1、INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURESpatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure Leon Bennun,Claire Fletcher,Aonghais Cook,David Wilson,Ben Jobson,RachelAsante-Owusu,Annie Dakmejian,Qiulin LiuAbout IUCNIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both g

2、overnment and civil society organisations.It provides public,private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environm

3、ental network,harnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and some 16,000 experts.It is a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,t

4、ools and international standards.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,local communities,Indigenous Peoples Organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve susta

5、inable development.Working with many partners and supporters,IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projects worldwide.Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities,these projects work to reverse habitat loss,restore ecosystems,and improve pe

6、oples well-being.www.iucn.org https:/ The Biodiversity ConsultancyThe Biodiversity Consultancy is a specialist consultancy in biodiversity risk management.We work with sector-leading clients to integrate nature into business decision-making and design practical environmental solutions that deliver n

7、ature-positive outcomes.We provide technical and policy expertise to manage biodiversity impacts at a project level and enable purpose-driven companies to create on-the-ground opportunities to regenerate our natural environment.As strategic advisor to some of the worlds largest companies,we lead the

8、 development of post-2020 corporate strategies,biodiversity metrics,science-based targets,and sustainable supply chains.Our expertise is applied across the renewable energy sector,including hydropower,solar,wind,and geothermal,where we specialise in the interpretation and application of internationa

9、l finance safeguards.https:/ https:/ Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure Leon Bennun,Claire Fletcher,Aonghais Cook,David Wilson,Ben Jobson,RachelAsante-Owusu,Annie Dakmejian,Qiulin LiuThe designation of geographical entities in this publication,and the pres

10、entation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views expressed

11、 in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Government of France and the Frenc

12、h Development Agency(AFD);Ministry of Environment,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(Sida);the Swiss Agency for De

13、velopment and Cooperation(SDC);and the United States Department of State.This publication has been made possible in part by funding from EDF Renouvelables,lectricit de France(EDF),Energias de Portugal(EDP),Eni S.p.A,Equinor ASA,Iberdrola Renovables International SAU,Shell International Petroleum Mij

14、 Bv Holland and Total SE.Published by:IUCN,Gland,Switzerland and The Biodiversity Consultancy,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomProduced by:IUCN Global Climate Change and Energy Transition Team and The Biodiversity Consultancy Copyright:2024 IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resou

15、rces Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without pri

16、or written permission of the copyright holder.Recommended citation:Bennun,L.,Fletcher,C.,Cook,A.,Wilson,D.,Jobson,B.,Asante-Owusu,R.,Dakmejian,A.,Liu,Q.(2024).Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure.Technical note.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,and Cambridge,UK:The Bio

17、diversity ConsultancyLayout:Diwata HunzikerCover photo:Wind turbine in a body of water(Tom Swinnen/Pexel)Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureiiiList of figures and tables vAcknowledgements viAbbreviations and acronyms viiGlossary viii1 Introduction 1 1.1 The

18、 renewable energy transition 1 1.2 Purpose and scope 2 2 The importance of of spatial planning 3 2.1 Spatial planning for a nature-safe energy transition 3 2.2 Spatial planning and mitigation hierarchy 4 2.2 Spatial planning and project-level permitting and development 6 3 Overview of existing appro

19、aches to and components of spatial planning 7 3.1 Strategic environmental assessment 8 3.2 Complementary processes to strategic environmental assessment 9 3.2.1 Landscape-scale planning 9 3.2.2 Marine Spatial Planning 9 3.3 Component assessments informing spatial planning 10 3.3.1 Biodiversity sensi

20、tivity mapping 10 3.3.2 Cumulative impact assessment 11 3.3.3 Other technical feasibility studies and constraints mapping 11 3.4 Assessments at the individual project level 12 3.4.1 Biodiversity risk screening 12 3.4.2 Environmental and social impact assessment 12 3.4.3 Lending standards 12 4 Key in

21、puts to spatial planning for biodiversity and renewable energy 145 Typical lead roles and responsibilities in spatial planning 16Table of contentsivSpatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure6 Case studies 18Case study 1 Strategic environmental assessment for South

22、 African renewable energy development zones and electricity grid infrastructure corridors 18Case study 2 Strategic environmental assessment for the hydropower sector Myanmar 19Case study 3 Strategic environmental assessment for wind energy and biodiversity Landscape scale vulture conservation in Ken

23、ya 21Case study 4 European Union Renewable Energy Directive and Renewables Acceleration Areas 22Case study 5 New York State Offshore Wind Master Plan 23Case study 6 Examples of Marine Spatial Planning in practice 24Case study 7 The Nature Conservancy Site Renewables Right initiative 27Case study 8 E

24、nergy Sector Management Assistance Program Roadmaps for Offshore Wind 28Case study 9 Examples of biodiversity sensitivity mapping tools and guidance 30References 32Further reading 38 Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructurevFigure 1 Reactive mitigation effort in

25、 an area of low biodiversity value 5Figure 2 Relative mitigation effort in an area of high biodiversity value 5Figure 3 Overarching existing spatial planning processes and key technical component assessments,with relevant spatial scale,typical lead and support stakeholders,and the broad planning and

26、 development process 8Figure 4 Location of eight existing Renewable Energy Development Zones(first SEA)and three additional zones(second SEA),with electricity grid infrastructure corridors 19Figure 5 Strategic environmental assessment of Myanmars hydropower sector 19Figure 6 Timeline of the strategi

27、c environmental assessment of Myanmars hydropower sector 20Figure 7 The European Union Energy and Industry Geography Lab 2024 22Figure 8 Master Plan Offshore Study Area 23Figure 9 Final Plan options 24Figure 10 Seabed bidding areas for the Crown Estate Leasing Round 4 25Figure 11 Example of a geogra

28、phical scope of the implementation of Marine Spatial Planning 26Figure 12 The Nature Conservancy Site Renewables Right map 27Figure 13 Environmental restrictions and exclusions in the Philippines 29Table 1 Key inputs to spatial planning for biodiversity and renewable energy 15Table 2 Typical key rol

29、es and responsibilities in spatial planning 17Table 3 Digitised spatial data captured in exclusion and restriction zones in the Philippines 29List of figures and tablesviSpatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureAcknowledgementsThe following have made contribution

30、s to the contents of this publications as participants of the IUCN Promoting Nature-friendly Renewable Energy Developments project:Reviewers and contributors Tris Allinson(BirdLife International);Audrey Bard(Equinor);Joyce Boekestijn(Shell);Guillaume Capdevielle(Total SE);Melanie Dages(EDF Renewable

31、s);Astrid Delaporte-Sprengers(TotalSE);Steven Dickinson(Total SE);Gustavo Estrada(Eni);Alessandro Frangi(EDF Renewables);Monica Fundingsland(Equinor);Ben Jobson(TBC);Agathe Jouneau(EDF Renewables);Marine Julliand(Total SE);Peter Marcus Kolderup Greve(Equinor);Magdalena Kos(Eni);Larissa Leitch(Shell)

32、;Adele Mayol(Total SE);Bruce McKenney(The Nature Conservancy);Thomas Merzi(Total SE);Marta Morichini(Eni);Rhiannon Niven(BirdLife International);Pedroni Paola Maria(Eni);Magali Pollard(Total SE);Howard Rosenbaum(Wildlife Conservation Society);Jose Rubio(Fauna&Flora International);Eldina Salkanovic(S

33、hell);Libby Sandbrook(Fauna&Flora International);Gautam Surya(WCS);Ariane Thenaday(Total SE);Claire Varret(EDF);Hafren Williams(Fauna&Flora International);Margherita Zapelloni(Eni Plenitude).Disclaimer BirdLife International chose not to receive funding for its contribution to this project,as per th

34、eir Working with Business Framework.Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureviiAcronymsCIACumulative impact assessmentCSBICross-Sector Biodiversity InitiativeE&SEnvironmental and socialESIAEnvironmental and social impact assessmentESMAPEnergy Sector Management A

35、ssistance ProgramEUEuropean UnionFAOFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGBFGlobal Biodiversity FrameworkGISGeographic Information SystemHaHectareIBATIntegrated Biodiversity Assessment ToolIFCInternational Finance CorporationIFIInternational Financial InstitutionIUCNInternational U

36、nion for Conservation of NatureKBAKey Biodiversity AreaLCOELevelised cost of energyLSPLandscape-scale lanningLULCLand use and land coverLUPLand use planningMSPMarine Spatial PlanningMWMegawattNASANational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNDCNationally Determined ContributionNGNet GainNGONon-gover

37、nmental organisationNPINet positive impactPS6IFC Performance Standard 6 Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural ResourcesREDZRenewable Energy Development Zones(South Africa)SDGSustainable Development GoalSEAStrategic environmental assessmentSESAStrategic environmental

38、and social assessmentTBCThe Biodiversity ConsultancyUNESCOUnited Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural OrganizationWDKBAWorld Database of Key Biodiversity AreasWDPAWorld Database of Protected AreasWEFWorld Economic ForumWWFWorld Wide Fund for NatureviiiSpatial planning for wind and solar devel

39、opments and associated infrastructureGlossaryCritical HabitatAreas of high biodiversity value including(i)habitat of significant importance to Critically Endangered and/or Endangered species;(ii)habitat of significant importance to endemic and/or restricted-range species;(iii)habitat supporting glob

40、ally significant concentrations of migratory species and/or congregatory species;(iv)highly threatened and/or unique ecosystems;and/or(v)areas associated with key evolutionary processes(IFC,2012a).Levelised cost of energyThe lifetime average cost for the energy produced and is used to evaluate and c

41、ompare the cost of electricity production from different locations(and different technologies,as relevant(World Bank Group,2021).Modified HabitatModified habitats are areas that may contain a large proportion of plant and/or animal species of non-native origin,and/or where human activity has substan

42、tially modified an areas primary ecological functions and species composition.Modified habitats may include areas managed for agriculture,forest plantations,reclaimed coastal zones,and reclaimed wetlands(IFC,2012a).Nationally Determined ContributionNational climate action plans by each country under

43、 the Paris Agreement.A countrys NDC outlines how it plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to help meet the global goal of limiting temperature rise to 1.5C and adapt to the impacts of climate change.The Paris Agreement requires that NDCs are updated every five years with increasingly higher ambit

44、ion,taking into consideration each countrys capacity(UN,n.d.).Natural HabitatNatural habitats are areas composed of viable assemblages of plant and/or animal species of largely native origin,and/or where human activity has not essentially modified an areas primary ecological functions and species co

45、mposition(IFC,2012a).No Net LossThe point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity are balanced by measures taken through the application of the mitigation hierarchy,so that no losses remainNet Positive ImpactThe point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity are outweighed by measurable outcomes fr

46、om actions taken in accordance with the mitigation hierarchy to achieve sustainable biodiversity gains.Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure1 Introduction11.1 The renewable energy transitionThe need to transition to a lower carbon,nature-safe,renewable energy

47、-based economy is more urgent than ever(WWF&BCG,2023;WWF&TBC,2023).The Paris Agreement(UNFCCC,n.d.)sets a stringent target of limiting global warming to 2C above pre-industrial levels by 2050,1 emphasising the necessity of urgent,rapid,and extensive renewable energy adoption to achieve such target.D

48、elays in implementing low-carbon energy solutions as part of the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy will severely hinder progress towards this goal.In parallel,the recently adopted Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework2(KMGBF)sets an overall vision of achieving full recovery o

49、f nature by 2050,and aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030 to sustain a healthy planet,whilst 1 To achieve the Paris Agreement goal,greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43%by 2030.However,global GHG emissions continue to increase,for various reaso

50、ns(IPCC,2023a).2 For further information,please see:https:/www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf 3 For more details on global goals for biodiversity,see Bennun etal.(2024).delivering benefits essential for human well-being and economic prosperity for all people.3These global climate

51、and nature goals highlight that the transition to low-carbon energy cannot occur in isolation,nor in a vacuum achieving them both requires combining efforts to reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions with biodiversity conservation and ensuring they are mutually beneficial(action on climate is not necess

52、arily inherently good for biodiversity(Dunne,2022).Furthermore,access to energy remains a critical challenge in many countries,subjecting many people to a life of poverty.Addressing this challenge through the rapid deployment of renewable energy is paramount in 2023 at the halfway point for achievin

53、g the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)the world is currently not on track to achieve SDG 7 ensuring access to affordable,reliable,sustainable and modern energy for all(Roser,2020;IBRD/The World Bank,2023;IEA,2023a).All of this implies the need Green Beaujolais wind farm.Photo:Gatan Bernard/C

54、apa Pictures2Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureto transform the way societies are operating to address the current biodiversity and ecosystem collapse and work towards a just and nature-positive future.4 In many countries,wind and solar energy are now chea

55、per and more secure than fossil fuels(Ember,2023;IEA,2023a).The expansion of renewable energy must facilitate increased access to energy in developing countries as they improve the living standards of their populations(Rao etal.,2019).Additionally,although the focus of the transition is on the gener

56、ation of the renewable energy to support the decarbonisation of the electricity supply,it must also support other sectors,such as heating and transport,as they move away from reliance on fossil fuels(Colmenar-Santos etal.,2019;Gielen etal.,2019;Rosenow etal.,2022).However,whilst large-scale decarbon

57、isation of global power infrastructure is essential to meeting climate goals,it must not happen at the expense of nature(Gasparatos etal.,2017;TNC,2021)especially as this would likely reduce the efficacy of decarbonisation efforts.As a consequence,measures to avoid impacts on wildlife and habitats a

58、re often seen as a key non-cost measure in leasing and consenting decisions(TNC,2023).Effective spatial planning is key to this.1.2 Purpose and scopeThis technical note focuses on spatial planning for wind and solar development with respect to biodiversity.5 It is intended primarily for government p

59、lanners responsible for the long-term sustainable roll out and/or expansion of renewable energy and associated infrastructure(e.g.grid infrastructure and facilities such as ports)at regional,national,and sub-national levels.For developers and lenders/investors,this technical note could also help ill

60、ustrate how these actors could play a role in spatial planning in certain contexts(e.g.emerging markets,providing 4 Note that the KMGBF does not specifically include the term nature positive,and there is no single agreed definition for this concept several are in use(for example,S.zu Ermgassen etal.

61、,2022).IUCN is developing a quantitative methodology to help companies,governments and civil society assess opportunities and risks,set targets,measure progress and deliver nature-positive impacts(IUCN 2022).5 In addition,government planners,lenders,and developers will also need to consider potentia

62、l impacts on ecosystem services and peoples well-being and livelihoods.resources,and supporting governments to identify appropriate areas for development).Spatial planning can pose practical challenges in terms of resources,co-ordination,data generation and analysis,and political implementation,all

63、of which can appear daunting,especially for emerging market countries with limited funding and technical capacity.However,even relatively simple spatial planning exercises can significantly help to improve biodiversity outcomes and enable scaling-up of renewables(for example,see Dhunny etal.(2019)an

64、d Goodale&Milman(2019).The key to effective spatial planning is to begin the process before major project investments are made(WEF,2016).Different approaches to strategic planning exist,with different levels of effort and various spatial scales.There are also several component assessments/tools that

65、 feed into and inform strategic spatial planning.Hence,this technical note aims to:emphasise the importance and benefits of robust strategic spatial planning in terms of the renewable energy transition,global goals for climate and nature,and the planning and development cycle;clarify and explain the

66、 main existing approaches to spatial planning;distinguish the different component parts of/inputs to spatial planning that inform the overall assessment and planning outcomes,as relevant for biodiversity;provide high-level guidance on the broad spatial planning process,in terms of sequencing,roles a

67、nd responsibilities,and key outputs;and indicate how effective spatial plans can be developed even in resource-and data-constrained situations.Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure32.1 Spatial planning for a nature-safe energy transitionAs renewable energy pr

68、ojects proliferate worldwide,policy makers,practitioners,and conservationists are recognising the need for timely and coordinated strategic spatial planning that responds to the accelerating transition to renewable energy,whilst balancing the reduction of GHG emissions with the need to minimise loca

69、l biodiversity and human well-being impacts.Many of the potential impacts of wind and solar projects on biodiversity are well established(Bennun etal.,2021)and,as the industry matures,increasingly understood.In general,the broad spatial distribution of biodiversity is reasonably well documented in p

70、ublicly available global datasets at different spatial scales indicating,for example,biogeographic regions,ecosystem or habitat type and extent,location of key habitat features,6 A global map of human modification indicates that 95%of the Earths surface has some indication of human modification,and

71、84%shows evidence of multiple modifications.For more information,please see:https:/gdra-tnc.org/current/.7 While the total area used for renewable energy,and overlap with important areas for biodiversity,may be low(Dunnett etal.,2022),there is already evidence of encroachment on protected areas(Rehb

72、ein etal.,2020).modelled indicative habitat suitability,species range maps,verified point records of species occurrence,or the boundaries of globally important protected areas.However,the available spatial biodiversity data are biased towards the locations of most sampling effort.In global terms,ter

73、restrial and marine systems are mostly unsampled,while taxonomic biases pervade(Hughes etal.,2021).To achieve global climate goals,the renewable energy sector will need to expand into many new areas,some of which are likely to be less well-studied,such as emerging market countries where the availabl

74、e biodiversity baseline may be poor.Many areas of high value for biodiversity are yet not well delineated.In addition,the accelerated pace of the renewable energy transition is taking place against a backdrop of landscapes which are increasingly modified by human activity,6 with renewable energy pot

75、entially adding to that pressure(Kennedy etal.,2019).7 The importance of spatial planning2Asian fishermen rowing in the rivers of the solar photovoltaic district Photo:Jeson/AdobeStock 4Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructurePoorly located energy developments c

76、ontinue to fragment and destroy natural habitats(WWF&TBC,2023)8 and its potential impacts on biodiversity could be large.9 Thus,if not properly planned,the renewable energy sector has potentially significant implications for biodiversity conservation.The key for spatial planning for renewable energy

77、 is that it is carried out at an ecologically appropriate landscape or seascape scale.In general,there is an urgent need to transform development planning from the level of individual projects to scenarios at these larger scales,while supporting integrated solutions for achieving economic,social,and

78、 environmental goals,as well as incentivising mitigation actions for long-term landscape or seascape resilience(WEF,2016).Striking this balance will be essential for a nature-safe energy transition.Spatial planning is increasingly a tool for resolving conflicting demands on space,10 and spatial plan

79、ning for renewable energy development in particular has two key advantages compared to planning for development in other sectors:Renewable energy targets are clear:With respect to global climate goals,the broad extent of the renewable energy roll out and expansion required is clear.Countries have be

80、en able to establish(or will be able to establish)clear goals for developing the sector at a national level,to contribute to achieving targets like Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)(He etal.,2022);11 Renewable energy resource areas are defined:Areas suitable for wind and solar development ar

81、e already relatively well defined by the available renewable energy 8 Over 17%of large-scale(greater than 10 MW)wind,solar,and hydropower projects globally currently operation within important conservation areas(Rehbein etal.,2020).9 The total area predicted for renewable energy to deliver 2050 targ

82、ets is estimated at 1.33 million km2(Jacobson etal.,2019)10 Noting that spatial planning is a culture-and context-influenced process that can be more complex or less complex,depending on the range of aspects considered and the administrative level(Metternicht,2017).11 This may be an iterative proces

83、s informed by spatial planning to understand what is feasible.12 Studies by The Nature Conservancy and WWF show that the world can source up to 17 times the amount of energy required by current global targets from converted land alone(Baruch-Mordo etal.,2019).13 Spatial planning should incorporate e

84、arly,transparent,and inclusive stakeholder engagement tailored to suit local norms and cultures(World Bank Group,2021)and including the principle of free,prior and informed vonsent(FPIC)by rights holders,or the organisations they nominate to represent them(see WWF&TBC,2023).It should include meaning

85、ful dialogue and feedback or there is a risk of undermining legitimacy and credibility of,and trust in,the process(World Bank,2024).resource in a country(Oakleaf etal.,2019),and evidence suggests that targets can be met through the development of already degraded land(Baruch-Mordo etal.,2019).12 The

86、se advantages mean that governments can focus spatial planning for renewable energy on these resource areas,with an understanding of the target capacity to be achieved.The work required to identify and map environmental and social features that might be sensitive or susceptible to the potential impa

87、cts of renewable energy development can be focused on these resource areas.Mapping physical and technical constraints,and socio-economic13 considerations will also contribute to understanding the development potential of an area(see Section3.3.3).Therefore,governments can from an early stage begin t

88、o evaluate balanced,low-conflict,and just scenarios for achieving the necessary extent of development on the ambitious timeline required to achieve global goals(WWF&TBC,2023).This ranges from considering the strategic benefits of concentrating on specific areas to advance national renewable energy d

89、evelopment(i.e.top-down),to evaluating more organic development scenarios that are potentially more fragmented,but otherwise more responsive to specific localised impacts and needs(i.e.bottom-up).Spatial planning solutions are more likely to be successful if they are contextual and adaptive(Meyfroid

90、t etal.,2022).2.2 Spatial planning and the mitigation hierarchyFrom a biodiversity perspective,a key tool for spatial planning is the mitigation hierarchy,a well-established sequential and iterative framework of four actions:avoid,minimise,restore,and offset(CSBI&TBC,2015;Bennun etal.,2021).Applying

91、 Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure5the mitigation hierarchy in full implies an overall goal for biodiversity of no net loss(NNL)14 or net positive impact(NPI,15 also called Net Gain).Hence,the mitigation hierarchy is essential for planning the sustainable

92、 roll out of renewable energy in line with the GBF vision and mission.Avoidance and minimisation measures prevent or reduce impacts,while restoration and offset measures remediate impacts that have already happened.Preventative measures are preferable from an economic,social,and ecological perspecti

93、ve for regulators,lenders,and other stakeholders.Planning for avoidance of the highest value and most sensitive areas for nature and people is fundamental.Avoidance is the most effective mitigation measure available to government planners and developers alike.For example,significant impacts can ofte

94、n be 14 The point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity are balanced by measures taken through the application of the mitigation hierarchy,so that no losses remain.15 The point at which adverse impacts on biodiversity are outweighed by measurable outcomes from actions taken in accordance with the

95、 mitigation hierarchy to achieve sustainable biodiversity gains.16 LPAs are defined by IUCN as any clearly defined geographical space,recognized,dedicated and managed,through legal or other effective means,to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultura

96、l values(Dudley,2008).17 IRAs are sites of recognised importance to biodiversity conservation,although they are not always legally protected.World Bank and IFC standards define IRAs as UNESCO Natural World Heritage Sites,UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserves,Key Biodiversity Areas,and wetlands desig

97、nated under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance(Ramsar Convention)(IFC,2012a;World Bank,2016).18 For further information,please see:https:/datazone.birdlife.org/sowb/spotflywayavoided entirely through the way such as careful site selection during the early planning phase(e.g.avoid

98、ing siting development in Legally Protected Areas(LPA)16 and Internationally Recognised Areas(IRA)17,or productive farmland,or avoiding important migratory bird flyways18)and preferentially selecting previously converted sites(e.g.degraded agricultural land or other types of modified habitat(Bennun

99、etal.,2021).Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the different implications in terms of implementing the mitigation hierarchy for development in areas of low biodiversity value versus areas of high biodiversity value.In general,the potential impacts of development are expected to be lower in areas of low biod

100、iversity value,with consequently lower,or less complex,mitigation efforts required to achieve NNL and NPI.The opposite is true for development in areas of high Potential impactRestoreOffsetAvoidMinimiseNo Net LossNet Positive ImpactRelative project mitigation requirements in areas of higher biodiver

101、sity value.In these cases,potential impacts are likely to be greater and offsets(actions beyond the project boundary)are likely to be required to achieve biodiversity No Net Loss or Net Positive Impact.Offsets are inherently difficult,uncertain,and costly,and should only be used as a last resort.Opp

102、ortunities for offsetting may be limited.Ideally,high biodiversity value sites would be avoided entirely through early planning.Stages of the mitigation hierarchyPotential project impactAvoidMinimisePotential impactRestoreStages of the mitigation hierarchyNo Net LossNet Positive ImpactRelative proje

103、ct mitigation requirements in areas of low biodiversity value,where it could be possible to achieve biodiversity No Net Loss,and potentially Net Positive Impact,through actions at the site level.Figure 1 Relative mitigation effort in an area of low biodiversity value Source:Authors.Figure 2 Relative

104、 mitigation effort in an area of high biodiversity value Source:Authors.6Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructurebiodiversity value:potential for adverse impact is greater,and therefore the mitigation action required to achieve NNL and NPI is likely to be more c

105、omplex,challenging,costly,and uncertain.2.3 Spatial planning and project-level permitting and developmentSpatial planning at the government level offers benefits for governments and developers alike for developing projects in those planning areas.It helps place development plans and different spatia

106、l units(e.g.of land or sea area)into their larger economic,social,and ecological contexts to better inform planning decisions(WEF,2016).While it does not replace the need for individual developer-led site level assessment,spatial planning offers several advantages over what can be achieved through c

107、onventional impact assessment(Kiesecker etal.,2010).The baseline data collected by governments19 can give early insights into potential biodiversity risks associated with a development area.It is therefore important that these data are made available to developers,to enable them to make informed dec

108、isions about site selection with the best avoidance and mitigation potential(WWF&TBC,2023).20 In terms of the regulatory approvals process,this baseline data can inform and streamline the scoping process for project-level environmental and social impact assessment(ESIA),which has benefits for both d

109、evelopers in preparing scoping and regulators who review them.It can also include information that improves company and regulatory efforts to assess cumulative impacts(WEF,2016).19 Potentially supported by international financial institutions.20 Developers winning auctions to develop projects could

110、pay for these data when a licence is granted(WWF&TBC,2023).21 For example,at present,the consents and development process for offshore wind in the UK can take around 12 years,onshore wind in Spain can take around 10 years,and utility scale solar in France commonly takes around four years(ETC,2023).S

111、patial planning can reduce uncertainty for regulators and developers regarding biodiversity risks and the feasibility of mitigation options for a development in an area,including the need for offsets or compensatory approaches.Robust strategic spatial planning processes with early stakeholder engage

112、ment increase transparency,both between regulators,developers,and other stakeholders,and for developers engaged in competition for development sites.This can help avoid conflicts throughout the planning and development process,since key stakeholders are likely to continue to engage at key points as

113、planning progresses and moves towards individual project development.Overall,these advantages can potentially speed up approvals,21 bringing efficiencies and reducing the overall associated costs of the process.Beyond government-led spatial planning at a strategic level,further developer-led assessm

114、ents remain fundamental to determining the appropriateness of individual projects.ESIA is a core requirement in all cases.Other inputs include early biodiversity risk screening,especially in high biodiversity value areas,informed by government outputs,and work to align with lender standards(see Figu

115、re 3 and Section3.4).Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure7 Overview of existing approaches to and components of spatial planning3Key existing overarching spatial planning and assessment processes are shown in Figure 3,with a broad indicative planning and dev

116、elopment timeline,relevant spatial scale,and the typical lead stakeholder at each stage.These processes are Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA)at the region,country,or sub-national scale,and Landscape-Scale Planning(LSP)and Marine Spatial Planning(MSP)at the scale of the landscape or seascape(se

117、e Sections 3.1 and 3.2 for more details).Other key component assessments informing spatial planning processes and providing essential information to support and guide planning decisions are also shown in Figure 3.These include:biodiversity sensitivity mapping(government-led or supported/led by Inter

118、national Financial Institutions(IFIs)and/or non-governmental organisations(NGOs);government-led cumulative impact assessment(CIA)(potentially supported or led by IFIs);and other technical feasibility studies and constraints mapping(see Section3.3 for more information).Full-scale spatial planning pro

119、cesses like SEA,LSP,and MSP can be time consuming,resource-intensive,and costly processes that may not always be readily accessible in emerging markets experiencing accelerated renewable energy development timeframes to meet climate targets establish energy security,and meet other country priorities

120、(World Bank,2024).Indeed,there are multiple aspects to consider in addition to biodiversity.Hence,while the component assessments do not in isolation constitute an overall spatial planning exercise,they can stand alone and can be a pragmatic,quicker,and less costly means of initiating spatial planni

121、ng and ensuring the consideration of biodiversity in the context of accelerating renewable energy roll out.For example,such assessments can be based on existing biodiversity data(e.g.from global datasets,which could subsequently be supplemented with national-or local-level data)and key stakeholder e

122、ngagement(see Section4),and use new,more pragmatic and less resource-intensive approaches to address the urgent need for spatial planning.For instance,guidance on scalable approaches to implementation of CIA by government planners project developers(Bennun etal.,2024),and guidance on sensitivity map

123、ping for early offshore wind spatial planning(World Bank,2024).Raposeras wind farm.Photo:Used with permission of Eni Plenitude8Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureSpatial planning at the strategic level informed by these component assessments should result i

124、n directing development away from the highest value areas for biodiversity,towards areas of lower biodiversity value that also balance social,technical,and economic interests.The outcome is the identification of broad leasing areas,or zones,likely to be suitable for renewable energy development.With

125、in these broad areas,individual project sites can be selected.In its report on offshore wind development in developing markets,the World Bank(2021)outlines how leasing processes can work,giving developers the right to survey and develop a site before constructing and operating a wind farm.Assessment

126、s carried out at the level of individual projects are also represented in Figure 3,including biodiversity risk screening,ESIA in support of the regulatory consents and permitting process,and work to align with the standards of IFIs(lending standards).Section3.4 provides more details.3.1 Strategic En

127、vironmental Assessment Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA)(also known as Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment,or SESA)is a systematic process for incorporating environmental and social(E&S)considerations across different levels of strategic decision-making(plan,programme,and policy leve

128、ls)as early as possible.It can be single or multi-sector,and necessarily carried out on a relatively large spatial scale,usually regional or national,often defined by jurisdictional boundaries.SEA aims to capture the social,cultural,economic,institutional,and environmental contexts within which reso

129、urce exploitation will take place(IAIA,n.d.).SEA is generally government-led as part of a regulatory process,as discussed in the example of South African renewable energy development zones(Case study 1).It may involve multiple national jurisdictions,if done at the regional scale,and/or multiple sub-

130、national government agencies.SEA can also be supported by IFIs and NGOs,as Note:This figure is a simplification of processes and assessments that in practice involve significant feedback and adaptive response,some of which is highlighted in the figure.Figure 3 Overarching existing spatial planning p

131、rocesses and key technical component assessments,with relevant spatial scale,typical lead and support stakeholders,and the broad planning and development process Source:Authors.Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA)Early planningProject consent and permitting processRegional,national,or sub-nationa

132、lLandscape or seascapeProject area of influenceGovernment/International Finance InstitutionsDeveloperIdentify development areasProject construction&operationLandscape-Scale Planning(LSP)Marine Spatial Planning(MSP)Project Environmental&Social Impact Assessment(ESIA)(with integrated CIA)Monitoring&Ev

133、aluation PlanBiodiversity Action PlanBiodiversity sensitivity mappingOther technical feasibility studies&constraints mappingConservation NGOsWider stakeholder baseTypical leadSupported byTechnical component assessmentsPlanning&assessment processSpatial scalePlanning&development stageWork led by deve

134、lopers potentially informs wider-scale planning&assessment.Government-led CIA can be integrated directly into project level ESIA.InformInternational Financial Institution lending standardsTechnical component assessments inform strategic planning decisions.Biodiversity risk screeningRisk screening he

135、lps refine and focus scope of work at the site levelCumulative Impact Assessment(CIA)Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure9described in Case study 2(Myanmar)and Case study 3(Kenya).There is no single approach to SEA,and it requires a high degree of stakeholde

136、r engagement.The scope and process vary considerably between jurisdiction and between individual SEAs.Approaches vary along a continuum from impact analyses and spatial mapping to institutional assessment.SEA is therefore supported by detailed technical assessments,including government-led CIA,and h

137、igh-level assessments such as biodiversity sensitivity mapping(see Section3.3.1).The available guidance on SEA is variable.Examples in this regard are provided in the section on further reading.3.2 Complementary processes to strategic environmental assessmentSEA provides a mechanism for the strategi

138、c framing of environmental effects,assessments of alternative options,and potential mitigation measures(European Commission,n.d.).Other overarching spatial planning processes like LSP and MSP that apply at relatively large spatial scales(i.e.beyond the individual project level)can be applied subsequ

139、ently,or as an alternative to SEA,to achieve similar objectives(see Case study 4 on EU Renewable Energy Directive and Renewables Acceleration Areas).3.2.1 Set spatial and temporal boundaries for cumulative impact assessmentLSP22 is a holistic and systematic approach to land use planning and manageme

140、nt,for harmonising multiple goals within the same geographic area,assessing land and water potential,and selecting the options that best meet the needs of people while safeguarding resources for the future(FAO,1993;WEF,2016;Metternicht,2017).It is a well-established conservation tool which can aid t

141、he implementation of the mitigation hierarchy and 22 There are several variations on the term LSP,including land use planning,spatial land use planning,integrated land use planning,participatory land use planning,regional land use planning,and others(see a useful summary in Metternicht(2017)23 What

142、constitutes a landscape is not necessarily defined by area,but rather by the interacting elements that are relevant and meaningful in a management context(US DOI,2015).has proven effective in cases such as reversing farmland bird declines and grassland restoration(Prach etal.,2015;Mander etal.,2018;

143、Bigard etal.,2020;Lengyel etal.,2023).The appropriate landscape scale for assessment can be defined by biological,watershed,or jurisdictional boundaries(WEF,2016).23 LSP may intersect with MSP(see Section3.2.2)at the terrestrial/marine boundary.Like SEA,LSP is usually government-led(e.g.by local pla

144、nning authorities),with the relevant level or jurisdiction(s),depending on the planning area defined(generally not regional or country-level like SEA).LSP can also be supported by IFIs and/or NGOs and requires a high degree of stakeholder engagement.The approach considers both natural and cultural l

145、andscapes,and has evolved over time from a relatively closed,top-down process into an integrated,interdisciplinary,multi-stakeholder approach that considers a variety of sustainability factors(physical suitability,economic viability,social acceptance,and environmental suitability(Trombulak&Baldwin,2

146、010;Metternicht,2017).3.2.2 Marine Spatial PlanningMSP is a comprehensive,policy-driven,public process of analysing and allocating the use of sea areas to minimise conflicts between human activities,maximise benefits,ensure the resilience of marine ecosystems,and achieve ecological,economic,and soci

147、al objectives that usually have been specified through a political process(Ehler&Douvere,2009;UNESCO-IOC/European Commission,2021).It is a science-and information-based tool that can help advance local and regional interests,such as management challenges associated with the multiple uses of the ocea

148、n,economic and energy development priorities,and conservation objectives(US NOC,2013)(see Case study 5 on New York State Offshore Wind Master Plan).As is the case for SEA and MSP,MSP also requires a high degree of stakeholder engagement.10Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associat

149、ed infrastructureMSP is usually carried out at regional or national scale,or at a relatively large spatial scale defined by relevant jurisdictional boundaries(e.g.a countrys maritime area),capturing social,cultural,economic,institutional,and environmental contexts.It can also be carried out at small

150、er scales for specific purposes(Martin etal.,2013).MSP may intersect with LSP at the terrestrial/marine boundary.It is also generally a government-led process that may involve multiple sub-national government agencies,or multiple jurisdictions if at regional scale(i.e.encompassing the marine area of

151、 more than one country).MSP processes are also often supported by IFIs and/or NGOs.Although approaches to MSP vary,it remains the primary tool for considering the inter-relationships between competing activities in the marine environment,and seeks to identify the most environmentally,socially,and co

152、mmercially appropriate locations for development.It is an effective approach to engage communities,stakeholders,and governments alike to expand marine protections,meet conservation goals,and improve sustainability of economic and non-commercial activities(TNC,2024a).Further discussion on MSP is give

153、n in Section8.Some examples of MSP in practice are provided in Case study 6.3.3 Component assessments informing spatial planningBiodiversity sensitivity mapping,CIA,and other technical feasibility studies and constraints mapping are key component assessments informing spatial planning.They can also

154、stand alone as pragmatic,quicker,and less costly means of initiating spatial planning with early consideration of biodiversity.More detail on these components is given in the next sections.24 See Bennun etal.(2021)for a summary of key risks to/impacts on biodiversity associated with wind and solar d

155、evelopment.25 There is a growing recognition that sensitivity mapping should be integrated into government-led development planning processes(e.g.Bradbury etal.,2014;Scottish Government Riaghaltas na h-Alba,2019).3.3.1 Biodiversity sensitivity mappingBiodiversity sensitivity mapping uses available d

156、ata to identify and map biodiversity features considered sensitive or susceptible to the potential impacts of renewable energy development.This can be refined according to the energy type and the associated potential risk to different biodiversity features.24 It can be one of the earliest assessment

157、s completed to feed into overarching spatial planning,because it can be carried out using existing spatial datasets(see Section4)and stakeholder engagement,and subsequently be refined or supplemented with primary data collection.Biodiversity sensitivity mapping can be carried out on a scale reflecti

158、ng SEA,LSP,or MSP,as well as at more refined spatial scales,for example based on other constraints mapping or technical feasibility studies(e.g.areas of optimum wind or solar resource).It can be a government-led process25 or led NGOs(see Case study 7 on Nature Conservancys Site Renewables Right init

159、iative),or it may be developed as an academic exercise in some specific contexts.Biodiversity sensitivity mapping is also supported by IFIs(see Case study 8 on the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program offshore wind roadmaps)and with specialist consultancy inputs.The most useful sensitivity ma

160、ps for informing renewable energy development are developed as static GIS(geographic information system)layers.They are often grid-based and combine spatial biodiversity data with information on wind and solar resource,as well as economic and/or social constraints to support a realistic identificati

161、on of appropriate sites for deployment.More user-friendly versions can be hosted online as interactive web tools that can be updated and refined with new data over time.Examples of sensitivity mapping tools and guidance are given in Case study 9.In sensitivity mapping,identifying the priority biodiv

162、ersity to focus on can be based on specialist Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure11knowledge and pre-determined criteria,such as conservation threat status,project technology type,knowledge about impacts from existing markets,requirements of lending standar

163、ds,and stakeholder concern.Determining a sensitivity score for a given biodiversity feature to represent in a sensitivity map is generally a categorical or semi-quantitative process(e.g.high,moderate,low),based on the characteristics of the feature that make it sensitive/susceptible to impacts assoc

164、iated with renewable energy development(Allinson etal.,2020;World Bank,2024).It does not usually consider the likelihood or severity of a specific impact because mapping is carried out before such information is available.Thus,sensitivity mapping can inform the scope of CIA(see next Section3.3.2)by

165、providing information on biodiversity focus.Biodiversity sensitivity mapping requires a high degree of engagement with relevant stakeholders,especially where available spatial data are limited,both to improve utility of maps for decision making and identify options for longer-term funding required t

166、o maintain the maps.3.3.2 Cumulative impact assessmentCIA is a process of identifying biodiversity priorities at an ecologically relevant scale and determining their status,which can be informed by the outputs of biodiversity sensitivity mapping.CIA goes further by including the identification of im

167、pact thresholds and conservation goals/targets.It can inform single or multisectoral planning.CIA is usually aligned with available biodiversity baseline information,reflecting the scale of SEA,LSP or MSP(i.e.based on jurisdictional boundaries and other administrative considerations).Ideally,CIA wil

168、l be led by government,enabling them to deliver conservation outcomes on a much larger scale than project-by-project assessment,and support more efficient and consistent project-level permitting processes by setting impact thresholds,which aids transparency and equitability between projects.It may b

169、e supported by IFIs and NGOs,sometimes with specialist consultancy input.CIA is also carried out at the project level as a regulatory requirement,ideally informed by a government-led CIA(see Bennun etal.,2024).There is no single agreed approach or method for CIA(either at the government or project l

170、evel).From this perspective,IUCN and TBC have produced a guidance on biodiversity CIA for wind and solar development(Bennun etal.,2024),outlining pragmatic and scalable approaches to CIA for government planners,as well as for project developers who can utilise an existing government-led CIA,or need

171、to develop a project level CIA in the absence of government-led CIA.The guidance is particularly designed to facilitate an entry into CIA at the government level and show how CIA can be approached even in data-poor contexts where the available biodiversity baseline information remains limited,especi

172、ally where regulatory requirements are still emerging,and/or resources and capacity are limited as well as recognising the urgency with respect to the transition.3.3.3 Other technical feasibility studies and constraints mappingSeveral other non-biodiversity studies are also essential to inform spati

173、al planning and focus decision making on feasible areas for development,such as identifying other potential spatial conflicts some of which may be fixed,and others with flexible flexibility in terms of location and potential to coexist with renewable energy development.Other relevant studies include

174、,but are not limited to:wind or solar resource assessments;identification and mapping of physical(hard)constraints on development(such as pipelines and cables);geotechnical studies;social sensitivity mapping(similar to biodiversity sensitivity mapping);assessment of other uses and users of the space

175、(e.g.traffic,transport,shipping,navigation,oil and gas,aggregates,access issues,defence and national security,aviation,agriculture,fishing and more);and studies of economic viability(e.g.levelised cost of energy,or LCOE,modelling).These studies should be carried out at a scale reflecting SEA,LSP,or

176、MSP.It is beneficial to 12Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructurecarry out other technical feasibility studies and constraints mapping in parallel with biodiversity sensitivity mapping,to focus subsequent decision making on areas likely to be suitable for devel

177、opment.They will ideally be led by government,but could also be supported by IFIs,relevant NGOs or with specialist consultancy inputs.3.4 Assessments at the individual project levelAt the project level,component assessments are developer-led,with input from relevant key stakeholders(e.g.regulators,N

178、GOs,IFIs).They follow on from and can be informed by the spatial planning processes and assessments outlined in Sections 3.1,3.2,and 3.3.Project-level assessments,including biodiversity risk screening,ESIA,and assessments required to align with the standards of IFIs,provide finer scale information t

179、o characterise impacts and inform project-specific mitigation measures(e.g.micro-siting infrastructure away from sensitive biodiversity features to avoid impacts(Bennun etal.,2021).Ideally,the findings of project level assessments will feed back into broader government-led processes,as relevant.26 3

180、.4.1 Biodiversity risk screeningBiodiversity risk screening helps refine understanding of biodiversity risks and likely mitigation requirements at a specific project site.It is usually a relatively rapid desk-based GIS analysis based on existing biodiversity data,screened against the project spatial

181、 area of influence(i.e.an area capturing the potential direct and indirect impacts of the project).It can inform or influence a developers decision to proceed with a project in a particular location and can help to evaluate or compare relative biodiversity risk between projects/site options.As for b

182、iodiversity sensitivity mapping and CIA,27 the outcome of biodiversity screening can be refined 26 This requires relevant enabling mechanisms to be in place(see Bennun etal.,2024).27 See Section3.3 28 See Section8 for further reading.29 For example,through screening and scoping,and in consultation w

183、ith stakeholders.using specialist knowledge and pre-determined criteria designed to identify the most important biodiversity features to consider in detail(e.g.criteria based on conservation threat status,the project technology type,lending standards and stakeholder concern).Hence,screening informs

184、ESIA scoping and helps design project-specific baseline data collection focused on the most important biodiversity features.28 3.4.2 Environmental and Social Impact AssessmentESIA is a process for predicting and assessing the potential E&S impacts of a proposed project,evaluating alternatives,and de

185、signing appropriate mitigation,management and monitoring measures.It is usually the main regulatory instrument for approving projects and enforcing good mitigation practice.Beyond this,permitting processes can require developers to contribute to the protection and restoration of biodiversity,in line

186、 with national targets(WWF&TBC,2023).ESIA can be informed by the outcome of spatial planning but should be based on the design and engineering parameters of the individual project.ESIA generally consists of:(i)initial screening of the project and scoping of the assessment process(which can be inform

187、ed by biodiversity risk screening,see Section3.4.1);(ii)examination of alternatives;(iii)stakeholder identification(focusing on those directly affected)and gathering of E&S baseline data;(iv)identifying,predicting,and assessing the potential E&S impacts of a proposed project;(v)designing appropriate

188、 mitigation,management,and monitoring measures;(vi)assessing significance of impacts and evaluating residual impacts;and(vii)documenting the assessment process(ESIA report)(IFC,2012b).Ideally,ESIA will result in a quantitative assessment of impacts on the biodiversity features identified as prioriti

189、es,29 which can subsequently be used to track project level goals like NNL or NPI(see Section2.2 and Glossary).Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure133.4.3 Lending standardsInternational Finance Corporation(IFC)Performance Standards(PS)are used as the interna

190、tional benchmark for E&S risk management by IFIs and Export Credit Agencies worldwide,through adoption of the Equator Principles.30 These standards are designed to provide proponents with guidance on how to identify risks and impacts,and to help avoid,mitigate,and manage them as a way of doing busin

191、ess in a sustainable manner.IFC PS6,Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources(IFC,2012a),represents leading practice for biodiversity at the project level.It is designed to identify areas of high biodiversity value based on the conservation principles of vulner

192、ability(threat)and irreplaceability(rarity or restricted distribution).This is carried out at an ecologically appropriate scale31 which encompasses,and is usually larger than,the project area of influence.Alignment with IFC PS6 could be compliance based or voluntary as a means of demonstrating good

193、practice.The process requires projects to determine whether the area in which they propose to operate can be classified as Modified or Natural Habitat,and whether that habitat qualifies as Critical Habitat(see Glossary)according to five specified criteria.It can begin with a desk-based Critical Habi

194、tat screening using existing biodiversity data and may require primary fieldwork to confirm Critical Habitat status.Projects found to be in Critical Habitat will require a Biodiversity Action Plan designed to achieve a net gain of the qualifying biodiversity features.30 The Equator Principles is a f

195、inancial industry benchmark for determining,assessing,and managing environmental and social risk in projects.At the time of writing,there are 130 financial institutions signatories to the Principles.31 Called an Ecologically Appropriate Area of Analysis(EAAA)(IFC,2019).14Spatial planning for wind an

196、d solar developments and associated infrastructureThe approach to strategic spatial planning should be proportionate,designed according to the needs,demands,capacities,rules,and institutional structures of the place(e.g.country)in question.It can be adapted to suit varying circumstances.32 Table 1 c

197、aptures key inputs and considerations for spatial planning for wind and solar development.32 Principles of leading practice are summarised in Metternicht(2017).Key inputs to spatial planning for biodiversity and renewable energy4Photo:Ricardo Tom/The Biodiversity ConsultancySpatial planning for wind

198、 and solar developments and associated infrastructure15Table 1 Key inputs to spatial planning for biodiversity and renewable energyINPUTSUMMARYRenewable energy targets and understanding of resource As discussed in Section2.1,the key advantages for renewable energy spatial planning over other sectors

199、 are an understanding of the available resource and the development targets associated with that.Targets may be defined as NDCs in line with the Paris Agreement and/or via separate domestic policy.Spatial biodiversity data Spatial planning is driven by spatial data.Existing biodiversity data could c

200、ome from online databases,publicly available scientific and grey literature,33 citizen science,and directly from specialists and other relevant stakeholders.Quality controlled data should be prioritised.Authoritative existing global and regional datasets include the IUCN Red List of Threatened Speci

201、es(IUCN Red List),the World Database of Protected Areas(WDPA),and the World Database of Key Biodiversity Areas(KBA),34 and several other resources indicating biogeographic regions,ecosystem/habitat type and extent,location of key habitat features,modelled indicative habitat suitability,species range

202、 maps,verified point records of species occurrence.Equivalent regional,national,and local datasets may be available to refine planning.Land use and land cover(LULC)datasets are also useful and important,providing information about vegetation cover and whether land is natural or influenced by human a

203、ctivity.LULC datasets can be modelled or mapped and are often based on remote-sensing data(e.g.Europes Copernicus Land Monitoring Service,NASAs Socioeconomic Data and Applications Centre(SEDAC)LULC collection,or Indias National Remote Sensing Centre Natural Resources Census.Non-spatial data may also

204、 be relevant in some cases(e.g.for helping to understand and characterise some issues or features)and it may be possible to digitise this information to represent it spatially(e.g.species locations documented in scientific or citizen science reporting).Spatial data on several other factors will also

205、 contribute significantly to spatial planning(e.g.socio-economic,technical,other uses of the space see Section3.3.3).Specialist GIS support Strong GIS capabilities are fundamental for spatial planning.All relevant spatial data should be collated and managed centrally for consistency and quality assu

206、rance,in accordance with good practice protocols for spatial data handling(for example,including establishing data permissions and access conditions,standardising data to a national-level coordinate system,establishing a data structure,and considering data access and dissemination).Stakeholder engag

207、ement Stakeholder engagement aligned with good practice principles is essential and will inform identification of biodiversity(and other)priorities for spatial planning.There are likely to be many stakeholders(internal and external)in common between the government and individual project-levels.This

208、could include representatives from multiple different government agencies/departments and relevant statutory bodies,non-governmental organisations and civil society organisations,academic institutions,individual experts and specialists with both field and analytical expertise,Indigenous peoples,loca

209、l communities and land managers,35 natural resource planners,groups with special ties to the spatial planning area or specific biodiversity features,and any other representatives with a legitimate interest in relevant biodiversity features or issues.It is likely to be beneficial to include stakehold

210、ers with expertise at local and country levels,as well as international expertise and familiarity with renewable energy technology and project development.In cases where the stakeholder group becomes very large,which is especially likely for government-led strategic spatial planning,smaller focus or

211、 working groups can be considered(e.g.for specific biodiversity groups like migratory birds,or marine mammals,or specific social and socio-economic considerations).33 Information produced outside of traditional publishing and distribution channels,such as reports,policy literature,working papers,new

212、sletters,government documents,speeches,white papers,urban plans etc.34 The IUCN Red List,WDPA,and KBA data are available via the Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool(IBAT),based on a subscription model.35 Especially as it relates to land tenure.16Spatial planning for wind and solar developments a

213、nd associated infrastructure Typical lead roles and responsibilities in spatial planning5Spatial planning is a multistakeholder process.Table 2 provides an overview of the typical roles and responsibilities of key actors involved in spatial planning processes,with a focus on biodiversity.Aerial dron

214、e shot of engineers inspecting solar panelsPhoto by Monkey Business/AdobeStock_Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure17Table 2 Typical key roles and responsibilities in spatial planningSTAKEHOLDERKEY ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Governments Responsible for the s

215、ustainable roll-out and/or expansion of wind and solar development and the associated infrastructure,including establishing an appropriate policy framework and funding spatial planning.36 Central leadership and coordinating role in early strategic spatial planning,including facilitating inclusive,tr

216、ansparent,and potentially complex stakeholder engagement(with a mechanism for addressing grievances).Responsible for collating existing biodiversity data,collecting new baseline data,making these data available to developers(and other stakeholders)to improve transparency and decision making,thereby

217、speeding up the permitting process.Responsible for identifying biodiversity priorities and establishing conservation objectives at the national level.International financial institutions Key role in advocating for and facilitating or leading(funding)spatial planning in the absence of government capa

218、city and resources,especially in emerging markets.Role may also include supporting governments to establish an appropriate policy framework to enable spatial planning and renewable energy roll out.Responsible for advocating for and enabling good international industry practice for biodiversity and s

219、patial planning.Developers Essential role in supporting government-led spatial planning.37 Responsibility to work with governments and with each other to enable information sharing and greater transparency.Responsible for further site-specific assessments following spatial planning,including biodive

220、rsity risk screening,ESIA(including CIA),and baseline studies.Responsibility to support improvement and adaptation in strategic spatial planning,by feeding in data from the site level.Non-governmental organisations Key role in technical assessments supporting strategic spatial planning such as CIA a

221、nd biodiversity sensitivity mapping.Key role in supporting project-level technical assessments such as ESIA and lending standards.Responsible for identifying priority biodiversity values and risks,making data available for spatial mapping,and developing or supporting the development of tools for spa

222、tial planning.36 Strategic spatial planning could be government funded,donor(IFI)funded,or a combination thereof.37 May even take a lead role,for example,lease awards for offshore wind could be bilateral,in which the developer leads early-stage activities to determine suitable development sites or c

223、ompetitive whereby the leasing body uses MSP principles to decide broad lease areas within which developers conduct work to identify specific sites.For more information,aee Chapter 3 of World Bank(2021).18Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureSEA was carried o

224、ut to identify Renewable Energy Development Zones(REDZ)to facilitate the growth of renewable energy in South Africa(Figure 4).The REDZs were identified through a holistic approach,considering technical,environmental and socioeconomic criteria.The first SEA identified eight REDZs for wind and solar p

225、hotovoltaic energy development(DEA,2015).The second SEA(DEFF,2019a)identified additional REDZs that specifically targeted previously mined areas where brownfields development could make use of existing infrastructure while also contributing towards rehabilitation of these areas.The identification of

226、 REDZs involved characterising and mapping positive or pull factors beneficial for renewable energy development.These include,for example,the abundance of wind and solar energy resources and access to power corridors and other facilities and complemented by mapping negative or push factors,such as e

227、nvironmental features and areas,which may be sensitive to the development of large-scale wind or solar facilities.Features considered critically important for the environmental constraints mapping included protected areas,forests,critical biodiversity areas and the presence of important bird and bat

228、 roosts and feeding sites.Within each REDZ,development is restricted within defined areas of high biodiversity sensitivity.For example,50-km buffers were designated around endangered Cape vulture(Gyps coprotheres)colonies,roost sites and managed feeding sites.Lastly,a prioritisation exercise was car

229、ried out to ensure that proposed developments aligned with industrial needs.Two SEAs for electricity grid infrastructure(DEFF,2019b)complemented the SEAs for wind and solar energy.Biodiversity mitigation included planning power line corridors to avoid impacts on sensitive bird species.Contributed by

230、:The Biodiversity ConsultancyStrategic Environmental Assessment for South African Renewable Energy Development Zones and electricity grid infrastructure corridorsCase study 1 Case studies6Photo:Birkaybolushikayesi/P Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure19Less

231、ons can be learned from SEA in sectors other than wind and solar.An SEA for hydropower in Myanmar was jointly prepared between 20162018 by the Ministry of Electricity and Energy(MOEE)and Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation(MONREC),with the assistance of the International Fin

232、ance Corporation(IFC)and its development partner,the Government of Australia(IFC,2020).The SEA was not developed with a national target for installed hydropower capacity in mind but was undertaken considering the substantial number of proposed projects,knowing that they will play an important role i

233、n delivering affordable and reliable energy in Myanmar in the coming decades(Figure5).There was a vision of the project to result in“sustainable hydropower development based on integrated water,land and ecosystem planning,balancing a range of natural resource uses and priorities to achieve economic

234、development,environmental sustainability and social equity”(IFC,2020,p.ii).Figure 4 Location of eight existing Renewable Energy Development Zones(first SEA)and three additional zones(second SEA),with electricity grid infrastructure corridors Source:CSIR(2019a,p.256).Strategic environmental assessmen

235、t of the hydropower sector MyanmarCase study 2Figure 5 Strategic environmental assessment of Myanmars hydropower sector Source:IFC(2020,Fig.8.5,p.59).20Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureThe main planning principles applied in the SEA include the concepts o

236、f whole-of-basin planning,balanced natural resource utilization and natural resource capacity-based development.Sub-basins were zones either for potential development or protection based on the evaluation of the following biophysical features:Geomorphology:river connectivity and delta/coastline stab

237、ility;potential sediment production;river flow;Aquatic ecology and fisheries:river reach rarity;and the presence of endemic species,Key Biodiversity Areas,Ramsar sites and important wetland areas,confluences,karst geology,and the presence of threatened fish and aquatic organisms;and Terrestrial biod

238、iversity:percentage of protected area/Key Biodiversity Areas;and percentage of intact forest(80%crown cover).These biophysical factors were rated and scaled to result in high,medium or low sub-basin zones.Ten high zone sub-basins were found covering 24%of Myanmar,meaning that these areas have critic

239、al biophysical processes and values and hydropower development should be limited to smaller scale projects with low environmental and social risks in these areas that would not degrade the biophysical values.The SEA developed a sustainable development framework(SDF),a project siting tool aimed at ba

240、lancing hydropower development with basin health by considering environmental and social factors at the basin scale prior to project site selection.Through the SEA,a national-level GIS database was developed to store information about existing and proposed hydropower projects over 10 MW capacity in

241、each basin and sub-basin.The data include the location of each project,as well as available information on:ownership and development status;baseline conditions;and project technical data.The project also undertook broad stakeholder consultation,transparently recording comments on the Baseline Assess

242、ment Report and Final Report.The SEA methodology and outputs are utlined in the timeline described in Figure 6.Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancyFigure 6 Timeline of the strategic environmental assessment of Myanmars hydropower sector Source:IFC(2020,p.9).Spatial planning for wind and solar

243、 developments and associated infrastructure21An SEA for wind power and biodiversity in Kenya was developed in 2019 by The Biodiversity Consultancy,in partnership with BirdLife International,Nature Kenya,and The Peregrine Fund,supported by USAID through its Power Africa programme implemented by Tetra

244、 Tech.The Kenya Ministry of Energy was a proponent.Whilst it was difficult for the SEA to identify cumulative impacts at the national scale due to the data available and timeframes for the assessment,a potential biological removal(PBR)analysis determined which species had smaller PBR values and cons

245、equently were at higher risk of higher population-level effects from wind farm mortality.The results of the PBR showed that vultures were among the most sensitive receptor species.Through a spatial analysis,a band of areas that were identified as Very High or Outstanding sensitivity could be seen to

246、 be correlated with the presence of vulture colonies and tracking data representing sites that would have very elevated risk for wind farm development.Lower risk areas for development were identified across counties in northern and eastern Kenya.The Environmental Management and Monitoring Plan(EMMP)

247、of the SEA outlined actions needed to reduce,manage,and monitor adverse biodiversity impacts in the wind energy sector,as identified in the sensitivity analysis of the SEA.One of the recommendations was for aggregated offsets that meet the compensation needs of two or more wind power projects.Aggreg

248、ated offset interventions should be performed at landscape scale to benefit species of conservation concern that might be threatened by multiple wind farms in Kenya,such as vultures.One suggestion was an integrated anti-poisoning programme for vultures to tackle one of the major causes of existing p

249、opulation declines in vulture species in Africa.An aggregated approach could deliver greater outcomes for wind power developers and vultures overall compared to smaller offsets that are unconnected to one another.Collaboration in the design of a scaled-up approach would also improve efficiency and r

250、educe the time and cost of design,set-up and monitoring.Other offset options that were considered included:supporting conservation conservancies focussed on managing declines of raptors;retrofitting high risk powerlines to mitigate electrocution and collision;rehabilitation and subsequent release of

251、 injured birds outside project areas;and captive breeding and release of priority species.Anti-poisoning measures are already being implemented at Kipeto Wind Farm in Kenya,an operational project near nesting colonies of two Critically Endangered vulture species,Rppells vulture(Gyps rueppelli)and wh

252、ite-backed vulture(G.africanus).Offset measures,in addition to mitigation including shutdown on demand(SDOD)and carcass removal on site,involve a suite of interventions in the wider landscape to reduce human-wildlife conflict and thus retaliatory poisoning of predators.Offset activities are overseen

253、 by a multi-stakeholder Biodiversity Committee and implemented by a partnership of four conservation NGOs and the Kenya Wildlife Service.Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancyStrategic Environmental Assessment for wind energy and biodiversity Landscape scale vulture conservation in Kenya Case s

254、tudy 322Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureTo identify candidate areas for accelerating permitting for renewable energy projects,the European Commission(EC)developed a tool to map both energy and environmental data:the Energy and Industry Geography Lab(EIGL

255、)(Figure 7).This geospatial data hub helps to identify lands with a low environmental and social conflict with high potential for energy development.The hub was developed in conjunction with the EC Recommendation on speeding up permit-granting procedures,and REPowerEU proposal to end reliance on Rus

256、sian fossil fuels and accelerate the green transition.Member States are called to swiftly map,assess,and ensure suitable land and sea areas(acceleration areas or go-to areas)are available for renewable energy projects,commensurate with their national energy and climate plans,as well as their contrib

257、utions towards the revised 2030 renewable energy target and the availability of resources,grid infrastructure,and the targets of the EU Biodiversity Strategy.With the aim of ensuring a robust spatial planning process for the identification of acceleration areas,a handbook for practitioners was creat

258、ed that considers the potential conflicts of development pathways with environmental,social and cultural values.EU Member States should:Identify their go-to areas while avoiding,as much as possible,environmentally valuable areas and prioritising inter alia degraded land not usable for agriculture.Li

259、mit exclusion zones where renewable energy cannot be developed to the necessary minimum.Streamline EIA requirements for renewable energy projects to the extent that is legally possible with binding maximum deadlines for all relevant stages to be undertaken.European Union Renewable Energy Directive a

260、nd Renewables Acceleration AreasCase study 4Figure 7 The European Union Energy and Industry Geography Lab 2024 Source:EU(2024,February 1).Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure23 Ensure that the killing or disturbance of wild birds and protected species(under

261、the Habitats Directive)is not an obstacle to the development of renewable energy projects,by requiring projects to integrate mitigation measures to effectively prevent,as much as possible,killing or disturbance,by monitoring their effectiveness and,in the light of the information obtained from monit

262、oring,taking further measures as required to ensure there is no significant negative impact on the population of the species concerned.Encourage early public involvement to define spatial plans,promote the multiple use of sites and ensure transparency about where and how renewable energy projects ma

263、y be built or installed.Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancyNew York State has developed some of the most ambitious clean energy goals in the United States,including reducing greenhouse gas emissions(GHG)by 40%by the year 2030,and 80%by 2050.New Yorks marquee Clean Energy Standard is the most

264、 comprehensive and ambitious clean energy goal in the states history and requires that 50%of New Yorks electricity come from renewable energy sources by 2030.Offshore wind will be a key component the State has committed to develop 2,400 MW by 2030.The New York State Offshore Wind Master Plan Chartin

265、g a Course to 2,400 Megawatts of Offshore Wind Energy,led by the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority(NYSERDA),sets out the States comprehensive strategy to reach this goal.The Master Plan New York State Offshore Wind Master PlanCase study 5Figure 8 Master Plan Offshore Study Are

266、a Source:NYSERDA(n.d.,p.10)Case study 4(continued)24Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureoutlines how a range of studies were brought together to inform MSP for offshore wind.Since 2016,the State of New York has been conducting research,analysis,and outreach

267、to evaluate the potential for offshore wind energy.The Master Plan is based on a suite of more than 20 studies covering a range of topics related to siting,regulatory,wildlife,commercial,economic,and other important considerations.Specifically,the Master Plan:identifies the most favourable areas for

268、 potential offshore wind energy development;describes the economic and environmental benefits of offshore wind energy development;addresses mechanisms to procure offshore wind energy at the lowest ratepayer cost;analyses costs and cost-reduction pathways;recommends measures to mitigate potential imp

269、acts of offshore wind energy development;identifies infrastructure requirements and assesses existing facilities;and identifies workforce opportunities.Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancySectoral Marine Plan for offshore wind energy,Scotland Led by the Marine Directorate of the Scottish Gove

270、rnment,this sectoral plan identified 15 plan option areas(Figure 9,in violet)for the future development of commercial-scale offshore wind energySectoral Marine Plan for offshore wind energy,Scotland Led by the Marine Directorate of the Scottish Government,this sectoral plan identified 15 plan option

271、 areas(Figure 9,in violet)for the future development of commercial-scale offshore wind energy3838 in Scotland,including deepwater wind technologies,and covers both Scottish inshore and offshore waters(Scottish Government,2020).The plan was developed in line with the strategic aims of the National Ma

272、rine Plan and designed to minimise potential adverse effects on other marine users,economic sectors,and the environment,and maximise opportunities for economic development,investment,and employment in Scotland.The sectoral marine plan aimed to award leases to support offshore wind farms with a total

273、 capacity of 10 GW.However,following an SEA and Habitats Regulations Assessment,it was determined that projected cumulative impacts meant that five of the option areas were deemed to be subject to“high levels of ornithological constraint”,in Scotland,including deepwater wind technologies,and covers

274、both Scottish inshore and offshore waters(Scottish Government,2020).The plan was developed in line with the strategic aims of the National Marine Plan and designed to minimise potential adverse effects on other marine users,economic sectors,and the environment,and maximise opportunities for economic

275、 development,investment,and employment in Scotland.The sectoral marine plan aimed to award leases to support offshore wind farms with a total capacity of 10 GW.However,following an SEA and Habitats Regulations Assessment,it was determined that projected cumulative impacts meant that five of the opti

276、on areas were deemed to be subject to“high levels of ornithological constraint”,38 Defined in the plan as“projects capable of generating more than 100 MW of electricity”.Examples of Marine Spatial Planning in practiceCase study 6Figure 9 Final Plan options Source:Scottish Government Riaghaltas na h-

277、Alba(2020,October 28)Case study 5(continued)Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure25Figure 10 Seabed bidding areas for the Crown Estate Leasing Round 4 Source:The Crown Estate(n.d.)1234Bidding Area 1Dogger Bank Comprising the Dogger Bank region Bidding Area 2E

278、astern Regions Comprising the Southern North Sea region,the eastern part of The Wash region,and the East Anglia regionBidding Area 3South East Comprising the South East regionBidding Area 4Northern Wales&Irish Sea Comprising the North Wales region,The Irish Sea region,and the northern part of the An

279、glesey regionThe four Seabed Bidding Areas are:UK Continental ShelfTerritorial Waters LimitFind out moreLearn more about Offshore Wind Leasing Round 4,including our technical work and engagement activity,on our website www.thecrownestate.co.uk/round4Alternatively,please email us at round4thecrownest

280、ate.co.ukmeaning development can only proceed if scientific evidence can be produced to demonstrate that risk can be reduced to an acceptable level,or that a case can be made in respect of over-riding public interest.For an additional two plan option areas,the need for further strategic regional sur

281、veys and scientific research was highlighted.In 2022,Crown Estate Scotland awarded leases for 20 offshore wind farms,at least one in each plan option area,with a total capacity in excess of 27 GW.These projects are currently progressing through the consenting process.The UK Crown Estates Offshore Wi

282、nd Leasing Round 4(see Figure10)awarded seabed rights for between 7 and 8.5 GW offshore wind energy projects across England and Wales(as well as marine minerals,carbon capture,utilisation and storage,and cables and pipelines).Alongside stakeholder engagement,a resource and constraints analysis were

283、conducted,based on favourable resource areas for fixed offshore wind(up to 60 m depth)with no limitations to the size of turbines and projects,and not considering cable routing and onshore infrastructure.The environmental criteria included environmental designations,such as Sites of Special Scientif

284、ic Interest(SSSIs),Marine Conservation Zones(MCZs),Ramsar Sites,and confirmed,candidate and potential Special Protection Areas(SPAs)and Special Areas of Conservation(SACs).Additionally,the European Seabirds at Sea(ESAS)database was used to assess gannet,kittiwake,lesser black-baked gull,greater blac

285、k-backed gull,and herring hull distributions and foraging ranges.Additional criteria included:Ministry of Defence ranges and exercise areas;visual sensitivity within 13 km of shore;overlap with busy shipping routes.Four areas were identified for leasing(see Figure 10)from a total of 18 characterisat

286、ion areas.The justification for those areas rejected from this leasing round are discussed in detail in Annex A of the Leasing Round 4 document library.The Crown Estate Leasing Round 5 is meaning development can only proceed if scientific evidence can be produced to demonstrate that risk can be redu

287、ced to an acceptable level,or that a case can be made in respect of over-riding public interest.For an additional two plan option areas,the need for further strategic regional surveys and scientific research was highlighted.In 2022,Crown Estate Scotland awarded leases for 20 offshore wind farms,at l

288、east one in each plan option area,with a total capacity in excess of 27 GW.These projects are currently progressing through the consenting process.The UK Crown Estates Offshore Wind Leasing Round 4(see Figure10)awarded seabed rights for between 7 and 8.5 GW offshore wind energy projects across Engla

289、nd and Wales(as well as marine minerals,carbon capture,utilisation and storage,and cables and pipelines).Alongside stakeholder engagement,a resource and constraints analysis were conducted,based on favourable resource areas for fixed offshore wind(up to 60 m depth)with no limitations to the size of

290、turbines and projects,and not considering cable routing and onshore infrastructure.The environmental criteria included environmental designations,such as Sites of Special Scientific Interest(SSSIs),Marine Conservation Zones(MCZs),Ramsar Sites,and confirmed,candidate and potential Special Protection

291、Areas(SPAs)and Special Areas of Conservation(SACs).Additionally,the European Seabirds at Sea(ESAS)database was used to assess gannet,kittiwake,lesser black-baked gull,greater black-backed gull,and herring hull distributions and foraging ranges.Additional criteria included:Ministry of Defence ranges

292、and exercise areas;visual sensitivity within 13 km of shore;overlap with busy shipping routes.Four areas were identified for leasing(see Figure 10)from a total of 18 characterisation areas.The justification for those areas rejected from this leasing round are discussed in detail in Annex A of the Le

293、asing Round 4 document library.The Crown Estate Leasing Round 5 is Case study 6(continued)26Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureCase study 7currently underway with a set of requirements for bidders to make environmental and social commitments,such as habitat

294、 restoration and enhancement,pressure reduction(litter,pollution,prey availability,and others),and data and evidence to improve environmental outcomes.Ecosystem-based Marine Spatial Planning in the Swedish North and Baltic seasSymphony is a tool for ecosystem-based Marine Spatial Planning in the Swe

295、dish North and Baltic seas(see Figure 11).Symphony calculates how pressures from human activities in the ocean affect nature values in each location in the Swedish sea.The method and associated application were developed by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management(SwAM)and are primarily us

296、ed for Marine Spatial Planning purposes.Symphony includes maps based on 41 environmental pressures,nature values(including 32 different ecosystem components in relation to habitats,reefs fish,birds,mammals and seagrass)and a sensitivity matrix evaluating the vulnerability of each nature value to eve

297、ry environmental pressure.The map includes uncertainties,recognising that some of the nature values included have fewer underlying datapoints than others.The methodology behind the tool has been peer reviewed and published by Hammar etal.,2020).currently underway with a set of requirements for bidde

298、rs to make environmental and social commitments,such as habitat restoration and enhancement,pressure reduction(litter,pollution,prey availability,and others),and data and evidence to improve environmental outcomes.Ecosystem-based Marine Spatial Planning in the Swedish North and Baltic seasSymphony i

299、s a tool for ecosystem-based Marine Spatial Planning in the Swedish North and Baltic seas(see Figure 11).Symphony calculates how pressures from human activities in the ocean affect nature values in each location in the Swedish sea.The method and associated application were developed by the Swedish A

300、gency for Marine and Water Management(SwAM)and are primarily used for Marine Spatial Planning purposes.Symphony includes maps based on 41 environmental pressures,nature values(including 32 different ecosystem components in relation to habitats,reefs fish,birds,mammals and seagrass)and a sensitivity

301、matrix evaluating the vulnerability of each nature value to every environmental pressure.The map includes uncertainties,recognising that some of the nature values included have fewer underlying datapoints than others.The methodology behind the tool has been peer reviewed and published by Hammar etal

302、.,2020).Figure 11 Example of a geographical scope of the implementation of Marine Spatial Planning.The map shows the application of Symphony in the North Sea and Baltic Sea.Colour scale indicates level of aggregation of ecosystem components,indicating where ecological values accumulate(high accumula

303、tion=yellows/greens).Source:Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management(2017,March 23)Case study 6(continued)Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure27The Nature Conservancy Site Renewables Right initiativeCase study 7Figure 12 The Nature Conservancy Site Ren

304、ewables Right map Source:TNC(2024b).Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancyThe Nature Conservancy(TNC)developed the Site Renewables Right(previously Site Wind Right)initiative to accelerate the deployment of renewable energy in the central United States by promoting the siting of wind and solar

305、projects in areas with low conservation impact across 19 states.The information provided is intended to inform early-stage decision-making and expressly does not intend to replace consultation with federal and state wildlife agencies and tribal governments regarding project siting.The Site Renewable

306、s Right web map(Figure 12)(TNC,2024b)synthesises more than 100 layers of engineering,land use,and wildlife data.The map offers a layer of low impact wind development areas to indicate where spatial information on engineering,wind potential,and land use constraints demonstrates suitable areas for win

307、d energy with low conflict with wildlife and habitats.The map demonstrates that out of more than 90.2 million ha(21%of region)of land where wind energy could be developed based on engineering and land use constraints,a combined area of more than 31 million ha(7%of region)would be low impact.If this

308、area were to be built out,it would contribute up to 1,550 GW of wind energy equivalent to 813 times of current U.S.wind capacity and comparable to the total electrical generating capacity from all energy sources combined.The current map builds upon previous work by TNC in the region(Kiesecker etal.,

309、2011;Obermeyer etal.,2011;Fargione etal.,2012).The map incorporates key wildlife areas for wind(and solar*),including:The Nature Conservancy(TNC)developed the Site Renewables Right(previously Site Wind Right)initiative to accelerate the deployment of renewable energy in the central United States by

310、promoting the siting of wind and solar projects in areas with low conservation impact across 19 states.The information provided is intended to inform early-stage decision-making and expressly does not intend to replace consultation with federal and state wildlife agencies and tribal governments rega

311、rding project siting.The Site Renewables Right web map(Figure 12)(TNC,2024b)synthesises more than 100 layers of engineering,land use,and wildlife data.The map offers a layer of low impact wind development areas to indicate where spatial information on engineering,wind potential,and land use constrai

312、nts demonstrates suitable areas for wind energy with low conflict with wildlife and habitats.The map demonstrates that out of more than 90.2 million ha(21%of region)of land where wind energy could be developed based on engineering and land use constraints,a combined area of more than 31 million ha(7

313、%of region)would be low impact.If this area were to be built out,it would contribute up to 1,550 GW of wind energy equivalent to 813 times of current U.S.wind capacity and comparable to the total electrical generating capacity from all energy sources combined.The current map builds upon previous wor

314、k by TNC in the region(Kiesecker etal.,2011;Obermeyer etal.,2011;Fargione etal.,2012).The map incorporates key wildlife areas for wind(and solar*),including:whooping crane stopover sites*;big game habitats;28Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure eagle and oth

315、er raptor nesting areas;water,wetlands,and riparian corridors*;breeding waterfowl habitats;protected and managed lands*;important bird areas;intact natural habitats*;bat roosts;other areas of biodiversity significance*;threatened and endangered species*;and climate resilient lands*.Contributed by:Th

316、e Biodiversity ConsultancyThe World Bank(WB)Offshore Wind Development Program,co-led by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program(ESMAP)and International Finance Corporation(IFC),provides strategic analysis of the offshore wind development potential at the national level in emerging market cou

317、ntries,through roadmaps for offshore wind.ESMAP estimates that there are over 16,000 GW of technical offshore wind potential in emerging markets,highlighting a vast,untapped opportunity.To achieve climate targets with the required urgency and accelerated pace,development must be preceded by rigorous

318、 spatial planning for offshore wind,aligned with Good International Industry Practice(GIIP)for people and biodiversity.However,traditional approaches to MSP and SESA in mature markets are sometimes resource intensive,multi-year and costly endeavours,and may not always be readily applicable to emergi

319、ng markets with the accelerated timeframes to develop the offshore wind sector.Consequently,through its offshore wind roadmaps,the World Bank has been incorporating principles of avoidance of development in areas of high environmental and social sensitivity into the support that it offers to emergin

320、g market countries.To date,roadmaps for countries,including Azerbaijan(World Bank,2022a),Colombia(World Bank,n.d.),and the Philippines(World Bank,2022b)demonstrate the implications of early avoidance of areas of highest sensitivity in terms of developable wind resource.To define potential offshore w

321、ind development zones,the range of environmental considerations identified in the roadmaps are reduced to an environmental restrictions layer and an environmental exclusion layer as well as a separate social and technical exclusions layer).These zones are defined as:The World Bank(WB)Offshore Wind D

322、evelopment Program,co-led by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program(ESMAP)and International Finance Corporation(IFC),provides strategic analysis of the offshore wind development potential at the national level in emerging market countries,through roadmaps for offshore wind.ESMAP estimates t

323、hat there are over 16,000 GW of technical offshore wind potential in emerging markets,highlighting a vast,untapped opportunity.To achieve climate targets with the required urgency and accelerated pace,development must be preceded by rigorous spatial planning for offshore wind,aligned with Good Inter

324、national Industry Practice(GIIP)for people and biodiversity.However,traditional approaches to MSP and SESA in mature markets are sometimes resource intensive,multi-year and costly endeavours,and may not always be readily applicable to emerging markets with the accelerated timeframes to develop the o

325、ffshore wind sector.Consequently,through its offshore wind roadmaps,the World Bank has been incorporating principles of avoidance of development in areas of high environmental and social sensitivity into the support that it offers to emerging market countries.To date,roadmaps for countries,including

326、 Azerbaijan(World Bank,2022a),Colombia(World Bank,n.d.),and the Philippines(World Bank,2022b)demonstrate the implications of early avoidance of areas of highest sensitivity in terms of developable wind resource.To define potential offshore wind development zones,the range of environmental considerat

327、ions identified in the roadmaps are reduced to an environmental restrictions layer and an environmental exclusion layer as well as a separate social and technical exclusions layer).These zones are defined as:Energy Sector Management Assistance Program Roadmaps for Offshore WindCase study 8Case study

328、 6(continued)Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure29Table 3 Digitised spatial data captured in exclusion and restriction zones in the PhilippinesFigure 13 Environmental restrictions and exclusions in the Philippines Source:World Bank(2022b,p.68).Exclusion:Are

329、as of the highest biodiversity sensitivity to exclude from the technical assessment of offshore wind resource);and Restriction:High-risk areas requiring further assessment of risk during MSP,site selection,and/or ESIA).For example,Table 3 shows the digitised spatial data captured in Exclusion and Re

330、striction zones in the Philippines Roadmap(World Bank,2022b).Figure13 shows these zones in relation to the potential offshore wind development areas identified in the countrys roadmap.For example,Table 3 shows the digitised spatial data captured in Exclusion and Restriction zones in the Philippines

331、Roadmap(World Bank,2022b).Figure13 shows these zones in relation to the potential offshore wind development areas identified in the countrys roadmap.Contributed by:The Biodiversity ConsultancyCase study 8(continued)30Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructureEU Th

332、e wildlife sensitivity mapping manual(Allinson etal.,2020)This interactive EU-focused manual provides a comprehensive overview of the datasets,methodologies and GIS resources needed to develop effective wildlife sensitivity mapping approaches.It concentrates on several key wildlife attributes,includ

333、ing all species and habitats protected by the EU Nature Directives,with particular emphasis on birds,bats and marine mammals.The manual includes a theoretical example of a sensitivity scoring system,where species are scored in relation to their sensitivity to a form of renewable energy on a scale of Low/None,Medium,High,Very High,and Extremely High.It gives key recommendations relating to sensitiv