but by an environmental imperative,increasingly underscored by social pressure,policy and regulatory demands to reduce em

7、issions.Decisions are often made without commercial certainty,but in the knowledge that government policy and regulations will push forward change much like Winston Churchills mandate for the Royal Navy to switch from coal to oil or the mandate of double hull tankers following the grounding of Exxon

8、 Valdez.In this context,shipowners,charterers,insurers,financial markets and technology suppliers are seeking a better understanding of where the industry is heading.Lloyds Register(LR)is committed to providing trusted advice and to leading the maritime industry safely and sustainably through the en

9、ergy transition.Our new Fuel for Thought series puts decarbonisation options under the spotlight,analysing policy developments,market trends,supply and demand mechanics and safety implications.Each edition focuses on a specific fuel or technology,creating a reference point for the industry to overco

10、me upcoming challenges as it faces the next great shift in powering ships.This edition of Fuel for Thought focuses on nuclear energy,a power source which has had limited adoption in the maritime sector,largely confined to naval applications and Russian icebreaking.With the promise of zero emissions

11、at the point of use and a new,more advanced generation of reactor technologies,nuclear energy is gathering more attention as a zero carbon power source to meet operational and regulatory requirements across a range of maritime applications.Nuclear energy offers the potential to be as transformationa

12、l to shipping as the shift from wood to iron,the shift from sail to steam,or the advent of containerisation.PrefaceFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear4Deploying nuclear energy in the maritime sector holds the key to solving shippings decarbonisation challenge.The scale of the challenge presented by the revisio

13、n of the Greehouse Gas(GHG)strategy by the International Maritime Organization(IMO)has put nuclear firmly on the agenda.Nuclear propulsion has been used for seven decades by Navies and a few state-owned cargo ships and icebreakers,with an unparalleled safety record.Commercial use has yet to be reali

14、sed,but advanced nuclear technology is being developed that will be suitable for safe deployment on a new generation of large,efficient cargo ships that can sail at higher speeds with zero emissions.Shippings energy transition will take time.Nuclear power is the ultimate decarbonisation solution,but

15、 wont be suitable for all ships.Dominant solutions under discussion to decarbonise shipping by 2050,apart from further improvements in energy efficiency,include production of hydrogen and hydrogen-based synthetic fuels,and carbon-capture.These are energy-intensive activities,meaning meeting the IMOs

16、 net-zero target this way will require much,much more energy than global shipping consumes today.That energy must be produced without contributing to overall GHG emissions,either from renewables or nuclear.Nuclear has advantages over renewables as it provides a steady and reliable energy output,and

17、the smallest geographic footprint.Floating nuclear power plants(FNPPs),situated at maritime green corridor hubs,could produce synthetic fuels for shipping using only seawater and air as raw materials.Nuclear-powered ships and FNPPs producing synthetic fuels are logical solutions to shippings decarbo

18、nisation challenge.To facilitate international movement of commercial nuclear-powered ships,and deployment of mobile FNPPs,both IMO and the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)need to revisit and adjust existing requirements.By bringing together stakeholders with relevant expertise,NEMO aims to

19、assist nuclear and maritime regulators in the development of appropriate standards and rules for the deployment,operation and decommissioning of floating nuclear power.NEMO will provide expert guidance and promote the highest safety,security,and environmental standards to help unlock the potential o

20、f this nascent industrial sector.LR is a founding member of NEMO,an international membership organisation comprised of maritime and nuclear companies with an interest in floating nuclear power.Introduction from Dr.Mamdouh el-Shanawany,Chair of the Nuclear Energy Maritime Organization(NEMO)and Member

21、 of International Atomic Energy Agencys(IAEA)International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group to the Director General(INSAG)1.1Chapter 1:Introduction1|IntroductionFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear5Nuclear fact fileWhat is nuclear?Nuclear reactors harness the thermal energy released through controlled nuclear fiss

22、ion to generate heat which can be converted to a mix of electrical,mechanical,or thermal power.For maritime applications,nuclear reactors generate power for propulsion,industrial mission,and other shipboard needs.Several characteristics of nuclear power promise to bring new operational and commercia

23、l models to the shipping industry:Nuclear power can be transformational much in the same way sail gave way to steam and coal gave way to oil.These characteristics include no direct GHG or other emissions,refuelling periods measured in years or decades,high reliability,and limited maintenance while i

24、n an operating mode.Nuclear energy sources are radioactive heavy materials with high energy density;they are strictly regulated across production,distribution,handling,and use.The nature and cost of the fuel lends itself to be capitalised instead of being treated as an operating expense.Nuclear ener

25、gy sources vary physically in size,shape,and form depending on reactor design and include solid pellets,rods,and liquids.Fuels vary in their concentration of the fissile isotope U-235 from low enriched fuels,which are tightly regulated,but accessible to licenced private companies,through to the high

26、ly enriched fuels used in military or research reactors in only a handful of countries.The cost structure and regulatory controls around operating nuclear reactors will bring new relationships between ship operators and reactor owners.Certain ship owners and operators may buy the power generated by

27、a reactor rather than owning the reactor itself,separating the shipowner from the complexities of licensing and operating nuclear reactors.A key operational differentiator for nuclear reactors is that they do not require bunkering.Instead of regularly taking on fuel for the voyage ahead,nuclear reac

28、tors have the potential to run for years or even decades without refuelling.Refuelling schedules are expected to range from a minimum of five to eight years and potentially as long as thirty years.1.2Nuclear FissionThe fission of heavy atomic nuclei results in several lighter elements and released e

29、nergy.A nuclear reactor safely sustains nuclear fission and captures the energy it creates as heat which is then used to generate a mix of electrical,mechanical,or thermal energy power.1|IntroductionFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear6Advantages and potentialChallenges and issuesExcellent safety recordPublic p

30、erception and the social licence to operateInfrequent refuelling required(bunkering)Regulation needs updating and is more involved than for conventional shipsZero emissionsNew technologies unproven in maritimeLow onshore infrastructure requirementsHigh upfront capital investment for reactor ownersSt

31、raightforward onboard requirementsDisposal of spent fuel and radioactive materialMuch of the depleted fuel can be used for power using new-generation nuclear technologies.Movement of nuclear materialAdvantages and disadvantages of NuclearThe following table offers a brief insight into the benefits o

32、f nuclear power for shipping and its challengesProperties tableEnergy density comparisonUranium 235 3,900,000 MJ/kgDiesel 45 MJ/KgNo nitrogen(NOx)No GHG emissionsNo sulphur(SOx)NCS1|IntroductionFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear7Nuclear readiness as a marine energy sourceLR has collaborated with industry stak

33、eholders to build a comprehensive assessment of nuclear fuel production and supply,and the reactor technologies under development for onboard power generation.LRs Maritime Decarbonisation Hub has developed a framework to measure the current readiness of multiple aspects of several fuels in its Zero-

34、Carbon Fuel Monitor publication.A lot of focus is often put on the technology readiness level(TRL)of new solutions,which assesses the maturity of solutions to become marine application ready.TRL addresses the question of how close the technology is to being proven,scalable and safe.However,technolog

35、y readiness is just one element in assessing overall solution readiness for commercial maritime adoption.Investment readiness level(IRL)evaluates the commercial maturity for marine solutions,considering the financial proposition,industry,supply chain dynamics and market opportunities.Community readi

36、ness level(CRL)gauges the societal maturity of the marine solution,considering its acceptability and adoption by both individuals and organisations;it encompasses regulatory,sustainability and community acceptance aspects.TRL is assessed on a scale of one to nine,IRL and CRL are on a scale of one to

37、 six.LRs Maritime Decarbonisation Hub uses the outputs of the monitor to identify research,development and deployment projects that will advance solution readiness and accelerate a safe and sustainable transition to net-zero GHG emissions.There are nuclear vessels in operation in military and icebre

38、aking operations,many using Highly Enriched Uranium(HEU)in reactor types not suitable for commercial use.The readiness assessments for nuclear power in shipping reflect the work needed for nuclear power solutions to be ready for adoption in commercial maritime operations.The new generation of advanc

39、ed nuclear reactors are being developed for applications on land as well as at sea,inviting a broader investor base for advancing the fundamental technologies and reactor designs.Obtaining the social licence to operate for nuclear power is a prominent challenge due to public perceptions regarding sa

40、fety.The specifics of individual reactor technologies are explored in greater detail in Chapter 5.Definitions of the IRL,TRL and CRL levels can be found in Annex 1.1.31|IntroductionFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear8TechnologyTechnologyTechnology888777666555555555444444444333333333222222222111111111000000000R

41、esourceResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceOnboard operationOnboard operationOnboard operationPropulsionPropulsionPropulsionShipShipShipShipShipShipProductionProductionProductionProductionProductionProductionProductionProductionProductionCommunityCommunityCommunityMolten

42、salt reactorsPressurised Water Reactor(PWR)TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyInvestmentInvestmentInvestmentCommunityCommunityCommunityTechnology Readiness Levels(19),Investment and Community Readiness Levels(16)Technology Readiness Levels(19),Investment and Community Readiness Levels(16)Technology Readi

43、ness Levels(19),Investment and Community Readiness Levels(16)InvestmentInvestmentInvestmentMicro-reactors1|Introduction999666666Reactor refuelling and portsReactor refuelling and portsReactor refuelling and portsRecharging and portsRecharging and portsRecharging and portsReactor refuelling and ports

44、Reactor refuelling and portsReactor refuelling and ports1|IntroductionFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear9TechnologyTechnology887766555555444444333333222222111111000000ResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceResourceOnboard operationOnboard operationPropulsionPropulsionShipShipShipShipProductionProductionProdu

45、ctionProductionProductionProductionCommunityCommunityHigh temperature gas reactorsTechnologyTechnologyInvestmentInvestmentCommunityCommunityTechnology Readiness Levels(19),Investment and Community Readiness Levels(16)Technology Readiness Levels(19),Investment and Community Readiness Levels(16)Invest

46、mentInvestmentLiquid metal cooled reactors996666Reactor refuelling and portsReactor refuelling and portsRecharging and portsRecharging and portsReactor refuelling and portsReactor refuelling and ports1|IntroductionChapter 2:General Safety and radioactivity issuesPublic perception of nuclear technolo

47、giesFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear102.1Nuclear energy has a unique challenge among the alternative fuels for the maritime industry in the area of public perception.Despite the strong safety record of the nuclear energy sector,events like Fukushima and Chernobyl continue to influence public opinion because

48、 of the potential severity of nuclear accidents.The primary public concern around nuclear technologies is the effect on humans of high levels of radiation that increase the probability of cancer.Low levels of radiation are being better understood through study as it is unknown whether low level radi

49、ation poses a threat to human health.To earn the social licence to operate,it is expected that new applications will have to thoroughly demonstrate that radiation exposure during normal or upset events is no different than in everyday life.The public demands that inherently safe design is expected t

50、o be the minimum for nuclear systems.Robust regulations are in place to limit human exposure to radiation both during normal operation of nuclear facilities and in emergency situations,and are explored in this chapter.Another public concern is the potential for a reactor meltdown that results in exc

51、essive released radiation.New reactor designs have various passive safety features to prevent the release of radioactive materials and minimise the impact of a containment breach should one occur.Another major concern is the handling of radioactive waste,including spent nuclear fuel and contaminated

52、 materials.To earn the social license to operate,the eventual disposal of spent nuclear material must be well planned and suitable to prevent persistent problems.International standards for the safe storage and disposal of such material are already in place and covered in chapter 4.3.Concerns regard

53、ing bad actors using mobile nuclear reactors for nefarious activity are addressed by thoroughly demonstrating compliance with the“security and safeguarding”aspects of the IAEA“3S”requirements.Public support for shore-based nuclear power is increasing as the need for secure,reliable,and low emission

54、power becomes more important.Public engagement will be an important part of the commercial adoption of the technology.2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear11General safety and radioactivityIntroductionThe nuclear energy sources used in reactors are highly radioactive materials;exposure to them is detrime

55、ntal to human health.For this reason,multiple safety systems are put in place to shield workers from any radioactive material,and acceptable exposure limits for those working at nuclear sites are set conservatively low.The health impacts of exposure to ionising radiation may not be immediately appar

56、ent and vary depending on the dose received.Acute radiation poisoning can lead to death within days.Exposure to elevated ionising radiation levels increases the risk of cancer.Radioactivity cannot be detected by human senses,creating a risk of exposure without knowledge.There are tools to measure ra

57、dioactivity,track exposure to radiation,and alert when radiation levels rise.The stringent technical and operational safety regulations around nuclear power generation reflect the potential risks of radiation exposure and environmental contamination.Exposure to radiationWe are all exposed to radiati

58、on during the course of our daily lives from natural sources such as cosmic radiation from space,and smaller amounts from man-made sources.This background radiation varies geographically depending on local geology,altitude,and the built environment.Medical procedures are another common source of rad

59、iation exposure.According to the US National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements(NCRP),the average US citizen is exposed to 6.2 mSv annually,comprising around 50%background radiation,48%exposure from medical procedures,0.1%occupational exposure,0.1%industrial exposure,and 2%consumer exp

60、osure.IAEA give recommendations that any exposure above natural background radiation should be kept as low as reasonably practicable,but below the individual dose limits(IDL).The IDL for radiation workers averaged over 5 years is 100 mSv,and for members of the general public,is 1 mSv per year.There

61、are variations in measurement and application of IDL between nations.The IAEA reports that annual doses received by radiation workers are found to be considerably lower than IDL.2.22|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear12Reactor safetyThe designs of nuclear reactors under consideration for use in the mari

62、time industry have specific passive safety features in place to prevent nuclear accidents.One weakness of older generation reactor designs is their reliance on external cooling systems to prevent the fuel overheating.This cooling is required even when the reactor is shut down.In these older designs,

63、a prolonged failure of the cooling systems such as a loss of power to pumps could lead to excessively high temperatures in the reactor.The latest reactor designs include passive safety features such as cooling systems which do not rely on emergency generators and pumps for safety-related functions,m

64、aking them walk away safe in the event of a malfunction.Passive core cooling systems reduce the risk of nuclear accidents and their consequences.In Molten Salt Reactors(MSR),for example,the non-pressurised nature of the reactor limits dispersion of any radioactive material in the event of a failure.

65、MSR designs use various means to initiate passive shutdown in the event of a temperature rise by exploiting the inherent characteristics of the molten salt.Nuclear securityAnti-terrorism considerations are a part of the regulatory evaluation and approval process for reactor designs and the developme

66、nt of emergency planning zones and contingency plans.The same passive safety features that minimise the risk and consequences of malfunction in next generation reactor designs also reduce the likelihood and consequences of containment failure in the event of deliberate attack.It is not possible for

67、a commercial nuclear reactor to explode like a nuclear weapon.The enrichment level of nuclear energy sources in civilian applications is limited to prevent their use in the creation of nuclear weaponry.By keeping enrichment below 20%,the fuel in commercial reactors remains unattractive as a feedstoc

68、k for creating weapons grade uranium due to the technology and effort required for further enrichment.Nuclear reactor modules have to conform to the IAEA requirements for Safety,Security,and Safeguarding(IAEA 3Ss)with which conventional power sources do not have to comply.This makes the nuclear powe

69、red vessel more resistant to bad actors than conventional vessels.2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear13Nuclear regulationThe nuclear energy sector is tightly regulated and has one of the best safety records among electricity generation methods,far exceeding fossil fuel power sources and on a par with w

70、ind and solar.The industry is overseen by national nuclear regulators such as the UK Office for Nuclear Regulation(ONR),Koreas Institute of Nuclear Safety(KINS),and the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC).The IAEA promotes and supports the establishment of comprehensive regulatory frameworks to en

71、sure the safety of nuclear installations throughout their lifetime.These regulatory frameworks consist of relevant legislation,regulations,guidance and a robust leadership and management programme for safety.IAEA regulations for land-based nuclear reactors are well-established.These rules are under

72、review to prepare for the particular requirements and implications of Small Modular Reactors(SMRs)in mobile or transportable applications and as serial manufactured products.Importantly for the maritime industry,work is also underway to assess the viability of floating nuclear power plants under exi

73、sting rules,a process with significant relevance for the future development of rules for nuclear ships at IMO and IAEA.Nuclear regulation in shippingChapter VIII of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea(SOLAS)gives the basic requirements for ships provided with a nuclear power p

74、lant,creating a framework encompassing design,construction,operation,maintenance,surveying,salvage,and decommissioning of nuclear reactors on ships,including as a means of propulsion.IMO A.491 Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships was adopted in 1981 to supplement SOLAS Chapter VIII,adding furth

75、er guidance on the safety criteria for nuclear ships.The code accompanied the 1962 Brussels Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships which has not yet entered into force and is unlikely to enter into force.Developed on the basis of reactor technologies and safety frameworks of the 1

76、970s,Chapter VIII and the Code are in need of a thorough review considering the technological developments of the past four decades,the ongoing developments in reactor design,and the evolution of safety management systems and quality systems.LR provided a gap analysis on maritime safety and liabilit

77、y for a wider gap analysis on the Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships submitted to the IMO Maritime Safety Committees 108th session by the World Nuclear Transport Institute(WNTI).The document identifies areas of the code in need of revision to guide the design and safety assessment of nuclear

78、merchant ships.The development of specific regulations for nuclear reactors used in shipping will require the close cooperation of the International Maritime Organization and IAEA due to their respective responsibilities regulating shipping and the peaceful use of nuclear energy.2.3The UK Merchant S

79、hipping(Nuclear Ships)RegulationsThe Merchant Shipping(Nuclear Ships)Regulations 2022 came into force late in 2022 alongside a Marine Guidance Note on nuclear ships,MGN 679(M).The rules effectively transpose SOLAS Chapter VIII and the nuclear code into UK law,and as such it is limited to considering

80、 pressurised water reactors.The regulation and MGN give an idea of the role national governments may expect to play in the adoption of nuclear powered shipping.MGN 679 states:“Although it is not possible at the present time to provide extensive guidance on this subject,the Maritime and Coastguard ag

81、ency(MCA)will provide clarification on a case-by-case basis.The MCA will also endeavour to provide additional guidance when further experience of nuclear-powered ships is acquired.”Some notable contents include:The nuclear reactor installation for a United Kingdom nuclear ship must be approved by th

82、e MCA before construction of the ship commences.The Nuclear Code is based on pressurised light water type reactors.Other types of reactors will require special considerations and may be approved by the MCA on a case-by-case basis.The safety assessment and the voyage plan of a nuclear-powered ship mu

83、st have been notified to the MCA at least 12 months before the arrival of the ship in United Kingdom waters,including a United Kingdom port.A nuclear-powered ship should be designed,constructed,tested,inspected,operated and decommissioned under a Quality Assurance Programme(QAP)and at all stages in

84、the ships life cycle,there should be a single organisation responsible for the management and control of the overall QAP.A fully detailed operating manual should be prepared and continuously updated for the information and guidance of the operating personnel in their duties on all the matters relati

85、ng to the operation of the nuclear power plant with a particular attention to safety.Where a nuclear ship is at a fixed-point mooring or alongside a berth,and where there is work on the ship involving ionising radiation,the Radiation(EmergencyPreparedness and Public Information)Regulations 2019 appl

86、y.2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear14Emergency Planning ZonesOn shore,nuclear facilities are surrounded by Emergency Planning Zones(EPZ)within which plans must be in place to respond to nuclear accidents to protect human health and the environment.The current Pressurised Water Reactors used in naval

87、vessels can have large EPZs when in port spanning multiple kilometres,which create large liabilities for the vessel operators;the vessel is mobile and so its EPZ can encompass significant assets and infrastructure on land and on water.For nuclear naval vessels,these liabilities are underwritten by t

88、heir governments to enable operation.Nuclear ships are specifically not covered by The Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims 1976.This means liability falls to the operator of a shipboard nuclear power plant.For risks to be underwritten on the commercial insurance market,the EPZ

89、of a nuclear ship needs to be shrunk to the boundary of the vessel,a process which may be enabled by the safety characteristics of certain SMR technologies.There is a broad expectation that safely reducing the EPZ to the vessel boundary is achievable for SMRs.There is precedent for the reduction of

90、EPZ size for new generation reactor technologies,including a methodology by NuScale which was validated by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.The methodology can be used to develop EPZs at the size of a power plants site boundary on land.Risk-based certificationWhile not a solution in itself,risk-

91、based certification is an approach that can be employed to adapt regulations to be fit for current and approaching nuclear technologies in shipping.The LR Risk Based Certification requirements follow an approach where the fundamental requirement is to demonstrate an equivalent level of safety to tha

92、t achieved with conventional oil-fuelled systems as well as the general expectations of the IAEA 3S requirements.Safety regulations for nuclear ships are in need of update but will likely remain based on risk assessments and risk-based certification needs,and therefore high level and more goal-based

93、 in nature than prescriptive.International maritime safety regulation on nuclear fuel-handling will require discussion at the IMO and within International Association of Classification Societies(IACS)and other safety forums,with classification issuing guidance on fuel system design,handling and othe

94、r critical safety considerations.The approval process is outlined in the IMO Guidelines for Approval of Alternatives and Equivalents(MSC.1/Circ.1455).LR has developed a Risk-Based Certification(RBC)process which is consistent with and upon MSC.1/Circ.1455 and other related IMO guidelines,yet equally

95、 applies to non-SOLAS projects.RBC is used where risk assessment is required to inform certification and provide confidence in new,novel and alternative designs.For an alternative fuel project,the risk-based process needs to meet the mandatory requirements in SOLAS Reg.II-1/55,the guidance in MSC.1/

96、Circ.1455,and be undertaken in accordance with the LR RBC process.2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear15Specific refuelling considerationsRefuelling is an area where nuclear power presents the potential for significant operational changes for the maritime industry.The high energy density of nuclear fuel

97、 creates the opportunity for reactors that will operate for multiple years before they need refuelling or replacing.Some designs may provide power for the entire lifespan of a ship.In the existing fleet,Russian nuclear icebreakers are refuelled every five to seven years;some nuclear submarines are d

98、esigned so that their reactors never need refuelling over their 30-35 year operational lifespan.Whereas bunkering traditional and alternative fuels or recharging the batteries of electric vessels is the responsibility of the crew,the refuelling of a nuclear reactor will be a specialist operation car

99、ried out by trained experts at a specialist facility.Depending on future reactor designs,refuelling may involve replacing fuel in the reactor,topping up the reactors fuel,or taking advantage of the modular nature of some designs and replacing the reactor entirely.Operational experience in refuelling

100、 nuclear reactors for ships is largely confined to military applications where refuelling often coincides with a mid-life refresh of a vessels systems.Fuel costsNuclear energy sources contain the power to meet a vessels propulsion and other energy needs for multiple years.The price of fuelling a rea

101、ctor will be much higher than filling a ships bunker tanks with traditional fuels once,but becomes cost competitive when compared to a ships total bunker expenses over the much longer operational periods a reactor fuelling sustains.Because of the high cost of buying multiple years of a ships energy

102、requirements upfront and the tight regulation of the distribution of nuclear energy sources,it is not expected that ship owners and operators will purchase this fuel as an operational expense.Instead,the maritime industry may lease a reactor and its operation and contract for energy output from onbo

103、ard reactors.The fuel itself can be treated as a capital expense from the outset.In this scenario,the relevant operational cost is the agreed price per Megawatt hour(MWh)of energy on the ship rather than the cost of refuelling the reactor.Uranium prices are tracked as a commodity in US dollars per w

104、eight of U3O8 equivalent.The market price of Uranium has tracked upwards since 2021 driven by a recovery from prolonged lower demand in the wake of Fukushima,a growing acceptance of the role of nuclear power in decarbonisation,disruption in some supplier nations,and growing geopolitical tensions.2.4

105、Uranium price trends07525100(USD/lb of U308 equivalent)50Jan-20Jan-23Jan-21Jan-22Jan-24Source:https:/ Uranium PriceUranium Spot Price2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear16World uranium productionKazakhstan,Canada and Namibia lead the world in uranium production from mines.Global production volumes have

106、slowly increased since a low in 2020 and are expected to continue to grow in the 2025-2040 period alongside demand for nuclear power.Uranium is more abundant than Tin and Zinc.The US,Japan and China have been working on a process to extract Uranium from seawater;when extraction techniques become eco

107、nomically viable and efficient,uranium from seawater could last for thousands of years owing to the suggested 4.5 billion tonnes of Uranium in sea water.Uranium production and demandSources:OECD-NEA/IAEA,World Nuclear Association2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear17Port readiness and regulation Work is

108、 underway to create regulations and risk frameworks to enable nuclear-powered commercial vessels to call at commercial ports.While this work is ongoing,nuclear-powered naval vessels regularly receive permission to visit civilian ports and have done so for decades without incident.There are also hist

109、orical precedents of nuclear powered merchant vessels sailing internationally and calling at multiple ports.The movement of nuclear ships between ports is enabled by the flag state or licence holders national regulator providing the reactor licence and regulating the reactor and vessel.Agreements ar

110、e put in place between nations to recognise those licences in order to allow port entry.Under the UK Merchant Shipping(Nuclear Ships)Regulations 2022,for example,the safety assessment and the voyage plan of a nuclear-powered ship must be notified to the Maritime and Coastguard Agency at least 12 mon

111、ths before the arrival of the ship in UK waters,including a UK port.The first nuclear powered merchant ship NS Savannah was built by the US government and operated for 10 years between 1962 and 1972.The vessel toured multiple ports in the US and around the world to promote the peaceful use of nuclea

112、r power as a centrepiece for President Eisenhowers Atoms for Peace program.NS Savannah visited 32 US ports and another 45 ports in 26 countries,including transiting the Panama Canal.NS Savannah was however excluded from some ports,including in Australia,and New Zealand.The German nuclear-powered res

113、earch vessel Otto Hahn visited 33 ports in 22 countries during its 10 years of operation from 1969.Notably the ship was not permitted to pass through the Suez Canal.Infrastructure requirementsCompared to fuel oil and the other alternative fuels,nuclear vessels require very little landside infrastruc

114、ture to support their routine operations.By removing the need for bunkering,nuclear-powered ships do not need to rely on the pipes,tanks,bunkering barges,cryogenic storage and other facilities in port that make up the bunkering infrastructure.It is expected that designated ports will specialise in t

115、he provision of maintenance services for nuclear vessels and that these services will be required much less frequently than regular bunkering.2.52|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear18Fuel qualityThe production of nuclear energy sources is tightly regulated.Extensive quality controls ensure that fuels ar

116、e manufactured to precise standards.Short supply chains and sealed transportation flasks for nuclear fuels reduce the risk of fuel contamination to near zero.There are multiple international producers of nuclear energy sources for reactors.The market is large enough to create competition but kept sm

117、all by the high barriers to entry including cost and regulation.There are many different types of nuclear energy sources which can be arranged by the concentration of the fissile isotope U-235.Natural uranium is around 0.7%U-235,Low Enriched Uranium fuels are below 20%U-235,and Highly Enriched Urani

118、um contains 20%or more U-235.Civilian reactors,such as those on commercial ships,will only be allowed to use low enriched fuels.For many of the advanced reactor designs under consideration for future use in merchant shipping,the energy source would be High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium(HALEU)with enric

119、hment between 5%and 20%.Quality Management Systems for the supply chain of the nuclear energy sector are in place under ISO 19443:2018 and due to be replaced by ISO/AWI 19443.As with fuel cost,fuel quality is not expected to be a concern for the shipowner but for the reactor owner.2.62|SafetyFUEL FO

120、R THOUGHT:Nuclear19Summary2.7Nuclear power generation has a strong track record in safety and an engaged set of regulatory bodies overseeing the safe development of new reactor technologies.The introduction of nuclear powered vessels to the maritime industry at any scale will require widespread upda

121、tes to regulations,including SOLAS Chapter VIII.Cooperation between the IMO and IAEA will be necessary to create a harmonised regulatory system for nuclear powered ships.The shipping industry has relatively limited experience with the operation of nuclear powered merchant ships;most marine experienc

122、e is with naval vessels that use older reactor types which are not suitable for commercial shipping.2|SafetyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear20Regulations The following discussion focuses on various regulatory drivers behind the interest in nuclear propulsion in shipping.For safety regulations,see Chapter 2

123、of this report.The regulatory drivers for nuclear powered shipping are the same as those for other alternative fuels being a reduction in emissions.Nuclear power has the advantage of zero operational emissions,creating a direct path to compliance with regulations aimed at reducing GHG emissions from

124、 shipping and the ultimate goal of a net zero emissions industry.EU Regulations Some of the most mature emissions regulations for shipping are from the European Union(EU).A recent signal of the EUs stance on nuclear power was the inclusion of“advanced technologies to produce energy from nuclear proc

125、esses”and small modular reactors as net-zero technologies under the Net-Zero Industry Act(NZIA).However,the bloc fell short of including nuclear as a“strategic technology”,which would have brought support to projects in permitting and public procurement.Shipping companies need to be aware of five el

126、ements of the EU Fit for 55 package that impact shipping.The Fit for 55 package is the blocs overarching decarbonisation strategy across society and business.It includes:A revised regulation on the Monitoring,reporting,and verification of greenhouse gas emissions frommaritime transport regulation(EU

127、 MRV)A revised Directive on the EU emissions tradingsystem(EU ETS)A new FuelEU Maritime Regulation A revised Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation(AFIR)A revised Renewable Energy Directive(RED III)Analysis from LR highlights how these interlocking requirements will drive ship owners to adopt m

128、ore stringent vessel efficiency strategies,as well as new low-carbon fuels.Tank-to-wake(TtW)CO2 emissions from cargo and passenger ships of 5,000GT and above,reported under the MRV system in 2024,will be subject to EU ETS in 2025.For general cargo ships of 400GT to 5000GT,and for offshore ships of 5

129、000GT and above,MRV reporting will be applicable from 2025.For EU ETS,a review by December 2026 will consider the addition of offshore ships of 400GT to 5000GT.Under EU ETS,shipping companies with responsibility for ships within its scope will need to buy allowances to cover greenhouse gas(GHG)emiss

130、ions for intra-EU voyages,at-berth emissions,and for half of the GHG emissions released during voyages to and from the EEA.GHG emissions to be surrendered currently include CO2 emissions but,from 2026,will also encompass NO2 and CH4 emissions on a CO2 equivalent basis.There are no free allowances as

131、 there were for other sectors in early stages of the EU ETS,but for shipping there will be a phase-in period where shipping companies will have to hand in allowances that cover only a percentage of the verified emissions for a particular year(see infographic on right).Chapter 3:Drivers for Nuclear3.

132、1Settlement of allowances for each year will be required by 30 September of the following year.40%of verified emissions reported for 2024100%of verified emissions reported for 2025(and each year thereafter)70%of verified emissions reported for 20253|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear21Fuel

133、EU MaritimeThis regulation supplements the ETS and promotes the use of alternative fuels accounting for the GHG intensity of energy used onboard on a well to wake basis.It creates an incentive to use lower or zero-emission fuels,noting that carbon pricing and policies that support energy efficiency

134、will not be sufficient on their own to meet EU targets for decarbonisation across the bloc.From 2025,shipping companies are required to meet stepped reductions in the GHG intensity of energy used onboard,as shown in the chart to the right.In addition,FuelEU sets a requirement to have zero at-berth e

135、missions for container and passenger ships,coming into effect from 2030.The FuelEU Maritime Regulation requires submission of a new monitoring plan to verifiers.Assessment for each ship should indicate the chosen method used to monitor and report the amount,type and emission factor of energy used on

136、 board.From 1 January 2025,each ships energy consumption information needs to be recorded and collected.The full years data will then be submitted for verification by 30 March of the following year with penalties due for non-compliance with that years GHG intensity reduction target.A review of FuelE

137、U by December 2027,and every five years thereafter,may increase its scope.Nuclear power is not accounted for in the FuelEU Maritime Regulation,and is absent from the list of zero-emission technologies(Annex III),which is currently limited to fuels cells,on-board electricity storage,and on-board elec

138、tricity production from wind and solar energy.The regulation does have a mechanism for the addition of new technologies to Annex III“where these new technologies are found equivalent to the technologies listed in that Annex in the light of scientific and technical progress.”Should nuclear power be a

139、dded to Annex III,it would fit the broader requirements of a zero-emission technology under the regulation as it does not emit:carbon dioxide(CO2)methane(CH4)nitrous oxides(N2O)sulphur oxides(SOx)nitrogen oxides(NOx)particulate matter(PM)FuelEU Maritime Reduction FactorReduction%relative to 2020 lev

140、el-100%-40%-80%-20%-60%0%-2%-6%-14.5%-31%-62%-80%202520352045203020402050Above:Reduction in GHG intensity of energy used on board from 2020 levels(%).3|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear22PoolingIncluded in the provision of each vessels data is the notification of the decision to pool vesse

141、ls.Pooling allows owners and pool managers to bring together vessels that have been operated within a fleet,within a company or among companies.The objective is to encourage the deployment of new vessels using low-GHG-emission or zero-GHG-emission solutions,instead of focusing only on improving the

142、performance of existing vessels.Pooling allows the reduced GHG intensity of one vessel to be shared amongst a fleet to reduce the GHG intensity of the individual vessels and reduce their exposure to financial penalties which can be incurred under FuelEU Maritime.Additionally,pooling aims to reduce d

143、ependence on biofuels and encourage the uptake of alternative low and zero GHG fuels for early adopters which is required to begin to scale up adoption.As noted in a recent LR article,the ability to pool emissions penalties and surpluses has far-reaching significance.A recent analysis by Core Power

144、showed that for a 12-vessel pool from 2030-2034,around$463m in in Fuel EU maritime penalties,$84m in EU ETS costs and$260m in fuel costs could be saved by replacing a single VLSFO-fuelled container ship with a nuclear-electric equivalent vessel.GHG emission factors for fuels under Fuel EU MaritimeDi

145、fferent fuels are assigned different emission factors based on their greenhouse gas intensity,although nuclear is not currently included.Methods for determining the greenhouse gas emission factors of all fuels are provided in Annex I to the FuelEU Maritime Regulation.International regulations(Intern

146、ational Maritime Organization)IMO regulations relating to controlling CO2 emissions on a global scale are in force and have focused on ship energy efficiency to date.In 2018,following the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement,the IMO agreed an initial GHG strategy to outline a pathway to reduce shipping emis

147、sions by focussing on CO2 reduction from ships,with the aim of keeping the rise in global temperatures to within 1.5 degrees centigrade of pre-industrial temperatures.The initial strategy led to the development of short-term measures,namely the Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index(EEXI)and the Carb

148、on Intensity Indicator(CII).At the 80th meeting of its Marine Environment Protection Committee(MEPC 80)in July 2023,the IMO adopted a revised GHG reduction strategy.This aim to achieve net-zero CO2 equivalent emissions by,or around,2050 with indicative checkpoints along the way for shipping to aim f

149、or,including:Reducing total GHG emissions from international shipping by at least 20%by 2030,striving for 30%Reducing total GHG emissions from international shipping by at least 70%by 2040,striving for 80%All reductions are compared to 2008 levels.There is also a target for low-or zero-carbon fuel u

150、ptake of at least 5%,striving for 10%,as well as a reduction of carbon intensity of international shipping compared to 2008 levels by at least 40%by 2030.The revised GHG reduction strategy sets a timeline for the adoption of mid-and long-term measures to reduce emissions from shipping,requiring an a

151、greement on mid-term measures at MEPC 83 in spring 2025 in order for those measures to enter into force in 2027.The measures will include both a technical,and an economic,element.The IMO has now completed,agreed,and adopted fuel lifecycle analysis guidelines and continues to review them.These will s

152、upport the technical and economic measures by enabling calculations of well-to-tank emissions(the emissions associated with the production and supply of a marine fuel)as well as well-to-wake emissions(also adding in emissions as a result of the fuels use on the vessel).3|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR

153、THOUGHT:Nuclear23Lifecycle analysis Nuclear power generation does not involve the use of hydrocarbons as a fuel or any form of combustion,and does not require the use of a pilot fuel.The reactor itself has zero operational emissions,but there are indirect life cycle emissions to consider in the mini

154、ng and refining of nuclear fuels and the construction of reactors.The IMO Lifecycle Analysis guidelines do not include nuclear reactors for shipboard power.The guidelines only refer to nuclear power as an energy source for use in the creation of other fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia.For an idea o

155、f the lifecycle analysis of nuclear power for ships,we can look to shore-based nuclear power generation.The lifecycle emissions for nuclear power were the lowest among the technologies assessed in the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE)Integrated Life-cycle Assessment of Electricity

156、 Sources report.The report noted that the emissions for nuclear power were front-loaded in the fuel chain.The reports model showed nuclear power in a range of 5.16.4 g CO2 equivalent(eq.)/kWh,compared to a natural gas combined cycle plant(among the most efficient power generation systems,these are n

157、ot found onboard ships)at 403513 g CO2 eq./kWh from a life cycle perspective,and between 92 and 220 g CO2 eq./kWh with carbon capture and storage.Nuclear power,on average,has lower lifecycle GHG emissions than renewables such as solar or wind and is only rivalled by hydroelectric power.Lifecycle emi

158、ssions for power generationSource:https:/ GHG emissions,in g CO2 equivalent(eq.)per kWh,regional variation,202012001000600800400Pulverised coal,without Carbon Capture Storagepoly-Si,ground-mountede,riif-mountedonshorePulverised coal,with Carbon Capture Storagetower660 MWIntegrated Gasification Combi

159、ned Cycle,without Carbon Capture Storagepoly-Si,riif-mountedcopper-indium-gallium-selenide,ground-mountedoffshore,concrete foundationIntegrated Gasification Combined Cycle,with Carbon Capture Storagetrough360 MWSuper critical,without Carbon Capture Storagecadmium-telluride,ground-mountedcopper-indiu

160、m-gallium-selenide,riif-mountedoffshore,steel foundationSuper critical,with Carbon Capture StorageNGCC,without Carbon Capture StorageNatural Gas Combined Cycle,with Carbon Capture Storageaverage200-200Hard coalHard coalHydroConcentrated solar powerWindPhotovoltaicNatural gasNatural gasNuclear0Averag

161、e1095912912102185051347036442722114785116.48712282832835273416232123238107.49.27.8131227146.15.1921901492134037533|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear24Ship operator demand and interest3.2Interest in the use of nuclear power for shipping is driven by its emissions reductions.Nuclear power of

162、fers a path to the end goal of emissions reduction in shipping zero emissions operation and does so without the uncertainty of fuel and bunkering infrastructure development.The future availability of green fuel to operate a ship is no longer a concern once an agreement is in place for the lease of a

163、 reactor.Recently,development projects have been initiated where shipping companies,shipyards and nuclear engineering companies are working in partnership on research and development of nuclear-propelled ship designs,including bulk carriers and containerships.LR is working across the industry on nuc

164、lear shipping projects and expects interest in nuclear propulsion will continue to increase as shipping emissions regulations tighten.Client interest in nuclear propulsion is split between those looking to have assets in the water in the shortest time frame using current technologies around 2030 and

165、 those working on a longer horizon for deployment of around 20 years who will have a wider range of technologies to consider.The main considerations for shipowners exploring nuclear power for ships are consistent with other alternative fuels delivery timelines and cost.An additional factor for nucle

166、ar power is social acceptance of the use of nuclear reactors on commercial ships.3|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear25Techno-economic drivers3.3The comparison of the“cost of nuclear”is a fundamental question at the top of the agenda for those looking at maritime applications for nuclear po

167、wer and is necessary for investment decisions.Before looking at how cost can be addressed,it is worth considering the likely deployment model for nuclear in maritime as this fundamentally impacts where capital expenditure(CAPEX)and operational expenditure(OPEX)land.Firstly,it is reasonable to look a

168、t current onshore operating models and those being developed for new onshore applications such heat and power to process plants e.g.Dow Cornings Seadrift Plant in Texas.The Dow plant will be operated by the technology developer X-Energy,the primary reasons being X-Energy has the track record with th

169、e regulator and,unlike Dow Chemicals,is an expert in nuclear technology and operation.Applying this approach to shipping would mean the reactor is likely to be owned and operated by a third party with a proven track record with nuclear regulators.Regulators will likely insist on a proven track recor

170、d in the region of 10 years.The advantages to the maritime asset operator are twofold:They do not need to develop a comprehensive in-house nuclear capability and gain the approval of a nuclear regulator;and the reactor being owned by a separate entity means the CAPEX is not addressed up front by the

171、 asset owner.For a ship to use the power of a reactor owned by a third party,the most likely scenario is a power by the hour arrangement where megawatt hours(MWh)are purchased by the ship operator from the reactor owner on a contracted basis.Opex is a well established cost as reactors are sealed uni

172、ts,hence total cost of life operation can be established with confidence before an asset is built.There may be considerable residual value in the nuclear energy sources within a reactor at the end of its operational life;reactor owners will be equipped to redeploy these valuable materials to other a

173、ssetsCompared to operation on traditional bunker fuels,issues around fuel price volatility are largely eliminated.Current work in this area has indicated that the cost of nuclear compares favourably with the cost of hydrocarbons today.The technology also poses very competitive new opportunities to o

174、perate assets in a different way,such as very fast steaming at negligible cost increase,which would in turn reduce the necessary fleet size.The cost and lifespan of a nuclear reactor may also lead to vessels with a design life closer to 50 years than the current 20-30 years;the same factors also mak

175、e the likelihood of vessel retrofits low except in edge cases with very high value assets.While the commercial model largely withdraws CAPEX cost from maritime asset operators concern,there is still an understandable desire to understand pricing.In this respect,a ball park figure of$500M per reactor

176、 for those delivered in the early 2030s,dropping off rapidly when production rates increase,is appropriate.It should be noted this is a simplistic example and does not include elements such as the regulatory journey for first-of-kind reactors.3|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear26Nuclear pr

177、opulsion for container shipsNuclear engineering company Core Power,which is developing nuclear technologies for the maritime sector,recently identified container ships over 10,000 twenty-foot equivalent unit(TEU)as prime candidates for adopting nuclear propulsion,particularly those serving the Asia-

178、Europe trades due to EU ETS and Fuel EU Maritime savings.Modelling the impact of introducing nuclear power into a typical Asia-Europe service,Core Power found that for a fleet of eight vessels,the average cost of each advanced reactor,along with its operation including insurance costs,cannot exceed$

179、3.8 bn over the course of 25 years to remain economically favourable compared to traditionally-fuelled vessels,a figure far above cost estimates for advanced reactors.The study included capex and opex estimates for container ships based on the Idaho National Laboratorys Configurations of Commercial

180、Advanced Nuclear-Maritime Applications report,which puts capex for advanced reactors at between$4,000 and$7,000 per kWe.70 MWe advanced reactor high and low capex estimates($m)The table below shows high and low CAPEX and OPEX scenarios for a nuclear-powered container vessel on the Asia-Europe trade.

181、The OPEX figures suppose replacing a ships diesel engines with a nuclear reactor.The fuel consumption of a VLSFO vessel was converted to energy consumption,assuming 12MW-h per tonne of Very Low Sulphur Fuel Oil(VLSFO),and a$15/MW-h to$35/MW-h cost applied for the operation of an advanced reactor,bas

182、ed on Idaho National Laboratorys An Economics-by-Design Approach Applied to a Heat Pipe Microreactor Concept.Containership capacity/TEUCAPEXlow($m)CAPEXhigh($m)Annual OPEXlow($m)Annual OPEXhigh($m)25-year OPEXhigh($m)14,0002804901.633.488715,0002804901.643.839620,0002804901.894.4011024,0002804902.25

183、5.24131Source:Core Power based on Idaho National Laboratory estimates.3|Drivers for NuclearFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear27Chapter 4:Nuclear fuel production and supplyIntroduction overview Fundamentally,nuclear fuel production and supply is not expected to be a concern for the shipowner.Shipowners and the

184、ir operating partners will secure a guaranteed fuel supply for the duration of the reactors lifespan through various structured contracting arrangements instead of treating fuel as an operational expense.This is a departure from other alternative fuels where the availability of fuels in sufficient q

185、uantities and necessary locations for bunkering a vessel persist throughout its lifespan.The nuclear energy sources necessary for next generation reactors are currently available in quantities suitable for research reactors.Production capacities will need to increase significantly to meet commercial

186、 demand for small module reactor applications.The High-assay low-enriched uranium(HALEU)fuels used by the new generation of reactor technologies are integral to their longevity and small physical footprint.The Low Enriched Uranium(LEU)sources used in current reactors for electricity generation are o

187、f between 3%and 5%enrichment.The HALEU fuels for future reactors are expected to fall between 10%and 20%enriched.4.14|Nuclear fuel production and supplyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear28Supply and demand forecasts4.2There are an adequate number of producers of nuclear energy sources to create a competitive

188、market and producers are expected to have the capacity to meet the forecast rising demand for nuclear fuel.Recent geopolitical tensions and the expected demand for HALEU have brought changes to government approaches to nuclear fuel production driven by energy security concerns and decarbonisation.Th

189、e US Department of Energy is pursuing multiple pathways to secure its own domestic supply of HALEU fuels for future reactor designs through down blending of government Highly enriched uranium(HEU)stocks and enrichment.The agency forecast demand of over 40 tonnes of HALEU by 2030.The enrichment facil

190、ity in Piketon,Ohio came online late in 2023 and was the first US-owned uranium enrichment plant to begin production since 1954.The site delivered 20kg of HALEU to the US Department of Energy in November 2023,and is expected to produce 900kg per year once at full capacity.The 2022 US Inflation Reduc

191、tion Act invested$700m into the HALEU availability programme to address infrastructure and research gaps.The May 2022 HALEU report by the EUs Euratom Supply Agency(ESA)forecast HALEU demand of between 676 kg per year and 1256 kg per year in the EU by 2035.The report identified firm and meaningful HA

192、LEU quantity commitments as the single most important factor in enabling production increases.EU producers of enrichment technology have claimed that a production facility for HALEU in the EU would only become commercially viable for demand of 3 to 8 tonnes per year.The bloc faces the decision of co

193、ntinuing to rely on US and Russian imports of HALEU,maintaining a 10-year stockpile of HALEU to ensure security of supply,or supporting an EU production facility.ESA estimates a six to seven year timescale to take a HALEU production facility from design to commissioning.Uranium availabilityThe World

194、 Nuclear Association said in its biennial review of nuclear fuel demand and supply availability covering 2023-2024 that it had no doubt there are sufficient uranium reserves to meet future needs.Kazakhstan is the main producer of uranium accounting for 43%of world production in 2022,followed by Cana

195、da at 14.9%and Namibia at 11.4%,according to figures from the World Nuclear Association.Uranium production by country(tonnes U)Region/countryProduction 2022Share in 2022(%)Change 2021/22(%)Production 2021Share in 2021(%)Kazakhstan21,22743.0%-2.7%21,81945.6%Canada7,35114.9%56.6%4,6939.8%Namibia5,6131

196、1.4%-2.4%5,75312.0%Australia4,5539.2%8.6%4,1928.8%Uzbekistan3,3006.7%-6.3%3,52074.%Russia2,5085.1%-4.8%2,6355.5%Niger2,0204.1%-10.1%2,2484.7%China1,7003.4%6.3%1,6003.3%Others7081.4%1.9%6951.5%South Africa2000.4%4.2%1920.4%Ukraine1000.2%-78.0%4551.0%United States750.2%837.5%80.0%Total49,355100.0%47,8

197、10100.0%Source:Data from the WNA(August 2023)and specialised publications(because of rounding,tables may not add up)4|Nuclear fuel production and supplyFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear29Reactor decommissioning and radioactive waste4.3Addressing the public perception of radioactive waste and its management i

198、s necessary to obtain the social license to operate for nuclear power.All waste from nuclear power generation is tightly regulated and none is allowed to cause pollution.It is helpful to define the waste streams from a nuclear reactor in order to understand the regulations in place to protect human

199、health and the environment.While the decommissioning of nuclear reactors and subsequent disposal of radioactive material are expected to be the responsibility of the reactor owner rather than the shipowner,the subject will be of interest to those exploring the option of nuclear power in shipping.Nuc

200、lear reactors create waste streams just as internal combustion engines and batteries create waste streams.However,the waste generated by nuclear reactors is unique in that it is small in volume,well-contained,and its radioactivity can be precisely measured.This allows for more controlled handling an

201、d disposal compared to waste from other technologies.The International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)has established safety standards for the disposal of radioactive waste,which are adhered to by member countries to ensure the protection of human health and the environment.Spent fuel is the most radioac

202、tive byproduct of operating a nuclear reactor.Handling of spent fuel is tightly regulated and carried out by specialists,and strict rules are in place to contain such material during transportation.Depending on its composition,spent fuel may be reprocessed to recycle its uranium and plutonium conten

203、ts,ensuring the most efficient use of the material.Spent fuel is an example of a High-Level Waste(HLW),a category which accounts for 3%of the volume of produced radioactive waste and 95%of total radioactivity,according to the World Nuclear Association.Low-Level Waste(LLW)makes up 90%of nuclear waste

204、 by volume and 1%by radioactivity,and includes items like clothing,tools,and rags that have become contaminated with radioactive substances during the operation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities.Some materials from designated active areas are marked as LLW as a precaution,even if they show n

205、o elevated levels of radioactivity.Certain advanced reactor designs may reduce LLW to near-zero levels.Intermediate Level Waste(ILW)accounts for 7%of radioactive waste by volume and 4%by radioactivity.They differ from HLW in that they do not produce enough heat for it to be a factor in their contain

206、ment and disposal.Examples include reactor components and fuel cladding.Disposal of radioactive materials is defined as storage without any intention of retrieval,and regulations are in place governing the appropriate disposal of LLW,ILW,and HLW.LLW is commonly disposed of in near-surface sites wher

207、e containers are placed in vaults at or close to ground level.Such sites are in operation in multiple European countries as well as Japan and the US.They are designed to handle materials with a half-life up to 30 years and may also handle short-lived ILW.For the disposal of ILW and HLW,deep geologic

208、al sites are preferred.These sites are designed to contain and isolate the radioactive waste from the environment for tens of thousands of years or longer,as the radioactivity of these materials decays over very long periods.HLW,in particular,is initially stored at the reactor site where it was prod

209、uced,allowing its radioactivity to decrease to safer levels before it is transported to a final disposal site.The management of radioactive waste from nuclear reactors is a highly regulated process that prioritises safety and environmental protection.With the potential for nuclear power to play a ro

210、le in shipping,understanding the responsibilities and challenges associated with radioactive waste disposal is essential for stakeholders in the maritime industry.4|Nuclear fuel production and supply5.1FUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear30Chapter 5:Technology readinessIntroduction Multiple competing reactor te

211、chnologies are under development for nuclear power programmes and research in the field has been given more attention in recent years as energy security and decarbonisation have risen in political importance.Six main technologies are recognised by the Generation IV International Forum(GIF),a group w

212、ith the goal of coordinating international cooperation on the development of advanced reactor technologies,representing 13 countries and the EU.For shipping,the most promising technologies include refinements of existing Pressurised Water Reactor(PWR)designs and certain of the less proven Generation

213、 IV technologies which are in various stages of development.For all the technologies,the main challenges are the setting of standards for their use in shipping,and proving the operational safety of reactor designs.For maritime applications,the most promising reactors with the shortest time to market

214、 are the following:Pressurised water reactors(PWR)Heat pipe micro reactors(HPMR)Molten salt reactors(MSR)Lead cooled fast reactors(LFR)High temperature gas reactors(HTGRs)5|Technology readiness5.2Pressurised water reactors FUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear31PWRs have been developed into small modular reactor

215、s that could be used onboard.They use uranium as fuel to generate heat through a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction.The heat is transferred to the coolant,which in a PWR is typically ordinary water.The heated coolant remains in a liquid state at the high temperatures due to the high pressure

216、maintained within the reactor vessel.This heat can then be used for conversion to electrical power,mechanical power,or direct thermal energy for heating purposes.For maritime applications,the development of smaller PWR designs suitable for factory fabrication with passive safety features brings the

217、prospect of commercial deployment of PWR.PWRs are unique among the reactor technologies in that there is experience of operating such reactors in a marine environment through multiple militaries,and a few historic examples of government-backed merchant vessels.For production of a small modular PWR t

218、he type necessary for broader adoption in the maritime sector development is at a similar level to other technologies where validation of an integrated prototype is underway in a test environment.Diagram of a pressurised water reactor5|Technology readiness5.3Heat pipe micro reactors FUEL FOR THOUGHT

219、:Nuclear32A nuclear heat pipe(low pressure microreactor)is a passive heat transfer device.Uranium is used as fuel to generate heat through a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction in the reactor core.The heat is transferred to a working fluid in the heat pipe.This heat can then be used for conver

220、sion to electrical power,mechanical power,or direct thermal energy for heating purposes.The passive nature of heat pipes means no coolant is required,eliminating the need for associated pumping systems.Designs include multiple passive safety systems to ensure the removal of heat in the event of a ma

221、lfunction.The impact of a potential failure is reduced by the low pressure nature of the reactor,reducing the kinetic energy on hand to disperse materials.Heat pipe reactors designs include remote monitoring capabilities;there will be no need for any onboard operations.Once the fuel in a heat pipe r

222、eactor is depleted,the reactor will be removed from the vessel and replaced with a new unit.The depleted reactor will be taken away for processing outside of the port environment in a specialist facility.Replacement in the lifetime of the vessel may not be required.The TRi-structural ISOtropic parti

223、cle fuel(TRISO)fuel used in heat pipe and gas cooled reactors exists at demonstration level,but there is no large-scale production.Technology demonstration projects of heat pipe micro reactors are ongoing,including at BWXT and Westinghouse,for both defence and civil applicationsDiagram of a heat pip

224、e micro reactor The reactivity control drums are used to moderate the power output of eVinci such as for load following applications or shut down.Otherwise,they are stationary.Westinghouses eVinci Microreactor.Image courtesy of Westinghouse5|Technology readinessFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear335.4Molten sa

225、lt reactors(MSR)A molten salt(low-pressure)reactor uses uranium dissolved in a molten fluoride salt liquid mixture to generate heat through a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction in the core.The molten salt acts as a coolant and a moderator,sustaining the chain reaction.The heat is transferred

226、to a working fluid.This heat can then be used for conversion to electrical power or direct thermal energy for heating purposes.Some MSR designs allow for online refuelling without shutting down the reactor.Certain MSR designs have the potential to use spent fuel from light water reactors as a fuel.E

227、xperimental test facilities exist,both full scale and separate effect test facilities for various MSR technologies.The technology is undergoing validation and will require marinisation.Therefore MSRs fuel exists at an experimental level,but there is no large scale demonstration of fuel production.MS

228、Rs have multiple inherent passive safety features.Properties of the liquid fuel make it prone to cooling in the event of overheating or containment breach,and passive safety devices in the reactor drain the fuel into a tank for cooling in the event of malfunction.Their low pressure design reduces ma

229、terial dispersal in a containment breach and the fuel salts are inert,removing safety concerns over chemical reactions.Diagram of a molten salt reactorTerraPowers molten chloride fast reactor.Image courtesy of TerraPower5|Technology readinessFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear345.5Lead-cooled fast reactors(LFR

230、s)Lead-cooled fast reactors(LFRs)use depleted uranium,plutonium and minor actinides as fuel to generate heat through a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction in the core.Lead is used as a coolant to remove heat from the core and transfer it to water to generate steam for energy generation.Passive

231、 safety features reduce the core temperature when it rises above normal operating levels without operator intervention.The fuel and technology exist and has been tested in maritime through defence applications,including through reactor maintenance and refuelling in defence applications.Diagram of le

232、ad-cooled fast reactorNewCleos TL-30 LFR.Image courtesy of NewCleo5|Technology readinessFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear355.6High-temperature gas reactorsHigh temperature gas reactors(HTGRs)have been developed using a range of fuels from low to high enriched uranium,thorium,and plutonium.The reactors use ce

233、ramic coated pellets as a fuel to generate heat through a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction in the reactor core.Helium as a coolant to extract heat for conversion to electrical power or direct thermal energy for heating purposes.The technology has applications in providing process heat and i

234、n hydrogen production.TRISO reactor fuel for HTGRs exists in demonstration quantities but no large scale production is available.The reactor technology is operational on land,but is not proven in maritime application.The abundant use of graphite in the core slows any temperature fluctuations during

235、malfunctions.The inert nature of helium and the thermal resistance of the ceramic fuel pellets enable passive heat removal in the event of an accident without operator intervention.Diagram of a high temperature reactorControl rodsHeliumReactor vesselSteamWaterSteam generatorGraphiteFuel pebblesDiagr

236、am of a high temperature reactor-Image courtesy of World Nuclear Association.5|Technology readinessFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear36Chapter 6 Summary and conclusionNuclear power can be seen as a transformational technology rather than an incremental or even step change improvement.It will not be a direct r

237、eplacement for oil-fired systems like some alternative fuels,but rather a primary catalyst to fundamentally reshape the shipping industry.Part of the transformation would be safer,more reliable,emissions free,longer-lived,and more productive ships.Another part of the transformation will be in the sh

238、ip operators structure,including technical management,procurement,approach to quality,and an elevated safety culture.The social licence to operate and regulatory ambiguity are the primary challenges for the early adoption of small modular reactors and their application in the maritime industry.Natio

239、nal regulations and approvals on a case-by-case basis are expected in the near term until global standards are agreed at the IMO and IAEA.Nuclear power holds immense potential for revolutionising the maritime industry,offering a path towards sustainable and efficient shipping solutions.While its app

240、lication in naval operations has a proven track record,the widespread adoption of nuclear power in commercial shipping is on the horizon,driven by advancements in technology and a growing recognition of its benefits.The journey towards commercially viable nuclear-powered shipping is marked by collab

241、oration and innovation.Governments worldwide are actively supporting the development of small modular reactors(SMRs)for power generation,fostering a dynamic market of private companies pioneering cutting-edge technologies.Building upon decades of accumulated knowledge,these SMRs represent a leap for

242、ward in reactor design,emphasising safety,efficiency,and modularity for streamlined production.Regulatory frameworks are evolving to accommodate the unique characteristics of SMRs and their application in maritime settings.This evolution involves a shift towards goal-based regulations that encourage

243、 active engagement from designers,builders,and operators,fostering a culture of safety and responsibility.International organisations like the IMO and IAEA are working towards establishing global standards,paving the way for wider adoption.The safety of nuclear power in shipping remains paramount.St

244、ringent safety protocols and advanced reactor designs prioritise the protection of both crew and environment.As SMR technology matures and regulatory clarity increases,ship designs optimised for nuclear propulsion will emerge,ushering in a new era of efficient and environmentally friendly vessels.Th

245、e collective efforts to take advantage of these opportunities and advance nuclear-powered commercial shipping underscore the immense value of this technology.With its potential to provide a safe,zero-emission fuel source that eliminates the need for frequent refuelling,nuclear power promises to tran

246、sform the shipping industry,contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable future for global trade and transportation.LR will continue to follow developments in nuclear shipping closely and cover them in future updates to this guide.6|SummaryFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear37Chapter 7 Other resources and an

247、nexes7.1Links and other resourcesSafetyIAEA Safety Standards Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources:International Basic Safety StandardsIAEA Safety Standards Disposal of Radioactive WasteCommercialCameco uranium price averagesWorld Nuclear Association World Uranium Mining Production da

248、taEU carbon pricing brings new pressures and new plays to maritimeUNECE Carbon Neutrality in the UNECE Region:Integrated Life-cycle Assessment of Electricity Sources ESA HALEU report May 2022RegulatoryLloyds Register What is the EU ETS and EU MRV?European Commission The Fuel EU Maritime Regulation7|

249、Other resources and annexesFUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nuclear38Annex 1:Technology,Investment and Community readiness levels(TRL,IRL,CRL)and definitionsThere are three readiness levels used in this report:technology,investment and community.All are on a scale,with TRL on a scale of one to nine,and CRL and IRL

250、on a scale of one to six.Technology readiness(TRL)The technology readiness level indicates the maturity of a solution within the research spectrum from the conceptual stage to being marine application ready.It is based on the established model used by NASA and other agencies and institutes,using a n

251、ine-level scale.LevelTechnology Readiness Level(TRL)1IdeaBasic principle observed2ConceptTechnology concept formulated3FeasibilityFirst assessment feasibility concept and technologies4ValidationValidation of integrated prototype in test environment5PrototypeTesting prototype in user environment6Prod

252、uctPre-production product7PilotLow-scale pilot production demonstrated8Market introductionManufacturing fully tested,validated and qualified9Market growthProduction and product fully operational7|Other resources and annexesInvestment readiness level(IRL)The investment readiness level indicates the c

253、ommercial maturity of a marine solution on the spectrum from the initial business idea through to reliable financial investment.It addresses all the parameters required for commercial success,based on work by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency(ARENA).The six-level scale used summarises the comme

254、rcial status of the solution and is determined by the available evidence in the market.Community readiness level(CRL)The community readiness level indicates the societal maturity of a marine solution in terms of acceptability and adoption by both people and organisations.It is gauged on the spectrum

255、 from societal challenge through to widespread adoption.CRL is based on the work by ARENA and Innovation Fund Denmark adapted to a six-level scale.INVESTMENT READINESS LEVEL(IRL)1IdeaHypothetical commercial proposition2TrialSmall-scale commercial trial3Scale upCommercial scale up4AdoptionMultiple co

256、mmercial applications5GrowthMarket competition driving widespread development6Bankable assetBankable asset classCOMMUNITY READINESS LEVEL(CRL)1ChallengeIdentifying problems and expected societal readiness,formulation of possible solution(s)and potential impact2Testing Initial testing of proposed sol

257、ution(s)together with relevant stakeholders3Validation Proposed solution(s)validated,now by relevant stakeholders in the area4PilotingSolution(s)demonstrated in relevant environment and in cooperation with relevant stakeholders to gain initial feedback on potential impact5PlanningProposed solution(s

258、)as well as a plan for societal adaptation completed and qualified6Proven solutionActual project solution(s)proven in relevant environmentMore details on the readiness levels adopted by Lloyds Register can be found on the LR Maritime Decarbonisation Hub zero carbon fuel monitor.FUEL FOR THOUGHT:Nucl

259、ear397|Other resources and annexesFUEL FOR THOUGHTAn alternative fuel report series from Lloyds RegisterVisit lr.org/fuelforthoughtDiscover moreLloyds Register Group Limited,its subsidiaries and affiliates and their respective officers,employees or agents are,individually and collectively,referred t

260、o in this clause as Lloyds Register.Lloyds Register assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss,damage or expense caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or howsoever provided,unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyds

261、Register entity for the provision of this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract.Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied,stored in a retrieval system,published,performed in public,adapted,broadcast,transmitted,recorded or reproduced in any form or by any means,without the prior permission of the copyright owner.Enquiries should be addressed to Lloyds Register,71 Fenchurch Street,London,EC3M 4BS.Lloyds Register Group Limited,2024.