聯合國環境規劃署：全球建筑和施工現狀報告（英文版）（100頁）.pdf

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1、2023 Global Status Report forBuildings and ConstructionBeyond foundationsGlobal Status Report forBuildings and ConstructionBeyond foundationsMainstreaming sustainable solutions to cut emissions from the buildings sector 2024 United Nations Environment ProgrammeISBN:978-92-807-4131-5Job number:CLI/26

2、21/NAThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder,provided acknowledgement of the source is made.The United Nations Environment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any pub

3、lication that uses this publication as a source.No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent o

4、f the reproduction,should be addressed to the Director,Communication Division,United Nations Environment Programme,unep-communication-directorun.org.DisclaimersThe designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the

5、part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of a commercial company or product in this document does not imply endorsement by the United Nat

6、ions Environment Programme or the authors.The use of information from this document for publicity or advertising is not permitted.Trademark names and symbols are used in an editorial fashion with no intention on infringement of trademark or copyright laws.The views expressed in this publication are

7、those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Environment Programme.We regret any errors or omissions that may have been unwittingly made.Maps,photos and illustrations as specifiedSuggested citation:United Nations Environment Programme(2024).Global Status Report

8、 for Buildings and Construction:Beyond foundations:Mainstreaming sustainable solutions to cut emissions from the buildings sector.Nairobi.https:/doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/45095.Production:United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)and Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Globa

9、l Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|iiiAcknowledgementsThe Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction was prepared by Prof.Ian Hamilton and Dr.Harry Kennard from University College London(UCL)and Columbia University,Ol

10、iver Rapf,Dr.Jerson Amorocho,Dr.Sybil Steuwer,Dr.Judit Kockat and Dr.Zsolt Toth from the Buildings Performance Institute Europe(BPIE),with contributions from Dr.Chiara Delmastro,Dr.Rafael Martinez Gordon and Dr Ksenia Petrichenko from the International Energy Agency(IEA),who provided data on key ene

11、rgy,emissions and activity metrics for the buildings sector.Other contributors to the report are Dr Harsh Jatkar and Dr Shih-Che Hsu from UCL;Jade Si-Ahmed and Daniel Eida from Columbia University;Dr Silke Krawietz from SETA Network;Dr Liliana Campos Arriaga from Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internation

12、ale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH,Catriona Brady,Rebecca Moir,Audrey Nuget,Carolina Montano-Owen,Sara Kawamura and Stephen Richardson from World Green Building Council(WGBC);Chloe Decazes,Alicia Regodon Puyalto and Geoffrey Morgan from UN Office for Project Services(UNOPS);Angelica Ospina from Colombia Gr

13、een Building Council.Support was provided by Jonathan Duwyn,Mona Mohammed,Marvin Lauenburg,and Yijun Cui from the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)/Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC).The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP

14、or contributory organizations.Mention of a commercial entity or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by UNEP.The designations employed and the presentations of material do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerni

15、ng the legal status of any country,territory,city area or its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries or the designation of its name,frontiers,or boundaries.The mention of a commercial entity or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by UNEP.The auth

16、ors would like to thank the following members and partners who supported this report with their important contributions,input,comments and reviews:Martha Sofa Nio Sulkowska,Secretara de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,MexicoAudrey Nugent,World Green Building CouncilMina Hasman,Climate FrameworkL

17、uis Alberto Vega,Alianza por la Eficiencia EnergticaCarlos Carrazco,Alianza por la Eficiencia EnergticaCarlos Bohorquez,Municipality of Medellin,ColombiaMoses Itanola,BIM AfricaRobyn Pender,Historic England,Climate Heritage NetworkRoland Hunziker,World Business Council for Sustainable Development(WB

18、CSD)York Ostermeyer,CUES FoundationMelissa Lott,Centre on Global Energy Policy,Columbia UniversityVincent Martinez,Architecture 2030Ashraf Kamal,Housing and Buildings National Research Centre,EgyptPeter Graham,Global Buildings Performance NetworkJrme Bilodeau,Buildings Division,Office of Energy Effi

19、ciency,Government of CanadaLudwig Labuzinski,Deutsche Energie-Agentur GmbH(dena)iv|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)ForewordThe world is not on track to achieve the Paris Agreement goals,a stark fact highlighted by UNEPs

20、 Emissions Gap Report 2023.It underscored the urgency of tackling the climate crisis,with recent years seeing a disturbing acceleration in the number,speed and scale of broken climate records.This troubling state of affairs is reflected in the buildings and construction sector.For yet another year,t

21、he Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction tells us that overall energy demand and emissions of the buildings sector continued to grow,rising by about 1 per cent from 2021.The need to take action has never been greater:about 60 per cent of the buildings that will exist by 2050 have not b

22、een built yet and 20 per cent of existing building stock needs to be renovated to zero-carbon-ready by 2030.At COP28,twenty-eight countries launched the Buildings Breakthrough,committing to make near-zero emission and resilient buildings the new normal by 2030.There is much to do.There is a still a

23、lack of investment in decarbonizing buildings,while current global economic instability is further slowing green building investment.Innovative business models and well-defined metrics to guide decision making are needed,along with digitalization to improve data.The introduction of reporting require

24、ments for the financial sector through regulation will also incentivize green investments.While energy efficiency measures are a high priority,they must be combined with material efficiency strategies.Embodied carbon emissions still represent more than a quarter of the sectors emissions and are set

25、to grow.The challenges of a changing climate also need to be taken on board retrofitting existing buildings and designing new ones with climate extremes in mind is essential.As per article 4.9 of the Paris Agreement,every country must commit to new national climate plans aligned with the 1.5C limit

26、by 2025.Most National Determined Contributions(NDCs)still lack clear actions and targets towards building energy efficiency and adaptation measures.Let us seize this moment to raise ambition levels in NDCs through actions in the buildings and construction sector.Dechen TseringDirector a.i.,Climate C

27、hange DivisionGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|vTable of ContentsAcknowledgements.iiiForeword.ivTable of Contents.vList of tables.viList of figures.viList of boxes.viAbbreviations.viiSupport statements.viiiExecutive Sum

28、mary.ixChapter 1:Buildings and construction sector in review:A reality check.1Chapter 2:Global buildings and construction status.192.1 Building construction trends.192.1.1 Social Impact across the Built Environment.222.2 Energy in the buildings and construction sector trends.242.2.1 Improvements in

29、building heating and cooling technologies continue to expand.272.3 Emissions in the buildings and construction sector trends.29Chapter 3:Sustainable buildings and construction policies.313.1 Leading national policies.313.2 Building codes.323.2.1 Modernisation building energy codes.353.3 Nationally D

30、etermined contributions updates.383.4 Building certification systems.41Chapter 4:Investment and financing for sustainable buildings.434.1 Energy efficiency investment in buildings.444.2 Financing of energy efficiency and zero carbon buildings:a case study of the European Union.46Chapter 5:Global Bui

31、ldings Climate Tracker.49Chapter 6:Buildings climate policy gap review.536.1 Emissions.546.1.1 Buildings sector energy related emissions.546.2 Impact.556.2.1 Building sector energy intensity.556.2.2 Renewable share in final energy demand in buildings.566.3 Action.576.3.1 Cumulative energy efficiency

32、 investment in buildings.576.3.2 Green building certification.586.3.3 NDC considering buildings extensively.596.3.4 Building codes ZEB-aligned.60Chapter 7:Deep dive-Adaptation and resilient construction methods.617.1 Building a water-resilient future for everyone,everywhere.637.2 Resilience in Build

33、ing Codes in Latin America and the Caribbean.65Chapter 8:Deep Dive-Innovations in business cases(renovation and green building construction industry).668.1 Addressing root causes:central planning and coordination of the renovation.668.2 Completely digitalized and standardized renovation processes.66

34、8.3 Reducing risks of investments:buildings performance contracting.67Chapter 9:Deep dive-Nature Based Solutions and Biophilic Design.689.1 Exploring NBS Technologies.699.2 Biophilia and Biophilic Design.69Chapter 10:Roadmaps for buildings and construction.7010.1 A new framework for Buildings and Co

35、nstruction Roadmap development.7210.2 National Implementation:Colombia National Roadmap to Net Zero Buildings.7410.3 Building National coalitions for decarbonizing buildings in Mexico.75 Chapter 11:Buildings Breakthrough .79Chapter 12:Key recommendations for policymakers and decisionmakers .80Biblio

36、graphy .82Annex:Global Buildings Climate Tracker Method.96Adjustments to indicators .97vi|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)List of figuresFigure 1.Share of buildings in total final energy consumptions in 2022 and share o

37、f buildings in global energy and process emissions in 2022.2Figure 2.Global building energy codes by type and status.xFigure 3.GBCT decarbonisation index xFigure 4.Change in construction activities in selected G20 Countries,2015-2023Figure 5.Emerging and development economies(EMDE)market constructio

38、n activity and financial conditionsFigure 6.Social impact frameworkFigure 7.Energy consumption in buildings by fuel,2010-2022 and share of buildings in total final energy consumptions in 2022Figure 8.Total final energy consumption in buildingsFigure 9.Residential space cooling consumption covered by

39、 minimum energy performance standards by region,2000-2022Figure 10.CO2 emissions in buildings 2010-2022 and share of buildings in global energy and process emissions in 2022Figure 11.Global building energy codes by type and statusFigure 12.Mentions of buildings in Nationally Determined Contributions

40、(NDCs)Figure 13.Number of unique NDCs mentioning buildings by level of detailFigure 14.Investment in energy efficiency in buildings and constructionFigure 15.GBCTs indicators weightsFigure 16.GBCT decarbonisation indexFigure 17.GBCT observations and path to get on track by 2030Figure 18.Observations

41、 of the CO2 emission of the global building stocks operation and path to get on trackFigure 19.Observations of the CO2 emission of the global building stocks operation and path to get on trackFigure 20.Observations of the renewable share in final energy demand in buildings and path to get on trackFi

42、gure 21.Observations of the cumulative investment in energy efficiency in buildings and path to get on trackFigure 22.Observations of the growth in green building certifications and path to get on trackFigure 23.Observations of NDCs considering buildings extensively and path to get on trackFigure 24

43、.Observations of aggregated ZEB-aligned energy codes and path to get on trackFigure 25.Threats to buildings under climate change and available adaption measuresFigure 26.Scales of water use in the built environmentFigure 27.Principles of water management for the built environmentFigure 28.Global roa

44、dmaps for buildings and constructionFigure 29.GlobalABC Roadmap Action FrameworkFigure 30.Roadmap implementation processList of tablesTable 1.Mentions of buildings in NDCs at the time of publication of the Buildings Global Status Report.2Table 2.Changes over time of mentions of buildings in the NDCs

45、.2.Table 3.GBCTs indicators observations summary,2015-2022.2Table 4.GBCTs indicators goals.2List of boxesBox 1.Embedding gender equality in the construction sectorBox 2.Emissions from bricks and glassBox 3.Climate action and the path to net-zero:New York City and TokyoBox 4.Green Building Certificat

46、es in specific regionsBox 5.Buildings sustainability and decarbonisation activities across MexicoGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|viiBECs Building Energy CodesEPBD Energy Performance of Buildings DirectiveESCos Energy S

47、ervice CompaniesIEA International Energy AgencyIDB Inter-American Development BankIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeGlobalABC Global Aliance for Buildings and ConstructionGBCT Global Building Climate Tracker GHG Greenhouse GasMEPS Minimum Energy Performance StandardsNbS Nature-based Solu

48、tionsNDCs Nationally Determined ContributionsNZE Net Zero EmissionsUAE United Arab EmiratesUNEP United Nations Environment ProgramUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNOPS United Nations Office for Project ServicesWorldGBC World Green Buildings Council ZEB Zero Emissions Buil

49、dingAbbreviationsviii|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Support statementsRasmi HamzehDirectorJordan Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Fund(JREEEF)/Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources(MEMR),JordanHassan Middib D

50、irectorPresident of Technical Directorate/Architect Eng.Ministry of Construction and Housing&Municipalities Public,Republic of IraqBerthold GoekeDirector General for Climate ActionFederal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action(BMWK)GermanyAmadou ThiamDirecteur Gnral de la Construction et d

51、e lHabitat Ministre de lurbanisme du logement et de lhygine publique,SngalIts concerning that investments in building energy efficiency are declining.The engagement of governments to offer financial incentives and enforce policy regulations is crucial,to accomplish our objectives in this sector.Clim

52、ate change will raise energy costs,especially affecting Jordanian households.Energy-efficient buildings save individuals from energy poverty and guarantee the stability of their livelihoods.We highly value the Global Status Report and the knowledge base it provides.Iraq issued codes(The Green Archit

53、ecture,Thermal Insulation and Natural Lighting).Energy Efficiency in Building Code will be prepared.It has begun implementing sustainable cities,which contain green spaces and take into account thermal insulation in walls,windows,and roofs.It will complete a building that has(PREEAM).Repairing gover

54、nment institutions and making sustainable.Every year,the GSR provides crucial evidence,insights and recommendations that inform stakeholders efforts to increase ambition in the buildings and construction sector and to accelerate implementation of the policies and initiatives that will help us achiev

55、e our collective climate goals.Germany is very glad to continue to support the GlobalABCs important work in accelerating the transformation and decarbonization of the buildings sector.Le Sngal,sengage depuis 2017 dans la promotion des btiments durables.Depuis un an,notre collaboration avec GlobalABC

56、 acte notre dtermination intgrer les meilleures pratiques internationales en matire de btiments durables.Le ministre soutient linitiative Buildings-GSR,essentielle pour structurer le secteur.La collaboration tendue vise crer un rseau fort pour un impact accru dans la lutte contre le changement clima

57、tique.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|ixKey messagesThe buildings and construction sector contributes significantly to global climate change,accounting for about 21 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions.In 2022,b

58、uildings were responsible for 34 per cent global energy demand and 37 per cent of energy and process-related carbon dioxide(CO2)emissions.Despite a 3.5 per cent reduction in energy intensity,overall energy demand and emissions rose by about one per cent from 2021.Policy progress is evident with more

59、 comprehensive climate action plans covering buildings and construction in Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs).However,few align with net-zero operational emissions,and while over 81 countries have building energy codes,many are outdated.Investment in building decarbonisation exceeded US$285 b

60、illion in 2022 but is expected to decline in 2023,largely due to a less favourable investment environment due to rising costs.The necessary increase in investments falls short of the net-zero targets for new and existing buildings by 2030 and 2050,respectively.The 2022 update of the Global Buildings

61、 Climate Tracker(GBCT)paints a concerning picture:the gap between the current state and the desired decarbonisation path is significant.The GBCT indicates that to align with the 2030 milestone,an annual increase of ten decarbonisation points is now required,a substantial jump from the six points ant

62、icipated per year starting in 2015.To reach the goals of net-zero carbon emission buildings for new buildings by 2030 and existing buildings by 2050,stronger policies are needed to enhance energy efficiency and address carbon emissions from building materials and construction.National efforts are cr

63、ucial,with countries forming coalitions to share best practices and promote low-carbon construction.Buildings and construction sector in reviewSince the 2022 Global Buildings Status Report,the construction sector has seen significant changes.Post-pandemic recovery has spurred construction activities

64、,driven by eased supply chain disruptions and a rebound in housing demand.However,inflation and global interest rate hikes have tempered growth,particularly affecting developing countries like China,Mexico,Indonesia and India.Geopolitical tensions and conflicts have added to global energy market ins

65、tability,affecting the construction sector.Despite these challenges,global efforts to mitigate the sectors climate impact have been notable,with initiatives like the Buildings Breakthrough at COP28 aiming for a net-zero,resilient and inclusive buildings sector.Looking forward to 2024,the focus must

66、be on tangible emission reductions,enhancing building performance,increasing renewable energy use and addressing housing and energy access disparities.Despite the complexities,strategic partnerships can facilitate the shift to an efficient,resilient and whole life net-zero carbon global building sto

67、ck.Executive Summaryx|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Global buildings and construction statusIn 2022,the global buildings sector was a major energy consumer,accounting for 30 per cent of the final energy demand,primari

68、ly for operational needs like heating and cooling.Including the energy for producing construction materials,this figure rose to 34 per cent.Energy demand in the sector has grown by just over one per cent annually,with electricity use in buildings increasing from 30 per cent in 2010 to 35 per cent in

69、 2022 of total final energy demand,in parallel with a shift towards renewables.CO2 emissions from building operations and construction reached new highs in 2022,making up 37 per cent of total global CO2 emissions to just under 10 gigatonnes(Gt)CO2,due to emissions from buildings operations and mater

70、ial production.This reflected a growth in indirect emissions related to electricity use to 6.8 GtCO2,while direct emissions from buildings have declined slightly to three GtCO2.The production of materials used in the construction process for cement,steel and aluminium added a further 2.5 GtCO2,with

71、brick and glass production contributing around 1.2 GtCO2.Energy intensity per square meter improved by 3.5 per cent from 2021 to 2022,thanks to better building codes and fabric performance,especially in colder climates.However,a significant number of countries are still lack building energy codes.Re

72、trofit rates must increase significantly to meet the Paris Agreements target of a 50 per cent reduction in carbon emissions by 2030.Figure 1 Share of buildings in total final energy consumptions in 2022(left)and share of buildings in global energy and process emissions in 2022(right)ENERGY DEMAND BY

73、 SECTOR 2022EMISSIONS BY SECTOR 2022OtherResidential(direct)ResidentialNon-residentialBuildings construction industryResidential(indirect)Non-residential(direct)Non-residential(indirect)Buildings construction industryBricks and glass21%6%11%7%7%3%3%9%4%66%Transport,Other industry,other63%(Source:IEA

74、 2023a.Adapted from Tracking Clean Energy Progress)Notes:Buildings construction industry refers to materials used in construction,including concrete,steel and aluminium.Other materials shown separately.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(

75、GlobalABC)|UNEP|xiSustainable buildings and construction policiesThe global policy environment for building sustainability is diverse and evolving.While some nations lack comprehensive strategies for emissions reduction,an increasing number are implementing regulations to not exceed the 1.5C global

76、temperature increase threshold.The European Union,for instance,has revised its Energy Performance of Buildings Directive(EPBD)to mandate zero emission standards for new buildings by 2030,and plans to phase out fossil fuel boilers by 2040.India,attributing 40 per cent of its CO2 emissions to building

77、s,enacted legislation in 2022 to initiate carbon trading and sustainable building codes.By 2023,the global number of building codes has grown to 81 for residential and 77 for non-residential structures,with 80 per cent being mandatory.However,over 30 per cent of these codes have not been updated sin

78、ce 2015,potentially falling short of high-performance standards.With 80 per cent of floor area growth by 2030 expected in developing economies,many lack stringent energy codes,presenting an opportunity for improved enforcement and alignment with net-zero CO2 goals.Recent updates in various countries

79、 are aligning with the Paris Agreement and the European Unions EPBD.Examples(see Section 3.2)include Frances RE2020,Denmarks 2023 regulations,Californias 2022 standards,the United Kingdom 2021 Building Regulations,Singapores 2021 Code for Environmental Sustainability,Chinas latest energy performance

80、 code,and Sri Lankas Energy Efficiency Building Code 2020.Under the Paris Agreement,governments are expected to enhance their commitments every five years through their NDCs.As of December 2023,194 countries and the European Union have submitted NDCs,with 48 updates since 2022.However,only 11 update

81、s expanded on building-related actions.For example,the United Arab Emirates targets a 56 per cent reduction in building emissions by 2030 through updated codes and renewable energy initiatives.Despite these efforts,G20 nations lack extensive buildings coverage in their NDCs,and overall progress rema

82、ins modest.Figure 2 Global building energy codes by type and status(Source:IEA 2023)Note:Countries with dark red outline have adopted updated building energy codes since 2021.Investment and financing for sustainable buildingsxii|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance

83、 for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Transitioning to net-zero buildings necessitates strategic use of policy and financial tools.By using policy tools,such as capacity development,mandates and incentives in collaboration with financial tools,such as grants,equity instruments,risk mitigation to

84、ols,contracts,asset finance models and others,investment barriers in energy-efficiency and low-carbon technologies can be overcome.Global investment in building energy efficiency rose by approximately 14 per cent in 2021,to US$285 billion.The increase was largely driven by public investment and Euro

85、pes response to energy insecurity.Major markets like the United States of America(USA),Germany and Italy significantly contributed to this increase.However,some countries like China,France and the United Kingdom experienced a decrease in efficiency spending due to a slowing construction sector and c

86、hanges in government programs.Projections for 2023 suggest a potential slowdown in spending due to increased borrowing costs,economic uncertainty and geopolitical conflicts.The investment is expected to drop to US$270 billion in 2023.Nevertheless,energy efficiency investments offer a way to mitigate

87、 risk exposure to energy cost volatility and reduce emissions at the same time.Despite the projected reduction in efficiency spending,investments are increasingly being directed towards technologies that enable net-zero carbon-ready buildings.However,the lack of knowledge around energy efficiency in

88、vestment remains a barrier to adopting strategies that reduce perceived risks associated with these investments.Global Buildings Climate TrackerLaunched in 2020,the GBCT assesses progress in the decarbonisation of the building sector from 2015,the year the Paris Agreement was established.The 2022 up

89、date of the GBCT paints a concerning picture:The gap between the current state and the desired decarbonisation path is significant,amounting to a gap of 40 decarbonisation points.The observations show that the decarbonisation of the building stock worldwide is lacking significant progress.In fact,th

90、e index is at similar levels in 2022 as at its start in 2015.To align with the 2030 milestone,the GBCT requires an annual increase of 10 decarbonisation points to get back on track,a substantial jump from the 6 points anticipated per year starting in 2015.The GBCT uses a seven-part index to measure

91、decarbonisation efforts against a 2050 target,with a 2030 milestone for interim progress.This index includes CO2 emissions from building operations and six other indicators,divided into impact(energy intensity and renewable energy share)and action(energy efficiency investments,green building certifi

92、cations,NDCs for buildings,and building energy codes),with CO2 emissions acting as a multiplier.A detailed view on the indicators shows that CO2 emissions from buildings operations have increased by 5.4 per cent since 2015,and the energy intensity reduction is far below the necessary level.Renewable

93、 energy use in buildings has only marginally improved,and the uptake of green building certifications is lagging.Policy-wise,only a handful of countries have detailed NDCs for buildings or building energy codes aligned with zero energy building(ZEB)principles.To meet the 2050 decarbonisation goal,it

94、s imperative to accelerate the implementation of effective measures,and to strengthen the reporting,monitoring,and verification of both the measures and the indicators.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|xiiiBuildings clim

95、ate policy gap reviewThe GBCT has identified a concerning lack of progress in decarbonising the global building stock,a crucial step towards the net-zero carbon goal by 2050.However,opportunities exist to bridge these gaps through targeted policy actions.The GBCTs analysis compares the 2015-2022 per

96、iod with a decarbonisation reference path based on the International Energy Agencys Net-Zero Emissions(NZE)scenario.A proposed get on track path suggests an accelerated approach to meet the reference path,provided that efforts are made soon.Key indicators include CO2 emissions from building operatio

97、ns,which were 40 per cent above the target of 7.0 GtCO2/year in 2022.To realign,a yearly reduction of approximately ten per cent in CO2 emissions is necessary until 2030.The energy intensity in the building sector must decrease by 37 per cent from 2015 levels to 96 kWh/m2 by 2030.As of 2022,there wa

98、s a modest reduction to 145.3 kWh/m2,still 15 per cent above the target trajectory.Renewable energys share in buildings final energy consumption was only six per cent in 2022,necessitating an annual increase of 1.5 per cent points to meet the 18 per cent target by 2030.In 2022,the cumulative investm

99、ent in energy efficiency and high-performance buildings should have been 40 per cent(of the goal value)higher,totalling US$2.7 trillion.Green building certification growth is also slow,reaching only 9.1 points by 2022,compared to the required 16.3 points.NDCs must incorporate detailed actions for th

100、e building sectors decarbonisation.As of 2022,only 3.3 per cent of building energy codes meet zero emission principles,far from the 2030 target of all G20 members and half of the other countries having respective codes in place.Figure 3 GBCT decarbonisation index.Left:Reference path until 2050.Right

101、:Zoom in for the 2015-2022 period 0-0.3-0.9-4.3-1.42.8-1.1-0.26.312.318.223.829.334.539.6-10-505101520253035404520152016201720182019202020212022Decarbonisation IndexPath to goal39.8points-10010203040506070809010020152050Decarbonisation IndexPath to goalZero carbon building stock goal(Source:BPIE)xiv

102、|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Adaptation and resilient construction methodsAs global temperatures rise,the built environment must adapt to more frequent extreme weather events like storms,floods and wildfires.The Int

103、ergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)emphasizes the importance of resilience and adaptation in both building operations and materials to withstand these climate impacts.Existing buildings,particularly high-density ones,face an increased risk of overheating as temperatures continue to rise.Thi

104、s is a significant challenge in low-income economies where financial constraints and informal building techniques make it difficult to construct resilient structures.Furthermore,sea level rise,intense hurricanes and flooding present growing challenges.Buildings in flood-prone areas are particularly

105、vulnerable,with potential damage impacting property values,insurance costs and community resilience.Poor building practices can contribute to maladaptation,leading to increased energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.To mitigate these risks,its crucial to incorporate sustainable building pra

106、ctices,including passive design measures,energy-efficient materials and strategic design.Retrofitting existing buildings and designing new ones with climate extremes in mind is essential.Building codes need to be updated to incorporate future warming estimates and past extreme weather events.More gu

107、idance for adapting buildings to climate change is needed.Recent European Union guidance outlines the risks and adaptive measures that can be taken for buildings in the face of increased heat,storms,heavy precipitation,flooding,subsidence and drought.It also provides best practice guidance for polic

108、ymakers and industry actors across these risk domains.Innovations in business cases for renovation and green building construction industryThe construction sector has among the lowest productivity within the global economy.It needs to boost building decarbonisation to address climate challenges,requ

109、iring innovative business models.These models enhance renovation efficiency and cost-effectiveness through central planning and coordination.For instance,an approach in Germany has achieved a deep renovation of a building into a climate-neutral structure in just 22 working days.Standardizing best pr

110、actices within building types and climate zones is crucial for scalability and replication.Digitalization,including 3D scanning and printing,is key for understanding and simulating renovation solutions,enabling thorough planning and prefabrication of components,thus saving time,materials and workfor

111、ce.Start ups are emerging as centralized solution providers,offering services from 3D scanning to on-site renovation coordination.They also handle the installation of solar-photovoltaic(PV)systems,combining the roles of renovation and traditional energy service providers.However,these new constructi

112、on business models need supportive government policies.For example,in the Netherlands,owners can charge tenants a fee for net-zero energy standard renovations when energy bills go down.In Germany,solution providers benefit from feed-in tariffs for installed solar-PV.These innovative models demonstra

113、te a promising path for future renovation practices,proving that innovation in the construction sector is achievable and successful.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|xvNature-based solutions and biophilic designNature-ba

114、sed solutions(NbS)and biophilic design are increasingly used in architecture and urban planning to promote sustainability.NbS aims to harmonize human-made structures with nature,leveraging ecosystem functions for climate regulation,water purification and habitat creation.An NbS approach can enhance

115、air and water quality,support biodiversity,and mitigate urban heat islands.However,the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)reports that investments in NbS are still low compared to activities that harm nature.NbS technologies like green roofs and constructed wetlands offer sustainable alternat

116、ives to traditional infrastructure,improving urban resilience against extreme weather.Implementing NbS requires a multidisciplinary approach,with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature setting global standards.Biophilic design,meanwhile,fosters a connection with nature using natural

117、materials,light and ventilation,and by designing spaces for nature interaction.This approach improves well-being,productivity and learning,particularly in healthcare settings.The Biophilic Cities Network and resources like the World Green Building Councils Circular Built Environment Playbook exempli

118、fy global efforts to incorporate these principles,aiming to reduce energy,water usage and waste.Roadmaps for buildings and constructionThe Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC),led by UNEP and in collaboration with United Nations Office for Project Services(UNOPS)and UN-Habitat,i

119、s developing tools and guidance to assist governments in creating climate action roadmaps for the buildings and construction sector.Over 15 national and regional roadmaps have been facilitated with the GlobalABC,with 34 countries adopting strategies for decarbonising the building sector.These roadma

120、ps,delineating short to long-term actions,aim to unify stakeholders and establish achievable goals,thus accelerating inclusive climate action.For example,Costa Ricas National Decarbonization Plan includes a focus on efficient,low-emission buildings,while Chile is formulating a strategy for the secto

121、rs carbon footprint.These roadmaps are anchored in NDCs,guiding national efforts and underscoring the building sectors role in decarbonisation.To further this cause,GlobalABC collaborated with UNOPS and UN-Habitat,to develop a new methodology and tools to support countries and regions.This approach

122、promotes stakeholder collaboration and covers the entire building value chain,addressing carbon emissions,climate adaptation and inclusion.The methodology encompasses five action areas:Strategic Priorities,Spatial and Urban Development,New Buildings,Existing Buildings,and Construction Supply Chain,e

123、nsuring a holistic climate action strategy that encourages circularity.The roadmap development process involves six steps:Mobilisation,Stakeholder Engagement,Baseline Assessment,Prioritisation of Challenges and Opportunities,Actions and Timeline,and Implementation and Monitoring.The overarching aim

124、is to eliminate obstacles to creating climate action roadmaps for the building and construction sector,aiding the shift towards a decarbonized,sustainable industry.xvi|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Buildings Breakthro

125、ughLaunched on 6 December 2023,at COP28 in Dubai,the Buildings Breakthrough initiative is a collaborative effort by the French and Moroccan governments and UNEP.This initiative targets the building sector,which contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions,with the goal of achieving n

126、ear zero emissions and climate resilience by 2030.As part of the broader Breakthrough Agenda,the Buildings Breakthrough aims to make sustainable solutions and clean technologies affordable and accessible in all regions by 2030.The initiative is co-led by Frances Ministry for Ecological Transition an

127、d Territorial Cohesion and Moroccos Ministry of National Territory Planning,Land Planning,Housing,and City Policy,with coordination by GlobalABC.The initiative will be annually assessed by the UNEP/GlobalABC secretariat,the International Energy Agency,and the International Renewable Energy Agency,in

128、 alignment with the UNEP/GlobalABC annual Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction.As February 2024,28 countries,including Armenia,Austria,Canada,China and USA,have pledged their commitment to the Buildings Breakthrough.The initiative calls for accelerated development and implementation o

129、f actions across the building and construction sector,improved coordination among stakeholders,and harmonization of definitions and certifications for near zero emission buildings.It also encourages governments to establish procurement commitments for net-zero buildings,join low-carbon material alli

130、ances,and commit to deploying clean,efficient heating and cooling technologies.Furthermore,the Buildings Breakthrough seeks increased funding for net-zero carbon building construction and renovations,and the creation of a matchmaking platform to serve as a single point of contact for emerging and de

131、veloping countries.It also promotes collaboration to identify knowledge gaps,align research priorities with policy goals and enhance communication of research and best practices.Recommendations for policy and decision makers The 2024 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction indicates a si

132、gnificant lag in the sectors progress toward the Paris Agreements net-zero carbon targets by 2050.To address this,the report provides targeted recommendations:For governments,the urgent need is to develop and enforce climate action roadmaps for buildings and construction,with 161 nations still pendi

133、ng.Building energy codes must be strengthened to enhance efficiency,and despite economic hurdles,investment in building decarbonisation should increase.Policies should also aim to reduce embodied carbon through sustainable practices and materials and promote retrofitting to significantly reduce ener

134、gy consumption.Private sector actors are encouraged to integrate climate action roadmaps,channel investments into energy-efficient and net-zero carbon buildings and undertake retrofits to lower emissions.They should also be mindful of their social impact,promoting justice and equity regarding access

135、 to and affordability of housing.Researchers and NGOs play a crucial role in supporting the creation of climate action roadmaps with evidence-based research.They should collaborate in developing data frameworks to support decarbonisation,raise awareness with media and through strategic communication

136、s and push for policy changes.Cross-sectoral collaborations are vital to enhance the decarbonisation impact.These steps are critical for realigning the buildings and construction sector with global climate goals,ensuring a sustainable and resilient future.Global Status Report for Buildings and Const

137、ructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|17The buildings and construction sector has experienced a tumultuous year since the last Global Buildings Status Report in 2022.Across the world,as economies emerged from the effects of the pandemic,construction activities picked

138、up as supply chain constraints eased and demand for construction of new housing resumed to its pre-pandemic levels,alongside a return to workplaces for many employees and expanding economic demands.Yet as economies reopened,there was a rapid increase in inflation and the release of pent-up demand al

139、ongside retained savings from the pandemic(Reinhart and Graf von Luckner 2022),which saw many central banks across the world address inflation by raising interest rates rapidly from near historic lows that are creating challenging conditions for the construction sector(Gunette et al.2022).This incre

140、ase in the cost of borrowing has slowed construction activities globally,particularly among major developing economies such as China,Mexico,Indonesia and India.Furthermore,ongoing conflicts and rising tensions continues to cause instability in global energy markets.At the same time,international eff

141、orts are underway for the buildings sector to address climate change,with the launch of the Buildings Breakthrough at COP28 and a growing coordination among countries and non-state actors to secure the delivery of an efficient,inclusive,resilient and net-zero buildings and construction sector(UNEP 2

142、023).The buildings sectors sheer importance in terms of the contributions to climate change cannot be overstated,given it is estimated to be responsible for around 21 per cent of all global greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions(Cabeza et al.,2022).In 2022,energy demand in buildings accounts for around 37 per

143、 cent of total global energy demand and 37 per cent of energy and process-related CO2 emissions for buildings operation and materials production.Although energy intensity has dropped by around 3.5 per cent since 2021,overall energy demand and carbon emissions for energy have increased by around 1 pe

144、r cent to 132 EJ and around 9.8 GtCO2 in 2022,exceeding the 2018 peak(International Energy Agency IEA,2023).The policy landscape has also improved with an increase in the number of Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)including more extensive details for climate actions in the buildings sector,b

145、ut this is not yet translating into policy actions that are aligned to net-zero,such as Building Energy Codes(BECs),as only seven NDCs have a code aligned to net-zero operational emissions.The amount of investment going into decarbonising buildings increased in 2022 to over US$285 billion but is exp

146、ected to fall across 2023 as households and businesses face higher borrowing costs and builders face higher costs of construction in labour and materials(IEA,2023g.Overall,however,the Global Buildings Carbon Tracker(GBCT)shows that the rate of change is not fast enough and that the global buildings

147、and construction sector is not on track to realizing sustainable,efficient,whole-life carbon net-zero new buildings by 2030 and an operational net-zero carbon building stock by 2050.Buildings and construction sector in review:A reality check0118|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and Constructi

148、onGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Stronger policies around improving energy performance of new and existing buildings,new policies and practices to address the whole-life carbon emissions from building materials and construction,and an increase in investment in energy effici

149、ency and construction of net-zero carbon buildings are all needed.COP28 saw the launch of the Buildings Breakthrough and the Buildings Breakthrough Agenda Report,which highlights that to align with the IEA NZE scenario,operational buildings emissions must decrease by approximately 50 per cent from t

150、heir 2022 levels by 2030(IEA et al.2023).The Buildings Breakthrough has gathered 28 countries,and growing,that have pledged to take effort to deliver near-zero emission and resilient buildings by 2030.Actions at the national level that support the decarbonisation of the existing and new buildings se

151、ctor are critical to the delivery of the Building Breakthrough objective and Paris Agreement.There has been growth in efforts that countries are taking to build coalitions of support and networks that enable best practice for improved building performance;this includes advancing design methods that

152、support low carbon building construction,prioritizing the renovation and reuse of buildings and undertaking efforts to improve the resilience and climate adaptation of existing and new buildings.Such efforts are critical given that the buildings sector is expected to expand,especially in emerging an

153、d developing economies,and the importance of taking early action to prevent designs that are emission-intensive or maladaptive.As we move through 2024,policy-and decision-makers across government and industry must urgently prioritize efforts that deliver real-word emission reductions in the building

154、s and construction sector.There is a need for actions that avoid and shift emissions through improved building performance,adapt buildings to increase their resilience to climate change and expand building renewable energy generation,while also addressing inequalities in access and quality of housin

155、g and clean energy.These actions are not straightforward or without competing priorities,but with clear strategiesbuildings and construction roadmapsdeveloped through coalitions,near term change to transition the global buildings stock to being efficient,resilient and zero carbon is possible.As of 2

156、023,the GlobalABC has supported the development of 15 national and regional roadmaps and 34 countries worldwide have adopted a clear strategy for decarbonising the sector.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|192.1Building c

157、onstruction trendsSince 2010,the total global area of constructed buildings has grown by over 31 per cent and reaching just over 250 billion square meters(IEA 2023a),with nearly 80 per cent of this being residential(IEA et al.2023).The increase in buildings floorspace is a driver of energy demand fo

158、r buildings and construction materials,though as energy intensity continues to improve it is offsetting the increase in total energy demand despite the growth in construction and changes in comfort standards in developing economies,such as in Africa(GlobalData 2023).Between 2021 and 2022,total globa

159、l buildings floorspace grew by two per cent,while energy demand grew by one per cent.Buildings construction activities in 2022 and 2023 varied across the globe.Within G20 countries,only the USA showed a continued upward growth in construction(see Figure 4),while many countries across the African reg

160、ion have experienced sustained growth of population and of construction activities for buildings(GlobalData 2023).Among high-income countries,many have seen a slide in their historic overall expenditure in the construction sector,for which buildings comprise the majority of construction in most econ

161、omies.The European area(20 countries)has seen a considerable slowdown in their expenditure in construction,though some economies such as Germany and France remain relatively steady.Chinas construction sector was expected to grow by 2.7 per cent,a slowdown compared to previous years,while Indias cons

162、truction industry was expected to grow at a rate of five per cent(Konovalov 2023).Yet,a majority of the world lacks enforcement of regulationssuch as requiring labelling that address energy performanceand the result is a growing amount of floorspace built with no energy performance requirements,whic

163、h leads to a growing energy demand.In 2022,this amounted to around 2.4billion square metres of floorspace added with no building energy codes the equivalent of Spains entire building stock.Global buildings and construction status02Figure 4 Change in construction activities in selected G20 Countries

164、2015-2023(Source:Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD 2023)20|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Over the last year,the global economy has experienced a slowdown due to rising inflation and stricter

165、financial conditions,which have also limited investment in buildings construction overall.The global construction industry is grappling with high employment and material costs along with a lack of skilled labour,and estimates suggest only a modest increase in global construction output growth from 1

166、.7 per cent in 2022 to 1.8 per cent in 2023(Global Data 2023),expanding from US$7,080 billion in 2022 and to around US$7,560 billion in 2023(The Business Research Company 2024).This growth is being challenged by a combination of the increased cost of borrowingas central banks have increased interest

167、 rates at the fastest pace in the last 20 years(World Bank 2023)1and the geopolitical conflict that have resulted in economic uncertainty and constraints,escalated commodity prices and disrupted supply chains.In emerging and developing economies,there has been a marked slowdown in buildings construc

168、tion economic activities due to the pressures that borrowing costs(see Figure 5).1 World Bank(2023).Global Economic Prospects,June 2023.Washington,DC:World Bank.doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1951-3.License:Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGOFigure 5 Emerging and development economies(EMDE)market con

169、struction activity and financial conditions(Source:World Bank 2023)Photo by Ricardo Gomez Angel on UnsplashGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|21Despite these slowdowns,floor area is projected to increase by a further 15 p

170、er cent by 2030(IEA 2023a),which will add nearly 40 billion square meters and is equivalent to five times the current floor area in Indonesia.It is estimated that more than half of these additions are in regions with hot climateswhere space cooling demand is growingthat lack comprehensive implemente

171、d building energy codes with enforcement mechanisms(IEA et al.2023).From an operation carbon perspective,there is a risk that the improvements in energy efficiency in colder climates may be offset by less efficient construction in warmer climates where cooling demand is increasing,and a potential fu

172、rther increase of carbon emissions if those economies electricity grids are not accelerating the rate of renewable generation.From an embodied carbon perspective,regions of the world with increasing construction activities and limited access or use of low-carbon materials risk locking in high embodi

173、ed carbon and operational emissions for a long duration.Countries around the world continue to take efforts to decarbonise their building stocks through policies and pledges(see Chapter 3),but they will need to adopt approaches that emphasize whole-cycle net-zero carbon emission buildings that are b

174、ased on energy efficiency(IEA 2022a).At the base are energy-efficient buildings,which boast significant energy savings through optimized construction and systems for heating,cooling,lighting and other services.Low-carbon buildings take this a step further by incorporating low-carbon energy sources,a

175、lthough some may require upgrades to existing equipment to reduce carbon emissions fully.Nearly zero-carbon buildings achieve high energy efficiency and include some form of zero-emission energy,but they fall short of completely neutralizing their energy consumption.Net-zero-carbon buildings rise ab

176、ove this by meeting their energy needs with zero-emission sources over a set period,typically a year.Zero-carbon buildings are similar but ensure that all energy demands are met with zero-emission energy throughout the period.Carbon-negative buildings exceed even this standard by producing more rene

177、wable energy than they consume,contributing the surplus to the grid for external use.Lastly,whole life cycle,net-zero-carbon buildings represent the pinnacle of sustainability,maintaining a zero-carbon status while also ensuring that the embodied emissions from their construction materials are net-z

178、ero,achieved through either decarbonisation or offsets.Photo by Victor on Unsplash22|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)2.1.1Social Impact across the Built EnvironmentThe built environment plays a central role in shaping s

179、ocial dynamics.Multiple aspects of peoples lives,from health and well-being to human rights,are impacted at every stage of the building and construction lifecycle.Yet,the social implications of the buildings and construction sector rarely receive due attention,and the issues being faced lack clarity

180、,recognition and understanding.The buildings and construction sector has a role to play in supporting improvements in social justice and equity through efforts that build equity,which has historically been lacking in representation(see Box 1).Box 1Embedding gender equality in the construction sector

181、The construction sector remains male-dominated globally(Bridges et al.2020;Zhang et al.2021).Women currently represent only 4.5 per cent of the construction industry in Malta(Navarro-Astor et al.2017),4.6 per cent in Argentina(DAlessandro et al.2020;DAlessandro et al.2022),5.47 per cent in Mexico(Go

182、vernment of Mexico 2022),nine per cent in the broader architecture engineering,construction and operations sector in the USA(Morello et al.2018)and 14.1 per cent in Austria(Navarro-Astor et al.2017).Studies have shown that women face significant challenges in participating in the construction sector

183、,including gender pay gaps,gender stereotypes,lack of finance,discrimination,harassment and even violence(Fielden et al.2000;World Bank Group 2019;Bridges et al.2020).Among the different sectors within the construction industry,women also tend to be better represented in professional activities than

184、 labour activities because of the perceived notions that construction work as a masculine activity.Women participating in the construction sector have actively challenged gender norms and roles(Ness 2012).Various studies have argued for affirmative institutional action to increase gender equality in

185、 the construction industry.In the United Kingdom,Dainty et al.(2004)highlight the need for increasing the number of women role models,enhancing construction industrys image,increasing access and staff retention,changing the culture of the industry and monitoring progress.In Mexico,the National Progr

186、am for Equality between Women and Men(Proigualdad)2020-2024 provides an overarching roadmap by establishing commitments and policies to generate necessary conditions for the participation of women in all spheres of life.Proigualdad promotes(1)economic autonomy,(2)conditions for recognition,reduction

187、 and redistribution of domestic and care work,(3)improved access to well-being and health,(4)combating gender-based violence,(5)equal participation of women in the decision-making in the political,social,community and private spheres,and(6)building safe and peaceful environments for women and girls.

188、These recommendations provide initial steps needed to improve gender equality in the construction industry.However,further context-specific and evidence-based efforts to encourage and promote womens participation in the construction industry are needed to increase gender equality.Global Status Repor

189、t for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|23The World Green Building Council(WorldGBC)published at COP28 a new reportSocial Impacts across the Built Environmentthat provides a framework for how the building and construction sector can address soci

190、al impact across the entire building life cycle(WorldGBC 2023a).The report,which is supported by the UN High-Level Climate Champions,is aimed at stakeholders across the buildings and construction sector to address social impact issues and considerations,and apply solutions across their own practices

191、,reporting and delivery.The report presents a social impact framework for the building sector,using scopes similar to the Greenhouse Gas Protocol.It introduces scopes 0-3 to guide the industry in addressing social justice and equity.Scope 0 covers internal practices,Scope 1 focuses on building users

192、,Scope 2 on community impact and Scope 3 on the supply chain(see Figure 6).The goal is to integrate social and environmental sustainability in the built environment and improve decision-making and environmental,social and governance(ESG)reporting in the sector.Figure 6 Social Impact FrameworkEntity&

193、internal practicesBuilding users&siteCommunity&surroundingsOperationalExamples include:Environmental risks Sustainable construction Transparency andauditing Labour rightsBuilding and construction life cycle:Supply&value chainsSocial impact issues and considerations across all scopes.Examples include

194、:Diversity and inclusion|Health,comfort and safety|Privacy and security|Climate impactsExamples include:Examples include:Accessibility Just transition Community protectionand empowerment Housing attainability&habitability Indoor environmentalqualityClimate change impactsand adaptation measuresExampl

195、es include:Ethical leadership Employee health,workingconditions and satisfaction Stakeholder engagementCorporate governanceScope 0All ScopesScope 1Scope 2Scope 3Design and constructionManufacturing and end of life(Source:WorldGBC)24|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alli

196、ance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)2.2Energy in the buildings and construction sector trendsIn 2022,operational energy demand in buildings(for space heating and cooling,water heating,lighting,cooking and other uses)accounted for around 30 per cent of final energy demand 132 EJ,and when ad

197、ding energy used to produce materials used in the construction of buildings it amounted to 34 per cent(see Figure 7).The past decade has seen an average annual growth of just over one per cent in energy demand in buildings.Electricitys share in buildings energy use has risen from 30 per cent in 2010

198、 to 35 per cent in 2022.Despite a shift from fossil fuels to electricity and renewables,fossil fuel use in buildings has grown at an average annual rate of 0.5 per cent since 2010(IEA 2023a).In 2022,overall energy use in buildings increased by around one per cent,which was largely driven by the adde

199、d floorspace in emerging economies and was influenced by the continued increase in space cooling demand,which rose by over three per cent compared to 2021,despite space heating energy consumption decreasing by four per cent,primarily due to a mild winter in several regions(IEA 2023a).While demand fo

200、r spacing heating is declining due to energy efficiency improvements,cooling demand continues to grow and managing this demand requires the use of sustainable cooling strategies that focus on protecting vulnerable populations at risk to heat,reducing demand and increasing adaptive capacity through p

201、assive cooling designs of buildings and cities,shifting demand for cooling through design and use of renewables,and improving cooling performance through more efficient fabrics and equipment(SEforAll 2023).Figure 7 Energy consumption in buildings by fuel,2010-2022(left)and share of buildings in tota

202、l final energy consumptions in 2022(right)(Source:IEA 2023a)Notes:Buildings construction industry refers to materials used in construction including concrete,steel and aluminium.Buildings construction industry related energy use not shown in left panel.Global Status Report for Buildings and Construc

203、tionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|25On a positive note,although total energy demand has increased,the energy intensity per square meter has improved by around 3.5 per cent from 150 kWh/m2 in 2021 to 145 kWh/m2 in 20222.This improvement in energy intensity is being le

204、d by improved building codes and fabric performance and technology improvements(e.g.updated minimum energy performance standards and heat pumps)in cold climate countries(see Chapter 3).Yet a critical challenge to improving global energy efficiency is the lack of building energy codes in more than 11

205、0 countries(see Section 3.2).Stricter building codes and increased retrofit rates have helped decrease space heating intensity by seven per cent globally since 2015.Efficiency gains have reduced space heating service demand by four per cent in advanced economies since 2010,but this has not offset fl

206、oor area growth in emerging and developing economies(IEA 2023a).High-performance building envelopes that use low-carbon passive designs and efficient active technologies,which are integrated into good building design,are crucial for reducing thermal needs and ensuring occupants comfort.Envelope stru

207、cture and material selection are vital due to buildings long lifetimes and associated costs.However,more efforts are needed,particularly in warmer regions.A further challenge is that the rate of retrofit in buildings is well below those needed to achieve a 50 per cent reduction in carbon emissions b

208、y 2030.Currently,the average retrofit rate of the building stock is around one per cent per year,with these retrofits typically achieving less than 15 per cent reduction in energy intensity(IEA 2023a).To align with the goals of the Paris Agreement,retrofit rates need to increase to between 2.5 to fi

209、ve per cent and higher by 2030,and these retrofits need to be extensive(IEA 2023a),meaning that building fabrics need insulation and glazing upgrades alongside heating and cooling system improvements,and the adoption of passive and nature-based building solutions that reduce service demands.In 2023,

210、space heating was responsible for 33 per cent of total final energy demand and has decreased by around four per cent since 2010,while global space cooling service demand has risen by over 45 per cent over the same period.The increase in the demand for cooling was largely driven by changes in expecta

211、tions for the use of cooling,increased floor area,equipment ownership growth and higher temperatures(and aggressive climate change impacts).This increase is also due to the frequent neglect of cooling-oriented envelope solutions during building design and application of energy building codes.This,al

212、ong with rising temperatures and improvements in living standards,is expected to increase air-conditioner ownership from 37 per cent of the global population today to over 45 per cent in 2030(IEA 2023a).To align to the Paris Agreement goals,energy consumption in buildings needs to drop by around 25

213、per cent and fossil fuel use by more than 40 per cent by 2030(IEA 2023a).This necessitates phasing out of fossil fuels and use of traditional biomass,associated with air pollution and health consequences,and achieving universal energy access,Sustainable Development Goal7.2 Values included for the ba

214、selines have been updated from previous versions of the Buildings-GSR due to both historic input data updates for emissions and floorspace.The proportional changes between previous years remains similar.26|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Cons

215、truction(GlobalABC)While global energy demand in buildings has grown by 13 per cent since 2010,regional energy demand has shown diverging trends with considerable growth in demand across Africa(27 per cent),Asia Pacific(27 per cent),Eurasia(26 per cent)and Middle East(32 per cent)and North America h

216、aving moderately low growth(four per cent),while Europe experienced a 15 per cent decline over this period and half of the reduction occurring over the last three years(see Figure 8).Countries are responding by increasing energy performance requirements for both new and existing buildings.Notable pr

217、ogress has been made in China,Japan,the European Union,and the USA,with policies and industry standards focusing on energy efficiency,zero-energy performance and zero emissions(see Section 3.2).A positive sign in the buildings sector is a spike in renewable energy use in buildings,which has grown by

218、 more than 50 per cent and now comprises around six per cent of total energy use in buildings(IEA 2023a).When accounting for renewables in the grid,it is estimated that renewables contribute to 15 per cent of global building energy(REN21 2023)3.Analysis by REN21 shows that Brazil,Canada,France,Italy

219、 and Germany lead in renewables adoption in buildings,while other major economies such as India,Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea are lagging.There is a need to increase production of renewable energy systems in order to reduce costs for wide-spread adoption,particularly in emerging econo

220、mies where such systems can be unaffordable to many building owners(REN21 2023).Though there are improvements in energy intensity and continued growth in buildings renewables,the sector needs more rapid changes to align with the Paris Agreement goals.This decade is crucial for implementing measures

221、to ensure all new buildings and 20 per cent of the existing building stock are net-zero carbon ready by 2030.This includes the need for improvements in the energy efficiency of materials used for constructing buildings,which represent four per cent of global energy demand.The challenge lies in accel

222、erating the use of efficient and renewable building technologies,expanding the scope and stringency of minimum performance standards and building energy codes across countries,while also improving awareness through the labelling of energy performance and carbon.Figure 8 Total final energy consumptio

223、n in buildings020406080100120140201020212022Final energy(EJ)North AmericaEurasiaAsia PacificEuropeCentral and South AmericaAfricaMiddle East(Source:IEA 2023a)3 REN21,2023.Renewables 2023 Global Status ReportGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construc

224、tion(GlobalABC)|UNEP|272.2.1Improvements in building heating and cooling technologies continue to expandA key technology to addressing both energy efficiency and carbon emissions in buildings is the electrification of buildings with the use of heat pumps.Global heat pump sales grew by 11 per cent in

225、 2022,marking the second consecutive year of double-digit growth,though still only cover ten per cent of global heating demand in buildings(IEA 2023a).Heat pumps are a crucial technology for heat decarbonisation,as the performance levels of domestic heat pumps can be up to 400 per cent efficient or

226、more depending on conditions.Heat pumps have seen a surge in sales in 2022,with Europe experiencing an increase of 40 per cent,the USA around ten per cent and Japan almost 19 per cent from 2021 levels.In 2023,Germany experienced a doubling of heat pumps purchased and sales in the USA exceeded gas fu

227、rnaces in 2023,though Chinas sales have largely flattened due to the housing and economic slowdown(IEA 2023a).The existing installation of heat pumps is primarily concentrated in new buildings and existing single-family homes.For these,a recent collection of case studied showed all-electric are chea

228、per and have lower emissions than ones which use natural gas(Tan et al.2023).However,to maintain solid growth,multi-storey apartment buildings and commercial spaces will need to be prioritised.Alongside new construction,retrofitting existing buildings with heat pumps where appropriate will also need

229、 to accelerate,alongside the adoption of district scaled low carbon energy systems.To meet national energy and climate pledges worldwide,the IEA estimate that heat pump installations would need to triple and satisfy nearly 20 per cent of global heating needs in buildings by 2030(IEA 2023a),which tra

230、nslates to sales needing to increase by over 15 per cent per year this decade.This goal is almost within reach if the growth rate of new installations continues at the current pace,but will need additional policy support and technical innovation,especially by reducing upfront costs,improving energy

231、performance and durability,developing products with lower environmental impact,alongside worker re-skilling.Energy consumption for space cooling has more than tripled since 1990(IEA 2023a),leading to increased pressure on electricity grids,higher GHG emissions,and the exacerbation of urban heat isla

232、nds.A significant portion of the global population lacks access to affordable and sustainable cooling,resulting in heightened risk of heat stress,compromised thermal comfort,reduced labour productivity,and negative health impacts(SEforAll 2023).A major driver of the increase in demand for cooling is

233、 changing thermal comfort expectations among building users in countries where heat exposure and maladapted buildings are resulting in conditions where cooling is being sought(IEA 2023a).Since 2000,energy demand for space cooling has grown at an average rate of four per cent per year,doubling the ra

234、te for water heating and in 2022,the number of residential cooling units in operation reached over 1.5 billion,a threefold increase since 2000(IEA 2023a).This surge in energy consumption for space cooling strains peak electricity demand,particularly during hot days,increasing the likelihood of power

235、 outages.To reduce global electricity demand for cooling,there is a need for a rapid shift to best-practice adaptive designs and the use of nature-based solutions with the adoption of high-performance cooling products that are affordable and accessible to markets with emerging cooling demands,such a

236、s India,China and across Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.Without this shift,electricity demand for space cooling could rise by up to 40 per cent globally by 2030.28|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Figure 9 Residen

237、tial space cooling consumption covered by minimum energy performance standards by region 2000-20220102030405060708090100GlobalNorth AmericaAsia PacificEurasiaMiddle EastLatin AmericaEuropeAfricaProportion with MEPS200020102022(Source:IEA 2023k)The IEA have tracked over 90 countries that have establi

238、shed Minimum Energy Performance Standards(MEPS)for air conditioners(see Figure 9),and more than 95 countries have implemented labelling policies,covering approximately 86 per cent of global space cooling energy consumption in the residential sector(IEA 2023k).Photo by Elifin Realty on UnsplashGlobal

239、 Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|292.3Emissions in the buildings and construction sector trendsGlobal operational energy-related CO2 emissions from buildings grew by around one per cent in 2022 compared to 2021 to just under

240、ten GtCO2,reaching a new global peak(IEA 2023a).Emissions from buildings related energy-demand represents around 27 per cent of total global CO2 emissions in 2022(or 21 per cent of global GHG emissions)and a further seven to nine per cent is estimated to be due to the manufacturing of buildings mate

241、rials(i.e.concrete,steel,aluminium,glass and bricks),bringing the global estimate of energy and process-related emissions for the buildings and construction sector to around 37 per cent.If including other materials used in buildings,such as plastics,foams,fabrics and other soft and hard materials,th

242、e proportion of emissions would be even greater.In 2022,direct CO2 emissions from buildings operations experienced a slight decrease,reaching three Gt,which contrasts with the average annual growth of nearly one per cent from 2015 to 2021(IEA 2023a).Meanwhile,indirect emissions from buildings operat

243、ions increased by approximately 1.4 per cent in 2022,totalling nearly 6.8 Gt and can be attributed to a growing reliance on electricity for building operations(IEA 2023a).Regional differences in emissions trends were observed in 2022.Figure 10 CO2 emissions in buildings 2010-2022(left)and share of b

244、uildings in global energy and process emissions in 2022(right)(Source:IEA 2023a)Notes:Buildings construction industry refers to concrete,steel and aluminium for buildings and infrastructure construction respectively.The boundaries of the emissions(energy and process)account for construction material

245、s include from raw materials preparation and processing and the different steps to produce the materials.For example,for cement this includes the entire manufacturing processes,from obtaining raw materials and preparing the fuel through to grinding and milling.The numbers in the pie chart are rounde

246、d values and therefore do not necessarily sum to the total value for a given sector.In addition to direct and indirect emissions from building operations,2.5 Gt CO2 in 2022 were associated with building construction,including the manufacturing and processing of cement,steel and aluminium.Estimates f

247、or the production of bricks and glass would see a further 1.2GtCO2 emitted(see Box 2).Altogether,emissions from building operations and construction account for over one-third of global energy-related emissions at around 13.6GtCO2.(see Figure 10).30|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and Constr

248、uctionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Box 2Emissions from bricks and glassEstimates of greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions associated with subsidiary building materials,namely the production of bricks and glass,are challenging for two key reasons.First,due to the global prevalence

249、of informal manufacturing practices,tracking the overall output of bricks by country and year is uncertain,especially in rapidly urbanizing economies.Second,calculations of per-brick or per-tonne of product GHG emissions are themselves uncertain.This is partly due to the absence of a standardized ap

250、proach to defining the system boundaries of the production techniques,but also similar uncertainties regarding informal production.A 2023 paper examining the energy consumption of brick manufacturing in India points to these challenges(Tibrewal et al.2023).The 2022 Global Status Report for Buildings

251、 pointed to estimates that global emissions associated with brick and block manufacturing stood at approximately 1.1Gt CO2e annually,with glass adding an additional approximately 0.1Gt.Tracking changes in these emissions year to year is largely impossible,due the uncertainties outlined above.There h

252、as been no evidence published in the past year that would suggest a substantial shift in the portion of new buildings that are built using brick and glass respectively.By assuming growth in line with global floor space increase between 2021 and 2022 of less than five per cent and an absence of subst

253、antial improvements in overall emissions intensity,bricks and glass production would still account for approximately 1.2Gt CO2e.Until major improvements in brick manufacturing carbon intensity are scaled,it is unlikely that these emissions will be reduced in the near term.Notes:Buildings constructio

254、n industry refers to concrete,steel and aluminium for buildings and infrastructure construction respectively.The boundaries of the emissions(energy and process)account for construction materials include from raw materials preparation and processing and the different steps to produce the materials.Fo

255、r example,for cement this includes the entire manufacturing processes,from obtaining raw materials and preparing the fuel through to grinding and milling.The numbers in the pie chart are rounded values and therefore do not necessarily sum to the total value for a given sector.The embodied carbon emi

256、ssions of materials used in buildings construction are an important area for action due to their being around 50 per cent of the overall carbon emissions in new building(World Business Council for Sustainable Development and ARUP 2023).In addition,addressing materials through improved efficiency and

257、 use is vital to reducing construction waste going to landfill,increasing the reusability of materials and enhancing the circularity of buildings construction(WGBC 2023).These actions can be supported by avoiding new building,reusing existing,build smartly and build efficiently.To achieve net-zero g

258、oals,collaborative efforts are needed across the entire built environment value chain,focusing on reducing consumption demand and simultaneously lowering carbon intensity in the supply side.To align with the Paris Agreement goals,buildings and construction sector emissions(direct and indirect)must b

259、e reduced by an average of nine per cent per year until 2030,resulting in a more than 50 per cent reduction by the end of the decade.Alongside building operations emissions,embodied carbon emissions need to reduce through improved manufacturing process and use of renewable energy used in their produ

260、ction.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|31National and sub-national actions are critical to support the sustainable transition of the buildings sector,and there have been a range of policy developments that are outlined(

261、see Section 3.1).In addition,the Global Status Report tracks both national buildings energy code developments and buildings commitments under the Paris Agreements Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)(see Section 3.3).It also tracks the status of building energy codes and those that are aligned

262、towards net or nearly zero carbon emissions(see Section 3.2).Recognising the policy gap that currently exists to limiting global warming to 1.5C,WorldGBC alongside 75 Green Building Councils,launched the Global Policy Principles for a Sustainable Built Environment(WorldGBC 2023b).These principles ar

263、e structured around seven key focus areas-carbon,resilience,circularity,water,biodiversity,health,equity and access-outlining detailed policy mechanisms to deliver on global goals including the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals.3.1Leading national policiesGlobally,the buildings p

264、olicy landscape is diverse,with many countries lacking substantive or coordinated policies for addressing sustainability,energy performance or CO2 emissions in the building sector.However,a small but growing number of countries are developing and committing to buildings energy and CO2 emissions regu

265、lations that are compatible with limiting global temperature increases to 1.5C.A growing number of governments are furthering their commitments to addressing building energy performance and emission reductions.Since 2022,there have been several notable advances in nationally relevant policy,includin

266、g in the European Union where the legislative process to strengthen the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive(EPBD)is entering its final stages(European Commission 2023a).The revised EPBD,agreed upon in late 2023,mandates zero emission standards for new public buildings by 2028 and all new build

267、ings by 2030.European Union countries must cut residential energy use by 2030 or 2035,targeting inefficient buildings first,and enforce MEPS on non-residential buildings from 2030.Funding for new fossil fuel boilers is banned from 2025,with a complete phase out by 2040.The policy also requires calcu

268、lating and reporting the Global Warming Potential for new buildings by 2030,alongside implementing Whole Life Carbon targets.In India,the buildings sector currently account for 40 per cent of national CO2 emissions,but 70 per cent of expected Indian buildings have yet to be constructed(GBPN 2022).In

269、 December 2022,Indias legislature passed the Energy Conservation(Amendment)Act,2022,which sets out the parameters of a carbon-trading scheme and allows for the specification by the central government of an energy conservation and sustainable building code for large buildings(Tariq 2023).Sustainable

270、buildings and construction policies0332|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)In July 2022,Japan revised and strengthened its Building Energy Conservation Act,aiming for compliance with building energy efficiency standards ac

271、ross the building stock by 2025(Energy Conservation Center Japan 2022).The government of Ireland announced an extension of its renewable heat incentive programme(IEA 2023d),while France and Bosnia Herzegovina have committed funds to supporting energy efficiency measures for public buildings(IEA 2023

272、e).In September of 2023,the United Kingdom announced a 1b in grants for home insulation(UK Government 2023a),but also weakened plans to phase out fossil fuel heating for off-grid homes and scrapped minimum energy efficiency standards for rental homes(Evans et al.2023).In Chile,the National Energy Ef

273、ficiency Plan 20222026 aims to reduce thermal energy demand in buildings by 30 per cent by 2026 and 50 per cent by 2050 over 2019 levels,through the promotion of energy focused retrofit,district energy programmes and capacity building(Energy Ministry of Chile 2022).This builds on the 2021 Energy Eff

274、iciency Law,which states that new buildings in the residential,commercial and public sectors must have a certified energy label(Energy Ministry of Chile 2021).Across Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole,opportunities for improving the regions codes to improve the resilience and sustainability

275、of buildings were highlighted in a 2023 report(Alvear et al.2023).The study compares approaches of regulatory bodies across 26 countries,highlighting mitigation,adaptation and resilience in the regions building stock.3.2Building codesAs of 2023,there are now 81 and 77 national buildings adopted code

276、s for the residential and non-residential buildings respectively,of which 80 per cent are mandatory.Twenty of these codes having been updated and adopted since 2021,and 17 adopted codes developed or revised in 2023 alone.However,despite a growing number of adopted codes and their updates,more than 3

277、0 per cent,have not been updated since 2015 and as a result are not likely to be mandating a high-performance standard.Further,it is estimated that around 80 per cent of projected floor area growth by 2030 is expected to occur in developing and emerging economies(IEA 2023a),and most of these countri

278、es lack the necessary building energy codes and enforcement to limit the growth of energy demand.This offers a significant opportunity for countries to take efforts to improve and further enforce their adopted codes and align the standards towards achieving a whole-life net-zero CO2 emission perform

279、ance for new and retrofit buildings.Photo by Alexander Abero on UnsplashGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|33Although the number of adopted codes globally are growing,there are still regions around the world that will ben

280、efit from attention to developing and adopting more modern codes,such as Africa and parts of South America and Southeast Asia where codes are yet to be developed,remain voluntary or are limited in scope and stringency(see Figure 11).The past 18 months has seen several countries update their building

281、 codes towards alignment with the Paris Agreement and,for those in the European Union,upgrading codes to meet the EPBD.The French building code,RE2020,sets out rules for energy,environmental and health performance of new building projects and includes a bioclimate indicator that requires a 30 per ce

282、nt reduction to the previous code,mandates the use of low-carbon energy sources,limiting overheating risks,and aims for a 50 per cent reduction in embodied carbon emissions for buildings by 2030 and their full decarbonisation by 2050.The RE2020 calculates a buildings environmental impact based on th

283、e emissions created during its whole life cycle,including construction as well as manufacturing and transportation of building materials(Minister for Ecological Transition and Territorial Cohesion of France 2024).Updated Danish building regulations came into force in 2023 and now require buildings o

284、ver 1000 m2 to limit carbon emissions to 12 kg CO2e per m2 per year.This limit will be reduced incrementally to 7.9 kg CO2e per m2 per year in 2029.Additionally,all new buildings must document their environmental impacts through Life Cycle Assessment(LCA)over a 50-year time span(Danish Ministry of I

285、nterior and Housing 2021).Figure 11 Adopted global building energy codes by type and status(Source:IEA 2023a)Notes:Countries with dark red outline have adopted updated building energy codes since 2021 34|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Constr

286、uction(GlobalABC)The recently updated California 2022 Building Energy Efficiency Standards has focused on improving energy efficiency and reducing GHG emissions from newly constructed and renovated buildings(California Energy Commission 2022).The California code encourages the use of efficient elect

287、ric heat pumps for space heating and water heating,introduces the requirements for electric-ready new homes,expands use of solar photovoltaic(PV)and battery storage systems and promotes the use of climate and grid-flexible technologies such as demand response ready appliances.This development occurs

288、 against the backdrop of US$1 billion funding for supporting the adoption of building energy codes under the Inflation Reduction Act(Office of State and Community Energy Programs2024).The updated 2021 British Building Regulations changes to Part L(Fuel and Power)has similarly focused on energy effic

289、iency standards,improved ventilation and new overheating requirements(UK Government 2023b).The code,which contributes to the United Kingdoms net-zero goals,requires CO2 emissions from new build homes to be 30 per cent lower than the current standards,and emissions from other new buildings,including

290、offices and shops,to be reduced by 27 per cent.A Future Homes and Buildings Standard is due in 2025 and will set the path to achieving net-zero buildings,although the United Kingdom has argued the proposed standards is lower than current levels(UKGBC 2023).Singapores,launched in 2021,includes MEPS f

291、or new and existing buildings.From 2022,all new buildings are required to be 50 per cent more energy-efficient compared to 2005 levels,which is more stringent in comparison to the previous 30 per cent requirement(Building and Construction Authority 2021).For existing buildings undergoing major retro

292、fitting,the requirement for 40 per cent improvement in energy efficiency compared to 2005 levels applies starting from 2022,also indicating an increase in stringency of requirements from previously 25 per cent.The update also supports a Super Low Energy(SLE)Programme,which aims to promote best-in-cl

293、ass energy efficiency,the use of onsite and offsite renewable energy,and intelligent energy management strategies in buildings.Chinas most recent building energy performance code was published in 2021 and sets mandatory energy efficiency standards for new construction,renovation and expansion of bui

294、ldings to reduce energy consumption and promote sustainable development.It also encourages the integration of renewable energy sources,such as solar and wind power(The Standardization Administration of the Peoples Republic of China 2021).Sri Lankas Energy Efficiency Building Code 2020 was introduced

295、 by the Sustainable Energy Authority(SEA)and includes energy efficiency improvements in the design,construction and operation of buildings(Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority 2020).In addition to setting out minimum energy performance requirements for building components(e.g.walls,roofs,windows,l

296、ighting systems and controls)it set outs guidelines for heating,ventilation and air conditioning(HVAC)systems to ensure energy-efficient operation and maintenance alongside energy management systems.The code also sets out recommendations for the use of renewable energy technologies,such as solar wat

297、er heating systems and photovoltaic systems.Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|353.2.1Modernisation building energy codesFor countries and states,developing building codes that enable the transition towards a resilient,ef

298、ficient and zero-carbon building stock requires attention to high standards that promote advanced designs,which encompasses envelopes and technologies that ensure buildings operate with the least amount of energy required to maintain comfortable and productive spaces.Modern building codes must encom

299、pass a comprehensive array of considerations to effectively achieve elevated levels of energy efficiency,bolster sustainability,address climate change and facilitate optimal thermal comfort.Codes need to take an integrated approach to outline stringent guidelines for building envelope insulation,eff

300、icient HVAC systems,energy-efficient lighting and the use of renewable energy sources.Additionally,codes must promote passive design strategies that capitalize on natural ventilation where the climate allows,as well as on day lighting and shading techniques to curtail energy demand while ensuring oc

301、cupant comfort.These codes should also encourage the incorporation of smart building technologies that enable real-time energy monitoring,data-driven optimization and adaptive controls and enable building-to-grid interactivity.Countries that have already adopted building energy codes should look to

302、include energy efficiency requirements that seek higher levels of performance of the building envelope,glazing and more efficient building services system performance requirements,in line with enhanced MEPS.For countries without building codes,separate standards for new buildings can be enacted(or e

303、mbedded in forthcoming codes)to set fabric performance requirements for all or most building types.It is also crucial that building energy codes set out a pathway towards net-zero carbon and therefore have a timeline to become more stringent over time.Modernised building codes might include,but are

304、not limited to:Stringent energy efficiency requirements for building envelopes and electricity consuming systems,with some level of the overall building energy performance supplemented by prescriptive compliance options that favour passive demand reduction measures.Where possible,this should be done

305、 for both new and existing buildings to ensure efficient design,maintenance,operation and renovation of buildings.Zero emission-aligned whole-life carbon targets,addressing both operational and embodied CO2 emissions,aligned to national and international decarbonisation targets for the sector.Requir

306、ements for buildings to be equipped with smart meters,user appropriate controls(including demand response controls,such as demand response thermostats,demand response lighting controls and demand response HVAC controls),sensors and communication technologies.Requirements for buildings to be equipped

307、 with smart devices,where appropriate,and make use of intelligent analytics to improve operation.Prescriptive requirements for on-site renewable energy systems.Grid-ready requirements for buildings(pre-wiring,space requirements for future installations of PV systems,electric vehicle(EV)charging and

308、energy storage).Smart EV charging requirements,where appropriate.Requirements for thorough testing and commissioning prior to occupancy.Requirements for post-occupancy energy use monitoring based on the smart meter data.36|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for B

309、uildings and Construction(GlobalABC)Energy codes provide an immediate strategy to improve building performance through energy efficiency measures.Building energy codes should be part of a comprehensive and enforced policy package supporting high-performance buildings.The importance of building codes

310、,particularly in developing countries,is critical to managing future energy demand and avoiding carbon emissions.Developing countries often exhibit rapid urbanisation and construction growth that can lead to substantial increases in energy consumption and related carbon emissions unless efficiency i

311、s enacted as buildings are constructed,alongside expansion and improvements of a low-carbon grid.Building codes provide an essential framework to guide the expansion of the buildings stock towards a sustainable trajectory.By mandating energy-efficient construction practices,developing countries can

312、pre-emptively mitigate the rise in energy demand and carbon emissions that would otherwise accompany urbanisation.Codes can also be used to increase the adoption of renewable energy solutions and innovative technologies,fostering self-reliance and resilience in energy systems.Implementing and enforc

313、ing building energy codes in emerging economies can help mitigate the impacts of climate change,improve energy security and reduce the carbon footprint of the building sector(see Box 3).Codes also play an important role in addressing resilience to climate change and for buildings to withstand the im

314、pact of extreme climate conditions,including heat waves,on buildings and their occupants(Building Energy Codes Working Group 2023).Building energy efficiency emerges as a crucial strategy for enhancing climate resilience and ensuring thermal comfort and safety during extreme conditions in buildings.

315、It is estimated that between 2000 and 2019,over 7,000 weather-related natural hazard events affected over four billion people,causing significant economic losses and loss-of-life(Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters,United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2020).Resilient bu

316、ildings are identified as key assets in dealing with extreme weather events,reducing stress on the grid and enhancing survivability during power outages.Photo:Garrett Rowland/GenslerGlobal Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|37Bo

317、x 3Climate action and the path to net-zero:New York City and TokyoNew York,USA and Tokyo,Japan are two of the worlds most famous megacities,with around 8.5 million and 14 million inhabitants respectively.Both are pursuing measures to decarbonise their building stock in line with the goals of the Par

318、is Agreement.Each of these cities has diverse urban morphologies and architectural vernaculars and they are pursuing different policy approaches to building decarbonisation.In New York City,Local Law 97(LL97)was passed in April 2019 as part of the Climate Mobilization Act,and aims to reduce building

319、s emissions,which account for two-thirds of the citys total(Urban Green Council 2023a).The law targets buildings over 25,000 square feet(approximately 2322 m2),whether they are individual structures or part of a larger complex exceeding 50,000 square feet(approximately 4645 m2)(Urban Green Council 2

320、023b).The law is set to roll out with new energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emission limits,starting in 2024,with even stricter standards slated for 2030.The goal is a 40 per cent reduction in emissions from the citys largest buildings by 2030,with a net-zero reduction target by 2050(Urban Green

321、Council 2023b).Non-compliance with LL97 comes at a substantial cost a fine of US$268 per ton of CO2 equivalent over the limit,based on 2024 energy usage and emissions.This approach underscores the citys plan to use a regulatory stick to achieve its climate objectives.A study commissioned by the Real

322、 Estate Board of New York(REBNY)in January 2023 revealed a significant challenge ahead over 3,700 properties could be out of compliance,potentially facing penalties exceeding US$200 million annually,despite substantial investments aimed at meeting the new standards(REBNY press 2023).Meanwhile,Tokyo

323、is aiming at building decarbonisation through the Zero Emissions Tokyo Strategy.This strategy targets a 30 per cent reduction in GHG emissions on year 2000 levels by 2030,38 per cent energy use reduction over the same period,and an increase of renewable power to 30 per cent.By 2050 all buildings mus

324、t be zero emissions(Tokyo Metropolitan Government 2020).These efforts take place in the context of the Tokyo Cap-and-Trade Program(TCTP),which launched in 2010(Tokyo Metropolitan Government 2019).This program allows buildings which surpass their targets to sell their offset carbon to other propertie

325、s,incentivising further reductions.Progress to date shows the greatest gains have come from high efficiency heating and LEDs replacing inefficient lighting(Tokyo Metropolitan Government 2022).In 2020,the citys Green Buildings Program of building performance disclosure was expanded to cover buildings

326、 larger than 2000 m2.As both cities emerge fully from the COVID pandemic,empty office space remains.Tokyos central districts have vacancy rates of over 6 per cent(Matsuno 2023)and as much as 100 million square feet of real estate space in New York City is empty(Goldberg and Sakaguchi 2023).This may

327、present a unique opportunity to reform lease agreements and implement retrofits at scale to safeguard the low carbon future both cities are striving for(McKinsey&Company 2022).38|UNEP|Global Status Report for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)3.3Natio

328、nally Determined Contributions updatesNDCs outline government climate mitigation plans under the Paris Agreement.While countries are requested to update and strengthen their NDC commitments every five years,engagement with the process varies considerably.As of December 2023,194 countries plus the Eu

329、ropean Union have submitted NDCs to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)repository,with 48 submitting updates since the 2022 Buildings Global Status Report,including the 27 members of the European Union which submit the same NDC(UNFCCC 2024a)(see Figure 12).Notably,the H

330、oly See submitted an NDC for the first time,but it did not make mention of buildings other than listing heating related GHG emissions.Overall,there has been very limited increase in the detail of buildings actions(and clear reference of measuring the aimed achievements),with only 11 of the 48 submis

331、sions increasing the level of coverage of buildings relative to previous NDC submissions.Table 1 summarises these changes,incorporating the highest level of commitment that a country has included relating to buildings from its NDC submissions.The current level of commitments is shown in.Figure 12 Me

332、ntions of buildings in Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs)(Source:GlobalABC)Note:This map is without prejudice to the status of or the sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries,and to the name of any territory,city or area.Global Status Report

333、 for Buildings and ConstructionGlobal Alliance for Buildings and Construction(GlobalABC)|UNEP|39Despite the limited progress on commitments to buildings action in the NDC in the past year,several countries have submitted plans with extensive detail.The Bahamas aims to drive buildings emissions mitigation through the adoption of a revised building code,the adoption of which could prevent 22kt CO2e